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234004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aggregate%20pattern | Aggregate pattern | An Aggregate pattern can refer to concepts in either statistics or computer programming. Both uses deal with considering a large case as composed of smaller, simpler, pieces.
Statistics
An aggregate pattern is an important statistical concept in many fields that rely on statistics to predict the behavior of large groups, based on the tendencies of subgroups to consistently behave in a certain way. It is particularly useful in sociology, economics, psychology, and criminology.
Computer programming
In Design Patterns, an aggregate is not a design pattern but rather refers to an object such as a list, vector, or generator which provides an interface for creating iterators. The following example code is in Python.
def fibonacci(n: int):
a, b = 0, 1
count = 0
while count < n:
count += 1
a, b = b, a + b
yield a
for x in fibonacci(10):
print(x)
def fibsum(n: int) -> int:
total = 0
for x in fibonacci(n):
total += x
return total
def fibsum_alt(n: int) -> int:
"""
Alternate implementation. demonstration that Python's built-in function sum()
works with arbitrary iterators.
"""
return sum(fibonacci(n))
myNumbers = [1, 7, 4, 3, 22]
def average(g) -> float:
return float(sum(g)) / len(g) # In Python 3 the cast to float is no longer be necessary
Python hides essentially all of the details using the iterator protocol. Confusingly, Design Patterns uses "aggregate" to refer to the blank in the code for x in ___: which is unrelated to the term "aggregation". Neither of these terms refer to the statistical aggregation of data such as the act of adding up the Fibonacci sequence or taking the average of a list of numbers.
See also
Visitor pattern
Template class
Facade pattern
Type safety
Functional programming
References
Software design patterns
Articles with example Python (programming language) code | [
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234006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth%20of%20Austria | Elisabeth of Austria | Elisabeth of Austria may refer to:
People
Elisabeth of Austria (died 1107), daughter of Leopold II, Margrave of Austria
Elisabeth of Austria (1124–1143), daughter of Leopold III, Margrave of Austria; wife of Hermann II of Winzenburg
Elisabeth of Austria (d. 1353), daughter of Albert I of Germany, Duke of Austria; wife of Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine
Elisabeth of Austria (1436–1505), daughter of Albert II of Germany; Queen consort of Casimir IV of Poland and Lithuania
Isabella of Austria (1501–1526), Queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden; widely known also as Elizabeth
Elisabeth of Austria (1526–1545), daughter of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor; Queen consort of Sigismund II Augustus of Poland
Elisabeth of Austria (1554–1592), daughter of Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor; Queen consort of Charles IX of France
Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria (1831–1903), daughter of Archduke Joseph, Palatine of Hungary; wife first of Archduke Ferdinand Karl Viktor of Austria-Este & second of Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria
Empress Elisabeth of Austria (1837–1898), daughter of Duke Maximilian Joseph in Bavaria; wife of Emperor Franz Joseph I
Archduchess Elisabeth Amalie of Austria (1878–1960), daughter of Archduke Charles Louis of Austria; wife of Prince Aloys of Liechtenstein
Archduchess Elisabeth Marie of Austria (1883–1963), daughter of Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria; wife first of Otto Weriand of Windisch-Grätz, second of Leopold Petznek
Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria (1892–1930), daughter of Archduke Franz Salvator of Austria; wife of Georg Graf von Waldburg zu Zeil und Hohenems
Archduchess Elisabeth of Austria (1922–1993), daughter of Emperor Charles I of Austria; wife of Prince Heinrich of Liechtenstein
Other uses
Elisabeth of Austria (film), a 1931 German film by Adolf Trotz starring Lil Dagover | [
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234017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Province | The Province | The Province is a daily newspaper published in tabloid format in British Columbia by Pacific Newspaper Group, a division of Postmedia Network, alongside the Vancouver Sun broadsheet newspaper. Together, they are British Columbia's only two major newspapers.
Formerly a broadsheet, The Province later became tabloid paper-size. It publishes daily except Saturdays and selected holidays.
History
The Province was established as a weekly newspaper in Victoria in 1894. A 1903 article in the Pacific Monthly described the Province as the largest and the youngest of Vancouver's important newspapers.
In 1923, the Southam family bought The Province. By 1945 the paper's printers went out on strike. The Province had been the best selling newspaper in Vancouver, ahead of the Vancouver Sun and News Herald. As a result of the six-week strike, it lost significant market share, at one point falling to third place. In 1957, The Province and the Vancouver Sun were sold to Pacific Press Limited which was jointly owned by both newspaper companies.
Circulation
The Province has seen, like most Canadian daily newspapers, a decline in circulation. Its total circulation dropped by percent to 114,467 copies daily from 2009 to 2015.
Daily average
Notable journalists
Kim Bolan
Jim Coleman
Lukin Johnston
Hugh George Egioke Savage
Tony Gallagher
CFCB/CKCD radio station
At 2 p.m. on March 23, 1922, the Province launched radio station CFCB, with news and stock market reports. There were news bulletins throughout the day, followed by music. Sign off was at 10 p.m. The station's name changed to CKCD in 1923 and it moved to 730 kHz in 1925. In 1933 the paper turned its operations over to the Pacific Broadcasting Co., while continuing to supply news reports to the station.
In 1936, the newly formed Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, established to function as both broadcaster and broadcasting regulator (taking over the latter function from previous regulator the Department of Marine and Fisheries), asked CKCD to relinquish its licence, and the station signed off for the last time in February 1940.
See also
List of newspapers in Canada
Wait for Me, Daddy, 1940 photograph
Media in Vancouver
References
External links
Newspapers published in Vancouver
Postmedia Network publications
Publications established in 1898
Daily newspapers published in British Columbia
1898 establishments in British Columbia | [
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234018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assertion%20%28software%20development%29 | Assertion (software development) | In computer programming, specifically when using the imperative programming paradigm, an assertion is a predicate (a Boolean-valued function over the state space, usually expressed as a logical proposition using the variables of a program) connected to a point in the program, that always should evaluate to true at that point in code execution. Assertions can help a programmer read the code, help a compiler compile it, or help the program detect its own defects.
For the latter, some programs check assertions by actually evaluating the predicate as they run. Then, if it is not in fact true – an assertion failure – the program considers itself to be broken and typically deliberately crashes or throws an assertion failure exception.
Details
The following code contains two assertions, x > 0 and x > 1, and they are indeed true at the indicated points during execution:
x = 1;
assert x > 0;
x++;
assert x > 1;
Programmers can use assertions to help specify programs and to reason about program correctness. For example, a precondition—an assertion placed at the beginning of a section of code—determines the set of states under which the programmer expects the code to execute. A postcondition—placed at the end—describes the expected state at the end of execution. For example: x > 0 { x++ } x > 1.
The example above uses the notation for including assertions used by C. A. R. Hoare in his 1969 article. That notation cannot be used in existing mainstream programming languages. However, programmers can include unchecked assertions using the comment feature of their programming language. For example, in C:
x = 5;
x = x + 1;
// {x > 1}
The braces included in the comment help distinguish this use of a comment from other uses.
Libraries may provide assertion features as well. For example, in C using glibc with C99 support:
#include <assert.h>
int f(void)
{
int x = 5;
x = x + 1;
assert(x > 1);
}
Several modern programming languages include checked assertions – statements that are checked at runtime or sometimes statically. If an assertion evaluates to false at runtime, an assertion failure results, which typically causes execution to abort. This draws attention to the location at which the logical inconsistency is detected and can be preferable to the behaviour that would otherwise result.
The use of assertions helps the programmer design, develop, and reason about a program.
Usage
In languages such as Eiffel, assertions form part of the design process; other languages, such as C and Java, use them only to check assumptions at runtime. In both cases, they can be checked for validity at runtime but can usually also be suppressed.
Assertions in design by contract
Assertions can function as a form of documentation: they can describe the state the code expects to find before it runs (its preconditions), and the state the code expects to result in when it is finished running (postconditions); they can also specify invariants of a class. Eiffel integrates such assertions into the language and automatically extracts them to document the class. This forms an important part of the method of design by contract.
This approach is also useful in languages that do not explicitly support it: the advantage of using assertion statements rather than assertions in comments is that the program can check the assertions every time it runs; if the assertion no longer holds, an error can be reported. This prevents the code from getting out of sync with the assertions.
Assertions for run-time checking
An assertion may be used to verify that an assumption made by the programmer during the implementation of the program remains valid when the program is executed. For example, consider the following Java code:
int total = countNumberOfUsers();
if (total % 2 == 0) {
// total is even
} else {
// total is odd and non-negative
assert total % 2 == 1;
}
In Java, % is the remainder operator (modulo), and in Java, if its first operand is negative, the result can also be negative (unlike the modulo used in mathematics). Here, the programmer has assumed that total is non-negative, so that the remainder of a division with 2 will always be 0 or 1. The assertion makes this assumption explicit: if countNumberOfUsers does return a negative value, the program may have a bug.
A major advantage of this technique is that when an error does occur it is detected immediately and directly, rather than later through often obscure effects. Since an assertion failure usually reports the code location, one can often pin-point the error without further debugging.
Assertions are also sometimes placed at points the execution is not supposed to reach. For example, assertions could be placed at the default clause of the switch statement in languages such as C, C++, and Java. Any case which the programmer does not handle intentionally will raise an error and the program will abort rather than silently continuing in an erroneous state. In D such an assertion is added automatically when a switch statement doesn't contain a default clause.
In Java, assertions have been a part of the language since version 1.4. Assertion failures result in raising an AssertionError when the program is run with the appropriate flags, without which the assert statements are ignored. In C, they are added on by the standard header assert.h defining assert (assertion) as a macro that signals an error in the case of failure, usually terminating the program. In C++, both assert.h and cassert headers provide the assert macro.
The danger of assertions is that they may cause side effects either by changing memory data or by changing thread timing. Assertions should be implemented carefully so they cause no side effects on program code.
Assertion constructs in a language allow for easy test-driven development (TDD) without the use of a third-party library.
Assertions during the development cycle
During the development cycle, the programmer will typically run the program with assertions enabled. When an assertion failure occurs, the programmer is immediately notified of the problem. Many assertion implementations will also halt the program's execution: this is useful, since if the program continued to run after an assertion violation occurred, it might corrupt its state and make the cause of the problem more difficult to locate. Using the information provided by the assertion failure (such as the location of the failure and perhaps a stack trace, or even the full program state if the environment supports core dumps or if the program is running in a debugger), the programmer can usually fix the problem. Thus assertions provide a very powerful tool in debugging.
Assertions in production environment
When a program is deployed to production, assertions are typically turned off, to avoid any overhead or side effects they may have. In some cases assertions are completely absent from deployed code, such as in C/C++ assertions via macros. In other cases, such as Java, assertions are present in the deployed code, and can be turned on in the field for debugging.
Assertions may also be used to promise the compiler that a given edge condition is not actually reachable, thereby permitting certain optimizations that would not otherwise be possible. In this case, disabling the assertions could actually reduce performance.
Static assertions
Assertions that are checked at compile time are called static assertions.
Static assertions are particularly useful in compile time template metaprogramming, but can also be used in low-level languages like C by introducing illegal code if (and only if) the assertion fails. C11 and C++11 support static assertions directly through static_assert. In earlier C versions, a static assertion can be implemented, for example, like this:
#define SASSERT(pred) switch(0){case 0:case pred:;}
SASSERT( BOOLEAN CONDITION );
If the (BOOLEAN CONDITION) part evaluates to false then the above code will not compile because the compiler will not allow two case labels with the same constant. The boolean expression must be a compile-time constant value, for example (sizeof(int)==4) would be a valid expression in that context. This construct does not work at file scope (i.e. not inside a function), and so it must be wrapped inside a function.
Another popular way of implementing assertions in C is:
static char const static_assertion[ (BOOLEAN CONDITION)
? 1 : -1
] = {'!'};
If the (BOOLEAN CONDITION) part evaluates to false then the above code will not compile because arrays may not have a negative length. If in fact the compiler allows a negative length then the initialization byte (the '!' part) should cause even such over-lenient compilers to complain. The boolean expression must be a compile-time constant value, for example (sizeof(int) == 4) would be a valid expression in that context.
Both of these methods require a method of constructing unique names. Modern compilers support a preprocessor define that facilitates the construction of unique names, by returning monotonically increasing numbers for each compilation unit.
D provides static assertions through the use of static assert.
Disabling assertions
Most languages allow assertions to be enabled or disabled globally, and sometimes independently. Assertions are often enabled during development and disabled during final testing and on release to the customer. Not checking assertions avoids the cost of evaluating the assertions while (assuming the assertions are free of side effects) still producing the same result under normal conditions. Under abnormal conditions, disabling assertion checking can mean that a program that would have aborted will continue to run. This is sometimes preferable.
Some languages, including C and C++, can completely remove assertions at compile time using the preprocessor. Java requires an option to be passed to the run-time engine in order to enable assertions. Absent the option, assertions are bypassed, but they always remain in the code unless optimised away by a JIT compiler at run-time or excluded by an if (false) condition at compile time, thus they need not have a run-time space or time cost in Java either.
Programmers can build checks into their code that are always active by bypassing or manipulating the language's normal assertion-checking mechanisms.
Comparison with error handling
Assertions are distinct from routine error-handling. Assertions document logically impossible situations and discover programming errors: if the impossible occurs, then something fundamental is clearly wrong with the program. This is distinct from error handling: most error conditions are possible, although some may be extremely unlikely to occur in practice. Using assertions as a general-purpose error handling mechanism is unwise: assertions do not allow for recovery from errors; an assertion failure will normally halt the program's execution abruptly; and assertions are often disabled in production code. Assertions also do not display a user-friendly error message.
Consider the following example of using an assertion to handle an error:
int *ptr = malloc(sizeof(int) * 10);
assert(ptr);
// use ptr
...
Here, the programmer is aware that malloc will return a NULL pointer if memory is not allocated. This is possible: the operating system does not guarantee that every call to malloc will succeed. If an out of memory error occurs the program will immediately abort. Without the assertion, the program would continue running until ptr was dereferenced, and possibly longer, depending on the specific hardware being used. So long as assertions are not disabled, an immediate exit is assured. But if a graceful failure is desired, the program has to handle the failure. For example, a server may have multiple clients, or may hold resources that will not be released cleanly, or it may have uncommitted changes to write to a datastore. In such cases it is better to fail a single transaction than to abort abruptly.
Another error is to rely on side effects of expressions used as arguments of an assertion. One should always keep in mind that assertions might not be executed at all, since their sole purpose is to verify that a condition which should always be true does in fact hold true. Consequently, if the program is considered to be error-free and released, assertions may be disabled and will no longer be evaluated.
Consider another version of the previous example:
int *ptr;
// Statement below fails if malloc() returns NULL,
// but is not executed at all when compiling with -NDEBUG!
assert(ptr = malloc(sizeof(int) * 10));
// use ptr: ptr isn't initialised when compiling with -NDEBUG!
...
This might look like a smart way to assign the return value of malloc to ptr and check if it is NULL in one step, but the malloc call and the assignment to ptr is a side effect of evaluating the expression that forms the assert condition. When the NDEBUG parameter is passed to the compiler, as when the program is considered to be error-free and released, the assert() statement is removed, so malloc() isn't called, rendering ptr uninitialised. This could potentially result in a segmentation fault or similar null pointer error much further down the line in program execution, causing bugs that may be sporadic and/or difficult to track down. Programmers sometimes use a similar VERIFY(X) define to alleviate this problem.
Modern compilers may issue a warning when encountering the above code.
History
In 1947 reports by von Neumann and Goldstine on their design for the IAS machine, they described algorithms using an early version of flow charts, in which they included assertions: "It may be true, that whenever C actually reaches a certain point in the flow diagram, one or more bound variables will necessarily possess certain specified values, or possess certain properties, or satisfy certain properties with each other. Furthermore, we may, at such a point, indicate the validity of these limitations. For this reason we will denote each area in which the validity of such limitations is being asserted, by a special box, which we call an assertion box."
The assertional method for proving correctness of programs was advocated by Alan Turing. In a talk "Checking a Large Routine" at Cambridge, June 24, 1949 Turing suggested: "How can one check a large routine in the sense of making sure that it's right? In order that the man who checks may not have too difficult a task, the programmer should make a number of definite assertions which can be checked individually, and from which the correctness of the whole program easily follows".
See also
Assertion definition language
Design by contract
Exception handling
Hoare logic
Static code analysis
Java Modeling Language
Invariant (computer science)
References
External links
A historical perspective on runtime assertion checking in software development by Lori A. Clarke, David S. Rosenblum in: ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes 31(3):25-37, 2006
Assertions: a personal perspective by C.A.R. Hoare in: IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Volume: 25, Issue: 2 (2003), Page(s): 14 - 25
My Compiler Does Not Understand Me by Poul-Henning Kamp in: ACM Queue 10(5), May 2012
Use of Assertions by John Regehr
Formal methods
Logic in computer science
Conditional constructs
Debugging | [
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234020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Connaught%20and%20Strathearn | Duke of Connaught and Strathearn | The title of Duke of Connaught and Strathearn was granted by Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland to her third son, Prince Arthur, on 24 May 1874. At the same time, he was also granted the subsidiary title of Earl of Sussex.
History
By tradition, members of the sovereign's family received titles associated with England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, the four Home Nations that made up the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. The Dukedom of Connaught and Strathearn was named after one of the four provinces of Ireland, now known by its modern Irish language-based spelling of Connacht. It was seen as the title that, if available, would henceforth be awarded to the British monarch's third son. The first son is the Duke of Cornwall (in England) and Duke of Rothesay (in Scotland), and would be made Prince of Wales at some point, while the second son would often become Duke of York, if the title was available.
Since the exit of the Irish Free State from the United Kingdom in 1922, titles related to locations in the Free State (and later the Republic of Ireland) have not been awarded (though Prince Edward, Prince of Wales—in 1936 briefly King Edward VIII—was made a Knight of the Order of St Patrick). However, territorial titles relating to Northern Ireland have continued to be awarded.
After Prince Arthur's death in 1942, the title was inherited by his grandson, Alastair. In the absence of any male heirs, the dukedom became extinct when Alastair died, 15 months after his grandfather.
A Canadian military regiment, The British Columbia Regiment (Duke of Connaught's Own), is a Canadian armoured regiment in the 1st Duke's name. A British Indian Army cavalry regiment, the 6th Duke of Connaught's Own Lancers (Watson's Horse), was also named for the 1st Duke.
Dukes of Connaught and Strathearn (1874)
Family tree
Possible future creations
The Dukedom is currently vacant. While there were some speculations that it was one of the options available for Prince Harry upon his wedding with Meghan Markle, press reports have also noted that Connaught is now part of the Republic of Ireland, as well as the supposed manner in which the last Duke of Connaught and Strathearn died, thus making it unsuitable.
Strathearn is a subsidiary Earldom in the Dukedom of Cambridge.
See also
Earl of Connaught (subsidiary title of the Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh)
Connaught Place, New Delhi, the commercial centre of India's capital.
Connaught Place, London, on the south end of Edgware Road, very close to the Marble Arch and Hyde Park.
Taman Connaught, Kuala Lumpur
Connaught Place (Hong Kong)
Connaught, Ontario
Connaught Road, Hong Kong
Connaught Square, London
The Connaught (hotel), London
O'Conor Don, the ancient Gaelic Royal Family of Connacht
References
External links
Memorial Site for the Duke of Connaught, Governor General of Canada
www.Duke100th.com Duke of Connaught Public School, Toronto, Ontario, Canada - 100th Anniversary
Extinct dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom
1874 establishments in the United Kingdom
Noble titles created in 1874 | [
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234021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat%20anchor%20%28metaphor%29 | Boat anchor (metaphor) | In amateur radio and computing, a boat anchor or boatanchor is something obsolete, useless, and cumbersome – so-called because metaphorically its only productive use is to be thrown into the water as a boat mooring. Terms such as brick, doorstop, and paperweight are similar.
Amateur radio
In amateur radio, a boat anchor or boatanchor is an old piece of radio equipment. It is usually used in reference to large, heavy radio equipment of earlier decades that used tubes. In this context boat anchors are often prized by their owners and their strengths (e.g. immunity to EMP) emphasised, even if newer equipment is more capable.
An early use of the term appeared in a 1956 issue of CQ Amateur Radio Magazine. The magazine published a letter from a reader seeking "schematics or conversion data" for a war surplus Wireless Set No. 19 MK II transceiver in order to modify it for use on the amateur bands. The editor added this reply:
The editor's use of the term generated some reader interest, and in February 1957, CQ published a follow-up story that included photos.
Computers
The metaphor transfers directly from old radios to old computers. It also has been extended to refer to relic software.
Hardware
Early computers were physically large and heavy devices. As computers became more compact, the term boat anchor became popular among users to signify that the earlier, larger computer gear was obsolete, no longer useful, or even damaged.
Software
The term boat anchor has been extended to software code that is left in a system's codebase, typically in case it is needed later. This is an example of an anti-pattern and therefore can cause many problems for people attempting to maintain the program that contains the obsolete code. The key problem comes from the fact that programmers will have a hard time differentiating between obsolete code which doesn't do anything and working code which does. For example, a programmer may be looking into a bug with the program's input handling system, so they search through the code looking for code that links into the input handling API. Obviously if the programmer comes across obsolete input handling code they may well start editing and debugging it, wasting valuable time before they realise that the code that they're working with is never executed and therefore not part of the problem they're trying to solve. Other problems include longer compile times and the risk that programmers may accidentally link working code into the defunct code, inadvertently resurrecting it. A recommended solution for dealing with boat anchors in source code is to remove them from the code base and to place them in a separate location so that they can be referred to if necessary, but will not be compiled or be mistaken as "working" code. (For example, deleting them, knowing they are stored in the project's source control)
See also
Anti-pattern
Vintage amateur radio
Legacy system
References
External links
Origin of Ham Speak
BoatAnchor Manual Archive
Computer jargon
Amateur radio
Anti-patterns | [
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] |
234026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assertion | Assertion | Assertion or assert may refer to:
Computing
Assertion (software development), a computer programming technique
assert.h, a header file in the standard library of the C programming language
Assertion definition language, a specification language providing a formal grammar to specify behaviour and interfaces for computer software
Logic and language
Logical assertion, a statement that asserts that a certain premise is true
Proof by assertion, an informal fallacy in which a proposition is repeatedly restated
Time of assertion, in linguistics a secondary temporal reference in establishing tense
Assertive, a speech act that commits a speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition
Other uses
Assert (horse) (1979–1995), an Irish racehorse
Assertions (auditing), the set of information that the statement preparer is providing in a financial statement audit
See also | [
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234029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative%20cache | Negative cache | In computer programming, negative cache is a cache that also stores "negative" responses, i.e. failures. This means that a program remembers the result indicating a failure even after the cause has been corrected. Usually negative cache is a design choice, but it can also be a software bug.
Examples
Consider a web browser which attempts to load a page while the network is unavailable. The browser will receive an error code indicating the problem, and may display this error message to the user in place of the requested page. However, it is incorrect for the browser to place the error message in the page cache, as this would lead it to display the error again when the user tries to load the same page - even after the network is back up. The error message must not be cached under the page's URL; until the browser is able to successfully load the page, whenever the user tries to load the page, the browser must make a new attempt.
A frustrating aspect of negative caches is that the user may put a great effort into troubleshooting the problem, and then after determining and removing the root cause, the error still does not vanish.
There are cases where failure-like states must be cached. For instance, DNS requires that caching nameservers remember negative responses as well as positive ones. If an authoritative nameserver returns a negative response, indicating that a name does not exist, this is cached. The negative response may be perceived as a failure at the application level; however, to the nameserver caching it, it is not a failure. The cache times for negative and positive caching may be tuned independently.
Description
A negative cache is normally only desired if failure is very expensive and the error condition raises automatically without user's action. It creates a situation where the user is unable to isolate the cause of the failure: despite fixing everything they can think of, the program still refuses to work. When a failure is cached, the program should provide a clear indication of what must be done to clear the cache, in addition to a description of the cause of the error. In such conditions a negative cache is an example of a design anti-pattern.
Negative cache still may recover if the cached records expires.
See also
Perl Design Patterns Book
References
Software bugs
Software anomalies
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234031 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black-footed%20ferret | Black-footed ferret | The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes), also known as the American polecat or prairie dog hunter, is a species of mustelid native to central North America.
The black-footed ferret is roughly the size of a mink and is similar in appearance to the European polecat and the Asian steppe polecat. It is largely nocturnal and solitary, except when breeding or raising litters. Up to 90% of its diet is composed of prairie dogs.
The species declined throughout the 20th century, primarily as a result of decreases in prairie dog populations and sylvatic plague. It was declared extinct in 1979, but a residual wild population was discovered in Meeteetse, Wyoming in 1981. A captive-breeding program launched by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service resulted in its reintroduction into eight western US states, Canada, and Mexico from 1991 to 2009. , over 1,000 mature, wild-born individuals are in the wild across 18 populations, with four self-sustaining populations in South Dakota (two), Arizona, and Wyoming. It was first listed as "endangered" in 1982, then listed as "extinct in the wild" in 1996 before being downgraded back to "endangered" in the IUCN Red List in 2008. In February 2021, the first successful clone of a black-footed ferret, a female named Elizabeth Ann, was introduced to the public.
Evolution
Like its close relative, the Asian steppe polecat (with which it was once thought to be conspecific), the black-footed ferret represents a more progressive form than the European polecat in the direction of carnivory. The black-footed ferret's most likely ancestor was Mustela stromeri (from which the European and steppe polecats are also derived), which originated in Europe during the Middle Pleistocene. Molecular evidence indicates that the steppe polecat and black-footed ferret diverged from M. stromeri between 500,000 and 2,000,000 years ago, perhaps in Beringia. The species appeared in the Great Basin and the Rockies by 750,000 years ago. The oldest recorded fossil find originates from Cathedral Cave, White Pine County, Nevada, and dates back 750,000 to 950,000 years ago. Prairie dog fossils have been found in six sites where ferrets are yielded, thus indicating that the association between the two species is an old one. Anecdotal observations and 42% of examined fossil records indicated that any substantial colony of medium- to large-sized colonial ground squirrels, such as Richardson's ground squirrels, may provide a sufficient prey base and a source of burrows for black-footed ferrets. This suggests that the black-footed ferret and prairie dogs did not historically have an obligate predator-prey relationship. The species has likely always been rare, and the modern black-footed ferret represents a relic population. A reported occurrence of the species is from a late Illinoian deposit in Clay County, Nebraska, and is further recorded from Sangamonian deposits in Nebraska and Medicine Hat. Fossils have also been found in Alaska dating from the Pleistocene.
Description
The black-footed ferret has a long, slender body with black outlines on their feet, ears, parts of the face and its tail. The forehead is arched and broad, and the muzzle is short. It has few whiskers, and its ears are triangular, short, erect and broad at the base. The neck is long and the legs short and stout. The toes are armed with sharp, very slightly arched claws. The feet on both surfaces are covered in hair, even to the soles, thus concealing the claws. It combines several physical features common in both members of the subgenus Gale (least and short-tailed weasels) and Putorius (European and steppe polecats). Its skull resembles that of polecats in its size, massiveness and the development of its ridges and depressions, though it is distinguished by the extreme degree of constriction behind the orbits where the width of the cranium is much less than that of the muzzle.
Although similar in size to polecats, its attenuate body, long neck, very short legs, slim tail, large orbicular ears and close-set pelage is much closer in conformation to weasels and stoats. The dentition of the black-footed ferret closely resembles that of the European and steppe polecat, though the back lower molar is vestigial, with a hemispherical crown which is too small and weak to develop the little cusps which are more apparent in polecats. It differs from the European polecat by the greater contrast between its dark limbs and pale body and the shorter length of its black tail-tip. In contrast, differences from the steppe polecat of Asia are slight, to the point where the two species were once thought to be conspecific. The only noticeable differences between the black-footed ferret and the steppe polecat are the former's much shorter and coarser fur, larger ears, and longer post molar extension of the palate.
Males measure in body length and in tail length, thus constituting 22–25% of its body length. Females are typically 10% smaller than males. It weighs . Captive-bred ferrets used for the reintroduction projects were found to be smaller than their wild counterparts, though these animals rapidly attained historical body sizes once released.
The base color is pale yellowish or buffy above and below. The top of the head and sometimes the neck is clouded by dark-tipped hairs. The face is crossed by a broad band of sooty black, which includes the eyes. The feet, lower parts of the legs, the tip of the tail and the preputial region are sooty-black. The area midway between the front and back legs is marked by a large patch of dark umber-brown, which fades into the buffy surrounding parts. A small spot occurs over each eye, with a narrow band behind the black mask. The sides of the head and the ears are dirty-white in color.
Behavior and ecology
Territorial behavior
The black-footed ferret is solitary, except when breeding or raising litters. It is nocturnal and primarily hunts for sleeping prairie dogs in their burrows. It is most active above ground from dusk to midnight and 4 am to mid-morning. Aboveground activity is greatest during late summer and early autumn when juveniles become independent. Climate generally does not limit black-footed ferret activity, but it may remain inactive inside burrows for up to 6 days at a time during winter.
Female black-footed ferrets have smaller home ranges than males. Home ranges of males may sometimes include the home ranges of several females. Adult females usually occupy the same territory every year. A female that was tracked from December to March occupied . Her territory was overlapped by a resident male that occupied during the same period. The average density of black-footed ferrets near Meeteetse, Wyoming, is estimated at one black-footed ferret to . As of 1985, 40 to 60 black-footed ferrets occupied a total of of white-tailed prairie dog habitat. From 1982 to 1984, the average year-round movement of 15 black-footed ferrets between white-tailed prairie dog colonies was 1.6 miles/night (2.5 km) (with a spread of 1.1 miles or 1.7 km). Movement of black-footed ferrets between prairie dog colonies is influenced by factors including breeding activity, season, sex, intraspecific territoriality, prey density, and expansion of home ranges with declining population density. Movements of black-footed ferrets have been shown to increase during the breeding season; however, snow-tracking from December to March over a 4-year period near Meeteetse, Wyoming revealed that factors other than breeding were responsible for movement distances.
Temperature is positively correlated with distance of black-footed ferret movement. Snow-tracking from December to March over a 4-year period near Meeteetse, Wyoming, revealed that movement distances were shortest during winter and longest between February and April, when black-footed ferrets were breeding and white-tailed prairie dogs emerged from hibernation. Nightly movement distance of 170 black-footed ferrets averaged (range ). Nightly activity areas of black-footed ferrets ranged from ), and were larger from February to March () than from December to January (). Adult females establish activity areas based on access to food for rearing young. Males establish activity areas to maximize access to females, resulting in larger activity areas than those of females.
Prey density may account for movement distances. Black-footed ferrets may travel up to to seek prey, suggesting that they will interchange freely among white-tailed prairie dog colonies that are less than apart. In areas of high prey density, black-footed ferret movements were nonlinear in character, probably to avoid predators. From December to March over a 4-year study period, black-footed ferrets investigated 68 white-tailed prairie dog holes per of travel/night. Distance traveled between white-tailed prairie dog burrows from December to March averaged over 149 track routes.
Reproduction and development
The reproductive physiology of the black-footed ferret is similar to that of the European polecat and the steppe polecat. It is probably polygynous, based on data collected from home range sizes, skewed sex ratios, and sexual dimorphism. Mating occurs in February and March. When a male and female in estrus encounter each other, the male sniffs the genital region of the female, but does not mount her until after a few hours have elapsed, which is contrast to the more violent behavior displayed by the male European polecat. During copulation, the male grasps the female by the nape of the neck, with the copulatory tie lasting from 1.5 to 3.0 hours. Unlike other mustelids, the black-footed ferret is a habitat specialist with low reproductive rates. In captivity, gestation of black-footed ferrets lasts 42–45 days. Litter size ranges from one to five kits. Kits are born in May and June in prairie dog burrows. Kits are altricial and are raised by their mother for several months after birth. Kits first emerge above ground in July, at 6 weeks old. They are then separated into individual prairie dog burrows around their mother's burrow. Kits reach adult weight and become independent several months following birth, from late August to October. Sexual maturity occurs at the age of one year.
Intercolony dispersal of juvenile black-footed ferrets occurs several months after birth, from early September to early November. Dispersal distances may be short or long. Near Meeteetse, Wyoming, 9 juvenile males and three juvenile females dispersed following litter breakup. Four juvenile females dispersed a short distance (<), but remained on their natal area.
Diet
Up to 90% of the black-footed ferret's diet is composed of prairie dogs. The remaining 10% of their diet is composed of small rodents, and Lagomorphs. Their diet varies depending on geographic location. In western Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, black-footed ferrets are historically associated with white-tailed prairie dogs and were forced to find alternative prey when white-tailed prairie dogs entered their four-month hibernation cycle. In Wyoming, alternative prey items consumed during white-tailed prairie dog hibernation included voles (Microtus spp.) and mice (Peromyscus and Mus spp.) found near streams. In South Dakota, black-footed ferrets associate with black-tailed prairie dogs. Because black-tailed prairie dogs do not hibernate, little seasonal change in black-footed ferret diet is necessary.
In Mellette County, South Dakota, black-tailed prairie dog remains occurred in 91% of 82 black-footed ferret scats. Mouse remains occurred in 26% of scats. Mouse remains could not be identified to species; however, deer mice, northern grasshopper mice, and house mice were captured in snap-trap surveys. Potential prey items included thirteen-lined ground squirrels, plains pocket gophers, mountain cottontails, upland sandpipers, horned larks, and western meadowlarks.
Based on 86 black-footed ferret scats found near Meeteetse, Wyoming, 87% of their diet was composed of white-tailed prairie dogs. Other food items included deer mice, sagebrush voles, meadow voles, mountain cottontails, and white-tailed jackrabbits. Water is obtained through consumption of prey.
A study published in 1983 modeling metabolizable energy requirements estimated that one adult female black-footed ferret and her litter require about 474 to 1,421 black-tailed prairie dogs per year or 412 to 1,236 white-tailed prairie dogs per year for sustenance. They concluded that this dietary requirement would require protection of of black-tailed prairie dog habitat or of white-tailed prairie dog habitat for each female black-footed ferret with a litter.
Distribution and habitat
The historical range of the black-footed ferret was closely correlated with, but not restricted to, the range of prairie dogs (Cynomys spp.). Its range extended from southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan south to Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. , the only known wild black-footed ferret population was located on approximately in the western Big Horn Basin near Meeteetse, Wyoming. Since 1990, black-footed ferrets have been reintroduced to the following sites: Shirley Basin, Wyoming; UL Bend National Wildlife Refuge and Fort Belknap Indian Reservation, Montana; Conata Basin/Badlands, Buffalo Gap National Grassland, and the Cheyenne River Sioux Reservation in South Dakota; Aubrey Valley, Arizona; Rocky Mountain Arsenal National Wildlife Refuge and Wolf Creek in Colorado; Coyote Basin, straddling Colorado and Utah, northern Chihuahua, Mexico, and Grasslands National Park, Canada
Historical habitats of the black-footed ferret included shortgrass prairie, mixed-grass prairie, desert grassland, shrub steppe, sagebrush steppe, mountain grassland, and semi-arid grassland. Black-footed ferrets use prairie dog burrows for raising young, avoiding predators, and thermal cover. Six black-footed ferret nests found near Mellette County, South Dakota, were lined with buffalo grass, prairie threeawn, sixweeks grass, and cheatgrass. High densities of prairie dog burrows provide the greatest amount of cover for black-footed ferrets. Black-tailed prairie dog colonies contain a greater burrow density per acre than white-tailed prairie dog colonies, and may be more suitable for the recovery of black-footed ferrets. The type of prairie dog burrow may be important for occupancy by black-footed ferrets. Black-footed ferret litters near Meeteetse, Wyoming, were associated with mounded white-tailed prairie dog burrows, which are less common than non-mounded burrows. Mounded burrows contain multiple entrances and probably have a deep and extensive burrow system that protects kits. However, black-footed ferrets used non-mounded prairie dog burrows (64%) more often than mounded burrows (30%) near Meeteetse, Wyoming.
Mortality
Primary causes of mortality include habitat loss, human-introduced diseases, and indirect poisoning from prairie dog control measures. Annual mortality of juvenile and adult black-footed ferrets over a 4-year period ranged from 59 to 83% (128 individuals) near Meeteetse, Wyoming. During fall and winter, 50 to 70% of juveniles and older animals perish. Average lifespan in the wild is probably only one year, but may be up to five years. Males have higher rates of mortality than females because of longer dispersal distances when they are most vulnerable to predators.
Given an obligate dependence of black-footed ferrets on prairie dogs, black-footed ferrets are extremely vulnerable to prairie dog habitat loss. Habitat loss results from agriculture, livestock use, and other development.
Black-footed ferrets are susceptible to numerous diseases. They are fatally susceptible to canine distemper virus, introduced by striped skunks, common raccoons, red foxes, coyotes, and American badgers. A short-term vaccine for canine distemper is available for captive black-footed ferrets, but no protection is available for young born in the wild. Black-footed ferrets are also susceptible to rabies, tularemia, and human influenza. They can directly contract sylvatic plague (Yersinia pestis), and epidemics in prairie dog towns may completely destroy the ferrets' prey base.
Predators of black-footed ferrets include golden eagles, great horned owls, coyotes, American badgers, bobcats, prairie falcons, ferruginous hawks, and prairie rattlesnakes.
Oil and natural gas exploration and extraction can have detrimental impacts on prairie dogs and black-footed ferrets. Seismic activity collapses prairie dog burrows. Other problems include potential leaks and spills, increased roads and fences, increased vehicle traffic and human presence, and an increased number of raptor perching sites on power poles. Traps set for coyotes, American mink, and other animals may harm black-footed ferrets.
History
Native American tribes, including the Crow, Blackfoot, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Pawnee, used black-footed ferrets for religious rites and for food. The species was not encountered during the Lewis and Clark Expedition, nor was it seen by Nuttall or Townsend, and it did not become known to modern science until it was first described in Jake Audubon and Bachman's Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America in 1851.
Decline
For a time, the black-footed ferret was harvested for the fur trade, with the American Fur Company having received 86 ferret skins from Pratt, Chouteau, and Company of St. Louis in the late 1830s. During the early years of predator control, black-footed ferret carcasses were likely discarded, as their fur was of low value. This likely continued after the passing of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, for fear of reprisals. The large drop in black-footed ferret numbers began during the 1800s through to the 1900s, as prairie dog numbers declined because of control programs and the conversion of prairies to croplands.
Sylvatic plague, a disease caused by Yersinia pestis introduced into North America, also contributed to the prairie dog die-off, though ferret numbers declined proportionately more than their prey, thus indicating other factors may have been responsible. Plague was first detected in South Dakota in a coyote in 2004, and then in about of prairie dogs on Pine Ridge Reservation in 2005. Thereafter of prairie dog colonies were treated with insecticide (DeltaDust) and of black-footed ferret habitat were prophylactically dusted in Conata Basin in 2006–2007. Nevertheless, plague was proven in ferrets in May 2008. Since then each year of their Conata Basin habitat is dusted and about 50–150 ferrets are immunized with plague vaccine. Ferrets are unlikely to persist through plague episodes unless there are management efforts that allow access to prey resources at a wider region or actions that could substantially reduce the plague transmission. Implementing efforts to conserve large prairie dog landscapes and plague mitigation tools are very important in conserving the black-footed ferrets' population.
Inbreeding depression may have also contributed to the decline, as studies on black-footed ferrets from Meeteetse, Wyoming revealed low levels of genetic variation. Canine distemper devastated the Meeteetse ferret population in 1985. A live virus vaccine originally made for domestic ferrets killed large numbers of black-footed ferrets, thus indicating that the species is especially susceptible to distemper.
Reintroduction and conservation
The black‐footed ferret experienced a recent population bottleneck in the wild followed by a more than 30-year recovery through ex situ breeding and then reintroduction into its native range. As such, this sole endemic North American ferret allows examining the impact of a severe genetic restriction on subsequent biological form and function, especially on reproductive traits and success. The black‐footed ferret was listed as endangered by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) in 1967. Declared extinct in 1979, a residual wild population was discovered in Meeteetse, Wyoming, in 1981. This cohort eventually grew to 130 individuals and was then nearly extirpated by sylvatic plague, Yersinia pestis, and canine distemper virus, Canine morbillivirus, with eventually 18 animals remaining. These survivors were captured from 1985 to 1987 to serve as the foundation for the black‐footed ferret ex situ breeding program. Seven of those 18 animals produced offspring that survived and reproduced, and with currently living descendants, are the ancestors of all black‐footed ferrets now in the ex situ (about 320) and in situ (about 300) populations.
The black-footed ferret is an example of a species that benefits from strong reproductive science. A captive-breeding program was initiated in 1987, capturing 18 living individuals and using artificial insemination. This is one of the first examples of assisted reproduction contributing to conservation of an endangered species in nature. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, state and tribal agencies, private landowners, conservation groups, and North American zoos have actively reintroduced ferrets back into the wild since 1991. Beginning in Shirley Basin in Eastern Wyoming, reintroduction expanded to Montana, 6 sites in South Dakota in 1994, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Saskatchewan, Canada and Chihuahua, Mexico. The Toronto Zoo has bred hundreds, most of which were released into the wild. Several episodes of Zoo Diaries show aspects of the tightly controlled breeding. In May 2000, the Canadian Species at Risk Act listed the black-footed ferret as being an extirpated species in Canada. A population of 35 animals was released into Grasslands National Park in southern Saskatchewan on October 2, 2009, and a litter of newborn kits was observed in July 2010. Reintroduction sites have experienced multiple years of reproduction from released individuals.
The black-footed ferret was first listed as endangered in 1967 under the Endangered Species Preservation Act, and was re-listed on January 4, 1974, under the Endangered Species Act. In September 2006, South Dakota's ferret population was estimated to be around 420, with 250 (100 breeding adults consisting of 67 females and 33 males) in Eagle Butte, South Dakota, which is , less than 3% of the public grasslands in South Dakota, east of Rapid City, South Dakota, in the Buffalo Gap National Grassland bordering Badlands National Park, 130 ferrets northeast of Eagle Butte, SD, on Cheyenne River Indian Reservation, and about 40 ferrets on the Rosebud Indian Reservation. Arizona's Aubrey Valley ferret population was well over 100 and a second reintroduction site with around 50 animals is used. An August 2007 report in the journal Science counted a population of 223 in one area of Wyoming (the original number of reintroduced ferrets, most of which died, was 228), and an annual growth rate of 35% from 2003 to 2006 was estimated. This rate of recovery is much faster than for many endangered species, and the ferret seems to have prevailed over the previous problems of disease and prey shortage that hampered its improvement. , the total wild population of black-footed ferrets in the U.S. was well over 650 individuals, plus 250 in captivity. In 2008, the IUCN reclassified the species as "globally endangered", a substantial improvement since the 1996 assessment, when it was considered extinct in the wild, as the species was indeed only surviving in captivity.
, about 1,200 ferrets are thought to live in the wild. These wild populations are possible due to the extensive breeding program that releases surplus animals to reintroduction sites, which are then monitored by USFWS biologists for health and growth. However, the species cannot depend just on ex situ breeding for future survival, as reproductive traits such as pregnancy rate and normal sperm motility and morphology have been steadily declining with time in captivity. These declining markers of individual and population health are thought to be due to increased inbreeding, an occurrence often found with small populations or ones that spend a long time in captivity.
Conservation efforts have been opposed by stock growers and ranchers, who have traditionally fought prairie dogs. In 2005, the U.S. Forest Service began poisoning prairie dogs in private land buffer zones of the Conata Basin of Buffalo Gap National Grassland. Because 10–15 ranchers complained the measure was inadequate, the forest service advised by Mark Rey, then Undersecretary of Agriculture, expanded its "prairie-dog management" in September 2006 to all of South Dakota's Buffalo Gap and the Fort Pierre National Grassland, and also to the Oglala National Grassland in Nebraska, against opinions of biologists in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Following exposure by conservation groups including the Climate, Community & Biodiversity Alliance and national media public outcry and a lawsuit mobilized federal officials, and the poisoning plan was revoked.
The contradictory mandates of the two federal agencies involved, the USFWS and the U.S. Forest Service, are exemplified in what the Rosebud Sioux tribe experienced: The ferret was reintroduced by the USFWS, which according to the tribe promised to pay more than $1 million a year through 2010. On the other hand, the tribe was also contracted for the U.S. Forest Service prairie dog poisoning program. The increasing numbers of ferrets led to conflicts between the tribe's Cheyenne River Sioux Tribe Game, Fish and Parks Department and the Tribal Land Enterprise Organization. When the federal government started an investigation of the tribe's prairie dog management program, threatening to prosecute tribal employees or agents carrying out the management plan in the ferret reintroduction area, the tribal council passed a resolution in 2008, asking the two federal agencies to remove ferrets, and reimburse the tribe for its expenses for the ferret recovery program.
Employees of the San Diego Zoo, the conservation organization Revive & Restore, the ViaGen Pets and Equine Company and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service have teamed up to clone a black-footed ferret. In 2020, a team of scientists cloned a female named Willa, who died in the mid-1980s and left no living descendants. Her clone, a female named Elizabeth Ann, was born on December 10, 2020, making her the first North American endangered species to be cloned. Scientists hope that the contribution of this individual will alleviate the effects of inbreeding and help black-footed ferrets better cope with plague. Experts estimate that this female's genome contains three times as much genetic diversity as any of the modern black-footed ferrets.
In the year 2020, black-footed ferrets were used to test an experimental COVID-19 vaccine in Colorado.
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Black-footed Ferret Recovery Implementation Team website, from a team led by the USFWS
Black-footed Ferret Video
Black-footed Ferrets in Arizona Arizona Game and Fish Department
Black-Footed Ferret Recovery – At the Crossroads, a USFWS 1995 article
Q&A about their reintroduction into south-central South Dakota, a USFWS 2002 article
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Species Profile
COSEWIC Status report – Black-footed ferret, Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada
Black-footed Ferret National Conservation Center
Smithsonian Institution – North American Mammals: Mustela nigripes
Weasels
Ferret, Black-footed
Ferret, Black-footed
Prairies
Fauna of the Rocky Mountains
Mammals described in 1851
ESA endangered species
Taxa named by John James Audubon
Taxa named by John Bachman
Fur trade | [
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234034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code%20smell | Code smell | In computer programming, a code smell is any characteristic in the source code of a program that possibly indicates a deeper problem. Determining what is and is not a code smell is subjective, and varies by language, developer, and development methodology.
The term was popularised by Kent Beck on WardsWiki in the late 1990s. Usage of the term increased after it was featured in the 1999 book Refactoring: Improving the Design of Existing Code by Martin Fowler. It is also a term used by agile programmers.
Definition
One way to look at smells is with respect to principles and quality: "Smells are certain structures in the code that indicate violation of fundamental design principles and negatively impact design quality". Code smells are usually not bugs; they are not technically incorrect and do not prevent the program from functioning. Instead, they indicate weaknesses in design that may slow down development or increase the risk of bugs or failures in the future. Bad code smells can be an indicator of factors that contribute to technical debt. Robert C. Martin calls a list of code smells a "value system" for software craftsmanship.
Often the deeper problem hinted at by a code smell can be uncovered when the code is subjected to a short feedback cycle, where it is refactored in small, controlled steps, and the resulting design is examined to see if there are any further code smells that in turn indicate the need for more refactoring. From the point of view of a programmer charged with performing refactoring, code smells are heuristics to indicate when to refactor, and what specific refactoring techniques to use. Thus, a code smell is a driver for refactoring.
A 2015 study utilizing automated analysis for half a million source code commits and the manual examination of 9,164 commits determined to exhibit "code smells" found that:
There exists empirical evidence for the consequences of "technical debt", but there exists only anecdotal evidence as to how, when, or why this occurs.
Common wisdom suggests that urgent maintenance activities and pressure to deliver features while prioritizing time-to-market over code quality are often the causes of such smells.
Tools such as Checkstyle, PMD, FindBugs, and SonarQube can automatically identify code smells.
Common code smells
Application-level smells
Mysterious Name: functions, modules, variables or classes that are named in a way that does not communicate what they do or how to use them.
Duplicated code: identical or very similar code that exists in more than one location.
Contrived complexity: forced usage of overcomplicated design patterns where simpler design patterns would suffice.
Shotgun surgery: a single change that needs to be applied to multiple classes at the same time.
Uncontrolled side effects: side effects of coding that commonly cause runtime exceptions, with unit tests unable to capture the exact cause of the problem.
Variable mutations: mutations that vary widely enough that refactoring the code becomes increasingly difficult, due to the actual value's status as unpredictable and hard to reason about.
Boolean blindness: easy to assert on the opposite value and still type checks.
Class-level smells
Large class: a class that has grown too large. See God object.
Feature envy: a class that uses methods of another class excessively.
Inappropriate intimacy: a class that has dependencies on implementation details of another class. See Object orgy.
Refused bequest: a class that overrides a method of a base class in such a way that the contract of the base class is not honored by the derived class. See Liskov substitution principle.
Lazy class/freeloader: a class that does too little.
Excessive use of literals: these should be coded as named constants, to improve readability and to avoid programming errors. Additionally, literals can and should be externalized into resource files/scripts, or other data stores such as databases where possible, to facilitate localization of software if it is intended to be deployed in different regions.
Cyclomatic complexity: too many branches or loops; this may indicate a function needs to be broken up into smaller functions, or that it has potential for simplification/refactoring.
Downcasting: a type cast which breaks the abstraction model; the abstraction may have to be refactored or eliminated.
Orphan variable or constant class: a class that typically has a collection of constants which belong elsewhere where those constants should be owned by one of the other member classes.
Data clump: Occurs when a group of variables are passed around together in various parts of the program. In general, this suggests that it would be more appropriate to formally group the different variables together into a single object, and pass around only the new object instead.
Method-level smells
Too many parameters: a long list of parameters is hard to read, and makes calling and testing the function complicated. It may indicate that the purpose of the function is ill-conceived and that the code should be refactored so responsibility is assigned in a more clean-cut way.
Long method: a method, function, or procedure that has grown too large.
Excessively long identifiers: in particular, the use of naming conventions to provide disambiguation that should be implicit in the software architecture.
Excessively short identifiers: the name of a variable should reflect its function unless the function is obvious.
Excessive return of data: a function or method that returns more than what each of its callers needs.
Excessive comments: a class, function or method has irrelevant or trivial comments. A comment on an attribute setter/getter is a good example.
Excessively long line of code (or God Line): A line of code which is too long, making the code difficult to read, understand, debug, refactor, or even identify possibilities of software reuse.
See also
Anti-pattern
Design smell
List of tools for static code analysis
Software rot
References
Further reading
External links
CodeSmell at c2.com
Taxonomy of code smells
Overview of many code smells
CodeSmell
Boundy, David, Software cancer: the seven early warning signs or here, ACM SIGSOFT Software Engineering Notes, Vol. 18 No. 2 (April 1993), Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA
Anti-patterns
Computer programming folklore
Software engineering folklore | [
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234035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiralty%20Arch | Admiralty Arch | Admiralty Arch is a landmark building in London providing road and pedestrian access between The Mall, which extends to the southwest, and Trafalgar Square to the northeast. Admiralty Arch, commissioned by King Edward VII in memory of his mother, Queen Victoria, and designed by Aston Webb, is now a Grade I listed building. In the past, it served as residence of the First Sea Lord and was used by the Admiralty. Until 2011, the building housed government offices. In 2012, the government sold the building on a 125-year lease for £60m for a proposed redevelopment into a Waldorf Astoria luxury hotel and four apartments. The hotel is scheduled to open in 2022.
History
The arch was designed by Aston Webb, who also designed the Victoria Memorial and the new façade of Buckingham Palace at the other end of the Mall. Admiralty Arch was constructed by John Mowlem & Co and completed in 1912. It adjoins the Old Admiralty Building, hence the name. The building was commissioned by King Edward VII in memory of his mother Queen Victoria, although he did not live to see its completion in 1912. Admiralty Arch served as the official residence of the First Sea Lord, including Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma. It also housed various government offices, initially for the Admiralty.
The structure, which combines the features of a triumphal arch with those of a government office building, is asymmetrical. As viewed from the Mall, the right wing of the building has one floor more than the left one: below the cornice there are three on the right, but just two on the left.
A Latin inscription along the top reads:
The sculptural figures of Navigation (left) and Gunnery (right) at the end of the two wings were designed by the English sculptor Thomas Brock.
Beneath the building is a warren of tunnels and chambers, including vaults which used to house the government archives.
In 2000, the Cabinet Office moved into offices in the building, while maintaining its headquarters on Whitehall. It was also home to the Prime Minister's Strategy Unit and the Social Exclusion Task Force. In 2011, as part of the United Kingdom government austerity programme, the building became vacant and was put up for sale for a reported £75 million. In October 2012, the winning bidder was reported to be the Spanish real estate developer Rafael Serrano, who planned to turn the property into a luxury hotel. The property was sold as a 125-year lease.
In August 2013, Westminster City Council granted full planning permission for the restoration and conversion of Admiralty Arch into a 100-room hotel, residences and private members' club.
The architects Blair Associates have been retained by property developer Prime Investors Capital (run by Rafael Serrano) to convert the building into a hotel, restaurant and four apartments. The residences went on sale in July 2016. The hotel is scheduled to open as a Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts property by 2022.
There is reputedly an underground passage connecting Admiralty Arch to 10 Downing Street.
Ceremonial use
As the ceremonial entrance from Trafalgar Square to The Mall, itself the ceremonial road leading up to Buckingham Palace, Admiralty Arch plays an important role on ceremonial occasions. Processions at royal weddings, funerals, coronations and other public processions such as the 2012 processions at the end of the Olympic and Paralympic Games all passed under its arches. The central archway is reserved for use by royalty.
Nose
On the inside wall of the northernmost arch is a small protrusion the size and shape of a human nose. It was placed there by the artist Rick Buckley in 1997 as part of a campaign against the "Big Brother" society. The nose is at a height of about seven feet, and sits at waist-height for anyone riding through the arch on a horse.
References
External links
Official website of current commercial redevelopment
Admiralty Arch at the Historic England website
Monuments and memorials in London
National government buildings in London
Trafalgar Square
Triumphal arches in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures completed in 1912
1912 establishments in England
Grade I listed buildings in the City of Westminster
Grade I listed government buildings
Grade I listed monuments and memorials
Grade I listed office buildings
Tourist attractions in the City of Westminster
Edwardian architecture in London
Neoclassical architecture in London
Buildings and structures on The Mall, London | [
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234042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajagopalachari%20%28given%20name%29 | Rajagopalachari (given name) | Rajagopalachari is a popular given name used amongst the Iyengar community of Tamil Nadu
Some prominent people with the name are:
C. Rajagopalachari, also known as Rajaji: Indian freedom fighter, Gandhian, leader of the Indian National Congress and founder of the Swatantra party.
Sir Perungavur Rajagopalachari, Indian civil servant, Diwan of Cochin and later, Travancore and the first president of the Madras Legislative Council
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234043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.%20Rajagopalachari | C. Rajagopalachari | Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (9 December 1878 – 25 December 1972), popularly known as Rajaji or C.R., also known as Mootharignar Rajaji (Rajaji, the Scholar Emeritus), was an Indian statesman, writer, lawyer, and independence activist. Rajagopalachari was the last Governor-General of India, as India became a republic in 1950. He was also the first Indian-born governor-general, as all previous holders of the post were British nationals. He also served as leader of the Indian National Congress, Premier of the Madras Presidency, Governor of West Bengal, Minister for Home Affairs of the Indian Union and Chief Minister of Madras state. Rajagopalachari founded the Swatantra Party and was one of the first recipients of India's highest civilian award, the Bharat Ratna. He vehemently opposed the use of nuclear weapons and was a proponent of world peace and disarmament. During his lifetime, he also acquired the nickname 'Mango of Salem'.
Rajagopalachari was born in the Thorapalli village of Hosur taluk in the Krishnagiri district of Tamil Nadu and was educated at Central College, Bangalore, and Presidency College, Madras. In the 1900s he started legal practice at the Salem court. On entering politics, he became a member and later Chairperson of the Salem municipality. One of Mahatma Gandhi's earliest political lieutenants, he joined the Indian National Congress and participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act, joining the Non-Cooperation movement, the Vaikom Satyagraha, and the Civil Disobedience movement. In 1930, Rajagopalachari risked imprisonment when he led the Vedaranyam Salt Satyagraha in response to the Dandi March. In 1937, Rajagopalachari was elected Prime minister of the Madras Presidency and served until 1940, when he resigned due to Britain's declaration of war on Germany. He later advocated co-operation over Britain's war effort and opposed the Quit India Movement. He favoured talks with both Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the Muslim League and proposed what later came to be known as the C. R. formula. In 1946, Rajagopalachari was appointed Minister of Industry, Supply, Education and Finance in the Interim Government of India, and then as the Governor of West Bengal from 1947 to 1948, Governor-General of India from 1948 to 1950, Union Home Minister from 1951 to 1952 and as Chief Minister of Madras state from 1952 to 1954. In 1959, he resigned from the Indian National Congress and founded the Swatantra Party, which fought against the Congress in the 1962, 1967 and 1971 elections. Rajagopalachari was instrumental in setting up a united Anti-Congress front in Madras state under C. N. Annadurai, which swept the 1967 elections. He died on 25 December 1972 at the age of 94.
Rajagopalachari was an accomplished writer who made lasting contributions to Indian English literature and is also credited with the composition of the song Kurai Onrum Illai set to Carnatic music. He pioneered temperance and temple entry movements in India and advocated Dalit upliftment. He has been criticized for introducing the compulsory study of Hindi and the Madras Scheme of Elementary Education in Madras State, dubbed by its critics as Hereditary Education Policy put forward to perpetuate caste hierarchy. Critics have often attributed his pre-eminence in politics to his standing as a favourite of both Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Rajagopalachari was described by Gandhi as the "keeper of my conscience".
Early life
Rajagopalachari was born to Chakravarti Venkatarya Iyengar, munsiff of Thorapalli Village and Singaramma on 10 December 1878 in Thorapalli, Dharmapuri taluk, Salem district, Madras Presidency, British Raj. He was born in a Tamil Iyengar Tamil family. The couple already had two sons, Narasimhachari and Srinivasa.
A weak and sickly child, Rajagopalachari was a constant worry to his parents who feared that he might not live long. As a young child, he was admitted to a village school in Thorapalli then at the age of five moved with his family to Hosur where Rajagopalachari enrolled at Hosur R.V.Government Boys Higher Secondary School. He passed his matriculation examinations in 1891 and graduated in arts from Central College, Bangalore in 1894. Rajagopalachari also studied law at the Presidency College, Madras, from where he graduated in 1897.
Rajagopalachari married Alamelu Mangalamma in 1897 when she was ten years old and she gave birth to her son a day after her thirteenth birthday. The couple had five children, three sons: C. R. Narasimhan, C. R. Krishnaswamy, and C. R. Ramaswami, and two daughters: Lakshmi Gandhi (née Rajagopalachari) and Namagiri Ammal. Mangamma died in 1916 whereupon Rajagopalachari took sole responsibility for the care of his children. His son Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari Narasimhan was elected to the Lok Sabha from Krishnagiri in the 1952 and 1957 elections and served as a member of parliament for Krishnagiri from 1952 to 1962. He later wrote a biography of his father. Rajagopalachari's daughter Lakshmi married Devdas Gandhi, son of Mahatma Gandhi while his grandsons include biographer Rajmohan Gandhi, philosopher Ramchandra Gandhi and former governor of West Bengal Gopalkrishna Gandhi. His great-grandson, Chakravarti Rajagopalachari Kesavan, is a spokesperson of the Congress Party and Trustee of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee.
Indian Independence Movement
Rajagopalachari's interest in public affairs and politics began when he commenced his legal practice in Salem in 1900. At the age of 28, he joined the Indian National Congress and participated as a delegate in the 1906 Calcutta session. Inspired by Indian independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak, he later became a member of the Salem municipality in 1911. In 1917, he was elected Chairman of the municipality and served from 1917 to 1919 during which time he was responsible for the election of the first Dalit member of the Salem municipality. In 1917, he defended Indian independence activist P. Varadarajulu Naidu against charges of sedition and two years later participated in the agitations against the Rowlatt Act. Rajagopalachari was a close friend of the founder of Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company V. O. Chidambaram Pillai as well as greatly admired by Indian independence activists Annie Besant and C. Vijayaraghavachariar.
After Mahatma Gandhi joined the Indian independence movement in 1919, Rajagopalachari became one of his followers. He participated in the Non-Cooperation movement and gave up his law practice. In 1921, he was elected to the Congress Working Committee and served as the General Secretary of the party before making his first major breakthrough as a leader during the 1922 Indian National Congress session at Gaya when he strongly opposed collaboration with the colonial administration and participation in the diarchial legislatures established by the Government of India Act 1919. While Gandhi was in prison, Rajagopalachari led the group of "No-Changers", individuals against contesting elections for the Imperial Legislative Council and other provincial legislative councils, in opposition to the "Pro-changers" who advocated council entry. When the motion was put to the vote, the "No-changers" won by 1,748 to 890 votes resulting in the resignation of important Congress leaders including Pandit Motilal Nehru and C. R. Das, the President of the Indian National Congress. When the Indian National Congress split in 1923, Rajagopalachari was a member of the Civil Disobedience Enquiry Committee. He was also involved in the Vaikom Satyagraha movement against untouchability during 1924–25. In a public speech on May 27, 1924, he reassured the anxious upper caste Hindus in Vaikom, "Mahatmaji does not want the caste system abolished but holds that untouchability should be abolished...Mahatmaji does not want you to dine with the Thiyyas or the Pulayas. What he wants is that we must be prepared to go near or touch other human beings as you go near a cow or a horse".
In the early 1930s, Rajagopalachari emerged as one of the major leaders of the Tamil Nadu Congress. When Gandhi organised the Dandi march in 1930, Rajagopalachari broke the salt laws at Vedaranyam, near Nagapattinam, along with Indian independence activist Sardar Vedaratnam. Rajagopalachari was sentenced to six-months of rigorous imprisonment and was sent to the Trichinopoly Central Prison. He was subsequently elected President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee. Following the enactment of the Government of India Act in 1935, Rajagopalachari was instrumental in getting the Indian National Congress to participate in the 1937 general elections.
Madras Presidency 1937–39
The Indian National Congress first came to power in the Madras Presidency (also called Madras Province by the British), following the Madras elections of 1937. Except for a six-year period when Madras was under the governor's direct rule, the Congress administered the presidency until India became independent on 15 August 1947. At the age of 59, Rajagopalachari won the Madras University seat and entered the Assembly as the first Premier of the Madras Presidency from the Congress party.
In 1938, when Dalit members of the Madras Legislative Council proposed a Temple Entry Bill, Congress Chief Minister Rajagopalachari asked them to withdraw it. Rajagopalachari issued the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act 1939, under which restrictions were removed on Dalits and Shanars entering Hindu temples. In the same year, the Meenakshi temple at Madurai was also opened to the Dalits and Shanars. In March 1938 Rajagopalachari introduced the Agricultural Debt Relief Act, to ease the burden of debt on the province's peasant population.
He also introduced prohibition, along with a sales tax to compensate for the loss of government revenue that resulted from the ban on alcohol. The Provincial Government shut down hundreds of government-run primary schools, citing lack of funds. His opponents said that this deprived many low-caste and Dalit students of their education. His opponents also attributed casteist motives to his government's implementation of Gandhi's Nai Talim scheme into the education system.
Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief Minister of Madras is largely remembered for the compulsory introduction of Hindi in educational institutions, which made him highly unpopular. This measure sparked off widespread anti-Hindi protests, which led to violence in some places and the jailing of over 1,200 men, women and children who took part in the unrest. Two protesters, Thalamuthu Nadar and Natarasan, were killed during the protests. Dravidar Kazhagam founder Periyar E.V. Ramasamy opposed the decision of C. Rajagopalachari to make learning Hindi compulsory in schools in 1937. During the anti-Hindi agitations, Rajagopalachari was constantly identified as an enemy and destroyer of Tamil thai. The opposition to Rajagopalachari grew because he continued to openly criticize the Anti-Hindi agitation of 1937–40 in the most elitist terms and casually ignored the death of a young protester in 1938 when he was asked about it.
In 1940, Congress ministers resigned in protest over the declaration of war on Germany without their consent, leaving the governor to take over the reins of the administration. On 21 February 1940, the unpopular new law on the use of Hindi was quickly repealed by the Governor of Madras. Despite its numerous shortcomings, Madras under Rajagopalachari was still considered by political historians as the best-administered province in British India.
Second World War
Some months after the outbreak of the Second World War, Rajagopalachari resigned as premier along with other members of his cabinet in protest at the declaration of war by the Viceroy of India. Rajagopalachari was arrested in December 1940, in accordance with the Defence of India rules, and sentenced to one-year in prison. However, subsequently, Rajagopalachari differed in opposition to the British war effort. He also opposed the Quit India Movement and instead advocated dialogue with the British. He reasoned that passivity and neutrality would be harmful to India's interests at a time when the country was threatened with invasion. He also advocated dialogue with the Muslim League, which was demanding the partition of India. He subsequently resigned from the party and the assembly following differences over resolutions passed by the Madras Congress legislative party and disagreements with the leader of the Madras provincial Congress K. Kamaraj.
Following the end of the war in 1945, elections followed in the Madras Presidency in 1946. During the last years of the war, Kamaraj was requested by Nehru, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad to make Rajagopalachari the Premier of Madras Presidency. Kamaraj, President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, was forced to make Tanguturi Prakasam as Chief Ministerial candidate, by the elected members, to prevent Rajagopalachari from winning. However, Rajagopalachari did not contest the elections, and Prakasam was elected.
Rajagopalachari was instrumental in initiating negotiations between Gandhi and Jinnah. In 1944, he proposed a solution to the Indian Constitutional tangle. In the same year, he proposed an "absolute majority" threshold of 55 per cent when deciding whether a district should become part of India or Pakistan, triggering a huge controversy among nationalists.
From 1946 to 1947, Rajagopalachari served as the Minister for Industry, Supply, Education, and Finance in the Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru.
Governor of West Bengal 1947–1948
When India and Pakistan attained independence, the province of Bengal was partitioned into two, with West Bengal becoming part of India and East Bengal part of Pakistan. At that time, Rajagopalachari was appointed as the first Governor of West Bengal.
Disliked by Bengali political class for his criticism of the Subhas Chandra Bose during the 1939 Tripuri Congress session, Rajagopalachari's appointment as Governor of West Bengal was protested by Bose's brother Sarat Chandra Bose. During his tenure as governor, Rajagopalachari's priorities were to deal with refugees and to bring peace and stability in the aftermath of the Calcutta riots. He declared his commitment to neutrality and justice at a meeting of Muslim businessmen: "Whatever may be my defects or lapses, let me assure you that I shall never disfigure my life with any deliberate acts of injustice to any community whatsoever." Rajagopalachari was also strongly opposed to proposals to include areas from Bihar and Odisha as part of the province of West Bengal. One such proposal by the editor of a newspaper led to the reply:
"I see that you are not able to restrain the policy of agitation over inter-provincial boundaries. It is easy to yield to the current pressure of opinion and it is difficult to impose on enthusiastic people any policy of restraint. But I earnestly plead that we should do all we can to prevent ill-will from hardening into a chronic disorder. We have enough ill-will and prejudice to cope with. Must we hasten to create further fissiparous forces?"
Despite the general attitude of the Bengali political class, Rajagopalachari was highly regarded and respected by Chief Minister Prafulla Chandra Ghosh and his ministry.
Governor-General of India 1948–1950
From 10 until 24 November 1947, Rajagopalachari served as Acting Governor-General of India in the absence of the Governor-General Lord Mountbatten, who was on leave in England to attend the marriage of Princess Elizabeth to Mountbatten's nephew Prince Philip. Rajagopalachari led a very simple life in the viceregal palace, washing his own clothes and polishing his own shoes. Impressed with his abilities, Mountbatten made Rajagopalachari his second choice to succeed him after Vallabhbhai Patel, when he was to leave India in June 1948. Rajagopalachari was eventually chosen as the governor-general when Nehru disagreed with Mountbatten's first choice, as did Patel himself. He was initially hesitant but accepted when Nehru wrote to him, "I hope you will not disappoint us. We want you to help us in many ways. The burden on some of us is more than we can carry." Rajagopalachari then served as Governor-General of India from June 1948 until 26 January 1950 and was not only the last Governor-General of India but the only Indian national ever to hold the office.
By the end of 1949, an assumption was made that Rajagopalachari, already governor-general, would continue as president. Backed by Nehru, Rajagopalachari wanted to stand for the presidential election but later withdrew, due to the opposition of a section of the Indian National Congress mostly made up of North Indians who were concerned about Rajagopalachari's non-participation during the Quit India Movement.
Role in Constituent Assembly
He was elected to the Constituent Assembly from Madras. He was a part of Advisory Committee and Sub-Committee on Minorities. He debated on issues relating to rights of religious denominations.
In Nehru's Cabinet
At Nehru's invitation, in 1950 Rajagopalachari joined the Union Cabinet as Minister without Portfolio where he served as a buffer between Nehru and Home Minister Sardar Patel and on occasion offered to mediate between the two. Following Patel's death on 15 December 1950, Rajagopalachari was finally made Home Affairs Minister and went on to serve for nearly 10 months. As had his predecessor, he warned Nehru about the expansionist designs of China and expressed regret over the Tibet problem. He also expressed concern over demands for new linguistically based states, arguing that they would generate differences amongst the people.
By the end of 1951, the differences between Nehru and Rajagopalachari came to the fore. While Nehru perceived the Hindu Mahasabha to be the greatest threat to the nascent republic, Rajagopalachari held the opinion that the Communists posed the greatest danger. He also adamantly opposed Nehru's decision to commute the death sentences passed on those involved in the Telangana uprising and his strong pro-Soviet leanings. Tired of being persistently over-ruled by Nehru concerning critical decisions, Rajagopalachari submitted his resignation on the "grounds of ill-health" and returned to Madras.
Madras State 1952–1954
In the 1952 Madras elections, the Indian National Congress was reduced to a minority in the state assembly with a coalition led by the Communist Party of India winning most of the seats. The Congress did not want the Communists taking power or to impose Governor's rule in the state. It brought Rajagopalachari out of retirement to form the government as a consensus candidate. On 31 March 1952, Kamaraj presented a resolution, proposing the election of Rajagopalachari as the leader of Madras Legislature Congress party. The resolution was approved by the party and Kamaraj revealed that Rajagopalachari had been reluctant to accept the responsibility as Chief Minister and the leader of Madras Legislature Congress party as his health was fragile and added that by acceding to the request of the party, Rajagopalachari had put country before self. Rajagopalachari did not contest the by-election and on 10 April 1952, Madras Governor Sri Prakasa appointed him as Chief Minister by nomination as MLC without consulting either the Prime Minister Nehru or the ministers in the Madras state cabinet. It was the first time when the governor office was accused of acting inappropriately after independence. P. C. Alexander, a former governor of Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra wrote about the appointment of Rajagopalachari as "The most conspicuous case of constitutional impropriety by the Governor in the exercise of discretion to choose the Chief Minister..."
On 3 July 1952, Rajagopalachari was then able to prove that he had a majority in the assembly by luring MLAs from opposition parties and independents to join the Indian National Congress. 19 members of the Tamil Nadu Toilers Party led by S. S. Ramasami Padayachi, 5 members of the Madras State Muslim League and 6 members of Commonweal Party also provided their support to Rajagopalachari to prevent the Communists from gaining power. Nehru was furious and wrote to Rajagopalachari saying "the one thing we must avoid giving is the impression that we stick to office and we want to keep others out at all costs." Rajagopalachari, however, refused to contest a by-election and remained as a nominated member of the Legislative Council.
During Rajagopalachari's tenure as Chief Minister, a powerful movement for a separate Andhra State, comprising the Telugu-speaking districts of the Madras State, gained a foothold. On 19 October 1952, an Indian independence activist and social worker from Madras named Potti Sriramulu embarked on a hunger strike reiterating the demands of the separatists and calling for the inclusion of Madras city within the proposed state. Rajagopalachari remained unmoved by Sriramulu's action and refused to intervene. After fasting for days, Sriramulu eventually died on 15 December 1952, triggering riots in Madras city and the Telugu-speaking districts of the state. Initially, both Rajagopalachari and Prime Minister Nehru were against the creation of linguistically demarcated states but as the law and order situation in the state deteriorated, both were forced to accept the demands. Andhra State was thus created on 1 October 1953 from the Telugu-speaking districts of Madras, with its capital at Kurnool. However, the boundaries of the new state were determined by a commission which decided against the inclusion of Madras city. Though the commission's report suggested the option of having Madras as the temporary capital of Andhra State to allow smooth partitioning of the assets and the secretariat, Rajagopalachari refused to allow Andhra State to have Madras even for a day.
On 7 June 1952, Rajagopalachari ended the procurement policy and food rationing in the state, abolishing all price and quota controls. His decision was a rejection of a planned economy in favour of a free market economy. He also introduced measures to regulate the running of universities in the state.
In 1953, he introduced a new education scheme known as the "Modified Scheme of Elementary education 1953", which reduced schooling for elementary school students from five hours to three hours per day and suggested that boys to learn the family crafts from their father and girls housekeeping from their mothers. Rajaji had not even consulted his own cabinet or members of the legislative assembly before the scheme's implementation. He said: “Did Shankara or Ramanuja announce their philosophy after consulting others?". The scheme came in for sharp criticism and evoked strong protests from the Dravidian parties. Two amendments were proposed against the scheme at the Madras State legislative assembly. One advocated for a study by an expert group, while another advocated for the scheme's abolition. Both sides launched publicity campaigns in June 1953. At the Adyar riverside, Rajaji made a speech to the washermen. He stated kuladharma, or each clan's or caste's social obligation. He delivered talks and made radio broadcasts to clarify his views. The Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam dubbed the scheme Kula Kalvi Thittam or Hereditary Education Policy which was put forward with the intention of perpetuating the caste system. and attempted to organize massive demonstrations outside Rajagopalachari's house on 13 and 14 July 1953. The scheme was criticized from political leaders from all sides as casteist. Opponents and critics claimed that the system would reinforce deep-seated, caste-based inequality in society. They regarded the plan as an attempt to place children from the upper caste in an advantageous place than children from oppressed groups, who were simply supposed to learn their father's job. Rajagopalachari argued, It is a mistake to imagine that the school is within the walls. The whole village is a school. The village polytechnic is there, every branch of it, the dhobi, the wheelwright, the cobbler.
The Scheme was stayed by the house and the Parulekar Committee was commissioned to review the scheme. The committee found the scheme to be sound and endorsed the Government's position. India's President Rajendra Prasad and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru also offered their support to the scheme.
Rajagopalachari closed down 6000 schools, citing financial constraints. Kamaraj opposed this policy and eventually opened 12,000 schools in his tenure.
Despite his government's efforts to postpone the Modified Scheme of Elementary education 1953 scheme, public resistance grew, particularly in response to initiatives that sought to establish Hindi as the national language. Rajagopalachari was compelled to retire as a result of this. The rising unpopularity of his government forced K. Kamaraj to withdraw his support for Rajagopalachari and on 26 March 1954, he resigned as President of the Madras Legislature Congress Party thereby precipitating new elections. During the subsequent poll held on 31 March 1954, Rajagopalachari fielded C. Subramaniam against Kamaraj. But Subramaniam could garner only 41 votes to Kamaraj's 93 and lost the elections. Rajagopalachari eventually resigned as Chief Minister on 13 April 1954, attributing the decision to poor health.
Split from Congress – parting of ways
Following his resignation as Chief Minister, Rajagopalachari took a temporary break from active politics and instead devoted his time to literary pursuits. He wrote a Tamil re-telling of the Sanskrit epic Ramayana which appeared as a serial in the Tamil magazine Kalki from 23 May 1954 to 6 November 1955. The episodes were later collected and published as Chakravarthi Thirumagan, a book which won Rajagopalachari the 1958 Sahitya Academy award in Tamil language.
Rajagopalachari tendered his official resignation from the Indian National Congress and along with a number of other dissidents organised the Congress Reform Committee (CRC) in January 1957. K. S. Venkatakrishna Reddiar was elected president and the party fielded candidates in 55 constituencies in the 1957 state assembly elections, to emerge as the second largest party in Madras state with 13 seats in the legislative assembly. The Congress Reform Committee also contested 12 Lok Sabha seats during the 1957 Indian elections. The committee became a fully-fledged political party and was renamed the Indian National Democratic Congress at a state conference held in Madurai on September 28–29, 1957.
On 4 June 1959, shortly after the Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress, Rajagopalachari, along with Murari Vaidya of the newly established Forum of Free Enterprise (FFE) and Minoo Masani, a classical liberal and critic of socialist Nehru, announced the formation of the new Swatantra Party at a meeting in Madras. Conceived by disgruntled heads of former princely states such as the Raja of Ramgarh, the Maharaja of Kalahandi and the Maharajadhiraja of Darbhanga, the party was conservative in character. Later, N. G. Ranga, K. M. Munshi, Field Marshal K. M. Cariappa and the Maharaja of Patiala joined the effort. Rajagopalachari, Masani and Ranga also tried but failed to involve Jayaprakash Narayan in the initiative.
In his short essay "Our Democracy", Rajagopalachari explained the necessity for a right-wing alternative to the Congress by saying:
since... the Congress Party has swung to the Left, what is wanted is not an ultra or outer-Left [viz. the CPI or the Praja Socialist Party, PSP], but a strong and articulate Right
Rajagopalachari also insisted that the opposition must:
operate not privately and behind the closed doors of the party meeting, but openly and periodically through the electorate.
He outlined the goals of the Swatantra Party through twenty one "fundamental principles" in the foundation document. The party stood for equality and opposed government control over the private sector. Rajagopalachari sharply criticised the bureaucracy and coined the term "licence-permit Raj" to describe Nehru's elaborate system of permissions and licences required for an individual to set up a private enterprise. Rajagopalachari's personality became a rallying point for the party.
In 1961, Rajagopalachari criticized Operation Vijay, the Indian military action in which Portuguese rule in Goa was forcibly ended and the territory was incorporated into India, writing that India had "totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against militarism" and had undermined the power and prestige of the United Nations Security Council. According to Rajagopalachari, while Portuguese rule in Goa had been an "offense to Indian nationalism", it was not a greater offense than the Chinese occupation of territories claimed by India or the social evil of untouchability, and the "great adventure" of seizing Goa undermined India's devotion to Gandhian principles of non-violence.
Rajagopalachari's efforts to build an anti-Congress front led to a patch up with his former adversary C. N. Annadurai of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam. During the late 1950s and early 1960s, Annadurai grew close to Rajagopalachari and sought an alliance with the Swatantra Party for the 1962 Madras legislative assembly elections. Although there were occasional electoral pacts between the Swatantra Party and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), Rajagopalachari remained non-committal on a formal tie-up with the DMK due to its existing alliance with Communists whom he dreaded. The Swatantra Party contested 94 seats in the Madras state assembly elections and won six as well as won 18 parliamentary seats in the 1962 Lok Sabha elections.
1965 Anti-Hindi agitations in Madras
On 26 January 1950, the Government of India adopted Hindi as the official language of the country, but because of objections in non-Hindi-speaking areas, it introduced a provision tentatively making English the second official language on a par with Hindi for a stipulated fifteen-year period to facilitate a switch to Hindi in non-Hindi speaking states. From 26 January 1965 onwards, Hindi was to become the sole official language of the Indian Union and people in non-Hindi speaking regions were compelled to learn Hindi. This led to vehement opposition and just before Republic Day, severe anti-Hindi protests broke out in Madras State. Rajagopalachari had earlier been sharply critical of the recommendations made by the Official Languages Commission in 1957. On 28 January 1956, Rajagopalachari signed a resolution along with Annadurai and Periyar endorsing the continuation of English as the official language. At an All-India Language Conference held on 8 March 1958, he declared: "Hindi is as much foreign to non-Hindi speaking people as English [is] to the protagonists of Hindi". When the Anti-Hindi agitations broke out in 1965, Rajagopalachari completely reversed his 1938 support for the introduction of Hindi and took a strongly anti-Hindi stand in support of the protests, coining the slogan ‘English Ever, Hindi Never’. On 17 January 1965, he convened the Madras state Anti-Hindi conference in Tiruchirapalli. angrily declaring that Part XVII of the Constitution of India which declared that Hindi was the official language should "be heaved and thrown into the Arabian Sea."
1967 elections
The fourth elections to the Madras Legislative assembly were held in February 1967. At the age of 88, Rajagopalachari worked to forge a united opposition to the Indian National Congress through a tripartite alliance between the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam, the Swatantra Party and the Forward Bloc. The Congress party was defeated in Madras for the first time in 30 years and the coalition led by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam came to power. C. N. Annadurai served as Chief Minister from 6 March 1967 till his death on 3 February 1969. Rajagopalachari delivered a moving eulogy to Annadurai at his funeral.
The Swatantra Party also did well in elections in other states and to the Lok Sabha, the directly elected lower house of the Parliament of India. It won 45 Lok Sabha seats in the 1967 general elections and emerged as the single largest opposition party. The principal opposition party in the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, it also formed a coalition government in Odisha and had a significant presence in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Bihar.
Later years and death
In 1971, Annadurai's successor M. Karunanidhi relaxed prohibition laws in Tamil Nadu due to the poor financial situation of the state. Rajagopalachari pleaded with him not to repeal prohibition but to no avail and as a result, the Swatantra Party withdrew its support for the state government and instead allied with the Congress, a breakaway faction of the Indian National Congress led by Kamaraj.
In January 1971, a three-party anti-Congress coalition was established by the Congress (O), Jan Sangh and the Samyukta Socialist Party then on 8 January, the national executive of the Swatantra Party took the unanimous decision to join the coalition. The dissident parties formed an alliance called the National Democratic Front and fought against the Indian National Congress led by Indira Gandhi in the 1971 Indian general elections. However, the alliance fared badly. The Swatantra Party's tally was reduced to 8 seats from 23 in the 1967 elections. The decline of the Swatantra Party was also visible in the 1971 Tamil Nadu Legislative assembly elections in which it won just 19 seats down from 27 in the 1967 elections.
By November 1972, Rajagopalachari's health had begun to decline and on 17 December the same year, a week after his 94th birthday, he was admitted to the Government Hospital, Madras suffering from uraemia, dehydration and a urinary infection. In the hospital, he was visited by Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi, V. R. Nedunchezhiyan, V. V. Giri, Periyar and other state and national leaders. Rajagopalachari's condition deteriorated in the following days as he frequently lost consciousness and he died at 5:44 pm on 25 December 1972 at the age of 94. His son, C. R. Narasimhan, was at his bedside at the time of his death reading him verses from a Hindu holy book. He was a widower for 56 years, and also outlived a son and both his sons-in-law.
On his death, condolences poured in from all corners of the country. Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India commented:
Contributions to literature and music
An accomplished writer both in his mother tongue Tamil as well as English, Rajagopalachari was the founder of the Salem Literary Society and regularly participated in its meetings. In 1922, he published Siraiyil Tavam (Meditation in jail), a day-to-day account of his first imprisonment by the colonial government from 21 December 1921 to 20 March 1922.
Rajagopalachari started the Tamil Scientific Terms Society in 1916, a group that coined new words in Tamil for terms connected to botany, chemistry, physics, astronomy and mathematics. It received a mixed reception because it relied on Sanskrit roots to coin new Tamil words.
In 1951, he wrote an abridged retelling of the Mahabharata in English, followed by one of the Ramayana in 1957. Earlier, in 1961, he had translated Kambar's Tamil Ramayana into English. In 1965, he translated the Thirukkural into English and also wrote books on the Bhagavad Gita and the Upanishads in English as well as works on Socrates and Marcus Aurelius in Tamil. Rajagopalachari often regarded his literary works as the best service he had rendered to the people. In 1958, he was awarded the Sahitya Akademi Award for works in the Tamil language for his retelling of the Ramayana – Chakravarti Thirumagan. He was also one of the founders of the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, an organisation dedicated to the promotion of education and Indian culture. In 1959, the Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published his book: "Hinduism: Doctrine and Way of Life".
Apart from his literary works, Rajagopalachari also composed a devotional song Kurai Onrum Illai devoted to Lord Venkateswara, a song set to music and a regular at Carnatic concerts. Rajagopalachari composed a benediction hymn sung by M. S. Subbulakshmi at the United Nations General Assembly in 1967.
Legacy
In 1954, during US Vice-president Richard Nixon's nineteen country Asian tour, he was lectured by Rajagopalachari on the consuming emotional quality of nuclear weapons. The pair discussed spiritual life, particularly reincarnation and predestination. Nixon wrote three pages of notes recording Rajagopalachari's words, claiming in his memoirs thirty-six years later that the afternoon "had such a dramatic effect on me that I used many of his thoughts in my speeches over the next several years."
While on a tour to the United States as a member of the Gandhi Peace Foundation delegation, in September 1962 Rajagopalachari visited American President John F. Kennedy at the White House. Rajagopalachari warned Kennedy of the dangers of embarking on an arms race, even one which the US could win. At the end of the meeting Kennedy remarked "This meeting had the most civilizing influence on me. Seldom have I heard a case presented with such precision, clarity and elegance of language". On 1 May 1955, Rajagopalachari appealed to the Government of India to cancel receipt of aid from America if the country continued with its nuclear tests. India's use of military force against Portugal to capture the Portuguese enclave of Goa was criticised by Rajagopalachari who said of the operation and subsequent acts of international diplomacy, "India has totally lost the moral power to raise her voice against the use of military power."
E. M. S. Namboodiripad, a prominent Communist Party leader, once remarked that Rajagopalachari was the Congress leader he respected the most despite the fact he was also someone with whom he had the most differences. Of Rajagopalachari, Periyar, one of his foremost political rivals remarked "he was a leader unique and unequaled, who lived and worked for high ideals".
Regarded as a pioneer of social reform, Rajagopalachari issued temple entry proclamations in the Madras Presidency and worked towards the upliftment of Dalits. He played a pivotal role in the conclusion of the Poona Pact between B. R. Ambedkar and the Indian National Congress and spearheaded the Mahabal Temple Entry program in 1938. He was a staunch advocate of prohibition and was elected Secretary of the Prohibition League of India in 1930. On assuming the premiership of the Madras Presidency, he introduced prohibition throughout the province. where it remained in vogue until its removal by M. Karunanidhi over thirty years later in 1971 and again prohibited by Karunanidhi in 1974 till it was reintroduced by M.G. Ramachandran in 1981. Rajagopalachari was also an active member of the All India Spinners Association. and a strong opponent of "linguistic states", which he felt would bring anarchy to India.
He is also remembered for his literary contributions, some of which are considered modern-day classics. He frequently wrote articles for Kalki and his own journal Swarajya, of which Philip Spratt was editor.
Richard Casey, governor of Bengal from 1944 to 1946, regarded Rajagopalachari as the wisest man in India. The best possible tribute to Rajagopalachari was from Mahatma Gandhi who referred to him as the "keeper of my conscience". Today, his private papers are part of the archives at the Nehru Memorial Museum & Library, at Teen Murti House, Delhi.
On 21 August 1978, a portrait of Rajagopalachari is put in the Central Hall of Parliament House. The portrait of Rajagopalachari, painted by N. S. Subbakrishna, was unveiled by the then President of India, Neelam Sanjiva Reddy.
Reception
Critics opine that he failed to gauge the thoughts and feelings of the masses in provincial and then state administrations. His introduction of Hindi and the Modified Scheme of Elementary education 1953 (dubbed by its critics as Hereditary Education Policy) have been the target of extensive criticism. His pacifist stance during the Quit India Movement and his C. R. Formula angered most of his colleagues in the Indian National Congress.
Referring to Rajagopalachari, Sarojini Naidu, who was never on good terms with him, remarked that 'the Madras fox was a dry logical Adi Shankaracharya while Nehru was the noble, compassionate Buddha'.
Although his popularity at the regional level fluctuated greatly, Rajagopalachari was able to exercise his stranglehold over provincial politics mainly because he was favored by national leaders such as Gandhi, Patel and Nehru. The President of the Tamil Nadu Congress Committee, K. Kamaraj, and a majority of the provincial leaders opposed him in the 1940s, Rajagopalachari clung on to a position of influence in regional politics through support from his colleagues at the center.
Rajagopalachari has always been the archetype of the Tamil Brahmin nemesis of the Dravidian movement. He was accused of being pro-Sanskrit and pro-Hindi, despite his fierce support for the Anti-Hindi agitations of 1965. Rajagopalachari claimed that jati was “the most important element in the organization of our society”. Christophe Jaffrelot argued that Rajagopalachari and other political leaders including Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel praised the caste system both indirectly and directly as a glue that binds the social structure together. As a governor-general, Rajaji stated, The food is grown, the cloth is woven, the sheep are shorn, the shoes are stitched, the scavenging is done, the cartwheels and the ploughs are built and repaired because, thank God, the respective castes are still there and the homes are trade schools as well and the parents are masters as well, to whom the children are automatically apprenticed.
See also
List of places named after C. Rajagopalachari
List of Indian writers
Notes
References
Vasanthi Srinivasan, Gandhi's Conscience Keeper: C Rajagopalachari and Indian Politics (Permanent Black 2009)
Further reading
Vasanthi Srinivasan, Gandhi's Conscience Keeper: C Rajagopalachari and Indian Politics (Permanent Black 2009)
External links
1878 births
1972 deaths
Presidency College, Chennai alumni
Carnatic composers
Chief Ministers of Tamil Nadu
English-language writers from India
Governors-General of India
Governors of West Bengal
Indian anti-communists
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Indian anti-war activists
Indian Hindus
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19th-century Indian lawyers
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Writers from Tamil Nadu
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Recipients of the Bharat Ratna
Recipients of the Sahitya Akademi Award in Tamil
Tamil-language writers
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People from Krishnagiri district
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Members of the 1st Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly | [
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234044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citytv | Citytv | Citytv (branded simply as City from 2012 to 2018) is a Canadian television network owned by the Rogers Sports & Media subsidiary of Rogers Communications. The network consists of six owned-and-operated (O&O) television stations located in the metropolitan areas of Toronto, Montreal, Winnipeg, Calgary, Edmonton, and Vancouver, a cable-only service that serves the province of Saskatchewan, and three independently owned affiliates serving smaller cities in Alberta and British Columbia.
The Citytv brand name originates from its flagship station, CITY-TV in Toronto, a station which became known for an intensely local format based on newscasts aimed at younger viewers, nightly movies, and music and cultural programming. The Citytv brand first expanded with CHUM Limited's acquisition of former Global owned-and-operated station CKVU-TV in Vancouver, followed by its purchase of Craig Media's stations and the re-branding of its A-Channel system in Central Canada as Citytv in August 2005. CHUM Limited was acquired by CTVglobemedia (now Bell Media) in 2007; to comply with Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) ownership limits, the Citytv stations were sold to Rogers. The network grew through further affiliations with three Jim Pattison Group-owned stations, along with Rogers' acquisition of the cable-only Saskatchewan Communications Network and Montreal's CJNT-DT.
While patterned after the original station in Toronto, since the 2000s, and particularly since its acquisition by Rogers, Citytv has moved towards a series-based prime time schedule much like its competitors, albeit one still focused on younger demographics.
History
The licence of the original Citytv station, granted the callsign of CITY-TV by the CRTC, was awarded in Toronto on November 25, 1971, and began broadcasting for the first time using the "Citytv" brand on September 28, 1972, under the ownership of Channel Seventy-Nine Ltd. with its studios located at 99 Queen Street East near Church Street. The station was in debt by 1975. Multiple Access Ltd. (then-owners of CFCF-TV in Montreal) purchased a 45% interest in the station, and sold its stake to CHUM Limited three years later. CHUM Limited acquired the station outright in 1981. Broadcasting on UHF channel 79 during its first decade, the station moved to channel 57 in 1983, until moving to channel 44 with the digital transition (though mapping as virtual channel 57.1). In 1987, the station moved its headquarters to 299 Queen Street West, formerly known as the Ryerson Press Building (then known as the CHUM-City Building); one of the most recognizable landmarks in the city.
Citytv gained a second station in Vancouver when CHUM bought CKVU-TV from Canwest Global Communications in 2001. The station became known as "Citytv Vancouver" on July 22, 2002. Prior to CHUM's acquisition of CKVU, some Citytv programming was syndicated to KVOS-TV in nearby Bellingham, Washington.
In 2004, CHUM bought Craig Media, parent of the A-Channel system in Manitoba and Alberta. The Craig-owned A-Channel stations were relaunched as Citytv on August 2, 2005; the same date that CHUM's NewNet stations, including CKVR-TV, CHWI-TV and CFPL-TV, were rebranded under the A-Channel banner.
CHUM Limited announced plans to sell its broadcasting assets to CTV parent CTVglobemedia on July 12, 2006. CTVgm intended to retain CHUM's Citytv system while divesting CHUM's A-Channel stations and Alberta cable channel Access to get the CRTC to approve the acquisition. On the same day that the takeover was announced, Citytv cancelled its supper-hour, late-night and weekend newscasts at its local Vancouver, Edmonton, Calgary and Winnipeg stations, laying off hundreds of news department staff.
In October 2006, Citytv launched a daily national newscast, CityNews International, which was produced in Toronto for broadcast on the western Canadian stations and on CHUM's Toronto news channel CP24. The Edmonton and Calgary stations also began broadcasting a daily 30-minute magazine show, Your City, instead of a full-fledged newscast. The Vancouver news operation, which had operated for 30 years under various owners and station identities, was not maintained aside from Breakfast Television. In the same month, Citytv Toronto became the first television station in Canada to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition.
The following year on June 8, the CRTC approved the CTV takeover of CHUM. However, the CRTC made the deal conditional on CTV divesting itself of Citytv, because there were already CTV owned-and-operated stations serving the same cities (CFTO-TV Toronto, CIVT-TV Vancouver, CFCN-TV Calgary, CFRN-TV Edmonton, and CKY-TV Winnipeg). Without the divestment, CTV would have exceeded the CRTC's concentration of media ownership limits. CTV announced on June 11, 2007, that it would retain the A-Channel stations, and sell the Citytv stations to Rogers Communications for $375 million. The transaction was approved by the CRTC on September 28 and was completed on October 31, 2007. On September 8, 2009, CITY Toronto moved to its current location at Yonge-Dundas Square at 33 Dundas Street East.
On December 6, 2010, CityNews Tonight Toronto anchor and continuity announcer Mark Dailey died after a long battle with cancer. The Citytv system began to phase in a modified branding in October 2012, with a new logo consisting only of the name "City", and some promotions using the verbal branding "City Television" (later also switched to simply "City") instead of Citytv. The change marked the first major alteration to the Citytv brand since its introduction in 1972. The network adopted the name City on December 31, 2012 during its New Year's Eve special. For the 2018-19 television season, the network reintroduced its original "Citytv" branding, and its social media accounts.
Expanding into a national footprint
The Jim Pattison Group announced in July 2009 that its three television stations in western Canada (CKPG-TV, CFJC-TV, and CHAT-TV), formerly affiliated with E!, would join Citytv starting on September 1, 2009. These stations do not carry the Citytv branding; instead, the stations continue to use the same branding and logos they used as affiliates of the E! system. The Pattison-owned Citytv affiliates produce local newscasts, but do not produce their own versions of Breakfast Television nor title their midday and evening newscasts under the CityNews brand like the Citytv owned-and-operated stations do. Through a long-term affiliation renewal agreement on May 3, 2012, the Pattison stations began to carry 90% of Citytv's primetime programming and the majority of its morning and daytime programming from the programming grid of CKVU-DT, including simulcasts of the Vancouver edition of Breakfast Television. Unlike CKVU, the Pattison stations continue to produce midday and evening local newscasts.
Meanwhile, on December 20, 2011, Bluepoint Investment Corporation announced an affiliation agreement with Rogers Communications to air Citytv programming on the Saskatchewan Communications Network (SCN) from 3 p.m.-6 a.m. CT daily, beginning on January 2, 2012. This program block followed the national program grid of Citytv and was known on-air as "Citytv on SCN". Shortly after, on January 17, 2012, Rogers announced its intent to acquire SCN from Bluepoint. The deal gave the Citytv system stations in all provinces west of Quebec and south of the federal territories of Northern Canada. The sale was approved in late June 2012 by the CRTC and Rogers relaunched SCN as Citytv Saskatchewan on July 1. Rogers plans to invest in the station's infrastructure, and also launch a high definition feed.
In Montreal, Rogers announced its intent to acquire multicultural station CJNT-DT from Toronto-based Channel Zero on May 3, 2012 and announced an affiliation agreement with the station, effective June 4, 2012. This gave Citytv stations in all provinces west of Atlantic Canada as well as the system's first television station located east of the Greater Toronto Area. On December 20, 2012, the CRTC approved the acquisition of CJNT and Rogers' request to convert the station from multicultural to a conventional English-language station. The station began carrying the full Citytv schedule on February 4, 2013, turning Citytv from a television system into a full-fledged network. Rogers will produce 15.5 hours of local programming a week for CJNT (including a local edition of Breakfast Television), and agreed to contribute funding and programming to a new independent multicultural station in Montreal.
Programming
Citytv is well known for its unconventional approach to news and local programming. There is no news desk (anchors read the news standing up, or on stools), and cameras are sometimes hand-held. Citytv also pioneered the concept of videojournalism, where reporters often carry their own camera report and videotape their own stories. Citytv calls its videojournalists "videographers", but unlike many stations in American television markets that try to conceal the fact that reporters are so-called "one-man bands", Citytv embraced the use of video journalism by highlighting the use of technology; Citytv videographers often carry a second home video camera to record images of them videotaping on the scene. The low-grade video is then incorporated into the story to show viewers how the story was recorded.
At one time, Citytv's Toronto flagship CITY-TV produced more local programs than any other television station in Canada, and more local programming than any other station in North America other than Boston's WCVB-TV. Citytv produced shows such as Speakers' Corner, CityLine and was the original home of FashionTelevision, SexTV and MediaTelevision. Many of these series were not exclusively focused on Toronto – FT, for instance, consisted largely of foreign runway footage – and are easily syndicated to other outlets. The latter three shows are now owned by CTVglobemedia as a result of its takeover of CHUM and subsequent divestiture of the Citytv stations.
CITY prominently broadcast feature films during primetime, in late night and on weekends as part of the Great Movies block; as Citytv transitioned to a primetime lineup consisting of mainly domestic and American series during the 2000s, Great Movies was scaled back, then replaced in 2008 by reruns, reality shows and infomercials.
The station attracted attention and controversy by airing The Baby Blue Movie, a softcore pornography film showcase on Friday nights after midnight. Although this programming block was discontinued in the 1980s, it was reinstated on CITY and CKVU throughout most of the 2000s, until its ownership change to Rogers Communications. This, along with the 'hide away' place on the UHF dial formed the basis of fictional station "CIVIC TV" (Channel 83, Cable 12) in David Cronenberg's Videodrome, which is set in Toronto.
Citytv was one of the first television stations in Canada to implement a diversity policy in hiring its on-air staff, actively seeking out people of colour, people with disabilities, and other minority groups to work as on-air journalists. Znaimer described the policy as wanting the station to "look like Toronto".
Beginning in 1983, Citytv began to produce a New Year's Eve special live from Nathan Phillips Square in Downtown Toronto. Most recently known as the City New Year's Eve Bash, the yearly concert special expanded to include a second event in Calgary, Alberta for its 2012–13 edition. In 2013–14, Citytv began simulcasting ABC's Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve instead of airing its own full special, though it continued to sponsor (and air some coverage of) the New Year's event in Toronto.
News
Citytv Toronto's CityNews, which used to be known as CityPulse, had developed a large following since its debut in 1977. Other stations around the world have imitated its format to varying degrees of success. However, Citytv itself was unsuccessful in expanding its audience to other Canadian markets, as evidenced by the eventual cancellation of the other stations' traditional newscasts. Flagship station CITY-DT, along with Jim Pattison Group-owned affiliates CFJC-TV, CKPG-TV and CHAT-TV are the only Citytv stations producing midday or evening newscasts. The Pattison stations use their individual callsigns, instead of branding under the Citytv name and do not use the CityNews title for their weekday newscasts. Four of City's five other owned-and-operated broadcast stations (CKVU-DT, CKAL-DT, CKEM-DT and CHMI-DT) only produce localized versions of the morning program franchise Breakfast Television. Citytv Saskatchewan, meanwhile, does not carry any local programming, and would be unable to broadcast Breakfast Television due to its mandate of airing educational programming in the morning and daytime hours.
Due to the ongoing structural problems facing the conventional television industry in Canada and the global economic crisis, Rogers Media announced cost-cutting measures at the Citytv stations on January 19, 2010, which included massive layoffs and the cancellation of the following newscasts:
CityNews at Noon in Calgary, Edmonton and Toronto
Lunch Television in Vancouver
Your City in Calgary and Edmonton, which was an evening replacement for previous CityNews programming that was cancelled in 2006.
The satirical news program The CityNews List in Vancouver
CityOnline, CityNews at Five and all weekend news programming in Toronto (the latter two were restored in 2011)
City's national and international newscast, CityNews International
CITY-DT used to operate CP24, a cable news channel covering the Greater Toronto Area. During CTVglobemedia's purchase of CHUM Limited, the company chose to retain CP24, and the channel was re-aligned with CFTO (CTV). As a replacement, Rogers received approval for, and launched, CityNews Channel in October 2011. The network was modelled on Rogers-owned radio station CFTR 680, and featured news, weather, traffic reports, and other content drawing from the resources of Rogers properties such as Maclean's and Sportsnet. On May 30, 2013, as part of budget cuts, Rogers announced that the network would be shut down.
Citytv continued to produce Breakfast Television for all markets, and 6:00 p.m. and late-night CityNews Tonight in Toronto only (the evening newscasts in Toronto excluded weekend broadcasts until March 2011; the 5 p.m. newscast, meanwhile, would return in September 2011). Sixty Citytv employees (including long-time Toronto news anchor Anne Mroczkowski) were laid off across Canada.
In 2015, Rogers cancelled the Winnipeg and Edmonton editions of Breakfast Television; in Winnipeg, it was replaced by a simulcast of the morning show from co-owned radio station CITI-FM, and the Edmonton edition was replaced by the spin-off Dinner Television, which focuses on local events and does not feature original news reporting.
On June 5, 2017, Rogers announced that it would expand the CityNews brand to its other O&O markets, reversing the 2008 discontinuance of conventional newscasts on City's stations outside of Toronto. The network was relaunched local evening newscasts (airing as one-hour broadcasts at 6:00 and 11:00 p.m.) on its owned-and-operated stations in Edmonton and Winnipeg on September 4, 2017, followed by the launch of evening newscasts on its O&Os in Calgary, Montreal, and Vancouver in the winter of early 2018.
Sports
National broadcasts
Sports broadcasts on the Citytv stations have been sparse over the years. Between 2005 and 2014, the predominant sports property on Citytv was coverage of the National Football League.
Craig Media (then-owners of the current Citytv stations in Winnipeg, Edmonton and Calgary) owned the rights to Monday Night Football in the early 2000s, and these rights moved to Citytv for MNF'''s final season on ABC in 2005, before being moved again to TSN in 2006. Following the sale to Rogers, CKVU carried Sunday afternoon "late window" (4:00/4:15 p.m. ET, 1:00/1:15 p.m. PT) games during the 2007 season (as did Omni Television station CJMT in Toronto). From the 2008 season through 2013, all Citytv stations carried Sunday late-window games. After rights to late games were acquired by CTV (who also airs early games), Sportsnet and Citytv maintained rights to Thursday Night Football and the afternoon American Thanksgiving games until the 2017 season, when these rights were acquired by TSN.
Under Rogers ownership, Citytv has aired occasional sports broadcasts as an overflow channel for co-owned Sportsnet, such as a 2014 FIFA World Cup qualification group-stage match between Canada and Panama on September 11, 2012, in simulcast with Sportsnet One. It has also broadcast supplementary coverage of two tennis events that were primarily broadcast by the Sportsnet channels: the 2012 Rogers Cup, and the 2012 Davis Cup World Group Play-off between Canada and South Africa.
On November 26, 2013, Rogers announced a 12-year, $5.2 billion deal to become the exclusive national rightsholder to the National Hockey League in the 2014–15 season. Beginning in October 2014, Citytv began to broadcast NHL games produced by Sportsnet as part of Hockey Night in Canada, and Rogers Hometown Hockey, a Sunday night game of the week hosted by Ron MacLean. Hometown Hockey moved from Citytv to Sportsnet for the 2015-16 season.
Local/regional broadcasts
In addition to NFL regular-season games, CITY also aired some Buffalo Bills preseason games (including those held at the Rogers Centre).
The Citytv stations in Alberta (while still branded "A-Channel") carried some regional NHL games during their first few years of operation. They occasionally carried regional broadcasts in the event of conflicts with other Sportsnet programming (Sportsnet West being the regional rightsholder to both the Edmonton Oilers and Calgary Flames) until December 2009. Similarly, CKVU Vancouver carried two regional Vancouver Canucks broadcasts during the 2009-10 season, again due to programming conflicts on Sportsnet Pacific. Sportsnet has since preferred the use of regional overflow feeds tied to the license of Sportsnet One for these purposes.
CITY-TV Toronto broadcast some regular-season basketball games during the inaugural season of the Toronto Raptors.
On March 2, 2008, CITY-TV aired its first baseball game, a Toronto Blue Jays spring training game, against the Cincinnati Reds. The Blue Jays, like City, are owned by Rogers.
CKVU occasionally carried broadcasts of Major League Soccer's Vancouver Whitecaps FC as part of Sportsnet's regional broadcast deal with the team from 2010 to 2013.
CJNT occasionally carried overflow broadcasts of the Montreal Canadiens as part of Sportsnet's regional broadcast deal with the team from 2014 through 2017.
CKEM carried FC Edmonton games for a period.
Citytv stations
Individual stations are normally branded on-air as simply "Citytv" (from 2012 to 2018, the stations were referred to as "City"); the location may be added, for example "Citytv Toronto", if disambiguation is necessary. The list also mentions which stations had been owned by either CHUM Ltd. or Rogers, depending on affiliation.
Owned-and-operated stations
Prior to 1997, CHUM owned two television outlets in Atlantic Canada: the ATV system of CTV affiliates, and cable-only channel ASN. Many Citytv programs were aired on ASN during this period, effectively making ASN an unbranded Citytv O&O. Both ATV and ASN were acquired by Baton Broadcasting (now Bell Media) in 1997; ASN continued to air much of the Citytv schedule until it became part of the A (now CTV 2) television system in 2008. This means that Atlantic Canada is now the largest gap in City's local coverage area, and there are few remaining realistic options for Rogers to purchase or affiliate with existing stations in the region. This had led Rogers to attempt, unsuccessfully, to request simultaneous substitution privileges for Citytv Toronto on its cable systems in New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador. Prior to the CRTC's decision to refuse the request, Rogers had hinted that a similar agreement had been tentatively reached with EastLink, the main cable provider in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island.
Other such gaps include parts of the B.C. interior and Northern Ontario. However, like most Canadian networks, Citytv stations are generally available as distant signals on most cable and satellite providers nationwide.
In the past, local rights to individual Citytv programs were sold to stations outside of the Toronto station's coverage area. In Vancouver, programs were split between KVOS-TV in Bellingham, Washington, which is close to Vancouver, and CTV-owned CIVT-TV, during the 1990s and early 2000s when Citytv did not have a station in Vancouver; CHAN-TV, then a CTV affiliate, also aired some Citytv programs, such as CityLine. The WIC stations in Alberta (including CITV-TV and CICT-TV) bought provincial rights to some Citytv programs prior to the launch of CKAL and CKEM in 1997.
Affiliates and international franchises
The Citytv brand has been licensed to local television stations in Bogotá, Colombia and formerly in Barcelona, Spain. Toronto's CITY-DT is broadcast on a number of cable television providers in the Caribbean. In Barbados, Citytv is carried on channel 507 of the terrestrial subscription service known as Multi-Choice TV.
1 Italicized channel numbers indicate a digital channel allocated for future use by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission.
Former franchises
Citytv HD
In 2003, CHUM Limited launched a high definition simulcast of its Toronto station CITY-TV. In October 2006, Citytv installed a new control room, becoming one of the first fully HD broadcasters in Canada. On March 2, 2010, CKVU-TV in Vancouver launched its HD simulcast. CKEM-TV in Edmonton began testing its digital signal on May 26, 2010 and began regular HD broadcasts on June 29, 2010. CITY-DT-3 in Ottawa began testing its digital feed on June 12, 2010 and regular digital broadcasts on June 18, 2010. CKAL-TV began testing its high definition signal on August 31, 2010. By August 31, 2011, all Citytv owned-and-operated stations had their primary transmitters and most retransmitters broadcasting exclusively in digital.
Citytv HD is available nationally via satellite and on digital cable. It is also available for free over-the-air using a regular TV antenna and a digital tuner (included in most new television sets) via the following stations and retransmitters:
In popular culture
In the 1983 film Videodrome'', a television station in Toronto which broadcasts sensationalistic programming is named CIVIC-TV; the name is in reference to flagship station CITY-TV. Additionally, a business partner of the station president in the film is named Moses, a possible reference to Citytv cofounder Moses Znaimer.
See also
2007 Canada broadcast TV realignment
USA Broadcasting (which attempted a Citytv-inspired format dubbed "CityVision" on four of its owned stations from 1998 to 2001)
References
External links
History of CITY-TV - Canadian Communications Foundation
Television channels and stations established in 1972
1972 establishments in Canada | [
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234053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image%20response | Image response | Image response (or more correctly, image response rejection ratio, or IMRR) is a measure of performance of a radio receiver that operates on the superheterodyne principle.
In such a radio receiver, a local oscillator (LO) is used to heterodyne or "beat" against the incoming radio frequency (RF), generating sum and difference frequencies. One of these will be at the intermediate frequency (IF), and will be selected and amplified. The radio receiver is responsive to any signal at its designed IF frequency, including unwanted signals. For example, with a LO tuned to 110 MHz, there are two incoming signal frequencies that can generate a 10 MHz IF frequency. A signal broadcast at 100 MHz (the wanted signal), and mixed with the 110 MHz LO will create the sum frequency of 210 MHz (ignored by the receiver), and the difference frequency at the desired 10 MHz. However, a signal broadcast at 120 MHz (the unwanted signal), and mixed with the 110 MHz LO will create a sum frequency of 230 MHz (ignored by the receiver), and the difference frequency also at 10 MHz. The signal at 120 MHz is called the image of the wanted signal at 100 MHz. The ability of the receiver to reject this image gives the image rejection ratio (IMRR) of the system.
Image rejection ratio
The image rejection ratio, or image frequency rejection ratio, is the ratio of the intermediate-frequency (IF) signal level produced by the desired input frequency to that produced by the image frequency. The image rejection ratio is usually expressed in dB. When the image rejection ratio is measured, the input signal levels of the desired and image frequencies must be equal for the measurement to be meaningful.
IMRR is measured in dB, giving the ratio of the wanted to the unwanted signal to yield the same output from the receiver. In a good design, ratios of >60 dB are achieveable. Note that IMRR is not a measurement of the performance of the IF stages or IF filtering (selectivity); the signal yields a perfectly valid IF frequency. Rather, it is the measure of the bandpass characteristics of the stages preceding the IF amplifier, which will consist of RF bandpass filters and usually an RF amplifier stage or two.
Image rejection formulas
The Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IRR) is characterized by its RF filter which can be determined on the basis of its relative response of a parallel tuned circuit.
where,
and Q is the quality factor.
The Image Rejection Ratio for a given value of gain imbalance and phase imbalance is determined by,
See also
Image frequency
References
Frequency mixers
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234061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructor | Constructor | Constructor may refer to:
Science and technology
Constructor (object-oriented programming), object-organizing method
Constructors (Formula One), person or group who builds the chassis of a car in auto racing, especially Formula One
Constructor, an entity in Constructor theory, a theory of everything developed by physicist David Deutsch in 2012
Other uses
Constructor (video game), a 1997 PC game by Acclaim, the prequel of Constructor: Street Wars
Constructor Group AS, a Norwegian-based group specialising in shelving, racking and storage systems
Construction worker, a builder, especially a construction company or a manager of builders
See also
Assembler (disambiguation) | [
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234062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic%20gain%20control | Automatic gain control | Automatic gain control (AGC) is a closed-loop feedback regulating circuit in an amplifier or chain of amplifiers, the purpose of which is to maintain a suitable signal amplitude at its output, despite variation of the signal amplitude at the input. The average or peak output signal level is used to dynamically adjust the gain of the amplifiers, enabling the circuit to work satisfactorily with a greater range of input signal levels. It is used in most radio receivers to equalize the average volume (loudness) of different radio stations due to differences in received signal strength, as well as variations in a single station's radio signal due to fading. Without AGC the sound emitted from an AM radio receiver would vary to an extreme extent from a weak to a strong signal; the AGC effectively reduces the volume if the signal is strong and raises it when it is weaker. In a typical receiver the AGC feedback control signal is usually taken from the detector stage and applied to control the gain of the IF or RF amplifier stages.
How it works
The signal to be gain controlled (the detector output in a radio) goes to a diode & capacitor, which produce a peak-following DC voltage. This is fed to the RF gain blocks to alter their bias, thus altering their gain. Traditionally all the gain-controlled stages came before the signal detection, but it is also possible to improve gain control by adding a gain-controlled stage after signal detection.
Example use cases
AM radio receivers
In 1925, Harold Alden Wheeler invented automatic volume control (AVC) and obtained a patent. Karl Küpfmüller published an analysis of AGC systems in 1928. By the early 1930s most new commercial broadcast receivers included automatic volume control.
AGC is a departure from linearity in AM radio receivers. Without AGC, an AM radio would have a linear relationship between the signal amplitude and the sound waveform – the sound amplitude, which correlates with loudness, is proportional to the radio signal amplitude, because the information content of the signal is carried by the changes of amplitude of the carrier wave. If the circuit were not fairly linear, the modulated signal could not be recovered with reasonable fidelity. However, the strength of the signal received will vary widely, depending on the power and distance of the transmitter, and signal path attenuation. The AGC circuit keeps the receiver's output level from fluctuating too much by detecting the overall strength of the signal and automatically adjusting the gain of the receiver to maintain the output level within an acceptable range. For a very weak signal, the AGC operates the receiver at maximum gain; as the signal increases, the AGC reduces the gain.
It is usually disadvantageous to reduce the gain of the RF front end of the receiver on weaker signals as low gain can worsen signal-to-noise ratio and blocking; therefore, many designs reduce gain only for stronger signals.
Since the AM detector diode produces a DC voltage proportional to signal strength, this voltage can be fed back to earlier stages of the receiver to reduce gain. A filter network is required so that the audio components of the signal don't appreciably influence gain; this prevents "modulation rise" which increases the effective modulation depth of the signal, distorting the sound. Communications receivers may have more complex AVC systems, including extra amplification stages, separate AGC detector diodes, different time constants for broadcast and shortwave bands, and application of different levels of AGC voltage to different stages of the receiver to prevent distortion and cross-modulation. Design of the AVC system has a great effect on the usability of the receiver, tuning characteristics, audio fidelity, and behavior on overload and strong signals.
FM receivers, even though they incorporate limiter stages and detectors that are relatively insensitive to amplitude variations, still benefit from AGC to prevent overload on strong signals.
Radar
A related application of AGC is in radar systems, as a method of overcoming unwanted clutter echoes. This method relies on the fact that clutter returns far outnumber echoes from targets of interest. The receiver's gain is automatically adjusted to maintain a constant level of overall visible clutter. While this does not help detect targets masked by stronger surrounding clutter, it does help to distinguish strong target sources. In the past, radar AGC was electronically controlled and affected the gain of the entire radar receiver. As radars evolved, AGC became computer-software controlled, and affected the gain with greater granularity, in specific detection cells.
Many radar countermeasures use a radar's AGC to fool it, by effectively "drowning out" the real signal with the spoof, as the AGC will regard the weaker, true signal as clutter relative to the strong spoof.
Audio/video
An audio tape generates a certain amount of noise. If the level of the signal on the tape is low, the noise is more prominent, i.e., the signal-to-noise ratio is lower than it could be. To produce the least noisy recording, the recording level should be set as high as possible without being so high as to clip or distort the signal. In professional high-fidelity recording the level is set manually using a peak-reading meter. When high fidelity is not a requirement, a suitable recording level can be set by an AGC circuit which reduces the gain as the average signal level increases. This allows a usable recording to be made even for speech some distance from the microphone of an audio recorder. Similar considerations apply with VCRs.
A potential disadvantage of AGC is that when recording something like music with quiet and loud passages such as classical music, the AGC will tend to make the quiet passages louder and the loud passages quieter, compressing the dynamic range; the result can be a reduced musical quality if the signal is not re-expanded when playing, as in a companding system.
Some reel-to-reel tape recorders and cassette decks have AGC circuits. Those used for high-fidelity generally don't.
Most VCR circuits use the amplitude of the vertical blanking pulse to operate the AGC. Video copy control schemes such as Macrovision exploit this, inserting spikes in the pulse which will be ignored by most television sets, but cause a VCR's AGC to overcorrect and corrupt the recording.
Vogad
A voice-operated gain-adjusting device or volume-operated gain-adjusting device
(vogad) is a type of AGC or compressor for microphone amplification. It is usually used in radio transmitters to prevent overmodulation and to reduce the dynamic range of the signal which allows increasing average transmitted power. In telephony, this device takes a wide variety of input amplitudes and produces a generally consistent output amplitude.
In its simplest form, a limiter can consist of a pair of back-to-back clamp diodes, which simply shunt excess signal amplitude to ground when the diode conduction threshold is exceeded. This approach will simply clip off the top of large signals, leading to high levels of distortion.
While clipping limiters are often used as a form of last-ditch protection against overmodulation, a properly designed vogad circuit actively controls the amount of gain to optimise the modulation depth in real time. As well as preventing overmodulation, it boosts the level of quiet signals so that undermodulation is also avoided. Undermodulation can lead to poor signal penetration in noisy conditions, consequently vogad is particularly important for voice applications such as radiotelephones.
A good vogad circuit must have a very fast attack time, so that an initial loud voice signal does not cause a sudden burst of excessive modulation. In practice the attack time will be a few milliseconds, so a clipping limiter is still sometimes needed to catch the signal on these short peaks. A much longer decay time is usually employed, so that the gain does not get boosted too quickly during the normal pauses in natural speech. Too short a decay time leads to the phenomenon of "breathing" where the background noise level gets boosted at each gap in the speech. Vogad circuits are normally adjusted so that at low levels of input the signal is not fully boosted, but instead follow a linear boost curve. This works well with noise cancelling microphones.
Telephone recording
Devices to record both sides of a telephone conversation must record both the relatively large signal from the local user and the much smaller signal from the remote user at comparable loudnesses. Some telephone recording devices incorporate automatic gain control to produce acceptable-quality recordings.
Biological
As is the case with many concepts found in engineering, automatic gain control is also found in biological systems, especially sensory systems. For example, in the vertebrate visual system, calcium dynamics in the retinal photoreceptors adjust gain to suit light levels. Further on in the visual system, cells in V1 are thought to mutually inhibit, causing normalization of responses to contrast, a form of automatic gain control. Similarly, in the auditory system, the olivocochlear efferent neurons are part of a biomechanical gain control loop.
Recovery times
As in all automatic control systems, the temporal dynamics of AGC operation may be important in many applications. Some AGC systems are slow to react to the need for gain changes, while others may react very rapidly. An example of an application in which fast AGC recovery time is required is in receivers used in Morse code communications where so-called full break-in or QSK operation is necessary to enable receiving stations to interrupt sending stations mid-character (e.g. between dot and dash signals).
See also
Companding
Clipping (audio)
Dynamic range compression
Gain compression
High dynamic range
Squelch
Glossary of video terms
References
Analog circuits
Biophysics
Communication circuits
Radio technology
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234071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copy-and-paste%20programming | Copy-and-paste programming | Copy-and-paste programming, sometimes referred to as just pasting, is the production of highly repetitive computer programming code, as produced by copy and paste operations. It is primarily a pejorative term; those who use the term are often implying a lack of programming competence. It may also be the result of technology limitations (e.g., an insufficiently expressive development environment) as subroutines or libraries would normally be used instead. However, there are occasions when copy-and-paste programming is considered acceptable or necessary, such as for boilerplate, loop unrolling (when not supported automatically by the compiler), or certain programming idioms, and it is supported by some source code editors in the form of snippets.
Origins
Copy-and-paste programming is often done by inexperienced or student programmers, who find the act of writing code from scratch difficult or irritating and prefer to search for a pre-written solution or partial solution they can use as a basis for their own problem solving.
(See also Cargo cult programming)
Inexperienced programmers who copy code often do not fully understand the pre-written code they are taking. As such, the problem arises more from their inexperience and lack of courage in programming than from the act of copying and pasting, per se. The code often comes from disparate sources such as friends' or co-workers' code, Internet forums, code provided by the student's professors/TAs, or computer science textbooks. The result risks being a disjointed clash of styles, and may have superfluous code that tackles problems for which new solutions are no longer required.
A further problem is that bugs can easily be introduced by assumptions and design choices made in the separate sources that no longer apply when placed in a new environment.
Such code may also, in effect, be unintentionally obfuscated, as the names of variables, classes, functions and the like are typically left unchanged, even though their purpose may be completely different in the new context.
Copy-and-paste programming may also be a result of poor understanding of features common in computer languages, such as loop structures, functions and subroutines.
Duplication
Applying library code
Copying and pasting is also done by experienced programmers, who often have their own libraries of well tested, ready-to-use code snippets and generic algorithms that are easily adapted to specific tasks.
Being a form of code duplication, copy-and-paste programming has some intrinsic problems; such problems are exacerbated if the code doesn't preserve any semantic link between the source text and the copies. In this case, if changes are needed, time is wasted hunting for all the duplicate locations. (This can be partially mitigated if the original code and/or the copy are properly commented; however, even then the problem remains of making the same edits multiple times. Also, because code maintenance often omits updating the comments, comments describing where to find remote pieces of code are notorious for going out-of-date.)
Adherents of object oriented methodologies further object to the "code library" use of copy and paste. Instead of making multiple mutated copies of a generic algorithm, an object oriented approach would abstract the algorithm into a reusable encapsulated class. The class is written flexibly, with full support of inheritance and overloading, so that all calling code can be interfaced to use this generic code directly, rather than mutating the original. As additional functionality is required, the library is extended (while retaining backward compatibility). This way, if the original algorithm has a bug to fix or can be improved, all software using it stands to benefit.
Branching code
Branching code is a normal part of large-team software development, allowing parallel development on both branches and hence, shorter development cycles. Classical branching has the following qualities:
Is managed by a version control system that supports branching
Branches are re-merged once parallel development is completed.
Copy and paste is a less formal alternative to classical branching, often used when it is foreseen that the branches will diverge more and more over time, as when a new product is being spun off from an existing product.
As a way of spinning-off a new product, copy-and-paste programming has some advantages. Because the new development initiative does not touch the code of the existing product:
There is no need to regression test the existing product, saving on QA time associated with the new product launch, and reducing time to market.
There is no risk of introduced bugs in the existing product, which might upset the installed user base.
The downsides are:
If the new product does not diverge as much as anticipated from the existing product, two code bases might need to be supported (at twice the cost) where one would have done. This can lead to expensive refactoring and manual merging down the line.
The duplicate code base doubles the time required to implement changes which may be desired across both products; this increases time-to-market for such changes, and may, in fact, wipe out any time gains achieved by branching the code in the first place.
Similar to above, the alternative to a copy-and-paste approach would be a modularized approach:
Start by factoring out code to be shared by both products into libraries.
Use those libraries (rather than a second copy of the code base) as the foundation for the development of the new product.
If an additional third, fourth, or fifth version of the product is envisaged down the line, this approach is far stronger, because the ready-made code libraries dramatically shorten the development life cycle for any additional products after the second.
Repetitive tasks or variations of a task
One of the most harmful forms of copy-and-paste programming occurs in code that performs a repetitive task, or variations of the same basic task depending on some variable. Each instance is copied from above and pasted in again, with minor modifications. Harmful effects include:
The copy and paste approach often leads to large methods (a bad code smell).
Each instance creates a code duplicate, with all the problems discussed in prior sections, but with a much greater scope. Scores of duplications are common; hundreds are possible. Bug fixes, in particular, become very difficult and costly in such code.
Such code also suffers from significant readability issues, due to the difficulty of discerning exactly what differs between each repetition. This has a direct impact on the risks and costs of revising the code.
The procedural programming model strongly discourages the copy-and-paste approach to repetitive tasks. Under a procedural model, a preferred approach to repetitive tasks is to create a function or subroutine that performs a single pass through the task; this subroutine is then called by the parent routine, either repetitively or better yet, with some form of looping structure. Such code is termed "well decomposed", and is recommended as being easier to read and more readily extensible.
The general rule of thumb applicable to this case is "don't repeat yourself".
Deliberate design choice
Copy-and-paste programming is occasionally accepted as a valid programming technique. This is most commonly seen in boilerplate, such as class declarations or importing standard libraries, or in using an existing code template (with empty contents or stub functions) as a framework to fill in.
Use of programming idioms and design patterns are similar to copy-and-paste programming, as they also use formulaic code. In some cases, this can be expressed as a snippet, which can then be pasted in when such code is necessary, though it is often simply recalled from the programmer's mind. In other cases idioms cannot be reduced to a code template. In most cases, however, even if an idiom can be reduced to code, it will be either long enough that it is abstracted into a function or short enough that it can be keyed in directly.
The Subtext programming language is a research project aimed at "decriminalizing" cut and paste. Using this language, cut and paste is the primary interaction model, and hence not considered an anti-pattern.
Example
A simple example is a for loop, which might be expressed as for (int i=0; i!=n; ++i) {}.
Sample code using such a for-loop might be:
void foo(int n) {
for (int i=0; i!=n; ++i) {
/* body */
}
}
The looping code could then have been generated by the following snippet (specifying types and variable names):
for ($type $loop_var = 0; $loop_var != $stop; ++$loop_var) {
/* body */
}
See also
Cargo cult programming
References
External links
c2:CopyAndPasteProgramming
Andrey Karpov. Consequences of using the Copy-Paste method in C++ programming and how to deal with it
Andrey Karpov. The Last Line Effect
PMD's Copy/Paste Detector, CPD.
Anti-patterns | [
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234074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valmiki | Valmiki | Valmiki (; Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि, ) is celebrated as the harbinger-poet in Sanskrit literature. The epic Ramayana, dated variously from the 5th century BCE to first century BCE, is attributed to him, based on the attribution in the text itself. He is revered as Ādi Kavi, the first poet, author of Ramayana, the first epic poem.
The Ramayana, originally written by Valmiki, consists of 24,000 shlokas and seven cantos (kaṇḍas). The is composed of about 480,002 words, being a quarter of the length of the full text of the Mahabharata or about four times the length of the Iliad. The Ramayana tells the story of a prince, Rama of the city of Ayodhya in the Kingdom of Kosala, whose wife Sita is abducted by Ravana, the demon-king (Rakshasa) of Lanka. Valmiki's Ramayana is dated variously from 500 BCE to 100 BCE or about co-eval with early versions of the Mahabharata. As with many traditional epics, it has gone through a process of interpolations and redactions, making it impossible to date accurately.
British satirist Aubrey Menen says that Valmiki was "recognized as a literary genius," and thus was considered, "an outlaw," presumably because of his "philosophic scepticism," as part of an "Indian Enlightenment" period. Valmiki is also quoted as being the contemporary of Rama. Menen claims Valmiki is "the first author in all history to bring himself into his own composition."
Early life
Valmiki was born as Agni Sharma to a Brahmin named Pracheta (also known as Sumali) of Bhrigu gotra, According to legend he once met the great sage Narada and had a discourse with him on his duties. Moved by Narada's words, Agni Sharma began to perform penance and chanted the word "Mara" which meant "die". As he performed his penance for several years, the word became "Rama", a name of the god Vishnu. Huge anthills formed around Agni Sharma and this earned him the name of Valmiki. Agni Sharma, rechristened as Valmiki, learnt the scriptures from Narada and became the foremost of ascetics, revered by everyone.
There also exist some legends about Valmiki having been a thief before turning into a rishi. The Nagara Khanda of the Skanda Purana in its section on the creation of Mukhara Tirtha mentions that Valmiki was born a Brahmin, with the name of Lohajangha and was a devoted son to his parents. He had a beautiful wife and both of them were faithful to each other. Once, when there was no rain in the region of Anarta, for twelve long years, Lohajangha, for the sake of his hungry family, started robbing people that he found in the forest. In the course of this life he met the seven sages or the Saptarishi and tried to rob them as well. But the learned sages felt pity on him and showed him the folly of his ways. One of them, Pulaha gave him a Mantra to meditate upon and the Brahmin turned thief got so engrossed in its recitation that ant-hills came up around his body. When the sages returned and heard the sound of the mantra coming from the ant-hill, they blessed him and said, "Since you achieved great Siddhi seated within a Valmīka (an anthill), you will become well-known in the world as Vālmīki."
The first shloka
Valmiki was going to the river Ganges for his daily ablutions. A disciple by the name Bharadwaja was carrying his clothes. On the way, they came across the Tamasa Stream. Looking at the stream, Valmiki said to his disciple, "Look, how clear is this water, like the mind of a good man! I will bathe here today." When he was looking for a suitable place to step into the stream, he saw a crane couple mating. Valmiki felt very pleased on seeing the happy birds. Suddenly, hit by an arrow, the male bird died on the spot. Filled by sorrow, its mate screamed in agony and died of shock. Valmiki's heart melted at this pitiful sight. He looked around to find out who had shot the bird. He saw a hunter with a bow and arrows, nearby. Valmiki became very angry. His lips opened and he cried out,
Emerging spontaneously from Valmiki's rage and grief, this is considered to be the first shloka in Sanskrit literature. Valmiki later composed the entire Ramayana with the blessings of the god Brahma in the same meter that issued forth from him as the shloka. Thus this shloka is revered as the first shloka in Hindu literature. Valmiki is revered as the first poet or Adi Kavi and Ramayana, the first kavya (poem).
Role in Ramayana
Valmiki played an important role in Uttara Kanda, the last chapter of epic Ramayana. It is believed that The Uttara Kanda was not original work of Valmiki. It is believed to be taken up from Sesha Ramayana. According to the legend Rama send Sita to forest. Sita finds refuge in Sage Valmiki's ashram, where she gives birth to twin boys Lava and Kusha. Lava and Kusha were Valmiki's first disciples to whom he taught the Ramayana. Bala Kanda of the epic also telling the story of Valmiki narrating the Ramayana to his disciples Lava and Kusha.
Role in Mahabharata
Valmiki was present during Mahabharata time and he was one of the many sages that visited Yudhisthira after war. He told Yudhisthira the benefits of worshipping Shiva. Once upon a time, some ascetics that possessed the homa fire cursed Valmiki as guilty of Brahminicide. The sin possessed him as soon as he was cursed. So he prayed to Shiva and he became cleansed of all his sins. He later told Yudhisthira that he should also pray to Shiva like him. https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13a018.htm
Reincarnation
Vishnudharmottara Purana says that Valmiki was born in the Treta Yuga as a form of Brahma who composed Ramayana and that people desirous of earning knowledge should worship Valmiki. He was later reincarnated as Tulsidas, who composed the Ramcharitamanas, which was the Awadhi-Hindi version of the Ramayana.
Temples
The Balmiki sect of Hinduism reveres Valmiki, where he is also known as Lal Beg or Bala Shah, as a patron saint, with a plethora of mandirs (temples) dedicated to him.
An area in Chennai, Tiruvanmiyur is believed to derive its name from Sage Valmiki, Thiru-Valmiki-Oor. There is a temple for Valmiki located in this place, which is believed to be 1300 years old.
There is also Shree Valmiki Mata Maha Samsthana in Rajanahalli, Karnataka.
In popular culture
Several Indian films have been made on the life of the poet, beginning with G. V. Sane's Valmiki (1921); it was followed by Surendra Narayan Roy's Ratnakar (1921), Ellis Dungan's Valmiki (1946), Bhalji Pendharkar's Valmiki (1946), Sundarrao Nadkarni's Valmiki (1946), C.S.R. Rao's Valmiki (starring Rajkumar 1963) and Valmiki (starring N. T. Rama Rao; 1963), and Arvind Bhatt's Sant Valmiki (1991).
Bhatt's film which starred Suresh Oberoi in the titular role remains unreleased after a case was filed against Oberoi for remarks deemed offensive by members of the Valmiki caste in India.
See also
Balmiki caste
Chuhra
Rama
Vyasa
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Ancient Indian poets
Epic poets
Hindu poets
Rishis
Ramayana
Sanskrit poets
Dalit Hindu saints
Dalit saints | [
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234075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narada | Narada | Narada (, ), or Narad Muni, is a god-sage, famous in Hindu traditions as a travelling musician and storyteller, who carries news and enlightening wisdom. He is one of mind-created children of Brahma, the creator. He appears in a number of Hindu texts, notably the Mahabharata, telling Yudhishtira the story of Prahlada and the Ramayana as well as in the Puranas.
Once God decided that it was time for Him to descend to earth to set matters right, most lesser Gods came down to like someone or the other to aid and enjoy a ringside view of epochal events. He is also referred to as Rishiraj, meaning the king of all sages or rishis.
He was gifted with the boon of knowledge, past, present and future.
In Indian texts, Narada travels to distant worlds and realms (Sanskrit: lokas). He is depicted carrying a khartal (musical instrument) and veena with the name Mahathi and is generally regarded as one of the great masters of the ancient musical instrument. This instrument is known by the name "mahathi" which he uses to accompany his singing of hymns, prayers and mantras. In the Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism, he is presented as a sage with devotion to Lord Vishnu. Narada is described as both wise and mischievous in some humorous tales. Vaishnav enthusiasts depict him as a pure, elevated soul who glorifies Vishnu through his devotional songs, singing the names Hari and Narayana, and therein demonstrating bhakti yoga. The Narada Bhakti Sutra is attributed to him.
He would usually make his entrance vocally chanting Narayana, Narayana before optically appearing in the scene.
Other texts named after Narada include Narada Purana and the Nāradasmṛti (pre 6th century CE text), the latter called the "juridical text par excellence" and representing the only Dharmaśāstra text which deals solely with juridical matters while ignoring those of righteous conduct and penance.
The name Narada, referring to many different persons, appears in many mythical legends of Hinduism, as an earlier birth of Sariputta in the Jataka tales of Buddhism as well as names of medieval Buddhist scholars, and in Jainism.
His Greek and Roman counterparts are Mercury and Hermes.
Mahabharata
In the Mahabharata, Narada is portrayed as being conversant with the Vedas and the Upanishads and as acquainted with history and Puranas. He has a mastery of the six Angas: pronunciation, grammar, prosody, terms, religious rites and astronomy. All celestial beings worship him for his knowledge - he is supposed to be well versed in all that occurred in ancient Kalpas (time cycles) and is termed to be conversant with Nyaya (justice) and the truth of moral science. He is a perfect master in re-conciliatory texts and differentiating in applying general principles to particular cases. He can swiftly interpret contraries by references to differences in situations. He is eloquent, resolute, intelligent and a possessor of powerful memory. He knows the science of morals, politics; he is skilled in drawing inferences from evidence and very proficient in distinguishing inferior things from superior ones. He is competent in judging the correctness and incorrectness of complex syllogistic statements consisting of 5 proponents. He is capable of arriving at definite conclusions about religion, wealth, pleasure and salvation. He possesses knowledge of this whole universe and everything surrounding it. He is capable of successfully answering Brihaspati himself while arguing. He is a master of the Sankhya and Yoga systems of philosophy, conversant with sciences of war and treaty and proficient in drawing conclusions by judging things, not within direct knowledge. He knows about the six sciences of a treaty, war, military campaigns, maintenance of posts against the enemy and strategies of ambushes and reserves. He is a thorough master of every branch of learning. He is fond of war and music and incapable of being repulsed by any science or any course of action.
Puranas
The Bhagavata Purana describes the story of Narada's spiritual enlightenment: He was the primary source of information among Gods and is believed to be the first journalist on Earth. In his previous birth, Narada was a Gandharva (angelic being) who had been cursed to be born on an earthly planet for singing glories to the demigods instead of the Supreme Lord. He was born as the son of a maid-servant of some particularly saintly priests. The priests, being pleased with both his and his mother's service, blessed him by allowing him to eat some of their food (prasad), previously offered to their lord, Vishnu.
Gradually he received further blessings from these sages and heard them discussing many spiritual topics. During the four months of rainy seasons when the sages did not leave their hermitage and stayed together, they used to recite various deeds of Visnu, and from there Narada used to hear these stories. After his mother died, he decided to roam the forest in search of enlightenment in understanding the 'Supreme Absolute Truth'.
Reaching a tranquil forest location, after quenching his thirst from a nearby stream, he sat under a tree in meditation (yoga), concentrating on the paramatma form of Vishnu within his heart as he had been taught by the priests he had served. After some time Narada experienced a vision wherein Narayana (Vishnu) appeared before him, smiling, and spoke: "that despite having the blessing of seeing Him at that very moment, Narada would not be able to see His (Vishnu's) divine form again until he died". Narayana further explained that the reason he had been given a chance to see his form was that his beauty and love would be a source of inspiration and would fuel his dormant desire to be with the lord again. After instructing Narada in this manner, Vishnu then disappeared from his sight. The boy awoke from his meditation both thrilled and disappointed.
For the rest of his life, Narada focused on his devotion, meditation upon and worship to Vishnu. After his death, Vishnu then blessed him with the spiritual form of "Narada" as he eventually became known. In many Hindu scriptures, Narada is considered a saktyavesa-avatar or partial-manifestation (avatar) of God, empowered to perform miraculous tasks on Vishnu's behalf.
Narada temples are few, most prominent being Sri Narada Muni Temple at Chigateri, Karnataka.
In the Padma Purana and some other texts, Narada is transformed into a woman for a time. In the Kali Yuga (1484 CE), he was reborn as Purandara Dasa as a
Haridasa (servant of Vishnu). He emphasised his works on Vithala, another form of Vishnu and the presiding deity of the temple in Pandharpur.
Jainism
In Jainism, there are a total of 9 Naradas in every cycle of Jain Cosmology; current cycle's Naradas were Bhima, Mahabhima, Rudra, Maharudra, Kala, Mahakala, Durmukha, Narakamukha and Adhomukha.
See also
Bhaktha Naradar
Bhagavata Purana
Narad Bhakti Sutra
Nāradasmṛti
Sangita Makarandha
Four Kumaras
Vishnu
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Narada's Instructions on Srimad-Bhagavatam for Vyasadeva
References to Narada in Gaudiya Vaishnava texts
Ruesi Narot - Narada in Buddhist Thailand
Narada’s Aphorisms on Bhakti (Ed. Sarma, Y Subrahmanya)
Nārada Bhakti Sūtras (Tr. Bhuteshananda, Swami)
Nārada-Bhakti-Sūtra: The Secrets of Transcendental Love (Tr. Prabhupāda, A C Bhaktivedanta Swami et al.)
Narada Jayanti Janm Vishesh
Rishis
Prajapatis
Forms of Vishnu
Characters in the Bhagavata Purana | [
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234076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanka | Lanka | Lanka (, ) is the name given in Hindu epics to the island fortress capital of the legendary asura king Ravana in the epics of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The fortress was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known as the Trikuta Mountains. The ancient city of Lankapura is said to have been burnt down by Hanuman. After its king, Ravana, was killed by Rama with the help of Ravana's brother Vibhishana, the latter was crowned king of Lankapura. The site of Lankā is identified with Sri Lanka. His descendants were said to still rule the kingdom during the period of the Pandavas. According to the Mahabharata, the Pandava Sahadeva visited this kingdom during his southern military campaign for the rajasuya of Yudhishthira.
Ramayana
The island was situated on a plateau between three mountain peaks known as the Trikuta Mountains. The ancient city of Lankapura is thought to have been burnt down by Hanuman. After its king, Ravana, was killed by Rama with the help of Ravana's brother Vibhishana, the latter was crowned king of Lankapura. The site of Lankā is identified with Sri Lanka. His descendants were said to still rule the kingdom during the period of the Pandavas. According to the Mahabharata, the Pandava Sahadeva visited this kingdom during his southern military campaign for the rajasuya of Yudhishthira.
Rulers of Lanka
According to both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Lanka was originally ruled by a rakshasha named Sumali. Kubera seized control of Lanka and established the Yaksha Kingdom and his capital was guarded by rakshasas. His half-brother Ravana, son of the sage Vishravaya and Sumali's daughter Kaikesi, fought with Kubera and took Lanka from him. Ravana ruled Lanka as king of the Rakshasa Kingdom. The battle in Lanka is depicted in a famous relief in the 12th-century Khmer temple of Angkor Wat.
After Ravana's death, he was succeeded by his brother, Vibhishana.
Location of Ravana's "Lanka" according to Ramayana
The Lanka referred to in the still-extant Hindu Texts and the Ramayana (referred to as Ravana's Lanka), is considered to be a large island-country, situated in the Indian Ocean. Studies refer that Palace of Ravana was located in Sigiriya the palace built by the Kashyapa I of Anuradhapura as the epic describes that the capital of the kingdom was located between plateaus and forests. Some scholars asserted that it must have been Sri Lanka because it is so stated in the 5th century Sri Lankan text Mahavamsa. However, the Ramayana clearly states that Ravana's Lanka was situated 100 Yojanas (roughly 1213 km or 753.72 miles) away from mainland India. Some scholars have interpreted the content of these texts to determine that Lanka was located at the point where the Prime-Meridian of India passes the Equator. This island would therefore lie more than southwest of present-day country of Sri Lanka. The most original of all the existing versions of Valmiki's Ramayana also suggest the location of Ravana's Lanka to be in the western Indian Ocean. In fact it indicates that Lanka was in the midst of a series of large island-nations, submerged mountains, and sunken plateaus in the western part of the Indian Ocean.
There has been a lot of speculation by several scholars since the 19th century that Ravana's Lanka might have been in the Indian Ocean around where the Maldives once stood as a high mountain, before getting submerged in the Indian Ocean. Sumatra has also been suggested as a possibility.
Description
Ravana's Lanka, and its capital Lankapuri, are described in a manner that seems superhuman even by modern-day standards. Ravana's central palace-complex (main citadel) was a massive collection of several edifices that reached over one yojana () in height, one yojana in length, and half a yojana in breadth. The island had a large mountain range known as the Trikuta Mountain, atop which was situated Ravana's capital of Lanka, at the center of which in turn stood his citadel.
References to Lanka in the Mahabharata
Many of the references to Lanka in the Mahabharata are found in sage Markandeya's narration of the story of Rama and Sita to king Yudhishthira, which narration amounts to a truncated version of the Ramayana. The references in the following summary are to the Mahabharata, and adhere to the following form: (book:section). Markandeya's narration of the story begins at Book III (Varna Parva), Section 271 of the Mahabharata.
Sahadeva's expedition to South
Sahadeva, the son of Pandu, conquered the town of Sanjayanti and the country of the Pashandas and the Karanatakas by means of his messengers alone, and made all of them pay tributes to him. The hero brought under his subjection and exacted tributes from the Paundrayas (Pandyas?) and the Dravidas along with the Udrakeralas and the Andhras and the Talavanas, the Kalingas and the Ushtrakarnikas, and also the delightful city of Atavi and that of the Yavanas. And, He having arrived at the seashore, then dispatched with great assurance messengers unto the illustrious Vibhishana, the grandson of Pulastya and the ruler of Lanka (2:30).
Presence of the King of Lanka in Yudhishthira's Rajasuya
Lanka king is listed as present in the conclave of kings present in Pandava king Yudhishthira's Rajasuya sacrifice.
.. The Vangas and Angas and Paundras and Odras and Cholas and Dravidas and Cheras and Pandyas and Mushika and Andhakas, and the chiefs of many islands and countries on the seaboard as also of frontier states, including the rulers of the Sinhalas, the barbarous mlecchas, the natives of Lanka, and all the kings of the West by hundreds, and all the chiefs of the seacoast, and the kings of the Pahlavas and the Daradas and the various tribes of the Kiratas and Yavanas and Sakras and the Harahunas and Chinas and Tukharas and the Sindhavas and the Jagudas and the Ramathas and the Mundas and the inhabitants of the kingdom of women and the Tanganas and the Kekayas and the Malavas and the inhabitants of Kasmira ... (3:51).
Other fragmentary references
Lanka, with its warriors, and horses, elephants and chariots (3:149).
Lanka with its towers and ramparts and gates (3:147)
The walls of Lanka (3:282).
See also
Sri Lanka
Kingdoms of Ancient India
Ancient clans of Sri Lanka
Naga people (Lanka)
Sinhala Kingdom
Vishwakarma
References
External links
Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated from Sanskrit into English by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
Kingdoms in the Ramayana
Kingdoms in the Mahabharata
Hindu mythology
Mythological islands | [
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] |
234079 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic%20programming%20language | Dynamic programming language | In computer science, a dynamic programming language is a class of high-level programming languages, which at runtime execute many common programming behaviours that static programming languages perform during compilation. These behaviors could include an extension of the program, by adding new code, by extending objects and definitions, or by modifying the type system. Although similar behaviors can be emulated in nearly any language, with varying degrees of difficulty, complexity and performance costs, dynamic languages provide direct tools to make use of them. Many of these features were first implemented as native features in the Lisp programming language.
Most dynamic languages are also dynamically typed, but not all are. Dynamic languages are frequently (but not always) referred to as scripting languages, although that term in its narrowest sense refers to languages specific to a given run-time environment.
Implementation
Eval
Some dynamic languages offer an eval function. This function takes a string parameter containing code in the language and executes it. If this code stands for an expression, the resulting value is returned. However, Erik Meijer and Peter Drayton suggests that programmers "use eval as a poor man's substitute for higher-order functions."
Object runtime alteration
A type or object system can typically be modified during runtime in a dynamic language. This can mean generating new objects from a runtime definition or based on mixins of existing types or objects. This can also refer to changing the inheritance or type tree, and thus altering the way that existing types behave (especially with respect to the invocation of methods).
Type inference
As a lot of dynamic languages come with a dynamic type system, runtime inference of types based on values for internal interpretation marks a common task. As value types may change throughout interpretation, it is regularly used upon performing atomic operations.
Variable memory allocation
Static programming languages (possibly indirectly) require developers to define the size of utilized memory before compilation (unless working around with pointer logic). Consistent with object runtime alteration, dynamic languages implicitly need to (re-)allocate memory based on program individual operations.
Reflection
Reflection is common in many dynamic languages, and typically involves analysis of the types and metadata of generic or polymorphic data. It can, however, also include full evaluation and modification of a program's code as data, such as the features that Lisp provides in analyzing S-expressions.
Macros
A limited number of dynamic programming languages provide features which combine code introspection (the ability to examine classes, functions, and keywords to know what they are, what they do and what they know) and eval in a feature called macros. Most programmers today who are aware of the term macro have encountered them in C or C++, where they are a static feature which is built in a small subset of the language, and are capable only of string substitutions on the text of the program. In dynamic languages, however, they provide access to the inner workings of the compiler, and full access to the interpreter, virtual machine, or runtime, allowing the definition of language-like constructs which can optimize code or modify the syntax or grammar of the language.
Assembly, C, C++, early Java, and Fortran do not generally fit into this category.
Example code
The following examples show dynamic features using the language Common Lisp and its Common Lisp Object System (CLOS).
Computation of code at runtime and late binding
The example shows how a function can be modified at runtime from computed source code
; the source code is stored as data in a variable
CL-USER > (defparameter *best-guess-formula* '(lambda (x) (* x x 2.5)))
*BEST-GUESS-FORMULA*
; a function is created from the code and compiled at runtime, the function is available under the name best-guess
CL-USER > (compile 'best-guess *best-guess-formula*)
#<Function 15 40600152F4>
; the function can be called
CL-USER > (best-guess 10.3)
265.225
; the source code might be improved at runtime
CL-USER > (setf *best-guess-formula* `(lambda (x) ,(list 'sqrt (third *best-guess-formula*))))
(LAMBDA (X) (SQRT (* X X 2.5)))
; a new version of the function is being compiled
CL-USER > (compile 'best-guess *best-guess-formula*)
#<Function 16 406000085C>
; the next call will call the new function, a feature of late binding
CL-USER > (best-guess 10.3)
16.28573
Object runtime alteration
This example shows how an existing instance can be changed to include a new slot when its class changes and that an existing method can be replaced with a new version.
; a person class. The person has a name.
CL-USER > (defclass person () ((name :initarg :name)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON 4020081FB3>
; a custom printing method for the objects of class person
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object ((p person) stream)
(print-unreadable-object (p stream :type t)
(format stream "~a" (slot-value p 'name))))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT NIL (PERSON T) 4020066E5B>
; one example person instance
CL-USER > (setf *person-1* (make-instance 'person :name "Eva Luator"))
#<PERSON Eva Luator>
; the class person gets a second slot. It then has the slots name and age.
CL-USER > (defclass person () ((name :initarg :name) (age :initarg :age :initform :unknown)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON 4220333E23>
; updating the method to print the object
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object ((p person) stream)
(print-unreadable-object (p stream :type t)
(format stream "~a age: ~" (slot-value p 'name) (slot-value p 'age))))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT NIL (PERSON T) 402022ADE3>
; the existing object has now changed, it has an additional slot and a new print method
CL-USER > *person-1*
#<PERSON Eva Luator age: UNKNOWN>
; we can set the new age slot of instance
CL-USER > (setf (slot-value *person-1* 'age) 25)
25
; the object has been updated
CL-USER > *person-1*
#<PERSON Eva Luator age: 25>
Assembling of code at runtime based on the class of instances
In the next example, the class person gets a new superclass. The print method gets redefined such that it assembles several methods into the effective method. The effective method gets assembled based on the class of the argument and the at runtime available and applicable methods.
; the class person
CL-USER > (defclass person () ((name :initarg :name)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON 4220333E23>
; a person just prints its name
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object ((p person) stream)
(print-unreadable-object (p stream :type t)
(format stream "~a" (slot-value p 'name))))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT NIL (PERSON T) 40200605AB>
; a person instance
CL-USER > (defparameter *person-1* (make-instance 'person :name "Eva Luator"))
*PERSON-1*
; displaying a person instance
CL-USER > *person-1*
#<PERSON Eva Luator>
; now redefining the print method to be extensible
; the around method creates the context for the print method and it calls the next method
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object :around ((p person) stream)
(print-unreadable-object (p stream :type t)
(call-next-method)))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT (:AROUND) (PERSON T) 4020263743>
; the primary method prints the name
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object ((p person) stream)
(format stream "~a" (slot-value p 'name)))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT NIL (PERSON T) 40202646BB>
; a new class id-mixin provides an id
CL-USER > (defclass id-mixin () ((id :initarg :id)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS ID-MIXIN 422034A7AB>
; the print method just prints the value of the id slot
CL-USER > (defmethod print-object :after ((object id-mixin) stream)
(format stream " ID: ~a" (slot-value object 'id)))
#<STANDARD-METHOD PRINT-OBJECT (:AFTER) (ID-MIXIN T) 4020278E33>
; now we redefine the class person to include the mixin id-mixin
CL-USER 241 > (defclass person (id-mixin) ((name :initarg :name)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON 4220333E23>
; the existing instance *person-1* now has a new slot and we set it to 42
CL-USER 242 > (setf (slot-value *person-1* 'id) 42)
42
; displaying the object again. The print-object function now has an effective method, which calls three methods: an around method, the primary method and the after method.
CL-USER 243 > *person-1*
#<PERSON Eva Luator ID: 42>
Examples
Popular dynamic programming languages include JavaScript, Python, Ruby, PHP, Lua and Perl. The following are generally considered dynamic languages:
ActionScript
BeanShell
C# (using Reflection)
Clojure
CobolScript
ColdFusion Markup Language
Common Lisp and most other Lisps
Dylan
E
Elixir
Erlang
FORTH
Gambas
GDScript
Groovy
Java (using Reflection)
JavaScript
Julia
Lua
MATLAB / Octave
Objective-C
Perl
PHP
PowerShell
Prolog
Python
R
Raku
Rebol
Ruby
Smalltalk
SuperCollider
Tcl
VBScript
Wolfram Language
See also
Comparison of programming languages
Name binding
Von Neumann architecture
References
Further reading
External links
(Many use the term "scripting languages".)
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234081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper%20Egypt | Upper Egypt | Upper Egypt ( , shortened to , , locally: ; ) is the southern portion of Egypt and is composed of the lands on both sides of the Nile that extend downriver between Nubia and Lower Egypt in the north.
In ancient Egypt, Upper Egypt was known as tꜣ šmꜣw, literally "the Land of Reeds" or "the Sedgeland".
It is believed to have been united by the rulers of the supposed Thinite Confederacy who absorbed their rival city states during Naqada III and its unification with Lower Egypt ushered in the Early Dynastic period. Both Upper and Lower Egypt became imbedded within the symbolism of the sovereignty in Ancient Egypt such as the Pschent double crown. Upper Egypt remained as a historical distinction even after the classical period.
Geography
Upper Egypt is between the Cataracts of the Nile beyond modern-day Aswan, downriver (northward) to the area of El-Ayait, which places modern-day Cairo in Lower Egypt. The northern (downriver) part of Upper Egypt, between Sohag and El-Ayait, is also known as Middle Egypt.
In Arabic, inhabitants of Upper Egypt are known as Sa'idis and they generally speak Sai'idi Egyptian Arabic.
History
Predynastic Egypt
The main city of prehistoric Upper Egypt was Nekhen. The patron deity was the goddess Nekhbet, who is depicted as a vulture.
By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. Shortly after 3600 BC, Egyptian society began to grow and increase in complexity. A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the Levantine ceramics, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time. The Mesopotamian process of sun-drying adobe and architectural principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.
Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt, also underwent a unification process. Warfare between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt occurred often. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies on the delta and united both of the kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt under his single rule, which endured throughout Dynastic Egypt.
Dynastic Egypt
For most of Egypt's ancient history, Thebes was the administrative center of Upper Egypt. Upper Egypt was represented by the tall White Crown Hedjet, and its symbols were the flowering lotus and the sedge. Its patron deity, Nekhbet, was depicted by the vulture. After unification of the two kingdoms, the patron deities of both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt were represented together as the Two Ladies, to protect all of the ancient Egyptians, just as the two crowns became united throughout the dynasties that followed.
After its devastation by the Assyrians, the importance of Egypt declined. Under the Ptolemies, Ptolemais Hermiou took over the role of the capital city of Upper Egypt.
Medieval Egypt
In the eleventh century, large numbers of pastoralists, known as Hilalians, fled Upper Egypt and moved westward into Libya and as far as Tunis. It is believed that degraded grazing conditions in Upper Egypt, associated with the beginning of the Medieval Warm Period, were the root cause of the migration.
20th-century Egypt
In the twentieth-century Egypt, the title Prince of the Sa'id (meaning Prince of Upper Egypt) was used by the heir apparent to the Egyptian throne.
Although the Kingdom of Egypt was abolished after the Egyptian revolution of 1952, the title continues to be used by Muhammad Ali, Prince of the Sa'id.
List of rulers of prehistoric Upper Egypt
The following list may not be complete (there are many more of uncertain existence):
List of nomes
See also
Sa'idi people
Upper and Lower Egypt
Geography of Egypt
Explanatory notes
References
Citations
General bibliography
Further reading
Edel, Elmar (1961) Zu den Inschriften auf den Jahreszeitenreliefs der "Weltkammer" aus dem Sonnenheiligtum des Niuserre Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen, , in German.
External links
States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC
States and territories disestablished in the 4th millennium BC
Upper
Historical regions | [
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234082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower%20Egypt | Lower Egypt | Lower Egypt ( ; Tsakhet) is the northernmost region of Egypt, which consists of the fertile Nile Delta between Upper Egypt and the Mediterranean Sea, from El Aiyat, south of modern-day Cairo, and Dahshur. Historically, the Nile River split into seven branches of the delta in Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt was divided into nomes and began to advance as a civilization after 3600 BC. Today, it contains two major channels that flow through the delta of the Nile River – Mahmoudiyah Canal (ancient Agathos Daimon) and Muways Canal (, "waterway of Moses").
Name
In Ancient Egyptian Lower Egypt was known as mḥw and means "north". Later on, during Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Greeks and Romans called it Κάτω Αἴγυπτος or Aegyptus Inferior both meaning "Lower Egypt". Native Coptic Egyptian population carried on using the old name related to north – Tsakhet () or Psanemhit () "Northern part", which they also divided into three regions – western part called ⲛⲓⲫⲁⲓⲁⲧ Niphaiat ("Libyans"), central part called ⲡⲉⲧⲙⲟⲩⲣ Petmour ("the one which bounds, girds", Greek: Πτιμυρις) and eastern one called ϯⲁⲣⲁⲃⲓⲁ Tiarabia ("Arabia").
After the Arab conquest of Egypt the middle part of the Delta (former Petmour) was called al-Rif () which means "countryside, rural area" and which is derived from Ancient Egyptian r:Z1-pr*Z1:niwtr-pr, "temple", because the rural areas were administered by them. The eastern part roughly comprising the ancient Tiarabia was called al-Hawf () meaning "edge, fringe".
Geography
In ancient times, Pliny the Elder, in Natural History (Book 5, chapter 11), said that upon reaching the delta the Nile split into seven branches (from east to west): the Pelusiac, the Tanitic, the Mendesian, the Phatnitic, the Sebennytic, the Bolbitine, and the Canopic. Today there are two principal channels that the Nile takes through the river delta: one in the west at Rashid and one in the east at Damietta.
The delta region is well watered, crisscrossed by channels and canals.
Owing primarily to its proximity to the Mediterranean Sea, the climate in Lower Egypt is milder than that of Upper Egypt, the southern portion of the country. Temperatures are less extreme and rainfall is more abundant in Lower Egypt.
History
It was divided into twenty districts called nomes, the first of which was at el-Lisht. Because Lower Egypt was mostly undeveloped scrubland, filled with all types of plant life such as grasses and herbs, the organization of the nomes underwent several changes.
The capital of Lower Egypt was Memphis. Its patron goddess was the goddess Wadjet, depicted as a cobra. Lower Egypt was represented by the Red Crown Deshret, and its symbols were the papyrus and the bee. After unification the patron deities of both Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt were represented together as the Two Ladies, Wadjet and Nekhbet (depicted as a vulture), to protect all of the ancient Egyptians.
By approximately 3600 BC, Neolithic Egyptian societies along the Nile River had based their culture on the raising of crops and the domestication of animals. Shortly after 3600 BC Egyptian society began to grow and advance rapidly toward refined civilization. A new and distinctive pottery, which was related to the pottery in the Southern Levant, appeared during this time. Extensive use of copper became common during this time. The Mesopotamian process of sun-dried bricks, and architectural building principles—including the use of the arch and recessed walls for decorative effect—became popular during this time.
Concurrent with these cultural advances, a process of unification of the societies and towns of the upper Nile River, or Upper Egypt, occurred. At the same time, the societies of the Nile Delta, or Lower Egypt also underwent a unification process. Warfare between Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt occurred often. During his reign in Upper Egypt, King Narmer defeated his enemies in the Delta and merged the kingdoms of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt under his single rule.
List of kings of the Predynastic Period of Lower Egypt
The Palermo stone, a royal annal written in the mid Fifth Dynasty (c. 2490 BC – c. 2350 BC) records a number of kings reigning over Lower Egypt before Narmer. These are completely unattested outside these inscriptions:
In contrast, the following kings are attested through archeological finds from Sinai and Lower Egypt: Double Falcon, Crocodile.
List of nomes
See also
Upper Egypt
Middle Egypt
Upper and Lower Egypt
Nomes of Egypt
Geography of Egypt
Ancient Egypt
References
External links
States and territories established in the 4th millennium BC
States and territories disestablished in the 4th millennium BC
Nile Delta
.Lower Middle
Historical regions
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234083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelephone | Radiotelephone | A radiotelephone (or radiophone), abbreviated RT, is a radio communication system for transmission of speech over radio. Radiotelephony means transmission of sound (audio) by radio, in contrast to radiotelegraphy, which is transmission of telegraph signals, or television, transmission of moving pictures and sound. The term may include radio broadcasting systems, which transmit audio one way to listeners, but usually refers to two-way radio systems for bidirectional person-to-person voice communication between separated users, such as CB radio or marine radio. In spite of the name, radiotelephony systems are not necessarily connected to or have anything to do with the telephone network, and in some radio services, including GMRS, interconnection is prohibited.
Design
Mode of emission
The word phone has a long precedent beginning with early US wired voice systems. The term means voice as opposed to telegraph or Morse code. This would include systems fitting into the category of two-way radio or one-way voice broadcasts such as coastal maritime weather. The term is still popular in the amateur radio community and in US Federal Communications Commission regulations.
Modes of operation
A standard landline telephone allows both users to talk and listen simultaneously; effectively there are two open communication channels between the two end-to-end users of the system. In a radiotelephone system, this form of working, known as full-duplex, requires a radio system to simultaneously transmit and receive on two separate frequencies, which both wastes bandwidth and presents some technical challenges. It is, however, the most comfortable method of voice communication for users, and it is currently used in cell phones and was used in the former IMTS.
The most common method of working for radiotelephones is half-duplex, operation, which allows one person to talk and the other to listen alternately. If a single frequency is used, both parties take turns to transmit on it, known as simplex. Dual-frequency working or duplex splits the communication into two separate frequencies, but only one is used to transmit at a time with the other frequency dedicated to receiving.
The user presses a special switch on the transmitter when they wish to talk—this is called the "press-to-talk" switch or PTT. It is usually fitted on the side of the microphone or other obvious position. Users may use a procedural code-word such as "over" to signal that they have finished transmitting.
Features
Radiotelephones may operate at any frequency where they are licensed to do so, though typically they are used in the various bands between 60 and 900 MHz (25 and 960 MHz in the United States). They may use simple modulation schemes such as AM or FM, or more complex techniques such as digital coding, spread spectrum, and so on. Licensing terms for a given band will usually specify the type of modulation to be used. For example, airband radiotelephones used for air to ground communication between pilots and controllers operates in the VHF band from 118.0 to 136.975 MHz, using amplitude modulation.
Radiotelephone receivers are usually designed to a very high standard, and are usually of the double-conversion superhet design. Likewise, transmitters are carefully designed to avoid unwanted interference and feature power outputs from a few tens of milliwatts to perhaps 50 watts for a mobile unit, up to a couple of hundred watts for a base station. Multiple channels are often provided using a frequency synthesizer.
Receivers usually feature a squelch circuit to cut off the audio output from the receiver when there is no transmission to listen to. This is in contrast to broadcast receivers, which often dispense with this.
Privacy and selective calling
Often, on a small network system, there are many mobile units and one main base station. This would be typical for police or taxi services for example. To help direct messages to the correct recipients and avoid irrelevant traffic on the network's being a distraction to other units, a variety of means have been devised to create addressing systems.
The crudest and oldest of these is called CTCSS, or Continuous Tone-Controlled Squelch System. This consists of superimposing a precise very low frequency tone on the audio signal. Only the receiver tuned to this specific tone turns the signal into audio: this receiver shuts off the audio when the tone is not present or is a different frequency. By assigning a unique frequency to each mobile, private channels can be imposed on a public network. However this is only a convenience feature—it does not guarantee privacy.
A more commonly used system is called selective calling or Selcall. This also uses audio tones, but these are not restricted to sub-audio tones and are sent as a short burst in sequence. The receiver will be programmed to respond only to a unique set of tones in a precise sequence, and only then will it open the audio circuits for open-channel conversation with the base station. This system is much more versatile than CTCSS, as relatively few tones yield a far greater number of "addresses". In addition, special features (such as broadcast modes and emergency overrides) can be designed in, using special addresses set aside for the purpose. A mobile unit can also broadcast a Selcall sequence with its unique address to the base, so the user can know before the call is picked up which unit is calling. In practice many selcall systems also have automatic transponding built in, which allows the base station to "interrogate" a mobile even if the operator is not present. Such transponding systems usually have a status code that the user can set to indicate what they are doing. Features like this, while very simple, are one reason why they are very popular with organisations that need to manage a large number of remote mobile units. Selcall is widely used, though is becoming superseded by much more sophisticated digital systems.
Uses
Conventional telephone use
Mobile radio telephone systems such as Mobile Telephone Service and Improved Mobile Telephone Service allowed a mobile unit to have a telephone number allowing access from the general telephone network, although some systems required mobile operators to set up calls to mobile stations. Mobile radio telephone systems before the introduction of cellular telephone services suffered from few usable channels, heavy congestion, and very high operating costs.
Marine use
The Marine Radiotelephone Service or HF ship-to-shore operates on shortwave radio frequencies, using single-sideband modulation. The usual method is that a ship calls a shore station, and the shore station's marine operator connects the caller to the public switched telephone network. This service is retained for safety reasons, but in practice has been made obsolete by satellite telephones (particularly INMARSAT) and VoIP telephone and email via satellite internet.
Short wave radio is used because it bounces between the ionosphere and the ground, giving a modest 1,000 watt transmitter (the standard power) a worldwide range.
Most shore stations monitor several frequencies. The frequencies with the longest range are usually near 20 MHz, but the ionospheric weather (propagation) can dramatically change which frequencies work best.
Single-sideband (SSB) is used because the short wave bands are crowded with many users, and SSB permits a single voice channel to use a narrower range of radio frequencies (bandwidth), about 3.5 kHz. In comparison, AM radio uses about 8 kHz, and narrowband (voice or communication-quality) FM uses 9 kHz.
Marine radiotelephony first became common in the 1930s, and was used extensively for communications to ships and aircraft over water. In that time, most long-range aircraft had long-wire antennas that would be let out during a call, and reeled-in afterward. Marine radiotelephony originally used AM mode in the 2-3 MHz region before the transition to SSB and the adoption of various higher frequency bands in addition to the 2 MHz frequencies.
One of the most important uses of marine radiotelephony has been to change ships' itineraries, and to perform other business at sea.
Regulations
In the United States, since the Communications Act of 1934 the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has issued various commercial "radiotelephone operator" licenses and permits to qualified applicants. These allow them to install, service, and maintain voice-only radio transmitter systems for use on ships and aircraft. (Until deregulation in the 1990s they were also required for commercial domestic radio and television broadcast systems. Because of treaty obligations they are still required for engineers of international shortwave broadcast stations.) The certificate currently issued is the general radiotelephone operator license.
See also
ASTRA2Connect Maritime Broadband
AT&T High Seas Service
Car phone
Improved Mobile Telephone Service
Inmarsat
Mobile radio telephone
Mobile Telephone Service
Two-way radio
Notes
References
Bruce, Robert V. Bell: Alexander Bell and the Conquest of Solitude. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1990. .
External links
Maritime communication
Mobile telecommunications
Telephony equipment
Wireless communication systems
no:Radiotelefoni
pt:Radiotelefonia
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234088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal%20filter | Crystal filter | A crystal filter allows some frequencies to 'pass' through an electrical circuit while attenuating undesired frequencies. An electronic filter can use quartz crystals as resonator components of a filter circuit. Quartz crystals are piezoelectric, so their mechanical characteristics can affect electronic circuits (see mechanical filter). In particular, quartz crystals can exhibit mechanical resonances with a very high Q factor (from 10,000 to 100,000 and greater — far higher than conventional resonators built from inductors and capacitors). The crystal's stability and its high Q factor allow crystal filters to have precise center frequencies and steep band-pass characteristics. Typical crystal filter attenuation in the band-pass is approximately 2-3dB. Crystal filters are commonly used in communication devices such as radio receivers.
Crystal filters are used in the intermediate frequency (IF) stages of high-quality radio receivers. They are preferred because they are very stable mechanically and thus have little change in resonant frequency with changes in operating temperature. For the highest available stability applications, crystals are placed in ovens with controlled temperature making operating temperature independent of ambient temperature.
Cheaper sets may use ceramic filters built from ceramic resonators (which also exploit the piezoelectric effect) or tuned LC circuits. Very high quality "crystal ladder" filters can be constructed of serial arrays of crystals.
The most common use of crystal filters are at frequencies of 9 MHz or 10.7 MHz to provide selectivity in communications receivers, or at higher frequencies as a roofing filter in receivers using up-conversion. The vibrating frequencies of the crystal are determined by its "cut" (physical shape), such as the common AT cut used for crystal filters designed for radio communications. The cut also determines some temperature characteristics, which affect the stability of the resonant frequency, though as quartz has an inherently high temperature stability, its shape does not change much with temperatures found in typical radios.
By contrast, less expensive ceramic-based filters are commonly used with a frequency of 10.7 MHz to provide filtering of unwanted frequencies in consumer FM receivers. Additionally, a lower frequency (commonly of 455 kHz) can be used as the second intermediate frequency and have a piezoelectric-based filter. Ceramic filters at 455 kHz can achieve similar narrow bandwidths to crystal filters at 10.7 MHz.
The design concept for utilizing quartz crystals as a filtering component was first established by Walter Cady in 1922, but it was largely Warren P. Mason's work in the late 1920s and early 1930s that devised methods for incorporating crystals into LC lattice filter networks which set the groundwork for much of the progress in telephone communications. Crystal filter designs from the 1960s allowed for true Chebyshev, Butterworth, and other typical filter characteristics. Crystal filter design continued to improve in the 1970s and 1980s with the development of multi-pole monolithic filters, widely used today to provide IF selectivity in communication receivers. Crystal filters can be found today in radio communications, telecommunications, signal generation, and GPS devices.
See also
Crystal oscillator
References
Linear filters
Wireless tuning and filtering
Signal processing filter | [
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] |
234091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian%20Catholic | Syrian Catholic | Syrian Catholic may refer to:
The Catholic Church in Syria, part of the worldwide Catholic Church in the country of Syria
The Syriac Catholic Church, one of 23 Eastern Catholic Churches, that uses the West Syriac liturgy and has many practices and rites in common with the Syriac Orthodox Church.
See also
Syrian (disambiguation)
Catholic (disambiguation)
Catholic Syrian Bank, an Indian bank
Syriac Christianity | [
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234095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal | Corporal | Corporal is a military rank in use in some form by many militaries and by some police forces or other uniformed organizations. Within NATO, each member nation's corresponding military rank of corporal is combined under the NATO-standard rank scale code OR-3 or OR-4. However, there are often differences in how each nation (or service in each nation) employs corporals. Some militaries do not have corporals, but may instead have a junior sergeant.
In some militaries, the rank of corporal nominally corresponds to commanding a section or squad of soldiers.
In most countries that derive their military structure from the British military system, corporal is a more senior rank than that of private. However, in several other countries, such as Canada, Italy and Norway, corporal is a junior rank, indicating a more experienced soldier than a private, and also on a higher pay scale, but having no particular command appointment corresponding to the rank, similar to specialist in the U.S. Army.
Etymology
The word is derived from the medieval Italian phrase capo corporale ("head of a body").
By country
Argentina
All three branches of the Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic use two or three ranks of corporal, or cabo. Corporals in the Argentine military are considered suboficiales subalternos (subaltern sub-officers/lower non-commissioned officers), superior only to all ranks of Volunteers (enlisted members of the Army and Air Force) and Seamen (enlisted members of the Navy).
In the Argentine Army, there are two ranks of corporal, junior and senior: Cabo ("corporal") and cabo primero ("first corporal").
While the Argentine Navy has three corporal ranks, from junior to senior: Cabo segundo (corporal second class), Cabo primero (corporal first class) and cabo principal (principal corporal), which is equal to the army rank of sargento (sergeant). The Air Force has the same number of corporal ranks as the navy, and keeps the same titles, with the exception of cabo (corporal) instead of the navy's cabo segundo (corporal second class).
The rank is also used by the Argentine National Gendarmerie and the Argentine Federal Police, which use the rank in the same manner as the Army, as well as the Argentine Naval Prefecture.
Australia
Corporal is the second lowest of the non-commissioned officer ranks in the Australian Army, falling between lance-corporal and sergeant. A corporal is usually appointed as a section commander, and is in charge of 7–14 soldiers of private rank. They are assisted by a second-in-command, usually a lance-corporal or senior private. A Corporal within Artillery is known as a bombardier. Corporal is also a rank of the Royal Australian Air Force, being equal to both the Australian Army and Royal Air Force rank of corporal.
Bangladesh
Corporal is a non-commissioned officer rank in the Bangladesh Army, falling between lance-corporal and sergeant, and in the Bangladesh Air Force, falling between leading aircraftman and sergeant.
Belgium
The branches of the Belgian Armed Forces use three ranks of corporal: corporal (, ), master corporal (, ) and 1st master corporal (, ). Corporal is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-3, whereas master corporal and 1st master corporal are equivalent to OR-4. The rank immediately below corporal is 1st private and the rank directly above 1st master corporal is sergeant.
Units with a cavalry, artillery or Logistic Corps (Transport unit) tradition replace Corporal by "Brigadier".
The equivalent of these ranks in the Naval Component are quartermaster, chief quartermaster and 1st chief quartermaster.
Belarus
The Byelorussian Home Defence (February 23, 1944 – April 28, 1945) used the Kapral (), in the meaning of Corporal as enlisted grade, equivalent to Obergefreiter (OR-3b), Hauptgefreiter (OR-3a) or Stabsgefreiter (OR-4) of the German Nazi-Wehrmacht (1933-1945).
Brazil
Corporal (in Portuguese cabo) is the first NCO rank of the Army, Navy, Air Force and states military police forces. Soldiers who successfully complete the corporal course may be promoted to the rank of corporal should they excel in the course. A corporal in the Brazilian Army will lead the smallest fractions of units as machine gun squads, mortar and infantry squads.
Canada
Corporal is an Army and Air Force non-commissioned member rank of the Canadian Forces. Its Naval equivalent is leading seaman. It is senior to the rank of private and its naval equivalent able seaman, and junior to master corporal (caporal-chef) and its equivalent master seaman (matelot-chef). It is part of the cadre of junior non-commissioned officers, and one of the junior ranks. In French, the rank is caporal.
The rank insignia of a corporal is a two-bar chevron, point down, worn in gold thread on both upper sleeves of the service dress jacket; in rifle green (army) or dark blue (air force) thread on CADPAT slip-ons for operational dress; in old gold thread on blue slip-ons on other air force uniforms; and in gold metal and green enamel miniature pins on the collars of the army dress shirt and outerwear coats. On army ceremonial uniforms, it is usually rendered in gold braid (black for rifle regiments), on either both sleeves, or just the right, depending on unit custom.
Corporal is the first non-commissioned officer rank, and the lowest rank officially empowered to issue a lawful command. Corporals can lead troops if they have the formal qualifications to be promoted to master corporal but have not been promoted yet. However, the rank of corporal was severely downgraded after Unification, along with the attendant responsibilities. A corporal in the Canadian Army in 1967 had the same duties and responsibilities that a sergeant has today. In an infantry section, a corporal will sometimes command an assault team if a master corporal is leading the section or they are pending promotion to master corporal.
Another effect of Unification was to delete the appointments of lance-corporal and lance-sergeant (a corporal holding the acting rank of sergeant). The former is still common in other Commonwealth militaries.
Corporal is deemed to be the substantive rank of the members carrying the appointment of master corporal. On pay documents, corporal was formerly listed as "Cpl (A)" and master corporal as "Cpl (B)".
In rifle regiments, a distinction was historically drawn between a corporal and an acting corporal; The Queen's Own Rifles of Canada had a special insignia to distinguish between the two.
Chile
In the Army, Navy, Air Force and Police, there are three grades of Corporal: Corporal, Corporal 2nd. and Corporal 1st. The next level is Sergeant 2nd. grade.
People's Republic of China
Corporal (Chinese: 下士, literally junior NCO) is the lowest among the ranks of the non-commissioned officer of the People's Liberation Army. This rank was once replaced by the rank "level one non-commissioned officer" (Chinese:一级士官, 1998–2009), but was re-introduced in 2009.
Denmark
In the Danish military, the rank of corporal (korporal in Danish) is the lowest rank of the NCO group. Professional (non-conscripted) soldiers, often those with the rank of "overkonstabel" (somewhat similar to "specialist" in the U.S. Army) may sometimes get selected for the rank of corporal, if they have unique experience or skills. This can't be given as a battlefield appointment and the aspiring corporal has to take a course in order to be promoted (6 weeks in the Army, 3 weeks in the Airforce and Navy). A corporal will often be given a task similar to that of other countries corporals; i.e. ad hoc assistance of squad-commanders. In the homeguard, a private can after completing a 10-day course get promoted to the rank of corporal and function as second in command of an infantry squad. The rank of corporal was phased out but was reintroduced into the Danish Army in October 2008.
Estonia
In the Estonian Defence Forces, the rank of corporal (kapral in Estonian) is not an NCO rank, but an enlisted one and is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-2.
Egypt
In the Egyptian Army, the rank of corporal (arif عريف) is an enlisted one and is equivalent to NATO Rank Code OR-4.
Finland
Alikersantti is an OR-4 rank and the lowest NCO rank of the Finnish Defence Forces. Alikersantti carries two-chevron rank insignia. In translations from English to Finnish, the corporal rank is often mistranslated as lance corporal, which is called korpraali in Finnish. In direct translation, the rank name basically means "junior sergeant" or "sub-sergeant". Typical duties of alikersantti are leading the squad or being second-in-command of the squad.
France
There are three ranks of corporal (). In the French Army, these are not NCO ranks, but enlisted ones. The corporals are called "ranked" (). Non-commissioned officers start at the rank of .
In regiments with a cavalry tradition, using white insigna, and artillery, is used instead.
Germany
Korporal and Stabskorporal have been (re)introduced as enlisted ranks on 15. September 2021 as pilot project for sophisticated posts with the need of specific experience classified as OR-4, but salaried similar to Stabsunteroffizier (A6 resp. A6Z).
Before the German ranks of Stabsgefreiter and Oberstabsgefreiter (both also classified OR-4 but salary of A5 resp. A5Z) were sometimes considered to be equivalent to a corporal rank in the US and other armies, but indeed those are quite similar to specialist rank in the US.
Historically Korporal had once been a military rank equivalent to the British Army corporal rank in several German armies, e.g. the Prussian or Bavarian army, but was retitled Unteroffizier mid-18th century. The deputy to an Unteroffizier usually held the rank of Obergefreiter or Gefreiter (but others in the gruppe—squad/section—could as well) and as such is comparable to a British Army or Royal Marine lance corporal. Gefreiter and Obergefreiter ranks are based on experience and not on positions. The additional German rank of Obergefreiter was historically considered a senior lance corporal otherwise second corporal in the foot artillery which replaced the bombardier rank.
In modern-day Bundeswehr usage, the German rank of Unteroffizier is classified as OR-5 within the combined NATO-standard rank scale and is considered to be more a US sergeant rank than that of a corporal, with new Korporal and Stabskorporal now considered the equivalent ranks to the corporal (OR-4). The British Army does not use OR-5 and considers sergeants to be OR-6.
India
These ranks are still used in the Indian Air Force. it is a rank given to an airman who is senior to leading aircraftman but junior to a sergeant. A corporal is designated as a Non-Commissioned Officer in the Indian Air Force.
Indonesia
In the Indonesian Military, the rank "Corporal" is known as . In Indonesia, "Corporal" has three levels, which are: Second Corporal (Lance Corporal), First Corporal (Corporal), and Master Corporal. After this rank, the rank: Sergeant is promoted.
Iran
Corporal (in Persian سرجوخه Sarjukhe) is one of the lower ranks of the Islamic Republic of Iran Army. A sarjukhe is usually responsible for four or five soldiers.
Ireland
Corporal () is the lowest rank of non-commissioned officer within the Irish Army and Air Corps. The Naval Service equivalent is leading seaman.
Army
The main role of an infantry corporal is either to command a section as the section commander or to command the fire support group as the second in command of the section. All corporals are qualified instructors on drill, section weapons, and fieldcraft.
In the Artillery Corps, the corporal is normally assigned to a gun detachment as a layer, or a detachment commander. Artillery corporals can also find themselves in charge of the battery signals section.
The army rank insignia consists of two winged chevrons (or "stripes"), the dress uniform being red chevrons with a yellow border.
Air Corps
Before 1994, the Air Corps was considered part of the army and wore army uniforms with distinct corps badges but the same rank insignia. With the introduction of a unique Air Corps blue uniform in 1994, the same rank markings in a white colour were worn, before the introduction of a new two-chevron badge with wing rank marking.
Israel
In the Israel Defense Forces, soldiers are promoted from private to corporal (rav-turai' 'רב טוראי or rabat' 'רב״ט) after 7–10 months of service (7 for combatants, 8 for combat support and 10 for non-combatants), if they performed their duties appropriately during this time. Soldiers who take a commander's course, are prisoner instructors or practical engineers become corporals earlier. Corporals get a symbolic pay raise of 3.60 NIS and those who are also non-commissioned officers (mashak) are able to command privates in their respective units.
A corporal may be promoted to sergeant about 11 or 12 months after becoming a corporal, or to the rank of second lieutenant if they complete an officer's course.
Italy
A soldier could be promoted from private (soldato) to corporal rank (caporale) after 3 months of service until 2014, now they have to pass a selection to be promoted to corporal. The title was use as a senior office in the Italian Kingdom during World War II.
Mexico
Corporal (in Spanish "cabo") is one of the lower ranks of the Mexican army.
New Zealand
The New Zealand Defence Force awards the corporal rank to soldiers or airmen after 6 or 7 years of service. There is substantial responsibility on the part of a corporal in the New Zealand Army and Royal New Zealand Air Force. They usually command a small team and work closely with their sergeants. A pay increase is also given.
Like their British, Canadian and Australian counterparts, they wear two chevrons to distinguish their rank.
Corporals have what is termed 'power of arrest', and is impressed on recruits in RNZAF basic training. Basically, this power means that any airman or private disobeying or ignoring an order from a corporal will be subject to military arrest by that individual. Needless to say, power of arrest is used by higher ranks to enforce their orders, corporal in the RNZAF being the lowest rank with this power.
Norway
In the Norwegian Armed Forces, promotion to the rank of korporal is an acknowledgement for good service by conscripted personnel. The rank does give some commanding authority, and corporals may be given increased informal responsibilities by senior officers and non-commissioned officers. The rank carries two chevrons and a slight pay increase.
All conscripted personnel in the military police are awarded the rank after the five-month learning period is over.
Pakistan
These ranks are still used in the Pakistan Air Force. it is a rank given to an airman who is senior to leading aircraftsman but junior to a sergeant.
Philippines
In the Armed Forces of the Philippines, the rank Corporal is locally called as Kabo. It is currently being used by both the Philippine Army and the Philippine Marine Corps. It stand above the rank of Private first class and below Sergeant.
The Philippine Revolutionary Army also used corporal as part of their ranks during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War. It is the lowest enlisted personnel rank on the service, below the rank of sergeant.
As of February 8, 2019, a new ranking classification for the Philippine National Police was adopted, eliminating confusion of old ranks. The rank of Corporal is included on the new ranking classification. It is the second from the bottom, placing above the rank of Patrolman and below Police Staff sergeant.
Poland
In the Polish Land Forces, the rank of kapral is the lowest rank in the NCO corps (OR-3 in NATO code). Most commonly the rank is held by a NCO commanding an infantry squad, tank or gun crew, or a similar unit. The equivalent rank in the Polish Navy is mat.
As with many other military ranks, direct comparison between various armies might be misleading. Before World War II, the Polish Army's kapral was more or less equivalent to the British rank of lance corporal, while the British rank of corporal was named plutonowy (lit. platooner). In modern times, the rank is still equivalent to a UK lance corporal or a private first class in the U.S. Army (OR-3), while the British and American rank of corporal (OR-4) is equivalent to the Polish rank of starszy kapral (lit. "senior corporal"), which was introduced in 1971.
Historically, the rank was first introduced in Poland in the 17th century, together with mercenary troops of Italian origin. In foreign troops on the royal payroll, a kapral commanded four ranks of musketeers or part of a company of pikemen. In the 20th century, between the world wars, the rank of corporal was held by both conscripted NCOs and professional soldiers alike. This was changed after World War II, when the Polish Army was under Soviet command and the rank of kapral was modified to resemble that of Soviet junior sergeant, reserved for conscripted NCOs. In the modern Polish Army, the rank is exclusively reserved for professional soldiers.
The insignia of kapral (worn on shoulder straps or badge above breast pocket) are two bars.
Portugal
The Portuguese Navy has the rank of cabo da Armada (corporal of the Navy). All other branches of the Portuguese Armed Forces have several ranks of corporal (cabo in Portuguese). The Portuguese Army and the Portuguese Air Force have the ranks of segundo cabo (second corporal), primeiro cabo (first corporal) and cabo-adjunto (corporal adjudant). The National Republican Guard has the ranks of cabo (corporal), cabo-chefe (chief corporal) and cabo-mor (corporal-major).
The several ranks of corporal correspond to the several pay grades, above that of private, that can be reached inside the enlisted rank professional category of the Army, the Air Force and the National Republican Guard. In the Navy, the rank of cabo da Armada is the highest pay grade in the enlisted rank category.
Russia
The rank of corporal () existed in the Russian Army from 1647 to 1798, when it was replaced with that of non-commissioned officer (, from , literally "sub-officer"). Soviet and modern Russian armies have the rank of "yefreytor" (derived from the German gefreiter) as the highest rank of enlisted personnel, below lance (or junior) sergeant () which are assigned as squad leaders.
Singapore
Singapore Armed Forces
The Corporal rank in the Singapore Armed Forces is between the rank of Lance Corporal and Corporal First Class. National Servicemen are usually promoted to this rank within the 2nd year of their service.
Prior to 1992, the SAF followed the British model where corporals were non-commissioned officers often holding the appointment of section leader. Today, a corporal is not a specialist (NCO-equivalent). Corporals are usually given higher responsibilities/ appointments as a section 2IC, or 2nd-in-command.
The rank insignia of a SAF corporal is two chevrons pointing downwards with an arc on top.
Home Team
In the Singapore Police Force, Singapore Civil Defence Force, Singapore Prison Service, Immigration and Checkpoints Authority and Singapore Customs, a corporal is a rank below sergeant.
The rank insignia for a corporal is two chevrons pointing downwards.
Uniformed youth organisations
For the National Cadet Corps (NCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Third Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal. For the National Police Cadet Corps (NPCC) and the National Civil Defence Cadet Corps (NCDCC), the rank of Corporal is below the rank of Sergeant, and above the rank of Lance Corporal.
For NCC, the rank insignia is same as that of an SAF CPL, except that the letters 'NCC' are below the insignia, so as to differentiate NCC cadets from SAF personnel. As for NPCC and NCDCC, the rank insignia is two pointed-down chevrons with the letters 'NPCC' and 'NCDCC' below the insignia, so as to differentiate NPCC and NCDCC cadets from Singapore Police Force and Singapore Civil Defence Force personnel, respectively.
The rank of Corporal is generally awarded to cadets in Secondary Two, or Secondary Three. Corporals, after being appointed, are given training to command a squad.
Spain
In the Spanish Armed Forces, cabo (corporal) is the rank between soldado de primera (first class private) and cabo primero (first corporal). It actually equates to a NATO OR-3, with cabo primero equating to an OR-4 and cabo mayor to an OR-5.
Sweden
In the Swedish Army, Navy and Air Force, the rank of korpral is a rank for soldiers with a specialization, and often in charge of a group six to ten men.
Taiwan
Corporal (Chinese: 下士, literally junior NCO) is the lowest among the ranks of the non-commissioned officer of the Taiwan Army, Marines, Air Force and Military Police. The rank wears an insignia with a broad chevron along with a narrow one, representing the NCO character and the juniority of the rank, respectively.
Turkey
In Turkey, the rank of Onbaşı (Corporal) is above the rank of the private. Onbaşı literally translated to "Head of 10"
Ukraine
Since 2015, the Corporal (), an OR4-rank, was introduced in the National Police of Ukraine, that is a special rank of junior quarterdeck. It corresponds to former junior sergeant of militia. Also since 2018–19, the Corporal () was introduced in the Court Security Service (), and the DBR() as a special rank of junior quarterdeck.
See also
Ukrainian military ranks, Army
Ukrainian police ranks
United Kingdom
The rank of corporal, which falls between lance-corporal and sergeant is used by the British Army, Royal Marines, and Royal Air Force. A corporal is often regarded as a slightly more senior rank in the UK services than in other countries: although British corporals are classified as OR-4 under the NATO system, they usually fill posts held by an OR-5 equivalent
in other countries, such as section Commander.
The badge of rank is a two-bar chevron (also known as "stripes", "tapes", or "hooks"). A corporal's role varies between regiments; but, in the standard infantry role, a corporal commands a section, with a lance-corporal as second-in-command (2ic). When the section is split into fire teams, they command one each. In the Royal Armoured Corps, a corporal commands an individual tank. Their duties therefore largely correspond to those of staff sergeants in the United States Army and corporals are often described as the "backbone" of the British Army.
In the Household Cavalry, all non-commissioned ranks are designated as different grades of corporal up to regimental corporal major (who is a warrant officer class 1). There is no effective actual rank of corporal, however, and the ranks progress directly from lance-corporal to lance-corporal of horse (who is effectively equivalent to a corporal; technically, a lance-corporal of horse holds the rank of corporal but is automatically give the appointment of lance-corporal of horse). Similarly, in the Foot Guards and in the Honourable Artillery Company, every Corporal is appointed as a lance-sergeant meaning they wear three chevrons rather than the regular two, with a lance-corporal wearing two chevrons instead of one: this is sometimes said to have originated with Queen Victoria who did not like "her own guardsmen" having only one chevron.
Royal Artillery corporals are called bombardiers; although, until 1920, the Royal Artillery had corporals and bombardier was a lower rank. The rank of second corporal existed in the Royal Engineers and Royal Army Ordnance Corps until 1920.
A common nickname for a corporal is a "full screw", with lance-corporals being known as "lance-jacks".
Corporal is the lowest NCO rank in the Royal Air Force (aside from the RAF Regiment who have lance-corporals), coming between junior technician or Senior aircraftman technician and sergeant in the technical trades, or senior aircraftman and sergeant in the non-technical trades. Between 1950 and 1964, corporals in technical trades were known as "corporal technicians" and wore their chevrons point up.
In the Royal Navy, the equivalent to corporal is leading hand or leading rate.
The Army Cadet Force, Combined Cadet Force, Air Training Corps, Royal Marines sections of the Sea Cadet Corps and the Combined Cadet Force all have the rank of corporal, reflecting the structure of their parent service; therefore it is the second NCO rank of the ACF, CCF (including the RAF Section, which has the rank of lance corporal) and marine cadets, and the first NCO rank in the ATC.
United States
United States Army
In the U.S. Army, corporal is preceded by the first three forms of private and the rank of specialist. A corporal rank shares the same pay grade (E-4) as a specialist. Unlike a specialist, however, a corporal is a non-commissioned officer and may direct the activities of other soldiers. Specialists who are graduates of the Basic Leader Course (BLC) and who have been recommended for promotion are to become corporals before further promotion; conversely current corporals who have not yet graduated from BLC will be laterally reassigned as specialists until they have graduated from BLC. No change in pay is involved, but corporals are expected to lead, teach, and mentor their teams.
United States Marine Corps
Corporal is the fourth enlisted rank in the U.S. Marine Corps, ranking immediately above lance corporal and immediately below sergeant. The Marine Corps, unlike the Army, has no other rank at the pay grade of E-4. Corporal is the lowest grade of non-commissioned officer in the U.S. Marine Corps, though promotion to corporal traditionally confers a significant jump in authority and responsibility compared to promotion from private through lance corporal. Marine infantry corporals generally serve as "fire-team leaders", leading a four-man team or weapons crew of similar size (e.g., assault weapons squad, medium machine gun team, or LWCMS mortar squad).
In practice, however, the billet of fire team leader is generally held by a lance corporal, while corporals serve in the squad leader billet that would normally be held by a sergeant (E-5) in infantry units. In support units, corporals generally serve in "journeyman" level roles in which they direct the activities of junior Marines and provide technical supervision, on a very limited scope, under the direct supervision of a sergeant or SNCO.
Due to its emphasis on small-unit tactics, its infantry-centric ethos, and its tradition of empowering junior NCOs to exercise first-level leadership, the U.S. Marine Corps' Tables of Organization (TOs) usually places corporals (as well as sergeants and staff sergeants) in billets where other services would normally have higher ranking NCOs in authority. For example, the USMC Table of Organization "billet" rank for rifle fire team leader, rifle squad leader, and rifle platoon sergeant is corporal (E-4), sergeant (E-5), and staff sergeant (E-6), respectively. However, the same positions (Table of Organization and Equipment "slots") in US Army infantry units are one grade higher and, except in fire teams (both services with four men in each team), the equivalent Army units are smaller (viz., USMC rifle squad and rifle platoon – 13 men and 43 men, respectively, vice US Army rifle squad and rifle platoon – 9 men and 34 men, respectively). Specifically, for the Army rifle units, the rank of the fire team, squad leader, and platoon sergeant are: sergeant (E-5), staff sergeant (E-6), and sergeant first class (E-7), respectively. Similarly, the term "strategic corporal" refers to the special responsibilities conferred upon a Marine corporal over against the normal responsibilities, and usual authority, of service members in the grade of E-4 in the other branches of the U.S. Armed Forces.
Until the mid-to-late 1980s, corporals were the lowest USMC rank eligible for selection as a drill instructor for USMC recruit training.
The history of the rank of corporal in the USMC roughly parallels that of the U.S. Army until 1942. From 1775 until WWII, the Marine Corps used essentially the same rank and organizational structure as its common British and colonial forebears with the Army, as well as the later Continental and U.S. armies. In 1942, as the Army modified its triangular division infantry organization to best fight in the European/North African/Middle Eastern Theatre the Marine Corps began modifying the triangular division plan to best employ its amphibious warfare doctrine in the Pacific Theatre. This meant that for the Corps, squad leaders would remain as sergeants and that the rifle squad would be sub-divided into three four-man fire teams each led by a corporal.
Vietnam
In the Vietnam People's Army, corporal (Hạ sĩ) is the lowest rank in non-commissioned officer. Corporal is below sergeant and above private 2nd class.
Venezuela
The rank is used by the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela.
In navies
In some navies, a "ship's corporal" is a position used in place of a leading seaman.
See also
Corporal of the field
Master corporal
Tech corporal
Corporal of horse
Staff corporal
Corporal major
Lance corporal
List of comparative military ranks
References
External links
Military ranks
Military ranks of Australia
Military ranks of Canada
Military ranks of Ireland
Military ranks of Singapore
Military ranks of the British Army
Military ranks of the United States Army
Military ranks of the United States Marine Corps
United States military enlisted ranks
Military ranks of the Royal Air Force
Military ranks of the Royal Marines | [
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234098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous%20plant | Herbaceous plant | Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground, including many perennials,
and nearly all annuals and biennials.
Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous"
The fourth edition of the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines "herb" as:
"A plant whose stem does not become woody and persistent (as in a tree or shrub) but remains soft and succulent, and dies (completely or down to the root) after flowering";
"A (freq. aromatic) plant used for flavouring or scent, in medicine, etc.". (See Herb)
The same dictionary defines "herbaceous" as:
"Of the nature of a herb; esp. not forming a woody stem but dying down to the root each year";
"BOTANY Resembling a leaf in colour or texture. Opp. scarious".
Botanical sources differ from each other on the definition of "herb". For instance, the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation includes the condition "when persisting over more than one growing season, the parts of the shoot dying back seasonally". However, some orchids, such as species of Phalaenopsis are described in some sources (including the authoritative Plants of the World Online) as "herbs" but with "leaves persistent or sometimes deciduous". In the glossary of Flora of the Sydney Region, Roger Charles Carolin defines "herb" as a "plant that does not produce a woody stem", and the adjective "herbaceous" as meaning "herb-like", referring to parts of the plant that are green and soft in texture".
Description
Herbaceous plants include graminoids, forbs, and ferns. Forbs are generally defined as herbaceous broad leafed plants, while graminoids are plants with grass-like appearance including the true grasses, sedges, and rushes.
Herbaceous plants most often are low growing plants, different from woody plants like trees, and tend to have soft green stems that lack lignification and their above-ground growth is ephemeral and often seasonal in duration. By contrast, non-herbaceous vascular plants are woody plants which have stems above ground that remain alive, even during any dormant season, and grow shoots the next year from the above-ground parts – these include trees, shrubs, vines and woody bamboos. Banana plants are also regarded as a herbaceous plant because the stem does not contain true woody tissue.
Some herbaceous plants can grow rather large, such as the genus Musa, to which the banana belongs.
Habit and habitat
Some relatively fast-growing herbaceous plants (especially annuals) are pioneers, or early-successional species. Others form the main vegetation of many stable habitats, occurring for example in the ground layer of forests, or in naturally open habitats such as meadow, salt marsh or desert. Some habitats, like grasslands and prairies and savannas, are dominated by herbaceous plants along with aquatic environments like ponds, streams and lakes.
The age of some herbaceous perennial plants can be determined by herbchronology, the analysis of annual growth rings in the secondary root xylem.
Herbaceous plants do not produce perennializing above ground structures using lignin, which is a complex phenolic polymer deposited in the secondary cell wall of all vascular plants. The development of lignin during vascular plant evolution provided mechanical strength, rigidity, and hydrophobicity to secondary cell walls, allowing plants to grow tall and transport water and nutrients over longer distances within the plant body. Since most woody plants are perennials with a longer life cycle because it takes more time and more resources (nutrients and water) to produce persistently living lignified woody stems, they are not as able to colonize open and dry ground as rapidly as herbs.
The surface of herbs is a catalyst for dew, which in arid climates and seasons is the main type of precipitation and is necessary for the survival of vegetation, i.e. in arid areas, herbaceous plants are a generator of precipitation and the basis of an ecosystem. Most of the water vapor that turns into dew comes from the air, not the soil. The taller the herb, the more dew it produces, so a short cut of the herbs necessitates watering. For example, if you frequently and shortly cut the grass without watering in an arid zone, then desertification occurs, as shown here.
Types of herbaceous plants
Herbaceous plants include plants that have an annual, biennial, or perennial life cycle. Annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing season or when they have flowered and fruited, and then new plants grow from seed. Herbaceous perennial and biennial plants may have stems that die at the end of the growing season, but parts of the plant survive under or close to the ground from season to season (for biennials, until the next growing season, when they flower and die).
New growth develops from living tissues remaining on or under the ground, including roots, a caudex (a thickened portion of the stem at ground level) or various types of underground stems, such as bulbs, corms, stolons, rhizomes and tubers. Examples of herbaceous biennials include carrot, parsnip and common ragwort; herbaceous perennials include potato, peony, hosta, mint, most ferns and most grasses.
References
Plant morphology
Plants by habit
Plant life-forms | [
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234099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody | Woody | Woody may refer to:
Biology
Pertaining to wood, a plant tissue and material
Woody plant, a plant with a rigid stem containing wood
Pertaining to woodland, land covered with trees
Woody, slang for a penile erection
People and fictional characters
Woody (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name, nickname or surname
Woody (singer), stage name of South Korean singer Kim Sang-woo (born 1992)
DJ Woody (born 1977), British DJ and turntablist
Woody (Toy Story), the main character in the Toy Story franchise
Places
Woody, California, United States, an unincorporated community
Woody, Texas, United States, a ghost town
Woody Bay (disambiguation)
Woody Gap, Georgia, United States
Woody Island (disambiguation)
Woody Point (disambiguation)
Other uses
Woody, the working title of the British television sitcom SunTrap
Woody, the codename of version 3.0 of the Debian Linux operating system
The Woody, a fictional adult film award in the Family Guy episode "Brian Does Hollywood"
See also
Wood (disambiguation)
Woods (disambiguation)
Woodie (disambiguation)
Woodies (disambiguation)
Woodrow (disambiguation)
Woody's (disambiguation)
Wu Di (disambiguation)
Woody Woodpecker (disambiguation) | [
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234101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thigh | Thigh | In human anatomy, the thigh is the area between the hip (pelvis) and the knee. Anatomically, it is part of the lower limb.
The single bone in the thigh is called the femur. This bone is very thick and strong (due to the high proportion of bone tissue), and forms a ball and socket joint at the hip, and a modified hinge joint at the knee.
Structure
Bones
The femur is the only bone in the thigh and serves as an attachment site for all muscles in the thigh. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and patella forming the knee. By most measures, the femur is the strongest bone in the body. The femur is also the longest bone in the body.
The femur is categorised as a long bone and comprises a diaphysis, the shaft (or body) and two epiphysis or extremities that articulate with adjacent bones in the hip and knee.
Muscular compartments
In cross-section, the thigh is divided up into three separate compartments, divided by fascia, each containing muscles. These compartments use the femur as an axis and are separated by tough connective tissue membranes (or septa). Each of these compartments has its own blood and nerve supply, and contains a different group of muscles.
Medial fascial compartment of thigh, adductor
Posterior fascial compartment of thigh, flexion, hamstring
Anterior fascial compartment of thigh, extension
Anterior compartment muscles of the thigh include sartorius, and the four muscles that comprise the quadriceps muscles- rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius and vastus lateralis.
Posterior compartment muscles of the thigh are the hamstring muscles, which include semimembranosus, semitendinosus, and biceps femoris.
Medial compartment muscles are pectineus, adductor magnus, adductor longus and adductor brevis, and also gracilis.
Because the major muscles of the thigh are the largest muscles of the body, resistance exercises (strength training) of them stimulate blood flow more than any other localized activity.
Blood supply
The arterial supply is by the femoral artery and the obturator artery. The lymphatic drainage closely follows the arterial supply and drains to the lumbar lymphatic trunks on the corresponding side, which in turn drains to the cisterna chyli.
The deep venous system of the thigh consists of the femoral vein, the proximal part of the popliteal vein, and various smaller vessels; these are the site of proximal deep venous thrombosis. The venae perfortantes connect the deep and the superficial system, which consists of the saphenous veins (the site of varicose veins).
Clinical significance
Thigh weakness can result in a positive Gowers' sign on physical examination.
Food
The thigh meat of some animals such as chicken and cow is consumed as food in many parts of the world.
Society and culture
Western societies generally tolerate clothing that displays thighs, such as short shorts and miniskirts. Beachwear and many athleisure styles often display thighs as well. Professional dress codes may require covering up bare thighs.
Many Islamic countries disapprove of or prohibit the display of thighs, especially by women.
Strategic covering or display of thighs is used in popular fashion around the world, such as thigh-high boots and zettai ryoiki.
Additional images
References
Lower limb anatomy | [
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234106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20A.%20Spruance | Raymond A. Spruance | Raymond Ames Spruance (July 3, 1886 – December 13, 1969) was a United States Navy admiral during World War II. He commanded U.S. naval forces during one of the most significant naval battles that took place in the Pacific Theatre: the Battle of the Philippine Sea. He also commanded Task Force 16 at the Battle of Midway, comprising the carriers Enterprise and Hornet. At Midway, dive bombers from the Enterprise crippled two carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Kaga and the flagship Akagi. Most historians consider Midway the turning point of the Pacific War.
Official Navy historian Samuel Eliot Morison characterized Spruance's performance as "superb", and was nicknamed "electric brain" for his calmness even in moments of supreme crisis, a reputation enhanced by his successful tactics. He emerged from the war one of the greatest admirals in American naval history". After the war, Spruance was appointed President of the Naval War College, and later served as American ambassador to the Philippines.
Early life
Spruance was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 3, 1886 to Alexander and Annie Hiss Spruance. He was raised in Indianapolis, Indiana. Spruance attended Indianapolis public schools and graduated from Shortridge High School. From there, he went on to graduate from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1906, and received further, hands-on education in electrical engineering a few years later.
Career prior to World War II
Spruance's first duty assignment was aboard the battleship , an 11,400 ton veteran of the Spanish–American War. In July 1907 he transferred to the battleship and was aboard her during the historic around the world cruise of the Great White Fleet from 1907 to 1909.
Spruance's seagoing career included command of the destroyers from March 1913 to May 1914, , three other destroyers, and the battleship .
In 1916 he aided in the fitting out of the battleship and he served on board her from her commissioning in June 1916 until November 1917. During the last year of World War I he was assigned as Assistant Engineer Officer of the New York Naval Shipyard, and carried out temporary duty in London, England and Edinburgh, Scotland.
Following his return to the United States, Spruance served aboard transport ship USS Agamemnon, before he was ordered to Bath Iron Works in Bath, Maine for duty in connection with fitting out of destroyer USS Aaron Ward in March 1919. He commanded that vessel during the patrols with the Atlantic Fleet until January 1920, when he assumed command of newly commissioned destroyer USS Percival in San Francisco, California.
He commanded the Percival during the sea trials off the California coast and during the patrol cruises with the Destroyer Force, Pacific Fleet until May 1922, when he was ordered to Washington, D.C. for duty in the Bureau of Engineering under Rear admiral John K. Robison. While in that capacity he assumed additional duty as a member of the board on doctrine of aircraft in connection with fleet fire control.
Spruance served in Washington until early 1924, when he was ordered to the headquarters, Commander Naval Force in Europe. He served as Assistant Chief of Staff under Vice admiral Philip Andrews during the period of tensions between Greece and Turkey and was decorated with the Gold Cross of the Order of the Savior by the Government of Greece for his service.
Spruance ran a quiet bridge, without chit-chat; he demanded that orders be given concisely and clearly. In one incident a distraught officer rushed to report, "Captain, we've just dropped a depth charge over the stern!" "Well, pick it up and put it back," was Spruance's measured response.
He began attendance at the Naval War College in 1926, and graduated in 1927. Spruance served as executive officer of USS Mississippi from October 1929 to June 1931. He also held several engineering, intelligence, staff and Naval War College positions up to the 1940s. He served as an instructor at the Naval War College from 1935 to 1938. He commanded the battleship USS Mississippi from April 1938 to December 1939, when he was promoted to rear admiral. On February 26, 1940, Spruance reported as commandant of the 10th Naval District with headquarters at Naval Station Isla Grande in San Juan, Puerto Rico. On August 1, 1941, he finished his tour in Puerto Rico.
World War II
Before Midway
In the first months of World War II in the Pacific, Spruance commanded the four heavy cruisers and support ships of Cruiser Division Five from his flagship, the heavy cruiser . His division was an element of the task force built around the aircraft carrier and commanded by Vice Admiral William F. Halsey, Jr. Early on, Halsey had led his task force on hit-and-run raids against the Japanese in the western Pacific: striking the Gilbert and Marshall islands in February 1942, Wake Island in March, and projecting the air power of the Doolittle Raid against the Japanese homeland in April. These raids were critical to moralesetting a new tone of aggressiveness by U.S. commanders while providing invaluable battle experience for the commanders and sailors of the U.S. Navy.
Midway
During the third week of May 1942, U.S. naval intelligence units confirmed that the Japanese would—by early June—invade Midway Island. Capturing and occupying Midway was the brainchild-plan of commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto. With it he intended to significantly expand the Imperial Japanese Navy's outer defense perimeter across the central Pacific; and, he believed, this very powerful stroke against Midway would so severely threaten Hawaii and Pearl Harbor that the U.S. government would be induced to sue for peace. On the other hand, commander-in-chief of the U.S. Pacific Fleet, Admiral Chester Nimitz knew he must intercept the Japanese invasion fleet, and that he must give battle to the enemy aircraft carriers before they could project their overwhelming power against the naval air station at Midway.
Fewer than two days before launch from Pearl Harbor, Nimitz's commander of the fleet carrier force, Admiral Halsey, was hospitalized with severe shingles; Halsey immediately recommended Admiral Spruance to Nimitz as his replacement with Admiral Fletcher receiving overall command. Although Spruance was proven as cruiser division commanders, he had no experience handling carrier-air combat; Halsey reassured Nimitz, and he told Spruance and Fletcher to rely on their newly inherited staff, particularly Captain Miles Browning, a battle-proven expert in carrier warfare. Spruance assumed command of Task Force 16 with its two carriers, and , under battle command of Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher. Fletcher would command Task Force 17, but the task force flag ship, , had been badly damaged at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the formation's other carrier, Lexington, had been sunk, but at Nimitz's behest Yorktown was patched-repaired in "rush" time purposefully to join the Midway operation.
The U.S. Navy intercept force centered on the three carriers Enterprise, Hornet, and Yorktown, and their air-attack squadrons. It faced a Japanese invasion fleet organized into two groups: the air-attack task force of four carriers with support ships under command of Admiral Chūichi Nagumo, and the surface and occupation forces under Admiral Nobutake Kondō and others. Admiral Yamamoto commanded the combined invasion fleet from aboard his flagship .
At 0530 June 4, a scout plane from Midway sighted the Kido Butai, however the scout only reported sighting "Two carriers and battleships", and giving course and speed. Since US intelligence had reported the possibility that the Kido Butai would be operating in two separate task forces, that meant that Fletcher only knew the location of half of the carrier force. Armed with this information, Fletcher ordered Spruance to launch a strike at the Japanese with Enterprise and Hornet while holding Yorktown in reserve in case the other Japanese carriers were discovered. Since the Japanese planes were returning from the Midway strike, Spruance ordered that his strike be launched without delay so as to maximize the chances that the Japanese carriers would be caught while landing planes or spotting the next wave. In this state the Japanese carriers would be extremely vulnerable. Furthermore, Spruance ordered that the air squadrons fly directly to their targets before assembling every squadron into a proper formation, gambling that the attacks would leave the enemy carriers in disarray and delay the launching of their own counterstrike. Though this gamble paid off, Enterprise air squadrons would pay a heavy price, flying in piece-meal and mostly without fighter escort.
The battle commenced on the morning of June 4; the first several waves of U.S. attack aircraft were badly beaten, both near Midway and at sea around the Japanese task force. Then U.S. dive bombers from Spruance's Enterprise flew to Nagumo's fleet of four carriers – which, fatefully, were without air cover. Most of Nagumo's attack planes had just returned from the first strike on Midway and were immobilized on the carrier hangers, while his combat air patrol cover planes were engaged with battling torpedo bombers from Hornet. Enterprise dive bombers critically damaged two Japanese carriers including Nagumo's flagship ; while the Yorktown air group, launched after Fletcher was confident that all Japanese carriers were accounted for, crippled the Soryu. All three were eventually scuttled.
The surviving carrier, , gave the Japanese some brief respite by sending strikes that again damaged Yorktown. But several hours later—near the end of daylight hours—a U.S. scout plane located Hiryū again. Fletcher quickly ordered his dive bombers to strike, which fatally damaged the fourth Japanese carrier; it was scuttled the next day. However a second strike from Hiryū would fatally cripple Fletcher's flagship, Yorktown and as a result, Fletcher passed command to Spruance, who would command the mop up phase of the battle.
The U.S. Navy counterforce sank all four Japanese carriers while losing one of its own, Yorktown. The repulse of the Japanese invasion fleet at Midway, and critically the destruction of the Kido Butai, allowed the U.S. to gain parity in the naval air war. In 1949, naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison noted that Spruance was subjected to criticism for not pursuing the retreating Japanese and allowing the surface fleet to escape. But in summing up Spruance's performance in the battle, Morison wrote: "Fletcher did well, but Spruance's performance was superb. Calm, collected, decisive, yet receptive to advice; keeping in his mind the picture of widely disparate forces, yet boldly seizing every opening. Raymond A. Spruance emerged from the battle one of the greatest admirals in American naval history". For his actions at the battle of Midway Rear Admiral Spruance was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal and cited as follows: "For exceptionally meritorious service ... as Task Force Commander, United States Pacific Fleet. During the Midway engagement which resulted in the defeat of and heavy losses to the enemy fleet, his seamanship, endurance, and tenacity in handling his task force were of the highest quality." Both Fletcher and Nimitz recommended Spruance for the Distinguished Service Medal for his role in the battle.
The Battle of Midway is considered by many to be a turning point of the war in the Pacific, along with the Guadalcanal campaign. Before Midway, a small and fractional U.S. Navy faced an overwhelmingly larger and battle-hardened Japanese Combined Fleet. After Midway, although the Japanese still held a temporary advantage in vessels and planes, the U.S. Navy and the nation gained confidence and, most critically, time. The setback in the Japanese timetable to encircle the Pacific gave the U.S. industrial machine time to crank up war production, and ultimately, to turn the advantage on Japan in the production of ships, planes, guns, and all the other matériel of war. The Battle of Midway infused the U.S. Pacific Navy with confidence. And with this battle the American forces gained, and afterwards continued to gain, hard combat experience; so the Japanese lost that crucial advantage as well.
Philippine Sea
Shortly after the Midway battle, Spruance became chief of staff to Admiral Nimitz, and in September 1942 was appointed as Deputy Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet.
In August 1943 Spruance was placed in command of the Central Pacific Force, which, on April 29, 1944, was redesignated as the Fifth Fleet. At that time, Admiral Nimitz instituted a unique arrangement in which the command of the vessels which made up the "Big Blue Fleet" alternated between Admiral William Halsey Jr., at which time it was identified as the Third Fleet and Task Force 38, and Admiral Spruance, when it became the Fifth Fleet and Task Force 58. When not in command of the fleet the admirals, and their staffs, were based at Pearl Harbor and planned future operations.
The two admirals were a contrast in styles. Halsey was aggressive and a risk taker. Spruance was calculating and cautious. Notwithstanding their different personalities, Spruance and Halsey were close friends. In fact, Spruance had a knack for getting along with difficult people, including his friend Admiral Kelly Turner, the hotheaded commander of 5th Fleet's amphibious force. One exception was Admiral John Towers, a constant critic of Spruance, whom Spruance came to despise for his naked ambition.
Most common sailors were proud to serve under Halsey; most higher-ranking officers preferred to serve under Spruance. Captain George C. Dyer of the light cruiser , who served under both Spruance and Halsey, summed up the view of many ship captains:
This gave rise to the description of Spruance as "an Admiral's admiral".
Truk, Saipan, and Iwo Jima
Spruance directed Operation Hailstone against the Japanese naval base Truk in February 1944 in which twelve Japanese warships, thirty-two merchant ships and 249 aircraft were destroyed. This occurred at the same time that Admiral Turner's forces were attacking Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshalls, about 700 miles to the east. Spruance himself directed a task group of battleships, cruisers and destroyers that left the main body to go after Japanese ships that were fleeing Truk, sinking the light cruiser and destroyer . This was said to be the first time that a four-star admiral took part in a sea action aboard one of the ships engaged. Admiral Spruance commanded with deadly precision, reported an observer.
While screening the American invasion of Saipan in June 1944, Spruance also defeated the Japanese fleet in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. Although he broke the back of the Japanese naval airforce by sinking three carriers, two oilers and destroying about 600 enemy airplanes (so many that the remaining Japanese carriers were used solely as decoys in the Battle of Leyte Gulf a few months later due to the lack of aircraft and aircrews to fly them) Spruance has been criticized for not being aggressive enough in exploiting his success in the Philippine Sea. Buell quotes Spruance speaking with Morison:
However, his actions were both praised or understood by the main persons ordering and directly involved in the battle. Admiral Ernest J. King told him that "Spruance, you did a damn fine job there. No matter what other people tell you, your decision was correct". Spruance's fast carrier commander, Marc Mitscher, told his chief of staff Arleigh Burke that:
For most of the war he preferred to use the heavy cruiser , named for his hometown, as his flagship. He shifted his flag to the old battleship of the shore bombardment force after Indianapolis was struck by a Kamikaze off Okinawa. When New Mexico was struck by two kamikaze on the night of 12 May 1945 a hasty search by Spruance's staff found the Admiral manning a fire hose amidship. Determining that New Mexico was not too badly damaged to remain on station Spruance kept her as his flagship for the rest of the campaign. Spruance later chose the battleship as his flagship, as the huge Iowa class battleship had both room for his staff and the speed to keep up with the fast carrier task forces.
Spruance received the Navy Cross for his actions at Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
End of Pacific War
Spruance succeeded Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz as Commander in Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas in November 1945.
On October 16, 1946, the former Secretary of War, Robert P. Patterson, presented the Army Distinguished Service Medal to Admiral Spruance, with citation as follows:
Postwar
Retirement
At the end of the Second World War Congress created a limited number of five-star ranks for the Army and the Navy, designated General of the Army and Fleet Admiral. The Navy, by law, was limited to four Fleet Admirals; three of these appointments were obvious: Ernest King, Chester Nimitz and William Leahy. The fourth was a choice between Halsey and Spruance, and after much deliberation, eventually Halsey was appointed in December 1945. Spruance's achievements were acknowledged by the unique distinction of a special act of Congress awarding him Admiral's full pay for life. Spruance expressed his personal feelings on this matter as follows:
Spruance was President of the Naval War College from February 1946 until he retired from the Navy in July 1948. He was decorated with Order of Leopold and Croix de guerre with Palm by the Government of Belgium for his service for the Allied cause.
Shortly before his retirement, Spruance received the following Letter of Commendation from the Secretary of the Navy:
Later life
He was appointed as Ambassador to the Philippines by President Harry S. Truman, and served there from 1952 to 1955.
He received his Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.), honoris causa degree from Central Philippine University in 1955, an institution of higher learning founded by the American Baptist missionary, William Orison Valentine in 1905.
Spruance died in Pebble Beach, California on December 13, 1969 and was buried with full military honors at Golden Gate National Cemetery near San Francisco. His wife, Margaret Dean (1888–1985), is buried alongside him, as are Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz, his longtime friend Admiral Richmond K. Turner, and Admiral Charles A. Lockwood, an arrangement made by all of them while living.
Personality
Spruance was an active man who thought nothing of walking eight or 10 miles a day. He was fond of symphonic music, and his tastes were generally simple. He never smoked, and drank little. He enjoyed hot chocolate and would make it for himself every morning. Besides his family, he loved the companionship of his pet schnauzer, Peter. Fit into his 70s, Spruance spent most of his retirement days wearing old khakis and work shoes and working in his garden and greenhouse; he loved to show them to visitors.
His achievements in the navy were well known, but himself much less. He did not discuss his private life, feelings, prejudices, hopes or fears, except with his family and his closest friends. He was modest and candid about himself. "When I look at myself objectively," he wrote in retirement, "I think that what success I may have achieved through life is largely due to the fact that I am a good judge of men. I am lazy, and I never have done things myself that I could get someone to do for me. I can thank heredity for a sound constitution, and myself for taking care of that constitution." About his intellect he was equally unpretentious: "Some people believe that when I am quiet that I am thinking some deep and important thoughts, when the fact is that I am thinking of nothing at all. My mind is blank."
Legacy
The destroyers , lead ship of the of destroyers, and , 61st ship of the of destroyers, were named in his honor.
The main auditorium of the U.S. Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island, is named Spruance Hall. A bust of Spruance is in the lobby.
The Indiana War Memorial in Indianapolis has a meeting room named for Spruance as well as displays honoring his career and that of the USS Indianapolis.
Cultural depictions
Spruance was portrayed by Glenn Ford (a US Naval Reserve officer himself) in the 1976 film Midway, and by Jake Weber in the 2019 film Midway.
Spruance is depicted as the controversial victor of Midway by G. D. Spradlin in the 1988 TV miniseries War and Remembrance. He is shown to be at loggerheads with his staff on numerous occasions and corrected by them once. The series, based on Herman Wouk's book of the same name, shows Spruance's decision to end the battle and retreat rather than confront the rest of the Japanese fleet as having been opposed by his subordinates, and he was mocked behind his back as "lacking the stomach." Yet the decision is hailed by the series's narrator as instrumental in sealing the American victory. Wouk writes in his book that "Spruance escaped [the Japanese fleet admiral] Yamamoto's terrible trap by acting on perfect military instinct. Not till many months later did American intelligence ferret out the facts."
Awards
Dates of rank
United States Naval Academy Midshipman – July 2, 1903, Passed Midshipman – September 26, 1906
References
Further reading
1886 births
1969 deaths
Ambassadors of the United States to the Philippines
United States Navy personnel of World War II
Battle of Midway
Burials at Golden Gate National Cemetery
High Commissioners of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
Military personnel from Baltimore
Naval War College alumni
Naval War College faculty
Presidents of the Naval War College
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy admirals
United States Navy World War II admirals
Shortridge High School alumni
20th-century American diplomats | [
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234109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20presidents%20of%20Romania | List of presidents of Romania | The President of Romania serves as the head of state of Romania. The office was created by the Communist leader Nicolae Ceaușescu in 1974 and has developed into its modern form after the Romanian Revolution and the adoption of the 1991 constitution. The current president of Romania is Klaus Iohannis, who has been serving since 21 December 2014.
List
Political parties
(PCR)
(FSN)
(PSD)
(PNȚ-CD)
(PDL)
(PNL)
Socialist Republic of Romania (1965–1989)
Romania (1989–present)
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
! rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | Portrait
! rowspan="2" |Name(Birth–Death)
! rowspan="2" |Elected
! colspan="3" width="30%" |Term of office
! rowspan="2" width="35%" |Political Party
! rowspan="2" | Ref.
|-
!Took office
!Left office
!Time in office
|-
! bgcolor="#EEEEEE" rowspan="2" style="background:; color:white" | —
| bgcolor="#EEEEEE" rowspan="4" |
| bgcolor="#EEEEEE" rowspan="4" |Ion Iliescu(born 1930)
| rowspan="2" |—
| 26 December 1989
| 20 June 1990
|176 days
|National Salvation Front (FSN)
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="4" |A former Romanian Communist Party (PCR) member, Iliescu was one of the founders of the National Salvation Front (FSN) during the 1989 Revolution. As a member of the FSN Triumvirate, Iliescu served as the acting head of state of Romania for almost six months during its transition to capitalism.
|-bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! rowspan="2" style="background:; color:white" | 1
| rowspan="2" |1990
1992
| 20 June 1990
| 29 November 1996
|6 years,
161 days
|National Salvation Front (FSN)
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="4" | <small>The first president to have been freely and democratically elected, Iliescu was an "independent social democrat." He earned a populistic reputation after his handling of the Mineriads miner interventions in Bucharest. Under his first term, the current Constitution of Romania was introduced.</small>
|- bgcolor=#EEEEEE
! rowspan="2" style="background:; color:white" | 2
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |Emil Constantinescu(born 1939)
| rowspan="2" |1996
| 29 November 1996
| 20 December 2000
|4 years,
21 days
|Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (PNȚ-CD)1
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="4" style="font-size:85%;"|Constantinescu was the successful candidate of the right-leaning Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) which won the 1996 general elections, consequently paving the way for the first peaceful transfer of power in post-1989 Romania. During his term as president, Constantinescu struggled with the slow implementation of the modernization and privatization process which was bogged down by excessive bureaucracy.
Nonetheless, the CDR coalition managed to secure three prime ministers who initiated liberalizing economic reforms under Constantinescu's presidency, although the overall progress on a short-term basis was slower than initially expected.
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! rowspan="2" style="background:; color:white" | 3
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |Ion Iliescu(born 1930)
| rowspan="2" |2000
| 20 December 2000
| 20 December 2004
|4 years
|Social Democratic Party (PSD)
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="4" |Iliescu was elected to his third non-consecutive term in 2000. In March, 2004, at the end of his last term, Romania joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, as part of the second largest wave of expansion in Central and Eastern Europe.
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! rowspan="2" style="background:; color:white" | 4
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |Traian Băsescu(born 1951)
| rowspan="2" |2004
2009
| 20 December 2004
| 21 December 2014
|10 years,
1 day
|Democratic Liberal Party (PDL)2
| rowspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="4" style="font-size:85%;" | Elected with the support of the right-leaning Justice and Truth Alliance (DA), Băsescu won the presidency in 2004 on a platform targeting widespread political corruption. During his first term, Romania joined in the European Union. It was also during his first mandate as president that he managed to solve a hostage crisis in Iraq, resulting in the rescue of three Romanian journalists. In spite of the harsh opposition of the left-leaning parties (especially the PSD), he publicly condemned the former Communist regime.
His second term was marked by a landslide victory of the opposition coalition, specifically the Social Liberal Union (USL), in both the local and the legislative elections of 2012, amidst heavy losses for the presidential party (i.e. the Democratic Liberal Party).
Internationally, Băsescu aligned Romania closer to the United States, the European Union, and NATO, maintaining a pro-Western foreign policy throughout both his terms. He was suspended twice, namely in 2007 and 2012. Both impeachment referenda were invalidated by the Constitutional Court on the grounds of low turnout, thus paving his way for a comeback to presidency.
|- bgcolor="#EEEEEE"
! style="background:; color:black" | 5
|
|Klaus Iohannis(born 1959)
|2014
2019
| 21 December 2014
|Incumbent
|
|National Liberal Party (PNL)
|
|}Notes''':
1 Emil Constantinescu was the candidate of the Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (PNȚ-CD) whose candidacy was supported as part of the larger right-leaning Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) in both 1992 and 1996;
2 Traian Băsescu was the presidential candidate of the Democratic Party (PD) whose candidacy was supported as part of the larger right-leaning Justice and Truth Alliance (DA) in 2004, alongside the National Liberal Party. In 2009, his re-election was supported only by the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL) along with a certain faction of the Christian Democratic National Peasants' Party (PNȚ-CD).
Acting presidents (1990–present)
Timeline
See also
Domnitor
King of Romania
List of heads of state of Romania
List of presidents of Romania by time in office
References
Bulei, Ion, O istorie a românilor'', Editura Meronia, București, 2007, pg. 266-267
Romania
List
List
Presidents | [
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234111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spruance | Spruance | Spruance may refer to:
Spruance (surname)
Spruance-class destroyer, the primary destroyer built for the U.S. Navy during the 1970s
USS Spruance, the name of two United States Navy ships named after Admiral Raymond A. Spruance | [
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234113 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sciatic%20nerve | Sciatic nerve | The sciatic nerve, also called the ischiadic nerve, is a large nerve in humans and other vertebrate animals which is the largest branch of the sacral plexus and runs alongside the hip joint and down the lower limb. It is the longest and widest single nerve in the human body, going from the top of the leg to the foot on the posterior aspect. The sciatic nerve has no cutaneous branches for the thigh. This nerve provides the connection to the nervous system for the skin of the lateral leg and the whole foot, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot. It is derived from spinal nerves L4 to S3. It contains fibers from both the anterior and posterior divisions of the lumbosacral plexus.
Structure
In humans, the sciatic nerve is formed from the L4 to S3 segments of the sacral plexus, a collection of nerve fibres that emerge from the sacral part of the spinal cord. The lumbosacral trunk from the L4 and L5 roots descends between the sacral promontory and ala and the S1 to S3 roots emerge from the ventral sacral foramina. These nerve roots unite to form a single nerve in front of the piriformis muscle. The nerve passes beneath piriformis and through the greater sciatic foramen, quitting the pelvis. From here, it travels down the posterior thigh to the popliteal fossa. The nerve travels in the posterior compartment of the thigh behind (superficial to) the adductor magnus muscle, and is itself in front of (deep to) the long head of the biceps femoris muscle. At the popliteal fossa, the nerve divides into its two branches:
The tibial nerve, which travels down the posterior compartment of the leg into the foot
The common fibular nerve (also called the common peroneal nerve), which travels down the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg into the foot
The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the human body.
Development
Function
The sciatic nerve supplies sensation to the skin of the foot, as well as the entire lower leg (except for its inner side). Sensation to skin to the sole of the foot is provided by the tibial nerve, and the lower leg and upper surface of the foot via the common fibular nerve.
The sciatic nerve also innervates muscles. In particular:
Via the tibial nerve, the muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg and sole of the foot (plantar aspect).
Via the common fibular nerve, the muscles in the anterior and lateral compartments of the leg.
Clinical significance
Sciatica
Pain caused by a compression or irritation of the sciatic nerve by a problem in the lower back is called sciatica. Common causes of sciatica include the following lower back and hip conditions: spinal disc herniation, degenerative disc disease, lumbar spinal stenosis, spondylolisthesis, and piriformis syndrome. Other acute causes of sciatica include coughing, muscular hypertension, and sneezing.
Injury
Sciatic nerve injury occurs between 0.5% and 2.0% of the time during a hip replacement. Sciatic nerve palsy is a complication of total hip arthroplasty with an incidence of 0.2% to 2.8% of the time, or with an incidence of 1.7% to 7.6% following revision. Following the procedure, in rare cases, a screw, broken piece of trochanteric wire, fragment of methyl methacrylate bone cement, or of a Burch-Schneider antiprofusio cage can impinge on the nerve; this can cause sciatic nerve palsy which may resolve after the fragment is removed and the nerve freed. The nerve can be surrounded in oxidized regenerated cellulose to prevent further scarring. Sciatic nerve palsy can also result from severe spinal stenosis following the procedure, which can be addressed by spinal decompression surgery. It is unclear if inversion therapy is able to decompress the sacral vertebrae; it may only work on the lumbar aspects of the sciatic nerves.
Sciatic nerve injury may also occur from improperly performed injections into the buttock, and may result in sensory loss.
Other disease
Bernese periacetabular osteotomy resulted in major nerve deficits in the sciatic or femoral nerves in 2.1% of 1760 patients, of whom approximately half experienced complete recovery within a mean of 5.5 months.
Sciatic nerve exploration can be done by endoscopy in a minimally invasive procedure to assess lesions of the nerve. Endoscopic treatment for sciatic nerve entrapment has been investigated in deep gluteal syndrome. Patients were treated with sciatic nerve decompression by resection of fibrovascular scar bands, piriformis tendon release, obturator internus, or quadratus femoris or by hamstring tendon scarring.
Anesthetic
Signals from the sciatic nerve and its branches can be blocked, in order to interrupt transmission of pain signal from the innervation area, by performing a regional nerve blockade called a sciatic nerve block.
Society and culture
According to Jewish law, the sciatic nerve (Hebrew: Gid hanasheh) may not be eaten by Jews, to commemorate Jacob's injury in his struggle with an angel.
Additional images
See also
Lesser sciatic notch
Greater sciatic notch
Notes
References
External links
()
()
Sciatica and the Sciatic Nerve
Nerves of the lower limb and lower torso | [
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234121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20storm%20petrel | European storm petrel | The European storm petrel, British storm petrel, or just storm petrel (Hydrobates pelagicus) is a seabird in the northern storm petrel family, Hydrobatidae. The small, square-tailed bird is entirely black except for a broad, white rump and a white band on the under wings, and it has a fluttering, bat-like flight. The large majority of the population breeds on islands off the coasts of Europe, with the greatest numbers in the Faroe Islands, United Kingdom, Ireland, and Iceland. The Mediterranean population is a separate subspecies, but is inseparable at sea from its Atlantic relatives; its strongholds are Filfla Island (Malta), Sicily, and the Balearic Islands.
The storm petrel nests in crevices and burrows, sometimes shared with other seabirds or rabbits, and lays a single white egg, usually on bare soil. The adults share the lengthy incubation and both feed the chick, which is not normally brooded after the first week. This bird is strongly migratory, spending the Northern Hemisphere winter mainly off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia, with some birds stopping in the seas adjoining West Africa, and a few remaining near their Mediterranean breeding islands. This petrel is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season. It feeds on small fish, squid, and zooplankton, while pattering on the sea's surface, and can find oily edible items by smell. The food is converted in the bird's stomach to an oily orange liquid, which is regurgitated when the chick is fed. Although usually silent at sea, the storm petrel has a chattering call given by both members of a pair in their courtship flight, and the male has a purring song given from the breeding chamber.
The storm petrel cannot survive on islands where land mammals such as rats and cats have been introduced, and it suffers natural predation from gulls, skuas, owls, and falcons. Although the population may be declining slightly, this petrel is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern due to its high total numbers. Its presence in rough weather at sea has led to various mariners' superstitions, and by analogy, to its use as a symbol by revolutionary and anarchist groups.
Taxonomy
The northern storm petrels, Hydrobatidae, are one of the four families of the Procellariiformes or "tubenoses", an order of seabirds that also includes the albatrosses in the family Diomedeidae, the petrels and shearwater in the family Procellariidae and the southern storm petrels in the family Oceanitidae. The northern storm petrels are more closely related to members of the family Procellariidae than they are to the southern storm petrels. The European storm petrel was formerly defined as the only member of the genus Hydrobates, the remainder of the Hydrobatinae being placed in Oceanodroma, although the least storm petrel was sometimes separated as the sole member of Halocyptena. Molecular phylogenetic studies found that Oceanodroma was paraphyletic with respect to Hydrobates. As a consequence, in 2021 all members of Oceanodroma were subsumed into an enlarged Hydrobates.
The storm petrel was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae as Procellaria pelagica. It was moved to the genus Hydrobates by Friedrich Boie in 1822. "Petrel", first recorded in 1602, is a corruption of pitteral, referring to the bird's pitter-pattering across the water. The suggestion that the word refers to St Peter's walking on the waves is a later invention. "Storm" arises from seamen's association of this bird with bad weather. In English, the name of the species was written as "stormy petrel" by some 19th-century authors.
The scientific name hydrobates derives from Greek "hydro-", from hydōr "water", and batēs "walker", and pelagicus from pelagikos "pelagic, of the (open) sea", from pelagos "sea, open sea, high sea". There are two recognised subspecies, the North Atlantic nominate subspecies, H. p. pelagicus (Linnaeus, 1758), and the Mediterranean H. p. melitensis (Schembri, 1843). Although there is some genetic support for classifying the southern form as a separate species, the morphology is not considered sufficiently different from that of the nominate subspecies to justify a split.
Description
The storm petrel is a small bird, in length with a wingspan. It weighs , with an average of . It is square-tailed and has all-black plumage except for a snow-white rump that extends to the sides of the tail base and a broad white band on the under wings. Juveniles in fresh plumage can also show a narrow white bar on the upper wing. The plumage becomes dark brown rather than black as it becomes worn. No obvious differences between the sexes are seen, although in the Mediterranean subspecies, at least, most captured birds can be sexed using a formula which involves multiplying the wing length by the length of the white rump band; females are slightly larger and have a longer white rump than males. The Mediterranean subspecies has longer wings and a heavier bill on average than the nominate form, but neither sex nor subspecies can be determined by observation at sea.
Moult is prolonged in all tubenoses, since they must maintain an ability to fly. Northern populations start replacing their plumage after those further south, reflecting the later start to their breeding season. Birds in a Welsh colony commenced moulting in early August, while populations in northern Spain and the Balearics started in early July and mid-June, respectively. Breeding birds moult later than non-breeders.
The storm petrel's large nasal olfactory bulbs facilitate a keen sense of smell (unlike most birds), and the birds have a distinctive musty aroma which can help researchers locate breeding colonies. Individual petrels recognise their own body scent and can use it to locate their nests in the dark.
Their flight is weak-looking and resembles that of a bat, with fluttering interspersed with short glides. When feeding, the birds hang with raised wings and patter on the surface with their feet, but unlike Wilson's storm petrel, do not look as if they are walking on the water. Birds sometimes settle on the sea. Like other petrels, the European storm petrel cannot walk properly on land, but shuffles on its tarsi; once there is enough room, the bird flaps its wings to support itself on its toes.
The European storm petrel can be distinguished from related Western Palaearctic species by the white bar on its under wing and its distinctive fluttering flight. Compared to Leach's storm petrel, band-rumped storm petrel, and the recently described Monteiro's storm petrel, it is also smaller, darker, and shorter-winged, and has a square tail. Wilson's storm petrel lacks an under wing bar, and has long legs with the feet visible beyond the tail.
Voice
In its display flight, the storm petrel gives a call consisting of eight or more repetitions of a fast ter-CHICK sounds ending in a trill (rapid alternation of notes). This chattering, staccato call is highly variable in pitch, stress, and length. Both sexes make the call, which is used as an advertisement for a mate, for pair recognition, and in the nuptial flight. The details of the vocalisation vary geographically, including between the Atlantic and Mediterranean populations, and birds recognise calls from their own breeding area. The chatter-call of the Mediterranean subspecies is distinctive. It has the first two notes running into each other, and the final element is sometimes doubled. The storm petrel is usually silent at sea, but sometimes gives the chattering call. A purring song arrr-r-r-r-r-r-r... ending with a sharp chikka is given in the burrow only by the male; it was described by Charles Oldham as "like a fairy being sick". Other vocalisations include a fast wick-wick-wick, sometimes given in flight, and an up-CHERRK alarm which resembles the chatter-call. Chicks give a whistling pee-pee-pee call when being fed, and a faster version of this vocalisation is used by adults and young to signal distress.
Distribution and habitat
Storm petrels breed only in the Western Palaearctic on islands off the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe. The largest colonies are in the Faroe Islands (150,000–400,000 pairs), United Kingdom (20,000–150,000), Ireland (50,000–100,000), and Iceland (50,000–100,000), with smaller breeding areas off Norway, Malta, Spain, the Canary Islands, Italy, France, and Greece. The strongholds of the H. p. melitensis subspecies are the islands of Filfla (Malta), Sicily, and the Balearic Islands, with smaller sites elsewhere in the Mediterranean. This latter form also breeds in North Africa; definitely in Tunisia, probably in Algeria and possibly in Morocco. Because of its nocturnal habits and the problems of accessing some of the small islands on which it breeds, the distribution is poorly known. A colony was discovered as recently as 2009, on Lampedusa. The storm petrel has been recorded as a vagrant in several European countries as far east as the Ukraine, in the Guinea region of West Africa, and in Turkey, Israel, Lebanon, and the US. Although no North American records were reported for more than 30 years after the first in 1970, this bird has been more or less annual in small numbers since 2003.
The storm petrel breeds on exposed and usually uninhabited islands, which it visits only at night. It otherwise frequents mid-depth waters away from the coastal zone, but not over the ocean deeps. In the breeding season, it is mainly found between the 10–25°C July isotherms. In Europe, it is rarely seen from land except in autumn storms.
The storm petrel is migratory, spending the Northern Hemisphere winter mainly in cool waters off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia, south to latitude 38°S and east to KwaZulu-Natal. Some birds stay north of the equator in the seas adjoining Mauritania and Rio de Oro, and a few remain near the breeding islands, especially in the Mediterranean. It is strictly oceanic outside the breeding season, although it is described as regularly seen from land in West Africa. Young birds do not return to the breeding colonies until their second or third year. Birds mostly head south from the breeding islands between September and November, reaching West Africa by mid-November and the south Atlantic by the end of the year. The return passage starts in April, with late records from the tropics and further south probably representing subadult birds that will not breed that year.
Behaviour
Breeding
The storm petrel is sexually mature at age 4–5 years, with the Mediterranean subspecies typically breeding a year earlier than the Atlantic form. Breeding happens in colonies and normally begins in late May or June. Pairs have a repeated nocturnal display flight in which the male chases the female, the chase being accompanied by flight calls. Some near-adult birds may pair up and occupy a hole at the same time, prior to breeding in the following year.
Storm petrels normally nest in crevices between or under rocks, or burrow in the soil. When they make their own tunnels, they loosen the earth with their bills and kick out the debris with their feet. The birds less commonly nest in walls, under buildings, or down rabbit burrows. Disused or occupied burrows of Atlantic puffins and Manx shearwaters are sometimes used, and the petrel pair may share a common entrance with those seabirds, rabbits, or other pairs of its own species. Where other occupants are present, the petrels dig a side burrow or use an existing low-roofed tunnel which the larger birds or rabbits cannot easily enter. Even so, puffins and shearwaters sometimes access and destroy nests, and adult petrels may be killed by their larger neighbours. Human-made plastic nesting tubes are readily used, and may provide protection against predators. Birds usually mate for life and use the same hole every year.
The nest tunnel is long and across, with a slightly narrower entrance. The nest chamber is typically unlined, although pairs may bring in some grass, bracken, or seaweed. Although the storm petrel is generally not territorial when breeding, a pair defends the nest chamber itself after the eggs have been laid.
The clutch is a single egg, usually pure white, sometimes with some reddish-brown spots that soon disappear. The average size of the egg is , and it weighs , of which 6% is shell. If an egg is lost early enough, a replacement may be laid on rare occasions. This is very unusual for tubenoses. The eggs are incubated by both parents for 38–50days, the longer periods arising when the eggs have become chilled through adult absence. One adult typically spends three days at a time on the egg while its partner feeds at sea. The chicks are altricial and covered with silver-grey down, and are fed by both parents with their regurgitated oily stomach contents. The adults do not normally stay with the chick after the first week, visiting only to bring food. After about 50days, the chicks are fed less regularly, sometimes with gaps of several days, and the parents may stop visiting completely shortly before the chick leaves the nest. The chicks fledge about 56–86days after hatching, and receive no parental support after leaving the nest hole.
Tubenoses have smaller egg clutches and much longer and more variable incubation and fledging times than passerines with similarly sized eggs, resembling swifts in these developmental factors. Tubenoses and swifts have generally secure nest sites, but their food sources are unreliable, whereas passerines are vulnerable in the nest but food is usually plentiful. In the particular case of the storm petrel, it has a body temperature perhaps 3°C lower than other small birds, and this may also contribute to the lengthy incubation.
The adult petrel's annual death rate is 12–13%, and the typical life span is 11years. Longevity records established from bird ringing recoveries include a bird aged 31years11 months9 days, and another aged more than 33years.
Feeding
The storm petrel normally flies within of the water surface and typically feeds by picking items off the sea as it patters over the surface. Birds have been observed diving for food to a depth of not more than . and it is claimed, using indirect measurements, that the Mediterranean subspecies reaches depths of up to ). A bird may range up to over the course of two or three days in search of food. Although the bird usually feeds during the day, in the breeding season petrels will often feed at night close to the shore.
The typical prey consists of surface organisms such as small fish, squid, crustaceans and jellyfish. The storm petrel will also eat offal and oily food, often located by smell, and will follow ships. In the Atlantic, more than half the food items are zooplankton and the fish caught include small herring and sprats; whale carcasses are scavenged where available. During digestion, the plankton is quickly converted to an oily orange liquid that owes its colour to carotenoids. Larger prey items take longer to digest. The oil, rich in vitamin A, is produced by a large gland in the stomach. The Mediterranean subspecies' diet is mainly fish, particularly Mediterranean sand eels. Petrels also catch opossum shrimps from waters close to the colony. Bluefin tuna farms are exploited on the Maltese island of Filfla; birds from the large local colony feed on the unwashed food fed to the farmed tuna, a mixture of fish, squid and prawns which produces a sizeable oily slick. Small numbers of insects are caught near breeding colonies, and some plant material, including angiosperm seeds and sorrel, has been found in the stomach contents. A study on Leach's storm petrel, which consumes similar items, showed that the petrels were snipping pieces off plant leaves in flight, but it could not be confirmed that this was in the course of catching insects. Nasal glands remove excess salt from seawater consumed by the petrel as a concentrated solution excreted through the nostrils.
Petrels can be attracted to boats with "chum", a malodorous mixture typically containing fish heads, bones and offal, with added fish oil and popcorn to aid flotation. An apparently empty ocean will soon fill with hundreds of birds attracted by the smell. The attraction of the fishy odour is sometimes enhanced by the addition of dimethylsulphide (DMS) a chemical also naturally produced by some planktonic organisms, although there are doubts about the safety of this possible carcinogen.
Predators and parasites
Adults and young are vulnerable to predation at the breeding colonies, their only defence being to spit oil. Petrels cannot breed on islands where rats have been introduced, and feral cats frequently kill these birds on Foula in the Shetland Islands. The American mink, a non-native species in Europe, is a strong swimmer, and can colonise islands up to from the mainland. Natural predators of petrels and other seabirds include skuas and large gulls. The yellow-legged gull is a particular problem in the Mediterranean, and great skuas were estimated to kill 7,500 petrels a year on St Kilda, an unsustainable number. Some great black-backed gulls on the Atlantic islands specialise in taking seabird chicks at night, and peregrine falcons hunt adults at sea. Localised predators include Eleonora's falcon on the Columbretes Islands and the nocturnal barn owl on the Balearics; a few owls can wipe out a colony. The little owl is also a predator of both adults and young where it occurs.
Feather mites of at least two species have been found on the storm petrel, with Halipeurus pelagicus occurring at much higher densities than Philoceanus robertsi. The flea Xenopsylla gratiosa and dermanyssid mites are commonly found, with lower numbers of ticks. These blood-sucking parasites slow the growth rate of nestlings and may affect their survival rate.
Storm petrels seem to be largely free of blood parasites, even when in close proximity to carrier species such as the yellow-legged gull. It has been suggested that seabird species with long incubation periods and long lives have well-developed immune systems that prevent serious blood parasitism.
Status
The European population of the storm petrel has been estimated at 430,000–510,000 breeding pairs or 1,290,000–1,530,000 individual birds and makes up 95% of the world total numbers. The population estimate includes 11,000 to 16,000 breeding pairs of the Mediterranean subspecies. It is very difficult to accurately determine storm petrel populations. The main method used is listening for responses to playback calls at burrow entrances, but infra-red filming may also be an option.
Although this species' population now appears to be declining, the decrease is not rapid or large enough to trigger conservation vulnerability criteria. Given its high numbers, this petrel is therefore classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of least concern. The perceived decline may be due increased predation from gulls, skuas and introduced mammals. Eradication of rats protects seabird colonies and may enable recolonisation of islands cleared of rodents. Predation of cave-nesting petrels in the Balearics by yellow-legged gulls is restricted to relatively few individual gulls specialising in this prey item; this means the problems can be controlled by selective culling and the provision of plastic nest boxes.
Because it feeds in flight, the storm petrel is less affected by oil pollution than other seabirds, and may be able to use its good sense of smell to avoid slicks, although a large spill near a breeding colony could have serious consequences.
In culture
Its association with storms makes the storm petrel a bird of bad omen to mariners; they are said to either foretell or cause bad weather. A more prosaic explanation of their appearance in rough weather is that, like most oceanic seabirds, they rely on the winds to support them in flight and just sit on the water surface when becalmed. The birds were sometimes thought to be the souls of perished sailors, and killing a petrel was believed to bring bad luck. The petrel's reputation led to the old name of witch, although the commonest of the folk names is Mother Carey's chicken, a name also used for storm petrels in general in the UK and North America from at least 1767. This is believed to be a corruption of mater cara (dear mother, the Virgin Mary), a reference to the supernatural Mother Carey, or a superstitious modification of an earlier Mother Mary's chicken to reduce the potency of the religious name. The Mother Carey character appears a number of times in literature. In the Cicely Fox Smith poem "Mother Carey", she calls old sailors to return to the sea, but in John Masefield's poem of the same name she is seen as a wrecker of ships. She appears as a fairy in Charles Kingsley's The Water Babies and is depicted in one of Jessie Willcox Smith's illustrations for the book.
The association of the storm petrel with turbulent weather has led to its use as a metaphor for revolutionary views, the epithet "stormy petrel" being applied by various authors to characters as disparate as Roman tribune Publius Clodius Pulcher, a Presbyterian minister in the early Carolinas, an Afghan governor, or an Arkansas politician.
A 1901 poem by Russian writer Maxim Gorky is invariably titled in English as "The Song of the Stormy Petrel", although that may not be a perfectly accurate translation of the Russian title "Песня о Буревестнике", because "Буревестник" (the name of the bird in Russian) translates to the English general term "storm bird". The poem was called "the battle anthem of the revolution", and earned Gorky the nickname "The Storm Petrel of the Revolution".
Various revolutionary anarchist groups adopted the bird's name, either as a group identifier, as in the Spanish Civil War, or for their publications. The Stormy Petrel (Burevestnik) was the title of the magazine of the Anarchist Communist Federation in Russia around the time of the 1905 revolution, and is still an imprint of the London group of the Anarchist Federation. To honour Gorky and his work, the name Burevestnik was bestowed on a variety of institutions, locations, and products in the USSR.
Notes
References
Cited texts
External links
European storm petrel
European storm petrel
Birds of Europe
Birds of Scandinavia
Birds of Iceland
European storm petrel
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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234129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc%20finger | Zinc finger | A zinc finger is a small protein structural motif that is characterized by the coordination of one or more zinc ions (Zn2+) in order to stabilize the fold. It was originally coined to describe the finger-like appearance of a hypothesized structure from the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) transcription factor IIIA. However, it has been found to encompass a wide variety of differing protein structures in eukaryotic cells. Xenopus laevis TFIIIA was originally demonstrated to contain zinc and require the metal for function in 1983, the first such reported zinc requirement for a gene regulatory protein followed soon thereafter by the Krüppel factor in Drosophila. It often appears as a metal-binding domain in multi-domain proteins.
Proteins that contain zinc fingers (zinc finger proteins) are classified into several different structural families. Unlike many other clearly defined supersecondary structures such as Greek keys or β hairpins, there are a number of types of zinc fingers, each with a unique three-dimensional architecture. A particular zinc finger protein's class is determined by this three-dimensional structure, but it can also be recognized based on the primary structure of the protein or the identity of the ligands coordinating the zinc ion. In spite of the large variety of these proteins, however, the vast majority typically function as interaction modules that bind DNA, RNA, proteins, or other small, useful molecules, and variations in structure serve primarily to alter the binding specificity of a particular protein.
Since their original discovery and the elucidation of their structure, these interaction modules have proven ubiquitous in the biological world and may be found in 3% of the genes of the human genome. In addition, zinc fingers have become extremely useful in various therapeutic and research capacities. Engineering zinc fingers to have an affinity for a specific sequence is an area of active research, and zinc finger nucleases and zinc finger transcription factors are two of the most important applications of this to be realized to date.
History
Zinc fingers were first identified in a study of transcription in the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis in the laboratory of Aaron Klug. A study of the transcription of a particular RNA sequence revealed that the binding strength of a small transcription factor (transcription factor IIIA; TFIIIA) was due to the presence of zinc-coordinating finger-like structures. Amino acid sequencing of TFIIIA revealed nine tandem sequences of 30 amino acids, including two invariant pairs of cysteine and histidine residues. Extended x-ray absorption fine structure confirmed the identity of the zinc ligands: two cysteines and two histidines. The DNA-binding loop formed by the coordination of these ligands by zinc were thought to resemble fingers, hence the name. This was followed soon thereafter by the discovery of the Krüppel factor in Drosophila by the Schuh team in 1986. More recent work in the characterization of proteins in various organisms has revealed the importance of zinc ions in polypeptide stabilization.
The crystal structures of zinc finger-DNA complexes solved in 1991 and 1993 revealed the canonical pattern of interactions of zinc fingers with DNA. The binding of zinc finger is found to be distinct from many other DNA-binding proteins that bind DNA through the 2-fold symmetry of the double helix, instead zinc fingers are linked linearly in tandem to bind nucleic acid sequences of varying lengths. Zinc fingers often bind to a sequence of DNA known as the GC box. The modular nature of the zinc finger motif allows for a large number of combinations of DNA and RNA sequences to be bound with high degree of affinity and specificity, and is therefore ideally suited for engineering protein that can be targeted to and bind specific DNA sequences. In 1994, it was shown that an artificially-constructed three-finger protein can block the expression of an oncogene in a mouse cell line. Zinc fingers fused to various other effector domains, some with therapeutic significance, have since been constructed.
Domain
Zinc finger (Znf) domains are relatively small protein motifs that contain multiple finger-like protrusions that make tandem contacts with their target molecule. Some of these domains bind zinc, but many do not, instead binding other metals such as iron, or no metal at all. For example, some family members form salt bridges to stabilise the finger-like folds. They were first identified as a DNA-binding motif in transcription factor TFIIIA from Xenopus laevis (African clawed frog), however they are now recognised to bind DNA, RNA, protein, and/or lipid substrates. Their binding properties depend on the amino acid sequence of the finger domains and on the linker between fingers, as well as on the higher-order structures and the number of fingers. Znf domains are often found in clusters, where fingers can have different binding specificities. Znf motifs occur in several unrelated protein superfamilies, varying in both sequence and structure. They display considerable versatility in binding modes, even between members of the same class (e.g., some bind DNA, others protein), suggesting that Znf motifs are stable scaffolds that have evolved specialised functions. For example, Znf-containing proteins function in gene transcription, translation, mRNA trafficking, cytoskeleton organization, epithelial development, cell adhesion, protein folding, chromatin remodeling, and zinc sensing, to name but a few. Zinc-binding motifs are stable structures, and they rarely undergo conformational changes upon binding their target.
Classes
Initially, the term zinc finger was used solely to describe DNA-binding motif found in Xenopus laevis; however, it is now used to refer to any number of structures related by their coordination of a zinc ion. In general, zinc fingers coordinate zinc ions with a combination of cysteine and histidine residues. Originally, the number and order of these residues was used to classify different types of zinc fingers ( e.g., Cys2His2, Cys4, and Cys6). More recently, a more systematic method has been used to classify zinc finger proteins instead. This method classifies zinc finger proteins into "fold groups" based on the overall shape of the protein backbone in the folded domain. The most common "fold groups" of zinc fingers are the Cys2His2-like (the "classic zinc finger"), treble clef, and zinc ribbon.
The following table shows the different structures and their key features:
Cys2His2
The Cys2His2-like fold group (C2H2) is by far the best-characterized class of zinc fingers, and is common in mammalian transcription factors. Such domains adopt a simple ββα fold and have the amino acid sequence motif:
X2-Cys-X2,4-Cys-X12-His-X3,4,5-His
This class of zinc fingers can have a variety of functions such as binding RNA and mediating protein-protein interactions, but is best known for its role in sequence-specific DNA-binding proteins such as Zif268 (Egr1). In such proteins, individual zinc finger domains typically occur as tandem repeats with two, three, or more fingers comprising the DNA-binding domain of the protein. These tandem arrays can bind in the major groove of DNA and are typically spaced at 3-bp intervals. The α-helix of each domain (often called the "recognition helix") can make sequence-specific contacts to DNA bases; residues from a single recognition helix can contact four or more bases to yield an overlapping pattern of contacts with adjacent zinc fingers.
Gag-knuckle
This fold group is defined by two short β-strands connected by a turn (zinc knuckle) followed by a short helix or loop and resembles the classical Cys2His2 motif with a large portion of the helix and β-hairpin truncated.
The retroviral nucleocapsid (NC) protein from HIV and other related retroviruses are examples of proteins possessing these motifs. The gag-knuckle zinc finger in the HIV NC protein is the target of a class of drugs known as zinc finger inhibitors.
Treble-clef
The treble-clef motif consists of a β-hairpin at the N-terminus and an α-helix at the C-terminus that each contribute two ligands for zinc binding, although a loop and a second β-hairpin of varying length and conformation can be present between the N-terminal β-hairpin and the C-terminal α-helix. These fingers are present in a diverse group of proteins that frequently do not share sequence or functional similarity with each other. The best-characterized proteins containing treble-clef zinc fingers are the nuclear hormone receptors.
Zinc ribbon
The zinc ribbon fold is characterised by two beta-hairpins forming two structurally similar zinc-binding sub-sites.
Zn2/Cys6
The canonical members of this class contain a binuclear zinc cluster in which two zinc ions are bound by six cysteine residues. These zinc fingers can be found in several transcription factors including the yeast Gal4 protein.
Miscellaneous
The zinc finger antiviral protein (ZAP) binds to the CpG site. It is used in mammals for antiviral defense.
Applications
Various protein engineering techniques can be used to alter the DNA-binding specificity of zinc fingers and tandem repeats of such engineered zinc fingers can be used to target desired genomic DNA sequences. Fusing a second protein domain such as a transcriptional activator or repressor to an array of engineered zinc fingers that bind near the promoter of a given gene can be used to alter the transcription of that gene. Fusions between engineered zinc finger arrays and protein domains that cleave or otherwise modify DNA can also be used to target those activities to desired genomic loci. The most common applications for engineered zinc finger arrays include zinc finger transcription factors and zinc finger nucleases, but other applications have also been described. Typical engineered zinc finger arrays have between 3 and 6 individual zinc finger motifs and bind target sites ranging from 9 basepairs to 18 basepairs in length. Arrays with 6 zinc finger motifs are particularly attractive because they bind a target site that is long enough to have a good chance of being unique in a mammalian genome.
Zinc finger nucleases
Engineered zinc finger arrays are often fused to a DNA cleavage domain (usually the cleavage domain of FokI) to generate zinc finger nucleases. Such zinc finger-FokI fusions have become useful reagents for manipulating genomes of many higher organisms including Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, tobacco, corn, zebrafish, various types of mammalian cells, and rats. Targeting a double-strand break to a desired genomic locus can be used to introduce frame-shift mutations into the coding sequence of a gene due to the error-prone nature of the non-homologous DNA repair pathway. If a homologous DNA "donor sequence" is also used then the genomic locus can be converted to a defined sequence via the homology directed repair pathway. An ongoing clinical trial is evaluating Zinc finger nucleases that disrupt the CCR5 gene in CD4+ human T-cells as a potential treatment for HIV/AIDS.
Methods of engineering zinc finger arrays
The majority of engineered zinc finger arrays are based on the zinc finger domain of the murine transcription factor Zif268, although some groups have used zinc finger arrays based on the human transcription factor SP1. Zif268 has three individual zinc finger motifs that collectively bind a 9 bp sequence with high affinity. The structure of this protein bound to DNA was solved in 1991 and stimulated a great deal of research into engineered zinc finger arrays. In 1994 and 1995, a number of groups used phage display to alter the specificity of a single zinc finger of Zif268. There are two main methods currently used to generate engineered zinc finger arrays, modular assembly, and a bacterial selection system, and there is some debate about which method is best suited for most applications.
The most straightforward method to generate new zinc finger arrays is to combine smaller zinc finger "modules" of known specificity. The structure of the zinc finger protein Zif268 bound to DNA described by Pavletich and Pabo in their 1991 publication has been key to much of this work and describes the concept of obtaining fingers for each of the 64 possible base pair triplets and then mixing and matching these fingers to design proteins with any desired sequence specificity.
The most common modular assembly process involves combining separate zinc fingers that can each recognize a 3-basepair DNA sequence to generate 3-finger, 4-, 5-, or 6-finger arrays that recognize target sites ranging from 9 basepairs to 18 basepairs in length. Another method uses 2-finger modules to generate zinc finger arrays with up to six individual zinc fingers. The Barbas Laboratory of The Scripps Research Institute used phage display to develop and characterize zinc finger domains that recognize most DNA triplet sequences while another group isolated and characterized individual fingers from the human genome. A potential drawback with modular assembly in general is that specificities of individual zinc finger can overlap and can depend on the context of the surrounding zinc fingers and DNA. A recent study demonstrated that a high proportion of 3-finger zinc finger arrays generated by modular assembly fail to bind their intended target with sufficient affinity in a bacterial two-hybrid assay and fail to function as zinc finger nucleases, but the success rate was somewhat higher when sites of the form GNNGNNGNN were targeted.
A subsequent study used modular assembly to generate zinc finger nucleases with both 3-finger arrays and 4-finger arrays and observed a much higher success rate with 4-finger arrays. A variant of modular assembly that takes the context of neighboring fingers into account has also been reported and this method tends to yield proteins with improved performance relative to standard modular assembly.
Numerous selection methods have been used to generate zinc finger arrays capable of targeting desired sequences. Initial selection efforts utilized phage display to select proteins that bound a given DNA target from a large pool of partially randomized zinc finger arrays. This technique is difficult to use on more than a single zinc finger at a time, so a multi-step process that generated a completely optimized 3-finger array by adding and optimizing a single zinc finger at a time was developed. More recent efforts have utilized yeast one-hybrid systems, bacterial one-hybrid and two-hybrid systems, and mammalian cells. A promising new method to select novel 3-finger zinc finger arrays utilizes a bacterial two-hybrid system and has been dubbed "OPEN" by its creators. This system combines pre-selected pools of individual zinc fingers that were each selected to bind a given triplet and then utilizes a second round of selection to obtain 3-finger arrays capable of binding a desired 9-bp sequence. This system was developed by the Zinc Finger Consortium as an alternative to commercial sources of engineered zinc finger arrays. It is somewhat difficult to directly compare the binding properties of proteins generated with this method to proteins generated by modular assembly as the specificity profiles of proteins generated by the OPEN method have never been reported.
Examples
This entry represents the CysCysHisCys (C2HC) type zinc finger domain found in eukaryotes. Proteins containing these domains include:
MYST family histone acetyltransferases
Myelin transcription factor Myt1
Suppressor of tumourigenicity protein 18 (ST18)
See also
B-box zinc finger
DNA-binding protein
Krüppel associated box
RING finger domain
Sequence motif
Steroid hormone receptor
Structural motif
TAL effector
Transcription Activator-Like Effector Nuclease
Zinc finger inhibitor
Zinc finger nuclease
Zinc Finger Transcription Factor
References
External links
C2H2 family at PlantTFDB: Plant Transcription Factor Database
The double helix between the zinc finger
Zinc Finger Tools design and information site
Human KZNF Gene Catalog
Zinc finger C2H2-type domain in PROSITE
Entry for zinc finger class C2H2 in the SMART database
The Zinc Finger Consortium
ZiFiT- Zinc Finger Design Tool
Zinc Finger Consortium Materials from Addgene
Predicting DNA-binding Specificities for C2H2 Zinc Finger Proteins
Protein domains
Protein structural motifs
Protein folds
DNA-binding substances
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234131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kermit%20Cintr%C3%B3n | Kermit Cintrón | Kermit Cintrón (born October 22, 1979) is a Puerto Rican professional boxer. He held the IBF welterweight title from 2006 to 2008, and has challenged once for the WBC super welterweight title in 2011.
Early and personal life
Cintrón had a tough childhood. He witnessed his mother lie in bed for months before she died of cancer. Unable to care for Cintrón and his siblings, Cintrón's father sent him to the United States, with Cintrón's uncle, Benjamin Serrano, a former Middleweight contender who had fought Frank Fletcher among others. Cintrón's father, however, kept regular contact with his kids. But when Cintrón was 13, another tragic blow shook him: His father died of a heart attack, leaving him and his siblings orphaned on both sides. He is married to María Cintrón, the couple have three children. Two daughters, Denali and Savannah and a son, Clemente.
Cintrón found wrestling and boxing to be an outlet from his personal troubles, so he started spending more and more of his time practicing those sports. While attending William Tennent High School in Warminster, Pennsylvania, he became an accomplished high-school wrestler on the same team as actor Mike Vogel. After competing at William Tennent, Cintron wrestled at Thaddeus Stevens College of Technology a Junior College in Lancaster, Pennsylvania.
In early 2008, Cintrón was trained by Emanuel Steward, who focused his training in boxing and counterattacks. He decided to finish this partnership, based on the fact that Steward's time was limited due to several other compromises. Despite this, both conserved a close friendship. During this timeframe, Cintrón abandoned Main Events, signing a promotional contract with Lou DiBella. His next trainer was Ronnie Shields, who emphasized on a faster training pace. Shields preferred a more aggressive style, reminiscent of the one presented during the early stage of Cintrón's early career. Brian Caldwell was employed as conditioning coach, in the process modifying his weight routines.
Boxing career
Welterweight
Cintrón did not start boxing in the amateurs until he was 19. He compiled a record of 24 wins and 5 losses as an amateur.
On October 7, 2000, Cintrón knocked out Jesse Williams in two rounds in Lancaster to begin his professional career. Cintrón thus began an undefeated streak that would last for more than three-and-a-half years.
One of his toughest tests during that streak came against Omar Davila on February 16, 2002. Cintrón took the fight on one week's notice and traveled to his opponent's hometown of San Antonio. Despite being cut on the side of one of his eyes in the first round, Cintrón overcame adversity, coming back to defeat Davila by knockout in round two.
Cintrón was featured on NBC on May 18, 2003, against Puerto Rican veteran Luis Rosario, and he won by knockout 59 seconds into round one.
On July 17, 2004, Cintrón made his HBO Boxing debut, knocking out Teddy Reid in eight rounds.
KO Magazine featured Cintrón in an article, which compared his punching power to that of Félix Trinidad and Thomas Hearns.
Still undefeated and now considered a rising star in the division, Cintrón was scheduled for his first world title bout against WBO welterweight champion Antonio Margarito on April 23, 2005, as part of the undercard of a Shane Mosley win by unanimous decision against the Guatemalan-American boxer David Estrada. Cintrón was dropped by Margarito four times en route to a fifth-round knockout loss.
In early 2006, Cintrón rebounded with a tenth-round technical knockout of Estrada, thus reestablishing himself as a contender in the welterweight division.
IBF welterweight champion
Cintrón then won his first title belt in a match against Mark Suarez for the IBF crown that had been vacated on June 20, 2006 by Floyd Mayweather, Jr.
On July 14, 2007, Cintrón was dominant in his first title defense, knocking down Argentine Walter Matthysse three times on his way to a knockout victory twenty-nine seconds into the second round. Prior to this match, Matthysse had never been knocked down by any opponent, although he had suffered a tenth-round technical knockout in May 2006 at the hands of Paul Williams. (The Cintrón-Matthysse bout was the main undercard of a WBO title bout between challenger Williams and incumbent Margarito)
Cintrón and Williams were scheduled for an IBF/WBO title unification bout on February 2, 2008. But as a result of an injury to Cintrón's right hand sustained during his bout with Jesse Feliciano the fight has been canceled.
Cintrón lost his IBF title to Antonio Margarito by knockout on an April 12 broadcast of HBO's World Championship Boxing in a rematch from Atlantic City, NJ, on the undercard of Miguel Cotto vs. Alfonso Gómez. In the sixth round, Cintrón fell to the canvas after receiving a one-two punch to the head and a body shot and did not get up before the referee concluded the protective count. It was the first time he had lost a professional fight by a knockout (his previous loss to Margarito being scored as a technical knockout).
Cintrón returned to action against Lovemore N'dou, competing in an eliminatory fight sanctioned by the IBF. The fight took place on November 15, 2008, in a card held in Nashville, Tennessee. Early in the fight, Cintrón began on the offensive, while N'dou clinched regularly. This pattern slowed the fight's tempo throughout the contest. In the third round, Cintrón connected a solid punch, N'dou tried to counterattack and exchange but was ineffective, eventually returning to a strategy based on holds. The numerous clinches resulted in head butts, the referee issued numerous warnings to N'dou for these, eventually deducting a point in the ninth. In the tenth round, an accidental headbutt opened a laceration over Cintrón's eyebrow. In the eleventh round, he was able to injure N'dou with a punch, but did not continue pressing the offensive. Subsequently, the judges awarded Cintrón scores of 117-110, 115-112 and 116-111.
Light middleweight
Cintrón's victory over N'dou made him Joshua Clottey's mandatory challenger. The fight was discussed and preliminary agreements scheduled it for February 21, 2009. However, after receiving a more lucrative offer, Cintrón decided to fight Sergio Martínez for the World Boxing Council's interim light middleweight championship. The bout took place on February 14, 2009, and ended in a controversial majority draw. The opening rounds held no meaningful action, with Cintrón holding an early edge due to his aggression and cleaner punching. By the fourth round, Martínez started moving around with his hands down in an effort to draw Cintrón into a mistake, but to no avail, as there continued to be more clinching than punching. Martínez opened a cut over Cintrón's left eye early in the fifth round. Late in the seventh round, a left hand to the head hurt Cintrón, and after backing into the ropes, he went down to his knees before Martínez could attack. Cintrón claimed he was headbutted while the referee Frank Santore continued the count. After Cintrón's protests and a lot of confusion in the ring, Santore allowed the bout to continue, saying Cintrón was up at nine and that he never stopped the fight. Martínez went after Cintrón once the eighth round commenced and taunted him after landing punches to the head. Cintrón responded with sustained action of his own, but it was Martínez ending the round with another left hand to the head. The ninth round was favorable for Martínez, but Cintrón rebounded in the tenth round. Martínez lost a point for a punch to the back of the head in the final round. Scores were 116-110 for Martínez and 113-113 draw.
Cintrón vs. Angulo, Williams
On May 30, 2009 Cintron defeated Alfredo Angulo, who was unbeaten, by unanimous decision. This high-profile win put Cintrón into position to fight Paul Williams, at the time one of boxing's top fighters, pound for pound. This fight took place on May 8, 2010. Although Williams had averaged over a hundred punches per round in his previous outings, Cintrón was able to neutralize his punch output over the first three rounds by effectively jabbing and countering with his right hand. This resulted in a very technical three rounds of boxing and, not surprisingly, voluminous jeers from the spectating crowd. In the fourth round, however, the combatants began to exchange punches, each landing hard power punches on one another. One such exchange caused an entanglement between the fighters, sending Williams to the canvas and Cintrón through the ropes, where he landed on a media table abutting the exterior of the ring. He then fell to the floor and was immediately attended to by ringside doctors. Boxing rules dictate that a fighter, in these circumstances, is afforded a five-minute period with which to recover; however, given that Cintrón was advised by doctors not to move, the fight was called and Cintrón was removed from the arena bound to a stretcher. Since three rounds had been completed, the fight became official and Williams was declared the winner by split decision.
On July 9, 2010, Cintrón lost a unanimous decision to Carlos Molina, who had an 18-4-2 record going into the fight.
On August 12, 2011, Cintrón won a unanimous decision over Antwone Smith.
Cintrón vs. Álvarez
On November 26, 2011, Cintrón was knocked out in five rounds by Canelo Álvarez.
Mixed martial arts career
Public challenge to Sean Sherk
In April 2007, Floyd Mayweather, Jr. publicly claimed that any boxer could make the transition into mixed martial arts and win. In response, Ultimate Fighting Championship's president, Dana White, issued him a challenge to fight the promotion's lightweight champion, Sean Sherk. Mayweather later said that he did not wish to compete in the discipline. However, Cintrón stated that he was willing to fight Sherk in his place. "I want the fight," said Cintrón, who was 27-1 with 25 KOs. "I can wrestle. I can box. I can beat those UFC fighters at their own game. Tell Mr. White to make me an offer and I'll take on his guy...."
Lingering interest
Seven years later, Mike Sloan of Sherdog argued that "If Cintron [sic] would have had the opportunity to compete in MMA when he first got into boxing, he would have torn most of the lower weight divisions asunder" and "would have been a top contender in MMA." Sloan argued that his wrestling background and "ferocious banging style" represented "a dynamic combination that would have given MMA contenders all sorts of trouble" had he completed the transition in his prime.
In June 2017, Cintrón once again commented on his interest noting that he " would have loved to get into mixed martial arts. At that time I was rising in the sport of boxing, but I would have crossed to MMA if the opportunity had come. I didn't know anyone in that sport so I never proceeded with it. Never looked into it as I should have, I guess. I think I would have done great." He noted that he "would if UFC called". Latter that year, Cintrón expressed interest in accepting Conor McGregor's challenge for boxers to "come into his world" and step into the UFC octagon.
Formal transition
In November 2019, Cintrón announced that upon retiring from boxing, he would try his hand at MMA, still felling confident that his background in amateur wrestling would facilitate the transition. When queried why it took so long, he responded "[o]ne time, the name Sean Sherk came up, and I was all about it! And that kind of died out so I continued with my boxing career. I've tried! I've tried over the years to get connected to Dana White and see if I can get an opportunity but it never came about. Hopefully this happens this time around!" For this, he added 20 pounds to his frame, given the disparity of the welterweight division between sports. Cintrón also retook his wrestling training, working with an NCAA Division-1 wrestler and a former UFC fighter.
Professional boxing record
See also
List of welterweight boxing champions
List of IBF world champions
List of Puerto Rican boxing world champions
References
External links
1979 births
International Boxing Federation champions
Living people
People from Carolina, Puerto Rico
Puerto Rican male boxers
Light-middleweight boxers
World welterweight boxing champions
People from Warminster, Pennsylvania | [
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234132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klystron | Klystron | A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier for high radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range. Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite communication, radar transmitters, and to generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators.
In a klystron, an electron beam interacts with radio waves as it passes through resonant cavities, metal boxes along the length of a tube. The electron beam first passes through a cavity to which the input signal is applied. The energy of the electron beam amplifies the signal, and the amplified signal is taken from a cavity at the other end of the tube. The output signal can be coupled back into the input cavity to make an electronic oscillator to generate radio waves. The gain of klystrons can be high, 60 dB (one million) or more, with output power up to tens of megawatts, but the bandwidth is narrow, usually a few percent although it can be up to 10% in some devices.
A reflex klystron is an obsolete type in which the electron beam was reflected back along its path by a high potential electrode, used as an oscillator.
The name klystron comes from the Greek verb κλύζω (klyzo) referring to the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the suffix -τρον ("tron") meaning the place where the action happens. The name "klystron" was suggested by Hermann Fränkel, a professor in the classics department at Stanford University when the klystron was under development.
History
The klystron was the first significantly powerful source of radio waves in the microwave range; before its invention the only sources were the Barkhausen-Kurz tube and split anode magnetron, which were limited to very low power. It was invented by the brothers Russell and Sigurd Varian at Stanford University. Their prototype was completed and demonstrated successfully on August 30, 1937. Upon publication in 1939, news of the klystron immediately influenced the work of US and UK researchers working on radar equipment. The Varians went on to found Varian Associates to commercialize the technology (for example, to make small linear accelerators to generate photons for external beam radiation therapy). Their work was preceded by the description of velocity modulation by A. Arsenjewa-Heil and Oskar Heil (wife and husband) in 1935, though the Varians were probably unaware of the Heils' work.
The work of physicist W.W. Hansen was instrumental in the development of the klystron and was cited by the Varian brothers in their 1939 paper. His resonator analysis, which dealt with the problem of accelerating electrons toward a target, could be used just as well to decelerate electrons (i.e., transfer their kinetic energy to RF energy in a resonator). During the second World War, Hansen lectured at the MIT Radiation labs two days a week, commuting to Boston from Sperry Gyroscope Company on Long Island. His resonator was called a "rhumbatron" by the Varian brothers. Hansen died of beryllium disease in 1949 as a result of exposure to beryllium oxide (BeO).
During the Second World War, the Axis powers relied mostly on (then low-powered and long wavelength) klystron technology for their radar system microwave generation, while the Allies used the far more powerful but frequency-drifting technology of the cavity magnetron for much shorter-wavelength centimetric microwave generation. Klystron tube technologies for very high-power applications, such as synchrotrons and radar systems, have since been developed.
Right after the war, AT&T used 4 watt klystrons in its brand new network of microwave relay links that covered the US continent. The network provided long-distance telephone service and also carried television signals for the major TV networks. Western Union Telegraph Company also built point-to-point microwave communication links using intermediate repeater stations at about 40 mile intervals at that time, using 2K25 reflex klystrons in both the transmitters and receivers.
Operation
Klystrons amplify RF signals by converting the kinetic energy in a DC electron beam into radio frequency power. In a vacuum, a beam of electrons is emitted by an electron gun or thermionic cathode (a heated pellet of low work function material), and accelerated by high-voltage electrodes (typically in the tens of kilovolts).
This beam passes through an input cavity resonator. RF energy has been fed into the input cavity at, or near, its resonant frequency, creating standing waves, which produce an oscillating voltage, which acts on the electron beam. The electric field causes the electrons to "bunch": electrons that pass through when the electric field opposes their motion are slowed, while electrons which pass through when the electric field is in the same direction are accelerated, causing the previously continuous electron beam to form bunches at the input frequency.
To reinforce the bunching, a klystron may contain additional "buncher" cavities.
The beam then passes through a "drift" tube, in which the faster electrons catch up to the slower ones, creating the "bunches", then through a "catcher" cavity.
In the output "catcher" cavity, each bunch enters the cavity at the time in the cycle when the electric field opposes the electrons' motion, decelerating them. Thus the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted to potential energy of the field, increasing the amplitude of the oscillations. The oscillations excited in the catcher cavity are coupled out through a coaxial cable or waveguide.
The spent electron beam, with reduced energy, is captured by a collector electrode.
To make an oscillator, the output cavity can be coupled to the input cavity(s) with a coaxial cable or waveguide. Positive feedback excites spontaneous oscillations at the resonant frequency of the cavities.
Two-cavity klystron
The simplest klystron tube is the two-cavity klystron. In this tube there are two microwave cavity resonators, the "catcher" and the "buncher". When used as an amplifier, the weak microwave signal to be amplified is applied to the buncher cavity through a coaxial cable or waveguide, and the amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity.
At one end of the tube is the hot cathode which produces electrons when heated by a filament. The electrons are attracted to and pass through an anode cylinder at a high positive potential; the cathode and anode act as an electron gun to produce a high velocity stream of electrons. An external electromagnet winding creates a longitudinal magnetic field along the beam axis which prevents the beam from spreading.
The beam first passes through the "buncher" cavity resonator, through grids attached to each side. The buncher grids have an oscillating AC potential across them, produced by standing wave oscillations within the cavity, excited by the input signal at the cavity's resonant frequency applied by a coaxial cable or waveguide. The direction of the field between the grids changes twice per cycle of the input signal. Electrons entering when the entrance grid is negative and the exit grid is positive encounter an electric field in the same direction as their motion, and are accelerated by the field. Electrons entering a half-cycle later, when the polarity is opposite, encounter an electric field which opposes their motion, and are decelerated.
Beyond the buncher grids is a space called the drift space. This space is long enough so that the accelerated electrons catch up with electrons that were decelerated at an earlier time, forming "bunches" longitudinally along the beam axis. Its length is chosen to allow maximum bunching at the resonant frequency, and may be several feet long.
The electrons then pass through a second cavity, called the "catcher", through a similar pair of grids on each side of the cavity. The function of the catcher grids is to absorb energy from the electron beam. The bunches of electrons passing through excite standing waves in the cavity, which has the same resonant frequency as the buncher cavity. Each bunch of electrons passes between the grids at a point in the cycle when the exit grid is negative with respect to the entrance grid, so the electric field in the cavity between the grids opposes the electrons motion. The electrons thus do work on the electric field, and are decelerated, their kinetic energy is converted to electric potential energy, increasing the amplitude of the oscillating electric field in the cavity. Thus the oscillating field in the catcher cavity is an amplified copy of the signal applied to the buncher cavity. The amplified signal is extracted from the catcher cavity through a coaxial cable or waveguide.
After passing through the catcher and giving up its energy, the lower energy electron beam is absorbed by a "collector" electrode, a second anode which is kept at a small positive voltage.
Klystron oscillator
An electronic oscillator can be made from a klystron tube, by providing a feedback path from output to input by connecting the "catcher" and "buncher" cavities with a coaxial cable or waveguide. When the device is turned on, electronic noise in the cavity is amplified by the tube and fed back from the output catcher to the buncher cavity to be amplified again. Because of the high Q of the cavities, the signal quickly becomes a sine wave at the resonant frequency of the cavities.
Multicavity klystron
In all modern klystrons, the number of cavities exceeds two. Additional "buncher" cavities added between the first "buncher" and the "catcher" may be used to increase the gain of the klystron or to increase the bandwidth.
The residual kinetic energy in the electron beam when it hits the collector electrode represents wasted energy, which is dissipated as heat, which must be removed by a cooling system. Some modern klystrons include depressed collectors, which recover energy from the beam before collecting the electrons, increasing efficiency. Multistage depressed collectors enhance the energy recovery by "sorting" the electrons in energy bins.
Reflex klystron
The reflex klystron (also known as a Sutton tube after one of its inventors, Robert Sutton) was a low power klystron tube with a single cavity, which functioned as an oscillator. It was used as a local oscillator in some radar receivers and a modulator in microwave transmitters the 1950s and 1960s, but is now obsolete, replaced by semiconductor microwave devices.
In the reflex klystron the electron beam passes through a single resonant cavity. The electrons are fired into one end of the tube by an electron gun. After passing through the resonant cavity they are reflected by a negatively charged reflector electrode for another pass through the cavity, where they are then collected. The electron beam is velocity modulated when it first passes through the cavity. The formation of electron bunches takes place in the drift space between the reflector and the cavity. The voltage on the reflector must be adjusted so that the bunching is at a maximum as the electron beam re-enters the resonant cavity, thus ensuring a maximum of energy is transferred from the electron beam to the RF oscillations in the cavity. The reflector voltage may be varied slightly from the optimum value, which results in some loss of output power, but also in a variation in frequency. This effect is used to good advantage for automatic frequency control in receivers, and in frequency modulation for transmitters. The level of modulation applied for transmission is small enough that the power output essentially remains constant. At regions far from the optimum voltage, no oscillations are obtained at all.
There are often several regions of reflector voltage where the reflex klystron will oscillate; these are referred to as modes. The electronic tuning range of the reflex klystron is usually referred to as the variation in frequency between half power points—the points in the oscillating mode where the power output is half the maximum output in the mode.
Modern semiconductor technology has effectively replaced the reflex klystron in most applications.
Gyroklystron
The gyroklystron is a microwave amplifier with operation dependent on the cyclotron resonance condition. Similarly to the klystron, its operation depends on the modulation of the electron beam, but instead of axial bunching the modulation forces alter the cyclotron frequency and hence the azimuthal component of motion, resulting in phase bunches. In the output cavity, electrons which arrive at the correct decelerating phase transfer their energy to the cavity field and the amplified signal can be coupled out. The gyroklystron has cylindrical or coaxial cavities and operates with transverse electric field modes. Since the interaction depends on the resonance condition, larger cavity dimensions than a conventional klystron can be used. This allows the gyroklystron to deliver high power at very high frequencies which is challenging using conventional klystrons.
Tuning
Some klystrons have cavities that are tunable. By adjusting the frequency of individual cavities, the technician can change the operating frequency, gain, output power, or bandwidth of the amplifier. No two klystrons are exactly identical (even when comparing like part/model number klystrons). Each unit has manufacturer-supplied calibration values for its specific performance characteristics. Without this information the klystron would not be properly tunable, and hence not perform well, if at all.
Tuning a klystron is delicate work which, if not done properly, can cause damage to equipment or injury to the technician due to the very high voltages that could be produced. The technician must be careful not to exceed the limits of the graduations, or damage to the klystron can result. Other precautions taken when tuning a klystron include using nonferrous tools. Some klystrons employ permanent magnets. If a technician uses ferrous tools (which are ferromagnetic) and comes too close to the intense magnetic fields that contain the electron beam, such a tool can be pulled into the unit by the intense magnetic force, smashing fingers, injuring the technician, or damaging the unit. Special lightweight nonmagnetic (or rather very weakly diamagnetic) tools made of beryllium alloy have been used for tuning U.S. Air Force klystrons.
Precautions are routinely taken when transporting klystron devices in aircraft, as the intense magnetic field can interfere with magnetic navigation equipment. Special overpacks are designed to help limit this field "in the field," and thus allow such devices to be transported safely.
Optical klystron
The technique of amplification used in the klystron is also being applied experimentally at optical frequencies in a type of laser called the free-electron laser (FEL); these devices are called optical klystrons. Instead of microwave cavities, these use devices called undulators. The electron beam passes through an undulator, in which a laser light beam causes bunching of the electrons. Then the beam passes through a second undulator, in which the electron bunches cause oscillation to create a second, more powerful light beam.
Floating drift tube klystron
The floating drift tube klystron has a single cylindrical chamber containing an electrically isolated central tube. Electrically, this is similar to the two cavity oscillator klystron with considerable feedback between the two cavities. Electrons exiting the source cavity are velocity modulated by the electric field as they travel through the drift tube and emerge at the destination chamber in bunches, delivering power to the oscillation in the cavity. This type of oscillator klystron has an advantage over the two-cavity klystron on which it is based, in that it needs only one tuning element to effect changes in frequency. The drift tube is electrically insulated from the cavity walls, and DC bias is applied separately. The DC bias on the drift tube may be adjusted to alter the transit time through it, thus allowing some electronic tuning of the oscillating frequency. The amount of tuning in this manner is not large and is normally used for frequency modulation when transmitting.
Applications
Klystrons can produce far higher microwave power outputs than solid state microwave devices such as Gunn diodes. In modern systems, they are used from UHF (hundreds of megahertz) up to hundreds of gigahertz (as in the Extended Interaction Klystrons in the CloudSat satellite). Klystrons can be found at work in radar, satellite and wideband high-power communication (very common in television broadcasting and EHF satellite terminals), medicine (radiation oncology), and high-energy physics (particle accelerators and experimental reactors). At SLAC, for example, klystrons are routinely employed which have outputs in the range of 50 MW (pulse) and 50 kW (time-averaged) at 2856 MHz. The Arecibo Planetary Radar used two klystrons that provided a total power output of 1 MW (continuous) at 2380 MHz.
Popular Sciences "Best of What's New 2007" described a company, Global Resource Corporation, currently defunct, using a klystron to convert the hydrocarbons in everyday materials, automotive waste, coal, oil shale, and oil sands into natural gas and diesel fuel.
See also
Crossed-field amplifier
Electromagnetic radiation
Free electron laser
Gyrotron
Inductive output tube
Linear accelerator
Magnetron
Backward wave oscillator
Particle accelerator
Traveling wave tube
Waveguide
Extended interaction oscillator
References
External links
Animation of how a Klystron works
(Two cavity klystron)
(Multicavity klystron)
(Reflex klystron)
(High power for linear accelerator)
History of the Klystron from Varian
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (249) Klystron Gallery Pictures
Klystron collection in the Virtual Valve Museum
Klystron Amplifier
"Microwave Gun" klystron developed at the SLAC
Electron beam
Microwave technology
Accelerator physics
Vacuum tubes
American inventions | [
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234135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sailors | List of sailors | This list of sailors includes any seagoing person who does not qualify for the list of sea captains. It includes both professional and amateur sailors.
Actors
Raymond Bailey, American actor, Milburn Drysdale, on The Beverly Hillbillies
Rupert Davies, British actor, title role on the BBC's Maigret
Peter Falk, American actor, Columbo
James Garner, American actor, Jim Rockford on The Rockford Files
Sterling Hayden, American actor and author, Gen. Jack D. Ripper in Dr. Strangelove
Jack Lord, American actor, Steve McGarret on Hawaii Five-O
Carroll O'Connor, American actor, Archie Bunker on All in the Family
Denver Pyle, American actor, Uncle Jesse Duke on The Dukes of Hazzard
George Sewell, English actor, Frank Cottam on The Detectives; steward
Frederick Treves, much loved English character actor with over a hundred credits in theatre, television, and film
Clint Walker, American actor, Cheyenne Bodie on Cheyenne
Jack Warden, American actor, Emmy Award-winning, Academy Award-nominated
Comedians
Dave Broadfoot, Canadian comedian
George Roper, English stand-up comedian best known for work on television series The Comedians
Explorers
Erik the Red
Bjorn Ironside
Leif Erikson
Ali ibn al-Hassan Shirazi
James Cook, sub-Antarctic, Pacific, North America, apprenticed on a Whitby collier
Ernest Shackleton. Antarctic, was third mate in the Union-Castle Line
Labor leaders
Joseph Curran, American labor leader
Richard Henry Dana Jr. (1815–1882), wrote Two Years Before the Mast
Andrew Furuseth (1854–1938), merchant seaman and labour leader
Shannon J. Wall, American merchant seaman and labor leader
Maritime industry
Captain John Bury, Canadian mariner involved in standardising international buoyage
Harry McNish, Scottish carpenter on Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
Jeremiah O'Brien, captain of the privateer Unity in the first battle of the Revolutionary War
Herbert Pitman, third officer of the Titanic
John Wallace Thomas, Newfoundland captain made Commander of the Order of the British Empire for actions during a Luftwaffe attack
Louis Ernest Sola, Federal Maritime Commissioner and yachtsman
Military
Kingsmill Bates, British Distinguished Service Cross recipient
Philip Bent, Canadian recipient of the Victoria Cross
David Broadfoot, Scottish recipient of the George Cross
Lionel Crabb, British Royal Navy frogman who vanished during a reconnaissance mission first in 1956
Jacques Félix Emmanuel Hamelin, French Baron and rear admiral of the Navy; was a helmsman early in his career
Peter Horsley, British Air Marshal
Lawrence Joel, Vietnam War Medal of Honor recipient
John Paul Jones, American naval officer
"Yank" Levy, Canadian soldier, military instructor and author of a manual on guerrilla warfare
Charles Andrew MacGillivary, Canadian Medal of Honor recipient
Kim Malthe-Bruun, member of the Danish resistance movement
Thomas McClelland, American naval officer
George S. Patton, American general
George H. O'Brien Jr., Medal of Honor recipient in Korean War
Arthur Phillip, British naval officer, colonial administrator, Governor of New South Wales, and founder of the city of Sydney
William Sanders, New Zealander recipient of the Victoria Cross
Miguel Grau Seminario, Peruvian naval officer and hero of the Naval Battle of Angamos
John Young, naval officer in American Revolutionary War
Musicians and composers
Ken Colyer, British jazz trumpeter
Suezenne Fordham, American jazz pianist
Eric Griffiths, Welsh guitarist in the original lineup of The Quarry Men
Woody Guthrie, musician and songwriter, wrote "This Land Is Your Land"
Chick Henderson, English singer in the 1930s and 1940s, "Begin the Beguine"
Cisco Houston, American folk singer
Ferlin Husky, American country-pop singer, hit number one with "Wings of a Dove"
Nelson Riddle, American bandleader, arranger and orchestrator, "C'mon... Get Happy"
Francisco Gabilondo Soler, Mexican composer of children's songs, "Cri-Cri, El Grillito Cantor"
Dave Van Ronk, American folk singer nicknamed the "Mayor of MacDougal Street"
Ted Weems, American bandleader and musician, directed the Merchant Marine Band
Russ Conway, English pianist
Notorious
William Colepaugh, Nazi spy in World War II
George Hennard, American mass murderer who claimed twenty-three victims at Luby's Cafeteria in Killeen, Texas
Fritz Sauckel, Nazi war criminal
Duncan Scott-Ford, British merchant seaman hanged for treachery in World War II
Perry Smith, made famous in Truman Capote's non-fiction novel In Cold Blood
Politics and activism
Alvin Baldus, former Democratic member of Congress
Traian Băsescu, President of Romania, inaugurated in 2004
Gordon Canfield, Republican congressman from New Jersey
Alfonso J. Cervantes, forty-third Mayor of Saint Louis, Missouri
Frederick Arthur Cobb, Labour Party politician in the United Kingdom
Mark Croucher, Director of Communications for the UK Independence Party, pub landlord, journalist, former radio officer
Arthur Davidson, British Labour Party Member of Parliament
Jim Folsom, Democratic Governor of the U.S. state of Alabama
Ian Glachan, Australian politician, member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly
Brian Haw, British peace activist
Harry Haywood, a leading African American member of both the Communist Party of the United States (CPUSA) and the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)
John Horner, British firefighter, trade unionist and politician
Emmanuel Iheanach, Minister of Federal Republic of Nigeria, Master Mariner, sea captain
Piet de Jong, Prime Minister of the Netherlands
Wayne Mapp, New Zealand politician
Alfred von Niezychowski, Polish noble, German Count, author and lecturer, and American politician
Jack O'Dell, prominent African-American member of the U.S. civil rights movement
Albert Owen, Welsh politician, Labour Party MP for Ynys Môn
John Prescott, British Labour Party politician, Deputy Prime Minister, First Secretary of State and Member of Parliament, a steward and waiter
Joseph Resnick, Democratic congressman from New York
Montfort Stokes, Democratic Senator
John S. Watson, New Jersey politician
Terry Wynn, retired Labour Party Member of the European Parliament for North West England
Producers
John Clark, English actor, director, producer, and ex-husband of Lynn Redgrave
John Kenley, former American theatrical producer
Oliver Stone, three-time Academy Award-winning American film director and screenwriter
Radio industry
Dave Cash, British disk jockey
James Redmond, pioneer of modern public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom
Tommy Vance, British pop radio broadcaster
Brad “Boom Boom” Barrett, Radio Broadcaster and show host as well as Director of Programming in Honolulu Hawaii At KSSK, KKUA, as well As other radio stations.
Real estate
John Q. Hammons, American businessman and resort developer
Science, engineering, and architecture
Patrick Young Alexander, British aeronautical pioneer
Francis Buchanan-Hamilton, Scottish physician, geographer zoologist and botanist
Allan V. Cox, American chemist and geologist
Norman Jaffe, American architect
D. Holmes Morton, American physician specializing in genetic disorders
Social scientists
Douglass Cecil North, American economist and Nobel Prize winner
Sports
Samuel Albrecht, Brazilian swimmer
Bobby Atherton, Welsh international footballer
Jim Bagby Jr., major-league baseball pitcher
Fred Blackburn, English footballer and coach
Drew Bundini Brown, Muhammad Ali's assistant trainer and cornerman
Dan Devine, American football coach
Joe Gold, bodybuilding and fitness guru of Gold's Gym
Cornelius Johnson, American Olympic medal-winning high jumper
Charlie Keller, left fielder in Major League Baseball
Frank Sinkwich, American footballer, won 1942 Heisman Trophy, 1944 NFL MVP
Agostino Straulino (1914–2004), Olympic champion and Italian admiral
Jim Thorpe, American Olympic athlete
Henk de Velde, Dutch seafarer known for his long solo voyages around the world
Matthew Webb, first person to swim the English Channel without the use of artificial aid
Visual arts
Richard Avedon, American photographer
Johnny Craig, American comic book artist
Paul Gauguin, French Post-Impressionist artist
Rockwell Kent, American painter
Joseph Stanley Kozlowski, American AB, portrait and watercolor artist
James Nachtwey, American photojournalist and war photographer
George Rodger, British photojournalist noted for work in Africa and death camps at Bergen-Belsen
Ken Russell, iconoclastic English film director
Ernie Schroeder, American comic book artist
Haskell Wexler, American Academy Award-winning cinematographer
Wally Wood, American comic book writer, artist and independent publisher
Writers and publishers
John Arthur Barry, Australian journalist and author
Peter Baynham, Welsh screenwriter; Academy Award-nominated; co-writer of Borat
John Blackburn, British novelist
Nathaniel Bowditch, author, The American Practical Navigator
E. S. Campbell, American author, broadcaster and radio officer
A. Bertram Chandler, Australian science fiction author of over 40 novels and 200 works of short fiction
Brian Cleeve, English writer and popular TV broadcaster
Richard Henry Dana Jr., American author, Two Years Before the Mast
Clare Francis, British novelist
Allen Ginsberg, poet, "Howl", "Kaddish"
David Hackworth, retired United States Army colonel and military journalist
John L. Hess, American journalist
Herbert Huncke, American beat generation figure
Bob Kaufman, American Beat poet and surrealist
Nikos Kavvadias, Greek poet
Jack Kerouac, American author, On The Road
James Lennox Kerr, Scottish socialist author noted for his children's stories
Jack London, American author, Call of the Wild
Veeresh Malik, Indian businessman and writer
John Masefield, O.M., LL.D., Poet Laureate, sailing ship apprentice
Kevin McClory, Irish screenwriter, producer, and director, Never Say Never Again
Herman Melville, American author, Moby Dick
Charles Muñoz, American poet, novelist, publisher, and radio officer
Alun Owen, British screenwriter, wrote The Beatles' film A Hard Day's Night
Michael Page, British Australian novelist and author of the Encyclopedia of Things That Never Were
Donn Pearce, author of Cool Hand Luke
Dudley Pope, British writer of both nautical fiction and history
Richard Scott Prather, American mystery novelist
Otto Scott, American journalist and author
Hubert Selby Jr., American author
Joshua Slocum (1848–1909?), first single-handed circumnavigation of the world, 1895-1898
Gary Snyder, American poet
Lyle Stuart, controversial American publisher
Derek Turner, Irish magazine editor and freelance journalist
Mark Twain (born Samuel Clemens), author
Nedd Willard (born 1928), writer and journalist
Charles Williams, writer of hardboiled crime fiction
Robin Wilson, American science fiction author and university president
Bernard Wolfe, American fiction writer
Other
Popeye (created 1929) cartoon fictional character created by Elzie Crisler Segar
Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), victim of the Boston Massacre
Peter Blake (1944–2001), winner of the Whitbread Round the World Race, the America's Cup and the Jules Verne Trophy
Chay Blyth (born 1940), completed the first westward single-handed non-stop circumnavigation of the world, 1971
Jean-Charles de Borda (1733–1799), scientist and engineer working at sea
William Harvey Carney (1842–1908), Civil War soldier, previously a sailor
Russ Chauvenet (1920–2003), one of the founders of science fiction fandom; amateur sailor
Sir Francis Chichester, completed the first single-handed circumnavigation of the world with just one port of call, 1966-1967
Granville Conway, public servant, Presidential Medal for Merit recipient
Harvey Cox, preeminent theologian and professor at Harvard Divinity School
Donald Crowhurst, lost at sea during the Golden Globe race
James Dougherty, first husband of Marilyn Monroe
Michael Eavis, founder of the Glastonbury Festival
David Fasold, salvage expert, self-proclaimed "arkologist"
Charles Henry George Howard, 20th Earl of Suffolk, 13th Earl of Berkshire, apprentice on windjammer Mount Stewart
Robin Knox-Johnston (born 1939), completed the first single-handed non-stop circumnavigation of the world, 1968-1969
Sadie O. Horton, spent World War II working aboard a coastwise U.S. Merchant Marine barge, and posthumously received official veteran's status for her wartime service, becoming the first recorded female Merchant Marine veteran of World War II
Samuel Leech (1798–1848), wrote of experiences in both the Royal Navy and US Navy
Freddie Lennon, father of English musician John Lennon
Ellen MacArthur, British sailor and round-the-world record holder
Doris Miller (1919–1943), cook who fought back at Pearl Harbor
Abdul Awal Mintoo, Bengali businessman and former President of the Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry
Bernard Motissier (1925–1994), French yachtsman and author of books about his voyages and sailing
Jacob Nagle (1762–1841), well-traveled seaman who wrote a journal
Altineu Pires (?-?), Brazilian navigation teacher, sailing author
Jure Šterk (1937–2009), Slovenian round-the-world sailor and author of books about his voyages and sailing
Joseph D. Stewart, Vice Admiral, Superintendent of the United States Merchant Marine Academy
Paul Teutul Sr., American television personality
Jordan Weisman, American game designer
See also
Notable mariners
:Category:Sailors
:Category:Merchant navy
:Category:Water transport
References
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234136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Delaware | List of governors of Delaware | The governor of Delaware (president of Delaware from 1776 to 1792) is the head of government of Delaware and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Delaware Legislature, to convene the legislature, and to grant pardons, except in cases of impeachment, and only with the recommendation of the Board of Pardons.
There have been 71 people who have served as governor, over 74 distinct terms. Three (Joseph Haslet, Charles Polk Jr. and Elbert N. Carvel) served non-consecutive terms. Additionally, Henry Molleston was elected, but died before he could take office. Only four governors have been elected to two consecutive terms, with the longest-serving being Ruth Ann Minner, who was elected twice after succeeding to the office, serving a total of just over eight years. The shortest term is that of Dale E. Wolf, who served 18 days following his predecessor's resignation; David P. Buckson served 19 days under similar circumstances. The current governor is Democrat John Carney, who took office on January 17, 2017.
Governors
Before 1776, Delaware was a colony of the Kingdom of Great Britain, administered by colonial governors in Pennsylvania as the "Lower Counties on Delaware".
In 1776, soon after Delaware and the other Thirteen Colonies declared independence from Britain, the state adopted its first state constitution. It created the office of President of Delaware, a chief executive to be chosen by the legislature to serve a term of three years.
The office of President was renamed Governor by the constitution of 1792, which set the commencement date of the term to the third Tuesday in the January following an election, and limited governors to serving only three out of any six years. The term was lengthened to four years by the 1831 constitution, but governors were limited to a single term. The current constitution of 1897 allows governors to serve two terms.
The 1776 constitution stated that if the presidency were vacant, the speaker of the legislative council would be a vice-president. The 1792 constitution has the speaker of the senate exercising the office when it is vacant, and the 1897 constitution created the office of lieutenant governor, upon whom the office devolves in case of vacancy. The offices of governor and lieutenant governor are elected at the same time but not on the same ticket.
Succession
See also
Delaware gubernatorial elections
Notes
References
General
Constitutions
Constitution of the State of Delaware (1831)
Constitution of the State of Delaware (1792)
Specific
External links
Office of the Governor of Delaware
Delaware Hall of Governors
Delaware
Governors | [
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234137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cid | Cid | Cid may refer to:
Cid (Final Fantasy), characters in Final Fantasy video games
Cid (soil)
Cubic inch (c.i.d., cid), a displacement unit for internal combustion engines
Cid, a slang term for Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
Content-ID, a URI scheme (cid:) that allows the use of MIME within email
People
El Cid (1043–1099), 11th-century Castilian nobleman
Cid Corman (1924–2004), poet
Gérald Cid (born 1983), footballer
Hilda Cid (born 1933), Chilean scientist
See also
CID (disambiguation)
El Cid (disambiguation)
Sid (disambiguation) | [
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234138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies%20of%20scope | Economies of scope | Economies of scope are "efficiencies formed by variety, not volume" (the latter concept is "economies of scale"). In economics, "economies" is synonymous with cost savings and "scope" is synonymous with broadening production/services through diversified products. Economies of scope is an economic theory stating that average total cost of production decrease as a result of increasing the number of different goods produced. For example, a gas station that sells gasoline can sell soda, milk, baked goods, etc. through their customer service representatives and thus gasoline companies achieve economies of scope.
Economics
The term and the concept's development are attributed to economists John C. Panzar and Robert D. Willig (1977, 1981).
Whereas economies of scale for a firm involve reductions in the average cost (cost per unit) arising from increasing the scale of production for a single product type, economies of scope involve lowering average cost by producing more types of products.
Economies of scope make product diversification, as part of the Ansoff Matrix, efficient if they are based on the common and recurrent use of proprietary know-how or on an indivisible physical asset. For example, as the number of products promoted is increased, more people can be reached per unit of money spent. At some point, however, additional advertising expenditure on new products may become less effective (an example of diseconomies of scope). Related examples include distribution of different types of products, product bundling, product lining, and family branding.
Economies of scope exist whenever the total cost of producing two different products or services (X and Y) is lower when a single firm instead of two separate firms produces by themselves.
The degree of economies of scope formula is as follows:
If DSC > 0, there is economies of scope. It is recommended that two firms can corporate and produce together.
If DSC = 0, there is no economies of scale and economies of scope.
If DSC < 0, there is diseconomies of scope. It is not recommended to work together for the two firms. Diseconomies of scope means that it is more efficient for two firms to work separately since the merged cost per unit is higher than the sum of stand-alone costs.
For a company, if they want to achieve diversity, the economy of scope is related to resource, and it is similar to resource requirements between enterprises. Relevance supports the economy by improving the applicability of resources in the merged companies and supporting the economical use of resources (such as employees, factories, technical and marketing knowledge) in these companies.
Unlike economies of scale, "which can be reasonably be expected to plateau into an efficient state that will then deliver high-margin revenues for a period", economies of scope may never reach that plateau at all. As Venkatesh Rao of Ribbonfarm explains it, "You may never get to a point where you can claim you have right-sized and right-shaped the business, but you have to keep trying. In fact, managing the ongoing scope-learning process is the essential activity in business strategy. If you ever think you’ve right-sized/right-shaped for the steady state, that’s when you are most vulnerable to attacks."
Research and Development (R&D) is a typical example of economies of scope. In R&D economies, unit cost decreases because of the spreading R&D expenses. For example, R&D labs require a minimum number of scientists and researchers whose labour is indivisible. Therefore, when the output of the lab increases, R&D costs per unit may decrease. The substantial indivisible invest in R&D may also implies that average fixed costs will fall rapidly due to the output and sales increase. The ideas from one project can help another project (positive spillovers).
Strategic fit, also known as complementarity that yields economies of scope, is the degree to which, or what kind of activities of different sections of an entrepreneur corporates with each other that complement themselves to achieve competitive advantage. Throughout the strategic fit, diversified firms can merge with interrelated businesses and share the resources. These kind of corporations can limit the duplication of research and developments, provide a more planned and developed selling pipelines for businesses.
Joint costs
The essential reason for economies of scope is some substantial joint cost across the production of multiple products (Ivan Png, Managerial Economics, 1998: 224-227). The cost of a cable network underlies economies of scope across the provision of broadband service and cable TV. The cost of operating a plane is a joint cost between carrying passengers and carrying freight, and underlies economies of scope across passenger and freight services.
Natural monopolies
While in the single-output case, economies of scale are a sufficient condition for the verification of a natural monopoly, in the multi-output case, they are not sufficient. Economies of scope are, however, a necessary condition. As a matter of simplification, it is generally accepted that markets may have monopoly features if both economies of scale and economies of scope apply, as well as sunk costs or other barriers to entry.
Advantages
Economies of scope have the following advantages for businesses:
Extreme flexibility in product design and product mix
Rapid responses to changes in market demand, product design and mix, output rates, and equipment scheduling
Greater control, accuracy, and repeatability of processes
Reduced costs from less waste and lower training and changeover costs
More predictability (e.g., maintenance costs)
Faster throughput thanks to better machine use, less in-process inventory, or fewer stoppages for missing or broken parts. (Higher speeds are now made possible and economically feasible by the sensory and control capabilities of the “smart” machines and the information management abilities of computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software.)
Distributed processing capability made possible and economical by the encoding of process information in easily replicable software
Less risk: A company that sells many product lines, sells in many countries, or both will benefit from reduced risk (e.g., if a product line falls out of fashion or if one country has an economic slowdown, the company will likely be able to continue trading)
Examples
Economies of scope arise when businesses share centralized functions (such as finance or marketing) or when they form interrelationships at other points in the business process (e.g., cross-selling one product alongside another, using the outputs of one business as the inputs of another).
Economies of scope served as the impetus behind the formation of large international conglomerates in the 1970s and 1980s, such as BTR and Hanson in the UK and ITT in the United States. These companies sought to apply their financial skills across a more diverse range of industries through economies of scope. In the 1990s, several conglomerates that "relied on cross-selling, thus reaping economies of scope by using the same people and systems to market many different products"—i.e., "selling the financial products of the one by using the sales teams of the other"—which was the logic behind the 1998 merger of Travelers Group and Citicorp.
3D printing is one area that would be able to take advantage of economies of scope, as it is an example of same equipment producing "multiple products more cheaply in combination than separately".
If a sales team sells several products, it can often do so more efficiently than if it is selling only one product because the cost of travel would be distributed over a greater revenue base, thus improving cost efficiency. There can also be synergies between products such that offering a range of products gives the consumer a more desirable product offering than would a single product. Economies of scope can also operate through distribution efficiencies—i.e. it can be more efficient to ship to any given location a range of products than a single type of product.
Further economies of scope occur when there are cost savings arising from byproducts in the production process, such as when the benefits of heating from energy production has a positive effect on agricultural yields.
See also
Economic efficiency
Mass customization
Production, costs, and pricing
Theory of the firm
Economies of scale
Economies of density
Joint cost
References
Monopoly (economics)
Production economics | [
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234140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concern%20%28computer%20science%29 | Concern (computer science) | In computer science, a concern is a particular set of information that has an effect on the code of a computer program. A concern can be as general as the details of database interaction or as specific as performing a primitive calculation, depending on the level of conversation between developers and the program being discussed. IBM uses the term concern space to describe the sectioning of conceptual information.
Overview
Usually the code can be separated into logical sections, each addressing separate concerns, and so it hides the need for a given section to know particular information addressed by a different section. This leads to a modular program. Edsger W. Dijkstra coined the term "separation of concerns" to describe the mentality behind this modularization, which allows the programmer to reduce the complexity of the system being designed. Two different concerns that intermingle in the same section of code are called "highly coupled". Sometimes the chosen module divisions do not allow for one concern to be completely separated from another, resulting in cross-cutting concerns. The various programming paradigms address the issue of cross-cutting concerns to different degrees. Data logging is a common cross-cutting concern, being used in many other parts of the program other than the particular module(s) that actually log the data. Since changes to the logging code can affect other sections, it could introduce bugs in the operation of the program.
Paradigms that specifically address the issue of concern separation:
Object-oriented programming, describing concerns as objects
Functional programming, describing concerns as functions
Aspect-oriented software development, treating concerns and their interaction as constructs of their own standing
See also
Cross-cutting concern
Separation of concerns
Issue (computers), a unit of work to accomplish an improvement in a data system
References
External links
Concerns in Rails, by DHH, the Rails creator
Software engineering terminology | [
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234141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20sea%20captains | List of sea captains | This is a list of sea captains. The list includes merchant ship's captains as well as naval ship's captains. It is limited to those notable in this role (those who already have Wikipedia articles).
Fictional sea captains
Captain Ahab, fictional character and hero of Herman Melville's novel Moby-Dick
Captain Jack Aubrey, hero of the Aubrey–Maturin series by Patrick O'Brian
John Blackthorne, hero of James Clavell's 1975 novel Shōgun
Captain Birdseye, advertising mascot for the Birds Eye frozen food brand
Captain Ned Dana, master of the S.S. Balaska in the series The Dana Girls
Captain Corcoran, captain of HMS Pinafore, from Gilbert & Sullivan's operetta of the same name; however, ultimately turns out to be a mere sailor on the Pinafore
Sea Captain Luis Delatorre the Bull " Greatest Pirate of Oklahoma"
Captain Crook, nominal spoof of Captain Cook; resident pirate captain of McDonaldland representing McDonald's "Filet-o-Fish" sandwich
Cap'n Crunch, mascot character for the cereal of the same name
Captain Dog, boat captain in the cartoon movie series Peppa Pig
Captain Englehorn, captain in a number of the King Kong films
Captain Gault, sea captain of a number of stories by English writer William Hope Hodgson
Captain Jonas Grumby, a.k.a. "The Skipper", from Gilligan's Island
Captain Haddock, captain in the comic album series The Adventures of Tintin
Captain James Hook, captain in the play and novel Peter Pan
Horatio Hornblower, protagonist of a series of novels by C. S. Forester
John Silas Huntly, captain in The Survivors of the Chancellor
Captain Jat, sea captain of a number of stories by English writer William Hope Hodgson
Maak, ship's captain in the comic strip Maakies
Captain Horatio McCallister, recurring character from the TV series The Simpsons
Captain Pugwash, captain of pirate ship in a cartoon of the same name
Ralph Rackstraw, originally a sailor on the HMS Pinafore (again, from the aforementioned Gilbert & Sullivan operetta); ultimately turns out to be the real captain of the Pinafore
Captain Ralls, captain played by John Wayne in Wake of the Red Witch
Captain Jack Sparrow, captain of the pirate ship Black Pearl in Pirates of the Caribbean films
John Charity Spring, slave ship captain in Flash for Freedom and other novels of The Flashman Papers series by George MacDonald Fraser
Captain Merrill Stubing, captain in The Love Boat television series
Cap'n Turbot, a main character in the Canadian TV series PAW Patrol
Unnamed pirate captain who calls himself a "pirate king", who took Frederic in as an apprentice in Gilbert & Sullivan's operetta, The Pirates of Penzance
Captain Jakob Skiba in 'The Story of My Wife', written by Milán Füst.
Captain Edward Kenway, captain of the Jackdaw, Assassin's Creed IV
See also
Bibliography of early American naval history
Bibliography of 18th-19th century Royal Naval history
List of single-ship actions
References
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234143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seagrass | Seagrass | Seagrasses are the only flowering plants which grow in marine environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the order Alismatales (in the class of monocotyledons). Seagrasses evolved from terrestrial plants which recolonised the ocean 70 to 100 million years ago.
The name seagrass stems from the many species with long and narrow leaves, which grow by rhizome extension and often spread across large "meadows" resembling grassland; many species superficially resemble terrestrial grasses of the family Poaceae.
Like all autotrophic plants, seagrasses photosynthesize, in the submerged photic zone, and most occur in shallow and sheltered coastal waters anchored in sand or mud bottoms. Most species undergo submarine pollination and complete their life cycle underwater. While it was previously believed this pollination was carried out without pollinators and purely by sea current drift, this has been shown to be false for at least one species, Thalassia testudinum, which carries out a mixed biotic-abiotic strategy. Crustaceans (such as crabs, Majid zoae, Thalassinidea zoea) and syllid polychaete worm larvae have both been found with pollen grains, the plant producing nutritious mucigenous clumps of pollen to attract and stick to them instead of nectar as terrestrial flowers do.
Seagrasses form dense underwater seagrass meadows which are among the most productive ecosystems in the world. They function as important carbon sinks and provide habitats and food for a diversity of marine life comparable to that of coral reefs.
Overview
Seagrasses are a paraphyletic group of marine angiosperms which evolved in parallel three to four times from land plants back to the sea. The following characteristics can be used to define a seagrass species. It lives in an estuarine or in the marine environment, and nowhere else. The pollination takes place underwater with specialized pollen. The seeds which are dispersed by both biotic and abiotic agents are produced underwater. The seagrass species have specialized leaves with a reduced cuticle, an epidermis which lacks stomata and is the main photosynthetic tissue. The rhizome or underground stem is important in anchoring. The roots can live in an anoxic environment and depend on oxygen transport from the leaves and rhizomes but are also important in the nutrient transfer processes.
Seagrasses profoundly influence the physical, chemical, and biological environments of coastal waters. Though seagrasses provide invaluable ecosystem services by acting as breeding and nursery ground for a variety of organisms and promote commercial fisheries, many aspects of their physiology are not well investigated. Several studies have indicated that seagrass habitat is declining worldwide. Ten seagrass species are at elevated risk of extinction (14% of all seagrass species) with three species qualifying as endangered. Seagrass loss and degradation of seagrass biodiversity will have serious repercussions for marine biodiversity and the human population that depends upon the resources and ecosystem services that seagrasses provide.
Seagrasses form important coastal ecosystems. The worldwide endangering of these sea meadows, which provide food and habitat for many marine species, prompts the need for protection and understanding of these valuable resources.
Evolution
Around 140 million years ago, seagrasses evolved from early monocots which succeeded in conquering the marine environment. Monocots are grass and grass-like flowering plants (angiosperms), the seeds of which typically contain only one embryonic leaf or cotyledon.
Terrestrial plants evolved perhaps as early as 450 million years ago from a group of green algae. Seagrasses then evolved from terrestrial plants which migrated back into the ocean. Between about 70 million and 100 million years ago, three independent seagrass lineages (Hydrocharitaceae, Cymodoceaceae complex, and Zosteraceae) evolved from a single lineage of the monocotyledonous flowering plants.
Other plants that colonised the sea, such as salt marsh plants, mangroves, and marine algae, have more diverse evolutionary lineages. In spite of their low species diversity, seagrasses have succeeded in colonising the continental shelves of all continents except Antarctica.
Recent sequencing of the genomes of Zostera marina and Zostera muelleri has given a better understanding of angiosperm adaption to the sea. During the evolutionary step back to the ocean, different genes have been lost (e.g., stomatal genes) or have been reduced (e.g., genes involved in the synthesis of terpenoids) and others have been regained, such as in genes involved in sulfation.
Genome information has shown further that adaption to the marine habitat was accomplished by radical changes in cell wall composition. However the cell walls of seagrasses are not well understood. In addition to the ancestral traits of land plants one would expect habitat-driven adaption process to the new environment characterized by multiple abiotic (high amounts of salt) and biotic (different seagrass grazers and bacterial colonization) stressors. The cell walls of seagrasses seem intricate combinations of features known from both angiosperm land plants and marine macroalgae with new structural elements.
Taxonomy
Today, seagrasses are a polyphyletic group of marine angiosperms with around 60 species in five families (Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae, Posidoniaceae, Cymodoceaceae, and Ruppiaceae), which belong to the order Alismatales according to the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV System. The genus Ruppia, which occurs in brackish water, is not regarded as a "real" seagrass by all authors and has been shifted to the Cymodoceaceae by some authors. The APG IV system and The Plant List Webpage do not share this family assignment.
Sexual recruitment
Seagrass populations are currently threatened by a variety of anthropogenic stressors. The ability of seagrasses to cope with environmental perturbations depends, to some extent, on genetic variability, which is obtained through sexual recruitment. By forming new individuals, seagrasses increase their genetic diversity and thus their ability to colonise new areas and to adapt to environmental changes.
Seagrasses have contrasting colonisation strategies. Some seagrasses form seed banks of small seeds with hard pericarps that can remain in the dormancy stage for several months. These seagrasses are generally short-lived and can recover quickly from disturbances by not germinating far away from parent meadows (e.g., Halophila sp., Halodule sp., Cymodocea sp., Zostera sp. and Heterozostera sp. In contrast, other seagrasses form dispersal propagules. This strategy is typical of long-lived seagrasses that can form buoyant fruits with inner large non-dormant seeds, such as the genera Posidonia sp., Enhalus sp. and Thalassia sp. Accordingly, the seeds of long-lived seagrasses have a large dispersal capacity compared to the seeds of the short-lived type, which permits the evolution of species beyond unfavourable light conditions by the seedling development of parent meadows.
The seagrass Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile is one of the oldest and largest species on Earth. An individual can form meadows measuring nearly 15 km wide and can be as much as 100,000 years old. P. oceanica meadows play important roles in the maintenance of the geomorphology of Mediterranean coasts, which, among others, makes this seagrass a priority habitat of conservation. Currently, the flowering and recruitment of P. oceanica seems to be more frequent than that expected in the past. Further, this seagrass has singular adaptations to increase its survival during recruitment. The large amounts of nutrient reserves contained in the seeds of this seagrass support shoot and root growth, even up to the first year of seedling development. In the first months of germination, when leaf development is scarce, P. oceanica seeds perform photosynthetic activity, which increases their photosynthetic rates and thus maximises seedling establishment success. Seedlings also show high morphology plasticity during their root system development by forming adhesive root hairs to help anchor themselves to rocky sediments. However, many factors about P. oceanica sexual recruitment remain unknown, such as when photosynthesis in seeds is active or how seeds can remain anchored to and persist on substrate until their root systems have completely developed.
Intertidal and subtidal
Seagrasses occurring in the intertidal and subtidal zones are exposed to highly variable environmental conditions due to tidal changes. Subtidal seagrasses are more frequently exposed to lower light conditions, driven by plethora of natural and human-caused influences that reduce light penetration by increasing the density of suspended opaque materials. Subtidal light conditions can be estimated, with high accuracy, using artificial intelligence, enabling more rapid mitigation than was available using in situ techniques. Seagrasses in the intertidal zone are regularly exposed to air and consequently experience extreme high and low temperatures, high photoinhibitory irradiance, and desiccation stress relative to subtidal seagrass. Such extreme temperatures can lead to significant seagrass dieback when seagrasses are exposed to air during low tide. Desiccation stress during low tide has been considered the primary factor limiting seagrass distribution at the upper intertidal zone. Seagrasses residing the intertidal zone are usually smaller than those in the subtidal zone to minimize the effects of emergence stress. Intertidal seagrasses also show light-dependent responses, such as decreased photosynthetic efficiency and increased photoprotection during periods of high irradiance and air exposure.
In contrast, seagrasses in the subtidal zone adapt to reduced light conditions caused by light attenuation and scattering due to the overlaying water column and suspended particles. Seagrasses in the deep subtidal zone generally have longer leaves and wider leaf blades than those in the shallow subtidal or intertidal zone, which allows more photosynthesis, in turn resulting in greater growth. Seagrasses also respond to reduced light conditions by increasing chlorophyll content and decreasing the chlorophyll a/b ratio to enhance light absorption efficiency by using the abundant wavelengths efficiently. As seagrasses in the intertidal and subtidal zones are under highly different light conditions, they exhibit distinctly different photoacclimatory responses to maximize photosynthetic activity and photoprotection from excess irradiance.
Seagrasses assimilate large amounts of inorganic carbon to achieve high level production. Marine macrophytes, including seagrass, use both CO2 and (bicarbonate) for photosynthetic carbon reduction. Despite air exposure during low tide, seagrasses in the intertidal zone can continue to photosynthesize utilizing CO2 in the air. Thus, the composition of inorganic carbon sources for seagrass photosynthesis probably varies between intertidal and subtidal plants. Because stable carbon isotope ratios of plant tissues change based on the inorganic carbon sources for photosynthesis, seagrasses in the intertidal and subtidal zones may have different stable carbon isotope ratio ranges.
Seagrass meadows
Seagrass beds/meadows can be either monospecific (made up of a single species) or in mixed beds. In temperate areas, usually one or a few species dominate (like the eelgrass Zostera marina in the North Atlantic), whereas tropical beds usually are more diverse, with up to thirteen species recorded in the Philippines.
Seagrass beds are diverse and productive ecosystems, and can harbor hundreds of associated species from all phyla, for example juvenile and adult fish, epiphytic and free-living macroalgae and microalgae, mollusks, bristle worms, and nematodes. Few species were originally considered to feed directly on seagrass leaves (partly because of their low nutritional content), but scientific reviews and improved working methods have shown that seagrass herbivory is an important link in the food chain, feeding hundreds of species, including green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese, swans, sea urchins and crabs. Some fish species that visit/feed on seagrasses raise their young in adjacent mangroves or coral reefs.
Seagrasses trap sediment and slow down water movement, causing suspended sediment to settle out. Trapping sediment benefits coral by reducing sediment loads, improving photosynthesis for both coral and seagrass.
Although often overlooked, seagrasses provide a number of ecosystem services. Seagrasses are considered ecosystem engineers. This means that the plants alter the ecosystem around them. This adjusting occurs in both physical and chemical forms. Many seagrass species produce an extensive underground network of roots and rhizome which stabilizes sediment and reduces coastal erosion. This system also assists in oxygenating the sediment, providing a hospitable environment for sediment-dwelling organisms. Seagrasses also enhance water quality by stabilizing heavy metals, pollutants, and excess nutrients. The long blades of seagrasses slow the movement of water which reduces wave energy and offers further protection against coastal erosion and storm surge. Furthermore, because seagrasses are underwater plants, they produce significant amounts of oxygen which oxygenate the water column. These meadows account for more than 10% of the ocean's total carbon storage. Per hectare, it holds twice as much carbon dioxide as rain forests and can sequester about 27.4 million tons of CO2 annually.
Seagrass meadows provide food for many marine herbivores. Sea turtles, manatees, parrotfish, surgeonfish, sea urchins and pinfish feed on seagrasses. Many other smaller animals feed on the epiphytes and invertebrates that live on and among seagrass blades. Seagrass meadows also provide physical habitat in areas that would otherwise be bare of any vegetation. Due to this three dimensional structure in the water column, many species occupy seagrass habitats for shelter and foraging. It is estimated that 17 species of coral reef fish spend their entire juvenile life stage solely on seagrass flats. These habitats also act as a nursery grounds for commercially and recreationally valued fishery species, including the gag grouper (Mycteroperca microlepis), red drum, common snook, and many others. Some fish species utilize seagrass meadows and various stages of the life cycle. In a recent publication, Dr. Ross Boucek and colleagues discovered that two highly sought after flats fish, the common snook and spotted sea trout provide essential foraging habitat during reproduction. Sexual reproduction is extremely energetically expensive to be completed with stored energy; therefore, they require seagrass meadows in close proximity to complete reproduction. Furthermore, many commercially important invertebrates also reside in seagrass habitats including bay scallops (Argopecten irradians), horseshoe crabs, and shrimp. Charismatic fauna can also be seen visiting the seagrass habitats. These species include West Indian manatee, green sea turtles, and various species of sharks. The high diversity of marine organisms that can be found on seagrass habitats promotes them as a tourist attraction and a significant source of income for many coastal economies along the Gulf of Mexico and in the Caribbean.
Seagrass microbiome
Seagrass holobiont
The concept of the holobiont, which emphasizes the importance and interactions of a microbial host with associated microorganisms and viruses and describes their functioning as a single biological unit, has been investigated and discussed for many model systems, although there is substantial criticism of a concept that defines diverse host-microbe symbioses as a single biological unit. The holobiont and hologenome concepts have evolved since the original definition, and there is no doubt that symbiotic microorganisms are pivotal for the biology and ecology of the host by providing vitamins, energy and inorganic or organic nutrients, participating in defense mechanisms, or by driving the evolution of the host. Although most work on host-microbe interactions has been focused on animal systems such as corals, sponges, or humans, there is a substantial body of literature on plant holobionts. Plant-associated microbial communities impact both key components of the fitness of plants, growth and survival, and are shaped by nutrient availability and plant defense mechanisms. Several habitats have been described to harbor plant-associated microbes, including the rhizoplane (surface of root tissue), the rhizosphere (periphery of the roots), the endosphere (inside plant tissue), and the phyllosphere (total above-ground surface area).
Cell walls
Seagrass cell walls contain the same polysaccharides found in angiosperm land plants, such as cellulose However, the cell walls of some seagrasses are characterised by sulfated polysaccharides, which is a common attribute of macroalgae from the groups of red, brown and also green algae. It was proposed in 2005 that the ability to synthesise sulfated polysaccharides was regained by marine angiosperms. Another unique feature of cell walls of seagrasses is the occurrence of unusual pectic polysaccharides called apiogalacturonans.
In addition to polysaccharides, glycoproteins of the hydroxyproline-rich glycoprotein family, are important components of cell walls of land plants. The highly glycosylated arabinogalactan proteins are of interest because of their involvement in both wall architecture and cellular regulatory processes. Arabinogalactan proteins are ubiquitous in seed land plants and have also been found in ferns, lycophytes and mosses. They are structurally characterised by large polysaccharide moieties composed of arabinogalactans (normally over 90% of the molecule) which are covalently linked via hydroxyproline to relatively small protein/peptide backbones (normally less than 10% of the molecule). Distinct glycan modifications have been identified in different species and tissues and it has been suggested these influence physical properties and function. In 2020, AGPs were isolated and structurally characterised for the first time from a seagrass. Although the common backbone structure of land plant arabinogalactan proteins is conserved, the glycan structures exhibit unique features suggesting a role of seagrass arabinogalactan proteins in osmoregulation.
Further components of secondary walls of plants are cross-linked phenolic polymers called lignin, which are responsible for mechanical strengthening of the wall. In seagrasses, this polymer has also been detected, but often in lower amounts compared to angiosperm land plants. Thus, the cell walls of seagrasses seem to contain combinations of features known from both angiosperm land plants and marine macroalgae together with new structural elements. Dried seagrass leaves might be useful for papermaking or as insulating materials, so knowledge of cell wall composition has some technological relevance.
See also
Alismatales
Blue carbon
Salt marsh
Mangrove
Ocean Data Viewer: contains the global distribution of seagrasses dataset
References
Further references
den Hartog, C. 1970. The Sea-grasses of the World. Verhandl. der Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen, Afd. Natuurkunde, No. 59(1).
Duarte, Carlos M. and Carina L. Chiscano “Seagrass biomass and production: a reassessment” Aquatic Botany Volume 65, Issues 1–4, November 1999, Pages 159–174.
Green, E.P. & Short, F.T.(eds). 2003. World Atlas of Seagrasses. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA. 298 pp.
Hemminga, M.A. & Duarte, C. 2000. Seagrass Ecology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 298 pp.
Hogarth, Peter The Biology of Mangroves and Seagrasses (Oxford University Press, 2007)
Larkum, Anthony W.D., Robert J. Orth, and Carlos M. Duarte (Editors) Seagrasses: Biology, Ecology and Conservation (Springer, 2006)
Orth, Robert J. et al. "A Global Crisis for Seagrass Ecosystems" BioScience December 2006 / Vol. 56 No. 12, Pages 987–996.
Short, F.T. & Coles, R.G.(eds). 2001. Global Seagrass Research Methods. Elsevier Science, Amsterdam. 473 pp.
A.W.D. Larkum, R.J. Orth, and C.M. Duarte (eds). Seagrass Biology: A Treatise. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, in press.
A. Schwartz; M. Morrison; I. Hawes; J. Halliday. 2006. Physical and biological characteristics of a rare marine habitat: sub-tidal seagrass beds of offshore islands. Science for Conservation 269. 39 pp.
Waycott, M, McMahon, K, & Lavery, P 2014, A guide to southern temperate seagrasses, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne
External links
Project Seagrass - Charity advancing the conservation of seagrass through education, influence, research and action
SeagrassSpotter - Citizen Science project raising awaress for seagrass meadows and mapping their locations
Seagrass and Seagrass Beds overview from the Smithsonian Ocean Portal
Nature Geoscience article describing the locations of the seagrass meadows around the world
Seagrass-Watch - the largest scientific, non-destructive, seagrass assessment and monitoring program in the world
Seagrass Ecosystem Research Group at Swansea University - Inter-disciplinary marine research for conservation
Restore-A-Scar - a non-profit campaign to restore seagrass meadows damaged by boat props
SeagrassNet - global seagrass monitoring program
The Seagrass Fund at The Ocean Foundation
Taxonomy of seagrasses
World Seagrass Association
SeagrassLI
Seagrass Science and Management in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand
Marine Ecology (December 2006) - special issue on seagrasses
Cambodian Seagrasses
Seagrass Productivity - COST Action ES0906
Fisheries Western Australia - Seagrass Fact Sheet
Blue carbon
Plant common names
Roofing materials
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234146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sartorius%20muscle | Sartorius muscle | The sartorius muscle () is the longest muscle in the human body. It is a long, thin, superficial muscle that runs down the length of the thigh in the anterior compartment.
Structure
The sartorius muscle originates from the anterior superior iliac spine, and part of the notch between the anterior superior iliac spine and anterior inferior iliac spine. It runs obliquely across the upper and anterior part of the thigh in an inferomedial direction.
It passes behind the medial condyle of the femur to end in a tendon. This tendon curves anteriorly to join the tendons of the gracilis and semitendinosus muscles in the pes anserinus, where it inserts into the superomedial surface of the tibia.
Its upper portion forms the lateral border of the femoral triangle, and the point where it crosses adductor longus marks the apex of the triangle. Deep to sartorius and its fascia is the adductor canal, through which the saphenous nerve, femoral artery and vein, and nerve to vastus medialis pass.
Innervation
Like the other muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh, the sartorius is innervated by the femoral nerve.
Variation
It may originate from the outer end of the inguinal ligament, the notch of the ilium, the ilio-pectineal line or the pubis.
The muscle may be split into two parts, and one part may be inserted into the fascia lata, the femur, the ligament of the patella or the tendon of the semitendinosus.
The tendon of insertion may end in the fascia lata, the capsule of the knee-joint, or the fascia of the leg.
The muscle may be absent in some people.
Function
The sartorius muscle can move the hip joint and the knee joint, but all of its actions are weak, making it a synergist muscle. At the hip, it can flex, weakly abduct, and laterally rotate the femur. At the knee, it can flex the leg; when the knee is flexed, sartorius medially rotates the leg. Sitting cross-legged demonstrates all four actions of the sartorius.
Clinical significance
One of the many conditions that can disrupt the use of the sartorius is pes anserine bursitis, an inflammatory condition of the medial portion of the knee. This condition usually occurs in athletes from overuse and is characterized by pain, swelling and tenderness. The pes anserinus involves the tendons of the gracilis, semitendinosus, and sartorius muscles; these tendons attach onto the anteromedial proximal tibia. When inflammation of the bursa underlying the tendons occurs, they separate from the head of the tibia.
History
The name sartorius comes from the Latin word sartor, meaning tailor, and it is sometimes called the tailor's muscle. This name was chosen in reference to the cross-legged position in which tailors once sat. In French, a muscle name itself "couturier" comes from this specific position which is referred to as "sitting as a tailor" (in French: "s'asseoir en tailleur"). There are other hypotheses as to the origin of the name. One is that it refers to the location of the inferior portion of the muscle being the "inseam" or area of the inner thigh that tailors commonly measure when fitting trousers. Another is that the muscle closely resembles a tailor's ribbon. Additionally, antique sewing machines required continuous crossbody pedaling. This combination of lateral rotation and flexion of the hip and flexion of the knee gave tailors particularly developed sartorius muscles.
Additional images
References
External links
Hip abductors
Hip flexors
Hip lateral rotators
Knee flexors
Thigh muscles
Anterior compartment of thigh
Muscles of the lower limb | [
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234149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshihide | Ashikaga Yoshihide | was the 14th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who held nominal power for a few months in 1568 during the Muromachi period of Japan. When he became shōgun, he changed his name to Yoshinaga, but he is more conventionally recognized today by the name Yoshihide.
Eiroku 11, in the 2nd month (1568): Yoshihide became Sei-i Taishōgun three years after the death of his cousin, the thirteenth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshiteru.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshitsuna
Mother: daughter of Ouchi Yoshiyuki
Wife: Yuki no Tsubone
Events of Yoshihide's bakufu
Shortly after having been proclaimed shōgun, Yoshihide died from a contagious disease. In the same month, Oda Nobunaga marched his armies into Kyoto. He seized control of the capital. Nobunaga installed Ashikaga Yoshiaki as the fifteenth shōgun.
Era of Yoshihide's bakufu
The year in which Yoshihide was shogun is encompassed within a single era name or nengō.
Eiroku (1558–1570)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
Ashikaga shōguns
1538 births
1568 deaths
16th-century shōguns
Yoshihide | [
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234160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshiteru | Ashikaga Yoshiteru | , also known as Yoshifushi or Yoshifuji, was the 13th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1546 to 1565 during the late Muromachi period of Japan. He was the eldest son of the 12th shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshiharu, and his mother was a daughter of Konoe Hisamichi (later called Keijuin). When he became shogun in 1546 at age 11, Yoshiteru's name was Yoshifushi (sometimes transliterated as Yoshifuji); but some years later in 1554, he changed his name to the one by which he is conventionally known today. His childhood name was Kikubemaru (). His younger brother Ashikaga Yoshiaki became the fifteenth shōgun.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Yoshiharu
Mother: Keijuin (1514–1565)
Wife: daughter of Konoe Taneie
Concubines:
Kojiju no Tsubone
Karasumaru-dono
Children:
Teruwakamaru (1562–1562)
nun in Kyokoji temple
nun in Kyokoji temple
Ashikaga Yoshitaka
Oike Yoshitatsu by Karasumaru-dono
Installed as shōgun
After his father, Yoshiharu, was forced to retire in 1546 over a political struggle with Hosokawa Harumoto, Yoshiteru became Sei-i Taishōgun, albeit a puppet shōgun like his father. Yoshiteru was only 11 at the time and his investiture ceremony was held at Sakamoto, Ōmi Province, outside Kyoto.
Yoshiteru had barely been confirmed as shōgun when his father Yoshiharu made a truce with Harumoto to return to Kyoto. Yet, Harumoto's retainer Miyoshi Nagayoshi parted with Harumoto to take the side of Hosokawa Ujitsuna and the two Hosokawa started a war that drove out Yoshiteru, his father Yoshiharu, and Harumoto as well, from Kyoto. In 1550, Yoshiharu died in Ōmi, unable to return to Kyoto.
In 1552, Yoshiteru made a peace with Nagayoshi to return to Kyoto. However, the next year, Yoshiteru and Harumoto started a war against Nagayoshi to remove his influence. With the help of Rokkaku Yoshikata, the war initially went well for Yoshiteru but he was driven out of Kyoto again in 1558 with a counterattack from Nagayoshi. Nagayoshi did not press on after the victory to kill Yoshiteru for fear of being accused of killing a shogun, and instead signed a truce to have Yoshiteru back in Kyoto under his influence. Nagayoshi continued as the real power in Kyoto, with Yoshiteru nothing more than a rubber stamp.
Timeline
Significant events shaped the period during which Yoshiteru was shōgun:
1550 – Yoshiharu dies in exile; Yoshiteru's "shogunate" in exile begins.
1551 – Sue Harukata rebels against Ōuchi Yoshitaka.
1552 – Yoshiteru returns to Kyoto, actual power being held by Miyoshi Nagayoshi and Matsunaga Hisahide.
1554–1564 – Ōuchi's retainer Mōri Motonari succeeds him and consolidates his power.
1557 – Ōgimachi succeeds.
1558 – Nagayoshi drives out Yoshiteru who, however, is reinstated.
1560 – Oda Nobunaga slays Imagawa Yoshimoto.
1564 – Uesugi Kenshin and Takeda Shingen reach a stalemate at Kawanakajima after continuous battles, checking each other's power. (1553–1564).
1565 – Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide invades Kyoto; Yoshiteru commits suicide.
Governance
Surrounded by daimyōs who intended only to use the authority of shogun for their own good, Yoshiteru still managed to reaffirm the shōguns authority by active diplomacy that extended to every part of Japan. By trying to negotiate a peace between such well-known daimyōs as Takeda Shingen and Uesugi Kenshin, Shimazu Takahisa, Ōtomo Yoshishige, Mōri Motonari, and Amago Haruhisa, the shogun's authority was again recognized by various daimyōs. Lacking resources, Yoshiteru nevertheless saw opportunities to assign his kanji "" on various samurai such as Mōri Terumoto to become something close to a godfather. Yoshiteru was well respected for his actions and many researchers credit him as being the last effective shōgun to hold the post. Oda Nobunaga and Uesugi Kenshin were among the many daimyōs and samurai who travelled to Kyoto to pay their respects to the shōgun.
End of reign
In 1564, Nagayoshi died of illness and Yoshiteru saw an opportunity to fully reclaim the shōguns authority. However, Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide and the three member council of Miyoshi, the Miyoshi Triumvirs, who wanted to rule just as Nagayoshi had, were willing to go to any lengths to remove Yoshiteru from the power and to have Ashikaga Yoshihide as the puppet shōgun.
In 1565, Matsunaga Danjo Hisahide's son Matsunaga Hisamichi and Miyoshi Yoshitsugu laid siege against a collection of buildings (that would later become Nijō Castle) where Yoshiteru lived. With no help arriving in time from the daimyōs that could have supported him, Yoshiteru and the few troops under him were overrun by Miyoshi.
Jesuit missionary Father Luís Fróis, in his account of the overthrow of Ashikaga Yoshiteru, wrote about the strong sexual love relationship between Yoshiteru and his squire, Odachidono. According to Father Fróis, the shōguns squire, Odachidono, "fought so valiantly and with such intrepid spirit that all the rebels started to shout out that he should not be killed, but that he should be taken alive. Nonetheless, seeing his master die, and believing it a great dishonour to survive him, the youth threw away his sword, and pulling out his dagger, he cut open his throat and then his belly. Finally he killed himself by lying down flat with the dagger in his belly."
Three years passed before his cousin Ashikaga Yoshihide became the fourteenth shōgun.
Legacy
Because of his inner strength and the katana skills that he was known to have practiced regularly, Yoshiteru was called the "Kengo shōgun" (剣豪将軍) and was closer to being a samurai and a warlord than any shōgun since Ashikaga Takauji. One of his sword-fighting instructors was Tsukahara Bokuden, the founder of Kashima Shintō-ryū. His governance was highly credited but to have been killed in spite of his efforts completely destroyed what little recognition and authority Yoshiteru built up.
The waka Yoshiteru was said to have left on his death shows the extent of his aspirations compared with the limits of achievements.
Eras of Yoshiteru's bakufu
There were more than one era name or nengō in which Yoshiteru was identified as Shogun .
Tenbun (1532–1555)
Kōji (1555–1558)
Eiroku (1558–1570)
Sword
The "Mikazuki Munechika" is another one of Japan’s Tenka-Goken and is considered the most beautiful of the five blades. This tachi style samurai sword was created Sanjô Munechika and was named for its crescent moon shape (mikazuki). Like all of the Tenka-Goken, the Mikazuki Munechika is one of Japan’s National Treasures and is currently on display at the Tokyo National Museum.
Over its long history, the Mikazauki Munechika has been owned by several important Japanese families. During the mid-16th century, the Mikazuki Munechika belonged to the Ashikaga family and the sword was used by shogun Ashikaga Yoshiteru to defend himself until he died during an attack on the palace by the Miyoshi family. The sword, along with other Ashikaga treasures, was taken by Miyohsi Masayasu. The Mikazuki Munechika was passed down a few more times before it was owned by the Tokugawa family.
In Yashahime: Princess Half-Demon, Ashikaga used the sword Kikujūmonji.
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
External links
Momoyama, Japanese Art in the Age of Grandeur, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Ashikaga Yoshiteru
Ashikaga Yoshiteru
Ashikaga Yoshiteru
16th-century shōguns
Yoshiteru
Ashikaga Yoshiteru
Japanese warriors killed in battle
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234163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20bundling | Product bundling | In marketing, product bundling is offering several products or services for sale as one combined product or service package. It is a common feature in many imperfectly competitive product and service markets. Industries engaged in the practice include telecommunications services, financial services, health care, information, and consumer electronics. A software bundle might include a word processor, spreadsheet, and presentation program into a single office suite. The cable television industry often bundles many TV and movie channels into a single tier or package. The fast food industry combines separate food items into a "meal deal" or "value meal".
A bundle of products may be called a package deal, in recorded music or video games, a compilation or box set, or in publishing, an anthology.
Most firms are multi-product or multi-service companies faced with the decision whether to sell products or services separately at individual prices or whether combinations of products should be marketed in the form of "bundles" for which a "bundle price" is asked. Price bundling plays an increasingly important role in many industries (e.g. banking, insurance, software, automotive) and some companies even build their business strategies on bundling. In a bundle pricing, companies sell a package or set of goods or services for a lower price than they would charge if the customer bought all of them separately. Pursuing a bundle pricing strategy allows a business to increase its profit by using a discount to induce customers to buy more than they otherwise would have.
Rationale
Bundling is most successful when:
There are economies of scale in production.
There are economies of scope in distribution. This can be seen in consumer electronics bundles where a big box electronics store offers all of the components for a home theatre setup (DVD player, flatscreen TV, surround sound speakers, receiver, subwoofer) for a lower price than if each component were to be purchased separately. The big box electronics store can exploit its economies of scope, as they distribute and sell a huge range of home theatre products.
Marginal costs of bundling are low.
Production set-up costs are high.
Customer acquisition costs are high.
Consumers appreciate the resulting simplification of the purchase decision and benefit from the joint performance of the combined product or service. This is particularly the case when a non-specialist consumer would have information asymmetry when trying to buy all of the components of a home theatre (speakers, connection cables, speaker wire). He/she would need learn about all of the product specifications and the requirements for accessories used with the main items. For example, with Home Theatre in a Box, a consumer can feel confident that all of the included speakers are of correct impedance and power rating and that all of the included cables are the correct models.
While many well-known examples of bundling are all products or services from the same store or provider, such as the sports package for a car or a grocery store's gift basket, in some cases, cross-industry bundles are assembled and sold. For example, some travel agencies have vacation tour bundles that may include air tickets, rail tickets, a rental car, hotels, restaurants, museum and sightseeing attraction tickets and live music event tickets. These bundles include products and services from transportation, accommodation, tourism, food service and entertainment industries.
Consumers have heterogeneous demands and such demands for different parts of the bundle product are inversely correlated. For example, assume consumer A values a word processor software at $100 and spreadsheet processor at $60, while consumer B values a word processor at $60 and spreadsheet at $100. Seller can generate maximum revenue of only $240 by setting $60 price for each product—both consumers will buy both products. Revenue cannot be increased without bundling because as seller increases the price above $60 for one of the goods, one of the consumers will refuse to buy it. With bundling, seller can generate revenue of $320 by bundling the products together and selling the bundle at $160. Thus, bundling can be considered a form of price discrimination.
Product bundling is most suitable for high volume and high margin (i.e., low marginal cost) products. Research by Yannis Bakos and Erik Brynjolfsson found that bundling was particularly effective for digital "information goods" with close to zero marginal cost, and could enable a bundler with an inferior collection of products to drive even superior quality goods out of the market place.
Venkatesh and Mahajan reviewed the research on bundle design and pricing in 2009. A 1997 study by Mercer Management Consulting, in Massachusetts stated that good bundles have five elements: (1) the package is worth more than the "sum of its parts" for the consumer; (2) the bundle brings order and simplicity to a set of confusing or tedious choices; (3) the bundle solves a problem for the consumer; (4) the bundle is focused and lean in an effort to avoid carrying or including options, goods or services the consumer has no use for; and (5) the bundle generates interest or even controversy. Number 1 can be read as simply that a bundle should cost less than buying each item separately; however, even if the bundle were to cost the same in dollars, a bundle may still be an appealing value proposition for a consumer, as they do not have to hand-pick each accessory and add-on item (this is the 2nd and 3rd point).
Bundling is often thought of mainly as a value pricing strategy, in that product bundles often cost less than if each item were purchased separately. However, bundling can also have other strategic advantages. For example, when a grocery store is making up a gift basket, they can use the design of the basket item list as a way to promote new products or brands that a customer may not know or as a way to liquidate merchandise that is not selling well. As well, even though many bundles are less expensive than all of the items if purchased separately, in some cases the bundle costs more than if each item was purchased separately; this tactic is particularly effective in high-end retailing where conspicuous consumption and prestige pricing elements come into play. A well-off home theatre enthusiast with a very high budget may find a $10,000 home theatre package attractive, even if it costs a bit more than buying each item separately, because this is an impressive total cost.
Varieties
Pure bundling occurs when a consumer can only purchase the entire bundle or nothing
Joint bundling is a subcategory of pure bundling in which the two products are offered together for one bundled price
Leader bundling is a subcategory of pure bundling in which a leader product is offered for discount if purchased with a non-leader product, accessory or other item.
Mixed-leader bundling is a variant of leader bundling with the added possibility of buying the leader product on its own.
Mixed bundling occurs when consumers are offered a choice between purchasing the entire bundle or one of the separate parts of the bundle.
Bundling in political economy is a type of product bundling in which the "product" is a candidate in an election who markets his or her bundle of attributes and political positions to the voters. For example, a political candidate may market herself as a centrist candidate by ensuring she/he has centrist social, economic, and law enforcement positions.
Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages:
Help the company sell some unpopular products and speed up inventory clearance. Product bundling combines the best-selling products and unpopular products with less inventory by setting reasonable prices to increase the attractiveness, so that consumers can buy combination products to help the company reduce inventory.
Help the company generate more sales and maximize profits. Product bundling can maximize consumer surplus so that consumers feel that they have obtained additional items, so customers are more likely to spend a total of one time to purchase multiple products. This can help the company increase total sales revenue by increasing the average order value, average transaction value, and the amount of each transaction, because multiple products are more expensive than a single product.
Enable the company to promote more differentiated products with lower marketing costs. The company can spend the same energy and cost to promote two or more products at the same time.
Help consumers reduce decision-making pressure. Merchants use matching algorithms to set up bundled products that meet the needs of consumers, thereby guiding customers to choose options that meet their needs and reducing their decision fatigue. Bundles have the effect of reducing search costs.
Disadvantages to the consumer:
Decreases competition.
Reduces consumer choice; consumers may be forced to buy bundles which don't contain all the things they wanted, and contian things they don't want, and may even be pushed into buying inferior products For example, two companies both sell a bundle containing a computer and an operating system, but one has poor-quality hardware and one has poor-quality software. The consumer wants to buy each company's good product, but can't unless they pay for two computers and two operating systems and throw one of each away. A new company which sells only hardware or only operating systems also has to persuade the consumer to throw away a purchased product; this is a barrier to market entry.
Can drive up consumer costs.
A method of price discrimination.
Disadvantages to the seller:
Product bundling may lead to the cannibalization of branded products. These products can be purchased outside of the bundled sales package. For example, if a company sells bundled products and individual products at the same time, then the bundled products will get more sales, which will reduce the profit of the individual products.
When consumers cannot buy certain products individually, they may not buy them because they feel that the bundled sales package forces them to buy more products.
Software
In the computer industry, bundled software is distributed with another product such as a piece of computer hardware or other electronic device, or is a group of software packages which are sold together. Software which is pre-installed on a new computer is an example of bundled software. For example, as of 2017, most desktop, laptop and mobile computers are bought pre-loaded with various software and software applications ("apps"). A pack-in game is a form of bundled software.
Early microcomputer companies varied in their decision to bundle software. BYTE in 1984 observed that "Kaypro apparently has tremendous buying and bargaining power", noting that the Kaypro 10 came with both WordStar and Perfect Writer, plus "two spelling checkers, two spreadsheets, two communications programs and three versions of BASIC". Stating that year that a computer that weighs 30 pounds "really isn't very portable", Creative Computing concluded that "the main reason that the Osborne was a success was not that it was transportable, but that it came with a pile of bundled software". Compaq, by contrast, did not bundle software, stating that "You remove the freedom from the dealers to really merchandise when you bundle in software ... Why should you be constrained to use the software that comes with a piece of hardware? I think it can tend to inhibit sales over the long run." MacWrite's inclusion with early Macintosh computers discouraged developers from creating other word processing software for the computer. Many companies sold multimedia upgrade kits—a CD-ROM drive, sound card, speakers, and what Computer Gaming World described as "a boatload of bundled software"—during the mid-1990s.
Home theatre in a box
In the 1990s and in the 2000s (decade) and 2010s, many consumer electronics companies designed home theatre equipment bundles, known as Home Theatre in a Box (HTIB). For a customer who already owned a TV, and in some cases a DVD player or other source for playing back movies, a HTIB package provides all of the electronics hardware, speakers and cables needed to set up a home cinema. There are three grades of HTIB bundles: economy bundles, aimed at the lowest price point; mid-tier bundles, the most common type; and higher-cost HTIB bundles made by BOSE and other higher-end manufacturers. At the economy grade HTIB package, the customer is provided with a basic home theatre set-up, with modest sound quality and relatively few options for adjusting the sound. The mid-tier and upper-tier packages offer better performance and more set-up options. All three HTIB tiers, though, have a similar value proposition for the buyer: the HTIB package ensures that all of the speakers are of the correct impedance and power handling capabilities, the cables are of the correct type, and the crossover points and other technical details have been set up by the manufacturer.
The most serious home theatre enthusiasts do not typically buy HTIB bundles, as they are a more sophisticated target market. As such, the most serious home cinema-philes typically purchase each component (power amplifiers, speakers, subwoofer cabinet, speaker cables) separately, so that they can choose which items meet their specific movie-watching goals. For example, a serious home theatre enthusiast may wish to have a large cabinet subwoofer enclosure with heavy bracing, a type and size of subwoofer cabinet that would not be found in any HTIB bundle due to its large size and high cost. As well, a serious home theatre enthusiast may wish to have a powered subwoofer with a user-adjustable crossover, a "subsonic" filter and other higher-cost advanced features.
Market power and competitiveness
In oligopolistic and monopolistic industries, product bundling can be seen as an unfair use of market power because it limits the choices available to the consumer. In these cases it is typically called product tying.
Some forms of product bundling have been subject to litigation regarding abuses of market share.
United States v. Microsoft
United States v. Microsoft was a set of civil actions filed against Microsoft Corporation pursuant to the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 Sections 1 and 2 on May 18, 1998, by the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) and 20 states. Joel I. Klein was the lead prosecutor. The plaintiffs alleged that Microsoft abused monopoly power on Intel-based personal computers in its handling of operating system sales and web browser sales. The issue central to the case was whether Microsoft was allowed to bundle its flagship Internet Explorer (IE) web browser software with its Microsoft Windows operating system. Bundling them together is alleged to have been responsible for Microsoft's victory in the browser wars as every Windows user had a copy of Internet Explorer.
TV programing bundles by cable and satellite providers
Cable and satellite television (Pay TV) have bundled TV channels since the inception of both. In the early years of the cable industry this was necessary due to the technological constraints associated with allowing and blocking channels transmitted via analog methods. The progress towards complete cable, internet, and telephone packages gave subscribers many more options as well as offering hundreds of channels. The "package" price depends on the level of service a customer prefers within each bundle. The services range from low speed internet and minimum channels to high speed internet and the addition of many premium channels. In the US prices for pay TV have doubled in the last twenty years, averaging 6% per year, while wages have remained the same for nearly 20 years causing dissatisfaction and many cancellations. Costs have risen 53% since 2007 and Comcast and AT&T's Direct TV went up in January 2018. With the Digital television transition opportunities for competition to pay TV ushered in online video companies and forcing pay TV companies to examine à la carte cable company packages.
A 2018 consumer report shows many subscribers are dissatisfied with cable TV, mainly over prices, which has led to many complaints. Google Fiber was an exception to widespread consumer dissatisfaction. Verizon and the two satellite-TV companies —AT&T's DirecTV and Dish Network rated better than Cox Communications, Comcast, Spectrum, Optimum, CenturyLink, SuddenLink Communications, Atlantic Broadband, Frontier Communications, and Mediacom was rated at the bottom. Internet providers EPB (Fiber Optics) and Google Fiber received top ratings for value. Of the smaller companies only Armstrong received top ratings and RCN, Hawaiian Telcom (bought by Cincinnati Bell in 2018), and Grande Communications received slightly higher ratings.
The high price of current complete bundling, upwards of $180–200, along with poor customer service, surprise bills, and technical difficulties, resulted in Angie's List reporting that these things were the number two most complained about category.
TV bundling by Internet-based (over-the-top) service providers
Streaming company Netflix offers different bundles, claims to have the largest content along with original programming, and offers downloading for offline viewing.
Amazon provides on-Demand Movie Streaming, as well as Hulu.
Sling TV offers up to 50 channels.
HBO Now, Philo TV, Pluto TV, FuboTV, and Twitch (subsidiary of Amazon) also offer TV programming.
YouTube TV ties with PlayStation Vue as the most expensive streaming video.
Apple TV offers movies.
Roku and Sony Crackle offer free TV with advertisements.
Most of these companies offer different prices as bundles or packages.
See also
Breakage
Competition law
Compilation album
Enterprise engagement
Freebie marketing
History of IBM § 1969: Antitrust, the Unbundling of software and services
Local loop unbundling
Marketing co-operation
Multicart
Package holiday
Price discrimination
Product lining
Product management
Shovelware
Software bloat
Tying (commerce)
References
Further reading
"Bundle Up, Electric Providers". Public Utilities Fortnightly 137, no. 2 (1999): 62.
"Bundling Survey Assesses Consumers' Interests". Security Distributing and Marketing 29, no. 1 (1999): 30.
"Business Unbundled: Microsoft". The Economist 374, 8407 (2005): 48.
Fuerderer, R., A. Herrmann, and G. Wuebker, eds. Optimal Bundling: Marketing Strategies for Improving Economic Performance. New York: Springer, 1999.
Janiszewski, C., and M. Chuha, Jr. "The Influence of Price Discount Framing on the Evaluation of a Product Bundle". Journal of Consumer Research 30, no. 4 (2004): 534–547.
Mannes, G. "The Urge to Unbundle". Fast Company 91 (2005): 23–24.
Ovans, Andrea. "Make a Bundle Bundling". Harvard Business Review 75, no. 6 (1997): 18–20. 1999, S4–S11.
Salinger, Michael A. "A Graphical Analysis of Bundling". Journal of Business 68, no. 1 (1995): 85–98.
Solomon, Howard. "Corel Inks Office Suite Bundling Deal with PC Chips". Computing Canada 25, no. 15 (1999): 15–17.
"Utilities Pose Threat to Bundling". Utility Business, 28 February 1999, 72.
Brand management
Marketing techniques
Marketing strategy
Product management
Software distribution | [
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234165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fascial%20compartment | Fascial compartment | A fascial compartment is a section within the body that contains muscles and nerves and is surrounded by deep fascia. In the human body, the limbs can each be divided into two segments – the upper limb can be divided into the arm and the forearm and the sectional compartments of both of these – the fascial compartments of the arm and the fascial compartments of the forearm contain an anterior and a posterior compartment. Likewise, the lower limbs can be divided into two segments – the leg and the thigh – and these contain the fascial compartments of the leg and the fascial compartments of the thigh.
Structure
If these segments are cut transversely, it is apparent that they are divided into multiple sections. These are called fascial compartments, and are formed by tough connective tissue septa.
These compartments usually have a nerve and blood supply separate from their neighbours. The muscles in each compartment will often all be supplied by the same nerve.
Sometimes the segment is also covered by bone profoundly (as e.g. the brachial fascia). It is distinguished from pharmacokinetic compartment, which is a defined volume of body fluids.
Clinical significance
Compartment syndrome is an acute medical problem following injury or surgery in which increased pressure (usually caused by inflammation) occurs within a compartment.
References
Fasciae and Aponeuroses - Organized by Region Department of Anatomy, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
Limbs (anatomy)
Fascia | [
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234169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product%20lining | Product lining | In marketing jargon, product lining is offering several related products for sale individually. Unlike product bundling, where several products are combined into one group, which is then offered for sale as a units, product lining involves offering the products for sale separately. A line can comprise related products of various sizes, types, colors, qualities, or prices. Line depth refers to the number of subcategories a category has. Line consistency refers to how closely related the products that make up the line are. Line vulnerability refers to the percentage of sales or profits that are derived from only a few products in the line.
In comparison to product bundling, which is a strategy of offering more than one product for promotion as one combined item to create differentiation and greater value, product lining consists of selling different related products individually. The products in the product line can come in various sizes, colours, qualities, or prices. For instance, the variety of coffees that are offered at a café is one of its product lines and it could consist of flat white, cappuccinos, short black, lattes, mochas, etc. Alternatively, product line of juices and pastries can also be found at a café. The benefits from having a successful product line is the brand identification from customers which result in customer loyalty and multiple purchases. It increases the likelihood of customers purchasing new products from the company that have just been added into the product line due to the previous satisfying purchases.
Product mix
In marketing, the number of product lines offered is referred as the width of product mix. Product mix, also known as product assortment, is the total number of variety of products that a firm sells to their customers. It measures the total number of product lines. Some companies will focus solely and sell only one type of product that they specialise in. Having said that, some would offer numerous types of products for diversified markets, depending on the size and objectives of the entities. Each approaches' results vary based on many factors including location, market, trends, etc., therefore business should carefully consider their product mix. The width of product mix is one of the four dimensions of product mix along with the length, depth and consistency of product mix.
Width
As mentioned above, the width of product mix is referred to as the total number of product lines that the company offers. A diversified product mix can target the maximum number of customers, however, such numbers of product lines requires much attention and focus as each product line targets different groups of consumers and involves individual strategy and management. Although specialisation of products (narrow product mix) might be easier for businesses to operate and manage, it reduces the ability to reach out to diverse markets as they fail to offer sufficient options for consumers to cater to their “needs and wants”.
Length
The length of product mix refers to the total number of products sold by a company. A product line consists of many similar products defined by its functions and customer market while short product line consists of fewer related products. Longer product lines may fulfill the satisfaction of customers, that said, overly dense product lines may result in competition within the same line and lead to loss of revenue and customers. If product lines are too short, consumer options are limited, forcing them to switch to competitors with a longer range of products.
Depth
The depth of product mix pertains to the total number of variations of product in a product line. For example, a brand would be considered to have a depth of four if it sells two sizes and two flavours of soda.
Consistency
The consistency of product mix refers to how closely associated the products in the same product line are to each other, in terms of their use, production and distribution. A business’ production mix could be very consistent in distribution, yet extremely different in other areas such as use. For instance, a company may be selling health related items such as multi-vitamins tablet and magazines. Although both products fit into the same product line, they are completely dissimilar in use while one is editable and the other is not.
Product line extension and product line stretching
When companies add a new item to a product line, it is referred to as the product line extension. The purpose of it is to attract new customers who may not be familiar or satisfied with the current standard product line. For example, when a lifestyle pharmacy decided to add in a high protein muesli bar into its current product line of muesli bar. Companies with an effective product line can employ product line extension in order to reach new demographic customers in different geographic areas.
When a business adds a line extension to the product line and if it is of a higher quality than the current products, it is considered as trading up or an upward stretch. Alternatively, if the new added item is of lower quality compared to other existing products, it is known as trading down or a downward stretch. These stretches are known as product line stretching. Supermarkets often apply product line stretching to its product lines by offering different grading of their own brand products to ensure all markets are covered for maximum interest from customers. In addition when companies add new varieties of existing product it is known as product line filling.
Product line pricing
Product line pricing is a product pricing strategy, used when a company has more than one product in a product line. It is a process that traders adopt to separate products in the same category into various price groups, to create different quality levels in the customers’ minds.
For instance, vehicle manufacturers produce their vehicle in different models including economy models, environmental models, luxury models and more. Each of them has an individual cost or price to display the difference in levels. With that being said, in order for any pricing techniques to be effective, demand elasticity, the whole product mix, product positioning strategy and the product life cycle have to be put into consideration to determine the best price for each product.
Price lining
Price lining is a method of pricing different products for a limited number of prices. This strategy allows ease of administering and companies are able to predict their markets of customers and profits much easier. Dollar Store is an excellent example of price lining as most products sold there are $1.
Captive pricing
Captive pricing is a strategy drawing consumers’ interests and encouraging purchases by offering a basic product for a really low price, however, they will have to purchase additional items in order to obtain the full value of the product they have received. Although the retailer might lose profit on the first sales item, they will manage to gain it back from the additional products that customers buy. For example, razor blades and razors manufacturers usually sell a razor handle for an unbeatable price while selling additional blade cartridges at a much higher price. Captive pricing is most effective when there are no other similar products from competitors in the same price range.
Bundled pricing
Bundled pricing is the approach of selling products and their accessories or other options as one product for one price. Consumers will not need to purchase each item separately but one bundled item and priced as one product. This would also be appealing to customers as normally they would be on sale and have the original price still tagged on the product to emphasize the price difference. For instance, retailers will offer a bundle deal for purchasing a new computer with its accessories, such as keyboard and mouse pad.
Bait pricing
Bait Pricing, also known as “Bait and Switch” is often considered unethical and sometimes illegal. It involves promoting items at a really low price to entice customers, with only limited supplies. Customers will come into the store looking for the advertised product and find out is out of stock or doesn't even exist, and afterward be encouraged to purchase a comparable, higher-priced product that is available in store.
Leader pricing
Similar to Bait pricing, retailers use leader pricing to entice customers to come into the stores by advertising items, the loss leaders, at a low price. When they arrive at the stores aiming for the promoted products, they often end up buying additional products at their full prices. Therefore, businesses earn their profit off of the unplanned buying decisions by customers besides the loss leaders.
Related jargon
The number of different categories of a company is referred to as width of product mix. The total number of products sold in all lines is referred to as length of product mix. If a line of products is sold with the same brand name, this is referred to as family branding. When you add a new product to a line, it is referred to as a line extension. When you have a single saleable item distinguishable by size, appearance, price or some other attribute in your product line, it is called SKU-Stock Keeping Unit.
The marketing jargon for adding a product that is better quality than other products in the line is trading up or brand leveraging or up-market stretch. A line extension of lower quality is called trading down or down-market stretch. Trading down may reduce your brand equity by gaining short-term sales at the expense of long term sales. The jargon for "stretching the line" in both the directions is "two-way stretch".
Image anchors are highly promoted products within a line that define the image of the whole line. Image anchors are usually from the higher end of the line's range. When you add a new product within the current range of an incomplete line, this is referred to as line filling.
Price lining is the use of a limited number of prices for all your product offerings. This is a tradition started in the old five and dime stores in which everything cost either 5 or 10 cents. Its underlying rationale is that these amounts are seen as suitable price points for a whole range of products by prospective customers. It has the advantage of ease of administering, but the disadvantage of inflexibility, particularly in times of inflation or unstable prices.
See also
Brand
Brand management
Halo effect
Marketing
Product management
Product line extensions
References
Brand management
Branding terminology
Product management | [
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] |
234170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Egyptologists | List of Egyptologists | This is a partial list of Egyptologists. An Egyptologist is any archaeologist, historian, linguist, or art historian who specializes in Egyptology, the scientific study of Ancient Egypt and its antiquities. Demotists are Egyptologists who specialize in the study of the Demotic language and field of Demotic Studies. Although a practitioner of the disciplined study of Ancient Egypt and Egyptian antiquities is an "Egyptologist", the field of Egyptology is not exclusive to such practitioners.
A
Barbara G. Adams (British, 1945–2002)
Johan David Åkerblad (Swedish, 1763–1819)
Cyril Aldred (British, 1914–1991)
James Peter Allen (American, born 1945)
Maurice Alliot (French, 1903–1960)
Hartwig Altenmüller (German, born 1938)
Émile Amélineau (French, 1850–1915)
Alessia Amenta (Italian)
Guillemette Andreu (French, born 1948)
Tadeusz Andrzejewski (Polish, 1923–1961)
Jan Assmann (German, born 1938)
Éric Aubourg (French)
Sydney Hervé Aufrère (French, born 1951)
A.-C.-T.-Émile Prisse d'Avennes (French, 1807–1879)
Edward Russell Ayrton (British, 1882–1914)
B
Alexander Badawy (Egyptian, 1913–1986)
John Robert Baines (British, born 1946)
Pascale Ballet (French, born 1953)
Émile Baraize (French, 1874–1952)
Alessandro Barsanti (Italian, 1858–1917)
Hussein Bassir (Egyptian, born 1973)
Michel Baud (French, 1963–2012)
Alfred Chester Beatty (American, 1875–1968)
Nathalie Beaux-Grimal (French, born 1960)
Jürgen von Beckerath (German, 1920–2016)
Giovanni Battista Belzoni (Italian, 1778–1823)
Georges Aaron Bénédite (French 1857–1926)
Yosef Ben-Jochannan (American, 1918–2015)
Margaret Benson (English, 1865–1916)
Susanne Bickel (Swiss, born 1960)
Manfred Bietak (Austrian, born 1940)
Friedrich Wilhelm von Bissing (German, 1873–1956)
Fernand Bisson de la Roque (French, 1885–1958)
Aylward Manley Blackman (British, 1883–1956)
Edward Bleiberg (American, born 1951)
Martin Bommas (German, born 1967)
Charlotte Booth (British, born 1975)
Ludwig Borchardt (German, 1863–1938)
Käthe Bosse-Griffiths (German-British, 1910–1998)
Urbain Bouriant (French, 1849–1903)
Peter J. Brand (Canadian-American, born 1967)
James Henry Breasted (American, 1865–1935)
Edda Bresciani (Italian, 1930–2020)
Bob Brier (American, born 1943)
Edwin C. Brock (American, 1946–2015)
Mary Brodrick (British, 1858–1933)
Myrtle Florence Broome (British, 1888–1978)
Émile Brugsch (German, 1842–1930)
Heinrich Karl Brugsch (German, 1827–1894)
Guy Brunton (English, 1878–1948)
Betsy Bryan (American, born 1949)
E. A. Wallis Budge (British, 1857–1934)
Harry Burton (British, 1879–1940)
James Burton (British, 1788–1862)
C
Agnès Cabrol (French, 1964–2007)
Arthur Callender (British, 1875–1936)
Amice Calverley (British-Canadian, 1896–1959)
Ricardo Caminos (Argentinian, 1916–1992)
Jean Capart (Belgian, 1877–1947)
George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon (English, 1866–1923)
Howard Carter (British, 1874–1939)
Giovanni Battista Caviglia (Italian, 1770–1845)
Jaroslav Černý (Czech, 1898–1970)
François Chabas (French, 1817–1882)
Jean-François Champollion (French, 1790–1832)
Émile Gaston Chassinat (French, 1868–1948)
Charles Chipiez (French, 1835–1901)
Somers Clarke (English, 1841–1926)
Jean Clédat (French, 1871–1943)
Kathlyn M. Cooney (American)
Jean-Pierre Corteggiani (French, born 1942)
Pearce Paul Creasman (American, born 1981)
Winifred M. Crompton (British, 1870–1932)
Silvio Curto (Italian, 1919–2015)
D
Alec Naylor Dakin (English, 1912–2003)
Alicia Daneri (Argentine, born 1942)
Georges Émile Jules Daressy (French, 1864–1938)
François Daumas (French, 1918–1984)
Françoise Dunand (French, born 1934)
Colleen Darnell (American, born 1980)
Nina de Garis Davies (American, 1881–1965)
Norman de Garis Davies (American, 1865–1941)
Theodore M. Davis (American, 1837–1915)
Théodule Devéria (French, 1831–1871)
Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegalese, 1923–1986)
Aidan Dodson (English, born 1962)
Sergio Donadoni (Italian, 1914–2015)
Günter Dreyer (German, born 1943)
Étienne Drioton (French, 1889–1961)
Bernardino Drovetti (Italian, 1776–1852)
Johannes Dümichen (German, 1833–1894)
E
Bendix Ebbell (Norwegian, 1865–1941)
Georg Ebers (German, 1837–1898)
Dorothy Eady (English, 1904–1981)
Campbell Cowan Edgar (British, 1870–1938)
Amelia Edwards (British, 1831–1892)
Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (British, 1909–1996)
August Eisenlohr (German, 1832–1902)
Walter Bryan Emery (British, 1903–1971)
Jean-Yves Empereur (French, born 1952)
Reginald Engelbach (British, 1888–1946)
Adolf Erman (German, 1854–1937)
F
Raymond O. Faulkner (British 1894–1982)
Cecil Mallaby Firth (British, 1878–1931)
Henry George Fischer (American, 1923–2006)
Hans-Werner Fischer-Elfert (German, born 1954)
Joann Fletcher (British, born 1966)
Georges Foucart (French, 1865–1943)
Detlef Franke (German, 1952–2007)
Henri Frankfort (Dutch, 1897–1954)
Henning Franzmeier (German)
George Willoughby Fraser (British, 1866–1923)
Renée Friedman (American)
Elizabeth Frood (New Zealand)
G
Marc Gabolde (French, born 1957)
Alan Gardiner (British, 1879–1963)
Jean Sainte-Fare Garnot (French, 1908–1963)
John Garstang (British, 1876–1956)
Henri Gauthier (French, 1877–1950)
Joseph Étienne Gautier (French, 1861–1924)
John Gee (American, born 1964)
Paul Ghalioungui (Egyptian, 1908–1987)
Stephen Ranulph Kingdon Glanville (British 1900–1956)
Orly Goldwasser (Israeli)
Vladimir Golenishchev (Russian, 1856–1947)
Zakaria Goneim (Egyptian, 1905–1959)
Charles Wycliffe Goodwin (English, 1817–1878)
Janet Gourlay (Scottish, 1863–1912)
Georges Goyon (French, 1905–1996)
Pierre Grandet (French, born 1954)
Hermann Grapow (German, 1885–1967)
Eugène Grébaut (French, 1846–1915)
Bernard Pyne Grenfell (British, 1869–1926)
Francis Llewellyn Griffith (British, 1862–1934)
Nora Griffith (British, 1870–1937)
Nicolas Grimal (French, born 1948)
Sarah Israelit Groll (Israeli, 1925–2007)
Battiscombe Gunn (English, 1883–1950)
H
Labib Habachi (Egyptian, 1906–1984)
Hermine Hartleben (German, 1846–1918)
Selim Hassan (Egyptian, 1887–1961)
Zahi Hawass (Egyptian, born 1947)
William C. Hayes (American, 1903–1963)
Wolfgang Helck (German, 1914–1993)
Johann Jakob Hess (Swiss, 1866–1949)
James K. Hoffmeier (American, born 1951)
Erik Hornung (Swiss, born 1933)
Arthur Surridge Hunt (British, 1871–1934)
Brian M. Hauglid (American, born 1954)
I
Ibn Wahshiyya (Iraqi, fl. 9th/10th centuries)
Salima Ikram (Pakistani, born 1965)
Sergei Ignatov (Bulgarian, born 1960)
J
Christian Jacq (French, born 1947)
Thomas Garnet Henry James (British, 1923–2009)
Gustave Jéquier (Swiss, 1868–1946)
Jean-Baptiste Jollois (French, 1776–1842)
Edme-François Jomard (French, 1777–1862)
Pierre Jouguet (French, 1869–1949)
Hermann Junker (German, 1877–1962)
K
László Kákosy (Hungarian, 1932–2003)
Ahmed Kamal (Egyptian, 1851–1923)
Naguib Kanawati (Egyptian-Australian, born 1941)
Peter Kaplony (Hungarian-Swiss, 1933–2011)
Barry Kemp (British)
Jean Kérisel (French, 1908–2005)
Athanasius Kircher (German, 1602–1680)
Kenneth Anderson Kitchen (British, born 1932)
Giovanni Kminek-Szedlo (Czech-Italian, 1828–1896)
Jirō Kondō (Japanese, born 1951)
Charles Kuentz (French, 1895–1978)
L
Pierre Lacau (French, 1873–1963)
Violette Lafleur (Canadian, 1897–1965)
Jean-Philippe Lauer (French, 1902–2001)
Jean Leclant (French, 1920–2011)
Conradus Leemans (Dutch, 1809–1893)
Eugène Lefébure (French, 1838–1908)
Gustave Lefebvre (French, 1879–1957)
Georges Legrain (French, 1865–1917)
Mark Lehner (American)
Oscar Lemm (Russian, 1856–1918)
Charles Lenormant (French, 1802–1859)
Karl Richard Lepsius (German, 1810–1884)
Leonard H. Lesko (American, born 1938)
František Lexa (Czech, 1876–1960)
Nestor L'Hôte (French, 1804–1842)
Miriam Lichtheim (Israeli, 1914–2004)
Jens Lieblein (Norwegian, 1827–1911)
Victor Loret (French, 1859–1946)
Paul D. Lynn (American, born 1964)
M
Arthur Cruttenden Mace (British, 1874–1928)
Auguste Ferdinand François Mariette (French, 1821–1881)
Gaston Maspero (French, 1846–1916)
Bernard Mathieu (French, born 1959)
Bernadette Menu (French, born 1942)
Barbara Mertz (American, 1927–2013)
Kazimierz Michałowski (Polish, 1901–1981)
Béatrix Midant-Reynes (French)
Nicholas Millet (American, 1934–2004)
Sir Robert Mond (British, 1867–1938)
Pierre Montet (French, 1885–1966)
Ludwig David Morenz (German, born 1965)
Alexandre Moret (French, 1868–1938)
Jacques de Morgan (French, 1857–1924)
Rosalind Moss (British, 1890–1990)
Tycho Q. Mrsich (German, born 1925)
William J. Murnane (American, 1945–2000)
Margaret Alice Murray (Anglo-Indian, 1863–1963)
Karol Myśliwiec (Polish, born 1943)
N
Édouard Naville (Swiss, 1844–1926)
Alessandra Nibbi (Australian, 1923–2007)
Christiane Desroches Noblecourt (French, 1913–2011)
O
David O'Connor (Australian, born 1938)
Boyo Ockinga (German-Australian)
P
Laure Pantalacci (French)
Sarah Parcak (American)
Richard Anthony Parker (American, 1905–1993)
Richard B. Parkinson (British, born 1963)
Thomas Eric Peet (British, 1882–1934)
John Pendlebury (British, 1904–1941)
John Shae Perring (British, 1813–1869)
Hilda Petrie (Irish, 1871–1957)
William Flinders Petrie (British, 1853–1942)
Karl Piehl (Swedish, 1853–1904)
Willem Pleyte (Dutch, 1836–1903)
André Pochan (French, 1891–19??)
Paule Posener-Kriéger (French, 1925—1996)
Q
Joachim Friedrich Quack (German, born 1966)
James Edward Quibell (British, 1867–1935)
Stephen Quirke (British)
R
David Randall-MacIver (British-American, 1873–1945)
Maarten Raven (Dutch, born 1953)
John D. Ray (British, born 1945)
Donald B. Redford (Canadian, born 1934)
Nicholas Reeves (English, born 1956)
Adolphe Reinach (French, 1887–1914)
George Andrew Reisner (American, 1867–1942)
Peter le Page Renouf (English, 1822–1897)
Eugène Revillout (French, 1843–1913)
Alexander Henry Rhind (Scottish, 1833–1863)
Herbert Ricke (German, 1901–1976)
Robert K. Ritner (American, 1953–2021)
David Roberts (Scottish, 1796–1864)
Gay Robins (British-American, born 1951)
David Rohl (British, born 1950)
Ippolito Rosellini (Italian, 1800–1843)
Emmanuel de Rougé (French, 1811–1872)
François Michel de Rozière (French, 1775–1842)
Otto Rubensohn (German, 1867–1964)
Donald P. Ryan (American, born 1957)
Kim Ryholt (American/Danish, born 1970)
S
Henry Salt (Brite, 1780–1827)
Helmut Satzinger (Austrian, born 1938)
Serge Sauneron (French, 1927–1976)
Claude-Étienne Savary (French, 1750–1788)
Otto Schaden (American, 1937–2015)
Hans Heinrich Schaeder (German, 1896–1957)
Jean-Vincent Scheil (French, 1858–1940)
Ernesto Schiaparelli (Italian, 1856–1928)
René Schwaller de Lubicz (French, 1887–1961)
Girolamo Segato (Italian, 1792–1836)
Kurt Heinrich Sethe (German, 1869–1934)
Gustav Seyffarth (German-American, 1796–1885)
Ian Shaw (British, born 1961)
David P. Silverman (American, born 1943)
William Kelly Simpson (American, 1928–2017)
Edwin Smith (American, 1822–1906)
Grafton Elliot Smith (Australian, 1871–1937)
Wilhelm Spiegelberg (German, 1870–1930)
Rainer Stadelmann (German, 1933–2019)
Danijela Stefanovic (Serbian, born 1973)
Georg Steindorff (German, 1861–1951)
Vasily Vasilievich Struve (Russian, 1889–1965)
Zbigniew Szafrański (Polish)
T
Mahmoud Maher Taha (Egyptian, born 1942)
Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (Egyptian, 1801–1873)
Elizabeth Thomas (American, 1907–1986)
Herbert Thompson (British, 1859–1944)
Claude Traunecker (French, born 1943)
Bruce Trigger (Canadian, 1937–2006)
Boris Turayev (Russian, 1868–1920)
Joyce Tyldesley (British, born 1960)
U
Peter Ucko (British, 1938–2007)
V
Jeanne Marie Thérèse Vandier d'Abbadie (French, 1899–1977)
Alexandre Varille (French, 1909–1951)
Luigi Vassalli (Italian, 1812–1887)
Jean Vercoutter (French, 1911–2000)
Jozef Vergote (Belgian, 1910–1992)
Miroslav Verner (Czech, born 1941)
Édouard de Villiers du Terrage (French, 1780–1855)
Richard William Howard Vyse (British, 1784–1853)
W
William Ayres Ward (American, 1928–1996)
Kent R. Weeks (American, born 1941)
Arthur Weigall (British, 1880–1934)
Josef W. Wegner (American, born 1967)
Fred Wendorf (American, 1924–2015)
Willeke Wendrich (Dutch-American, born 1961)
Edward Frank Wente (American, born 1930)
Marcelle Werbrouck (Belgian, 1889–1959)
Wolfhart Westendorf (German, 1924–2018)
Charles Edwin Wilbour (American, 1833–1896)
John Gardner Wilkinson (British, 1797–1875)
Richard H. Wilkinson (American, born 1951)
Toby Wilkinson (British, born 1969)
Hilary Wilson (British, born mid 20th century)
John A. Wilson (American, 1899–1976)
Herbert Eustis Winlock (American, 1884–1950)
Walter Wreszinski (German, 1880–1935)
Y
Sakuji Yoshimura (Japanese, born 1943)
Thomas Young (British, 1773–1829)
Jean Yoyotte (French, 1927–2009)
Z
Zbyněk Žába (Czech, 1917–1971)
Louis Vico Žabkar (1914–1994)
Hilde Zaloscer (Austrian, 1903–1999)
Christiane Ziegler (French, born 1942)
Fictional egyptologists
Evelyn Carnahan (The Mummy (1999 film))
Lara Croft (Tomb Raider)
Amelia P. Emerson and the Emerson Family (Crocodile on the Sandbank)
Daniel Jackson (Stargate, Stargate SG–1)
Indiana Jones (Raiders of the Lost Ark)
Sarah Page (Primeval)
Sophocles Sarcophagus (The Adventures of Tintin)
See also
List of female Egyptologists
External links
International Directory of Egyptology from the International Association of Egyptologists
List of Egyptologists and their publications
Ancient Egypt-related lists
Egyptologists | [
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234171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benny%20Lynch | Benny Lynch | Benjamin Lynch (2 April 1913 – 6 August 1946) was a Scottish professional boxer who fought in the flyweight division. He is considered by some to be one of the finest boxers below the lightweight division in his era and has been described as the greatest fighter Scotland ever produced. The Ring Magazine founder Nat Fleischer rated Lynch as the No. 5 flyweight of all-time while his publication placed him 63rd in its 2002 list of the "Best Fighters of the Last 80 Years". Like Fleischer, both Statistical boxing website BoxRec and the International Boxing Research Organization also rank Lynch as the 5th greatest flyweight ever. He was elected to the Ring Magazine hall of fame in 1986 and the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 1998.
Life and career
He was born in a tenement flat at 17 Florence Street, in the Gorbals area of Glasgow, and learned his fighting skills in the carnival booths that were popular in the West of Scotland during the Great Depression.
Early professional fights
Lynch made his professional debut in April 1931 with a second round stoppage of Young Bryce. His professional career started inauspiciously, winning only 8 of his first 15 fights. His first significant victory came in June 1932, when he beat the experienced Jock Joe Aitken on points.
In March 1933 he began an unbeaten run that would last three years. He beat Bert Kirby on points in October 1933, and in January 1934 beat Jim Brady in an eliminator for the Scottish Area flyweight title, beating Jim Campbell in May to take the title. He successfully defended the title against Campbell a month later. Lynch rounded off the year with further wins over opponents including Maurice Huguenin, Jim Brady, Valentin Angelmann, and Pedro Ruiz.
British and European flyweight champion
Lynch won the British, European and world flyweight titles from Jackie Brown in an historic bout held in Manchester on 9 September 1935, the two having fought a draw six months earlier. The fight attracted enormous support from Glaswegians who travelled en masse to watch Lynch floor his opponent eight times before the bout was stopped in the second round.
In his next three fights he beat Gaston Maton (but had to pay a forfeit after failing to make the weight), Harry Orton, and Phil Milligan, before suffering his first defeat in three years when he lost on points to Jimmy Warnock in Belfast in March 1936.
In September 1936 he successfully defended his British and European titles against Pat Palmer, stopping the Londoner in the eighth round.
In November 1936, Lynch was sued for £2,000 by his former manager Samuel Wilson, for alleged breach of contract; Lynch counter-sued, alleging that Wilson had not carried out his duties properly.
World flyweight champion
There was dispute, on at least on one side of the Atlantic, as to who was the genuine world flyweight champion. Lynch, recognised as champion in Britain, settled the matter when he out-pointed NBA and NYSAC flyweight champion Filipino Small Montana in London in January 1937 to establish himself as the undisputed world flyweight boxing champion.
In his next fight he beat Spanish flyweight champion Fortunato Ortega on points. In March he was disqualified against Len Hampston when his second entered the ring. The two met again three weeks later, with Lynch winning via a tenth round stoppage. In June he was again beaten by Warnock in a fight for which he failed to make the weight.
In October 1937 he handed Peter Kane his first loss by knockout in a defence of his British and world titles. One of his training sessions before the fight had attracted 10,000 spectators. Towards the end of the month he was knocked unconscious in a car crash. Two months later he stopped Georges Bataille in the eighth round at the Granby Halls in Leicester.
Lynch and Kane met again in March 1938, fighting a draw, with Lynch again failing to make the weight and paying a forfeit.
Lynch was arrested later that month and charged with driving offences after crashing his car while drunk and hitting a telegraph pole and a pram containing a 12-week-old baby, and failing to stop after the accident. His trial was delayed until after his world title fight with American Jackie Jurich. He forfeited his world flyweight title against Jurich, when he weighed in at 118.5 lb (53.8 kg), half a pound over the bantamweight limit. Lynch stopped Jurich in the 12th round, but lost the title. At his trial in July, he was fined £20 and disqualified from driving for a year.
Decline and death
In July 1938 he was fined £200 by the BBBofC and stripped of his British and European titles; Lynch appealed against the decision. In September his boxing licence was suspended for a breach of training regulations. He did, however, face K.O. Morgan at bantamweight later that month at Shawfield Park, losing on points despite being once again over the agreed weight and over 7lbs heavier than his opponent.
In October 1938, after his weight increased again and he suffered a third-round knockout at the hands of Aurel Toma, he was offered 'three months holiday' and received several weeks treatment at a sanatorium in Kent, arranged by the National Sporting Club in an attempt to return him to fitness. In December he left for Ireland to spend a fortnight in a monastery near Waterford.
In January 1939 he went missing during a training camp in Stirlingshire; He was found after being lost on the hills for over six hours, half a mile from his training base, wearing just pyjamas, a dressing gown, and slippers, and suffering from hypothermia.
In February 1939 he was arrested and charged with assault. In March he was found guilty of assaulting his estranged wife, his 11-year-old sister-in-law, and three police officers, with a further charge of assaulting his 18-month old son by attempting to gas him deemed not proven, and was fined £20, with an alternative sentence of 60 days in prison. In June he was the subject of court action by the Inland Revenue.
He was due to fight Dudley Lewis on 27 February 1939 but was prohibited from doing so by the BBBofC.
On 21 August 1939, the Boxing Board refused his application for the restoration of his boxing licence, stating that "he is at present not fit to carry on a career as a professional boxer".
In April 1940 he was fined 30 shillings after being found drunk in Glasgow Road, Ralston. In October 1942 he was charged with offences against a 7-year-old girl in a Glasgow cinema, and was subsequently found guilty of assaulting two girls aged 7 and 10.
He would continue to battle with alcoholism for the rest of his life despite several attempts to treat the disease. Lynch died in 1946 of malnutrition-induced respiratory failure, aged 33. He was buried at St. Kentigern's Cemetery, Glasgow, with some 2000 people attending the funeral.
Legacy
Lynch's life was the subject of Bill Bryden's 1974 stage play Benny Lynch, with a book of the play published in 1975, and a television adaptation made in 1976. A second play based on Lynch's life, written by Peter Arnett, was first performed in 1985.
He was featured on the cover of Scottish rock band Gun's second album, Gallus, in 1992. A documentary about the life of Benny Lynch, directed by John Mackenzie and narrated by Robert Carlyle, was made in 2003. Another documentary film about Lynch, Benny, directed by Andrew Gallimore, was first shown in 2017.
The Benny Lynch Story, a stage play written by David Carswell and directed by David Hayman Jr, with Stephen Purdon playing the boxing champion, toured Scotland in May and June 2019.
Professional boxing record
See also
List of flyweight boxing champions
List of British flyweight boxing champions
References
Further reading
Benny: The Life and Times of a Fighting Legend – by John Burrowes
External links
The Benny Lynch website
|-
|-
https://www.hugmansworldchampionshipboxing.com/fly
https://titlehistories.com/boxing/na/usa/ny/nysac-fl.html
https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/National_Boxing_Association%27s_Quarterly_Ratings:_1937
https://boxrec.com/media/index.php/National_Boxing_Association%27s_Quarterly_Ratings:_1936
1913 births
1946 deaths
Scottish male boxers
Flyweight boxers
World boxing champions
World flyweight boxing champions
World Boxing Association champions
People from Govan
Boxers from Glasgow
People from Gorbals
Alcohol-related deaths in the United Kingdom
Drug-related deaths in Scotland | [
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234175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgware%20Road | Edgware Road | Edgware Road is a major road in London, England. The route originated as part of Roman Watling Street and, unusually in London, it runs for 10 miles in an almost perfectly straight line. Forming part of the modern A5 road, Edgware Road undergoes several name changes along its length, including Maida Vale, Kilburn High Road, Shoot Up Hill and Cricklewood Broadway; but the road is, as a whole, known as the Edgware Road, as it is the road to Edgware.
The road runs from central to suburban London, beginning at Marble Arch in the City of Westminster and heading north to Edgware in the London Borough of Barnet. It is used as the boundary for four London boroughs: Harrow and Brent to the west, and Barnet and Camden to the east.
Route
The road runs north-west from Marble Arch to Edgware on the outskirts of London. It crosses the Harrow Road and Marylebone Road, passing beneath the Marylebone flyover. The road passes through the areas of Maida Vale, Kilburn and Cricklewood. It then crosses the North Circular Road before West Hendon at Staples Corner. After this, the road continues in the same direction, through the Hyde, Colindale, Burnt Oak, and then reaches Edgware.
The southernmost part of the Edgware Road forms part of the London Inner Ring Road and as such is part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone. However, when the zone was extended in February 2007, the road became part of the "free through routes" which allows vehicles to cross the zone during its hours of operation without paying the charge.
The southern part of the road between Marble Arch and Maida Vale, noted for its distinct Middle Eastern cuisine and many late-night bars and shisha cafes, is known to Londoners by nicknames such as Little Cairo, Little Beirut and, especially near Camden, Little Cyprus.
As it passes through the various neighbourhoods, the road name changes several times, becoming Maida Vale, Kilburn High Road and Shoot-Up Hill (in Kilburn), and Cricklewood Broadway (in Cricklewood), before becoming Edgware Road once again with intermittent stretches as West Hendon Broadway, and the Hyde. Along the entire route, it retains its identity as the A5 road under the Great Britain road numbering scheme. The A5 continues beyond the end of the Edgware Road, following the old Roman road for much of its route and terminating at Holyhead, Wales (a port for Ireland).
History
Before the Romans, today's Edgware Road began as an ancient trackway within the Great Middlesex Forest. The Romans later incorporated the track into Watling Street.
Many centuries later, the road was improved by the Edgware-Kilburn turnpike trust in 1711, and a number of the local inns, some of which still exist, functioned as stops for coaches, although they would have been quite close to the starting point of coach routes from London.
During the 18th century, it was a destination for Huguenot migrants. By 1811, Thomas Telford produced a re-design for what was then known as a section of the London to Holyhead road, a redesign considered one of the most important feats of pre-Victorian engineering. Telford's redesign emerged only a year after the area saw the establishment of Great Britain's first Indian restaurant.
The area began to attract Arab migrants in the late 19th century during a period of increased trade with the Ottoman Empire. The trend continued with the arrival of Egyptians and Iraqis in the 1950s, and greatly expanded beginning in the 1970s and continuing to the present when events including the Lebanese Civil War, the overthrow of the Shah of Iran, and unrest in Algeria brought more Arabs to the area. They established the present-day mix of bars and shisha cafes, which make the area known to Londoners by nicknames such as "Little Cairo" and "Little Beirut." These shisha cafés have been hard hit by the enforcement of the England-wide smoking ban in 2007.
One of the two Edgware Road tube stations was one of the sites of the 7 July bombings. A bomb was detonated on a train leaving the tube station serving the Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines and heading for Paddington tube station. Six people were killed in the blast: Colin Morley, 52, Jennifer Vanda Ann Nicholson, 24, Johnathan Downey, 34, Laura Webb, 29, Michael Brewster, 52, and David Foulkes, 22. The perpetrator was the ringleader of the 7 July bombings, Mohammed Siddique Khan. On the first anniversary of the bombings, a memorial plaque to the victims was unveiled at the station.
Districts and surrounding area
The name "Edgware Road" is used to refer to informally to this area of London, meaning the area immediately to the north of Marble Arch. The district's northern boundary is the Marylebone flyover.
The postal codes of the area are W1, W2, NW1 and NW2.
The part of the road between Marble Arch and the Marylebone Flyover also separates the areas of Marylebone and Bayswater.
The southernmost part of the road, south of the junction with Marylebone Road, is noted for its distinct Middle Eastern flavour. Many Lebanese restaurants, shisha cafes and Arabic-themed nightclubs line the street. The Odeon cinema, once the location of the biggest screen in London, often shows films in Arabic.
Edgware Road is well represented in terms of communities from across the Middle East and North Africa.
A Wetherspoons tavern, The Tyburn, is named after the 'Tyburn tree', once the principal site of execution in London. Today, three golden triangles indicate the location of the tree, at the southernmost end of Edgware Road. N.B. The pub has closed as the building on this site is being redeveloped throughout 2018.
Transport
Edgware Road has several London bus routes, and is intersected by several London Underground lines along its length or nearby. A number of schemes have been put forward in the past to construct an Underground railway line underneath Edgware Road, including a plan to extend the Bakerloo line north to Cricklewood and an unusual proposal to build an underground monorail system, but these schemes did not succeed. Today, London Buses provide the only public transport along the length of the road.
National Rail
Mainline and Overground rail stations:
Marylebone station (Chiltern Main Line)
Paddington station (Great Western Main Line)
(Midland Main Line)
(Midland Main Line)
(Watford DC line)
(Watford DC line)
London Underground
Edgware Road (Bakerloo line)
(Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines)
(Central line)
(Bakerloo line)
(Bakerloo, Circle, District and Hammersmith & City lines)
(Jubilee line)
(Bakerloo line)
Bus routes
Night bus N16 is the only route to run the full length of the Edgware Road, from Victoria station to Edgware.
Day bus routes operating over a significant length of Edgware Road are:
6
7
16
23
32
36
98
189
316
332
414
436
References
External links
Go west for a taste of Arabia – while it lasts from thelondonpaper
Streets in the City of Westminster
Streets in the London Borough of Brent
Streets in the London Borough of Camden
Streets in the London Borough of Barnet | [
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234176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20of%20the%20Pacific | War of the Pacific | The War of the Pacific (), also known as the Saltpeter War () and by multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought over Chilean claims on coastal Bolivian territory in the Atacama Desert, the war ended with a Chilean victory, which gained for the country a significant amount of resource-rich territory from Peru and Bolivia. The Chilean Army took Bolivia's nitrate-rich coastal region, and Peru was defeated by the Chilean Navy.
The war began over a nitrate taxation dispute between Bolivia and Chile, with Peru being drawn in due to its alliance with Bolivia. But historians have pointed to deeper origins of the war, such as the interest of Chile and Peru in the nitrate business, the long-standing rivalry between Chile and Peru, as well as political and economical disparities between Chile and Peru and Bolivia. On February 14, 1879, Chile's armed forces occupied the Bolivian port city of Antofagasta, subsequently war between Bolivia and Chile was declared on March 1, 1879, and between Chile and Peru on April 5, 1879.
Battles were fought in the Pacific Ocean, the Atacama Desert, the Peruvian deserts, and the mountainous regions in the Andes. For the first five months, the war played out in a naval campaign, as Chile struggled to establish a marine resupply corridor for its forces in the world's driest desert. Afterwards, Chile's land campaign bested the Bolivian and Peruvian armies. Bolivia withdrew after the Battle of Tacna, on May 26, 1880. Chile's forces occupied Lima in January 1881. Remnants and irregulars of the Peruvian army waged a guerrilla war but could not prevent war-weary Peruvian factions from reaching a peace deal with Chile involving territorial concessions.
Chile and Peru signed the Treaty of Ancón on October 20, 1883. Bolivia signed a truce with Chile in 1884. Chile acquired the Peruvian territory of Tarapacá, the disputed Bolivian department of Litoral (turning Bolivia into a landlocked country), and the temporary control over the Peruvian provinces of Tacna and Arica. In 1904, Chile and Bolivia signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship, which established definite boundaries. The 1929 Tacna–Arica compromise gave Arica to Chile and Tacna to Peru.
Etymology
The conflict is also known as the "Saltpeter War", the "Ten Cents War" (in reference to the controversial ten-centavo tax imposed by the Bolivian government), and the "Second Pacific War". It should not to be confused with the pre-Columbian Saltpeter War, in what is now Mexico, nor the "Guano War" as the Chincha Islands War is sometimes named. The war largely settled (or set up, depending on one's point of view) the "Tacna-Arica dispute", and is sometimes known by that name as well, although the details took decades to resolve.
() is a Quechua word for fertilizer. Potassium nitrate (ordinary saltpeter) and sodium nitrate (Chile saltpeter) are nitrogen-containing compounds collectively referred to as salpeter, saltpetre, salitre, caliche, or nitrate. They are used as fertilizer, but have other important uses.
Atacama is a Chilean region south of the Atacama Desert, which mostly coincides with the disputed Antofagasta province, known in Bolivia as Litoral.
Background
When South America gained independence from Spain and Portugal in the 19th century the demarcation of frontiers was uncertain, particularly in remote, thinly populated portions of the newly independent nations. Bolivia and Chile's Atacama border dispute, in the coastal territories between approximately the 23° and 24° South parallels, was just one of several longstanding border conflicts that arose in South America.
The dry climate of the Peruvian and Bolivian coasts had permitted the accumulation and preservation of vast amounts of high-quality guano deposits and sodium nitrate. In the 1840s, Europeans knew the value of guano and nitrate as fertilizer and the role of saltpeter in explosives. The Atacama Desert became economically important. Bolivia, Chile, and Peru were in the area of the largest reserves of a resource demanded by the world. During the Chincha Islands War (1864–1866), Spain, under Queen Isabella II, attempted to exploit an incident involving Spanish citizens in Peru to re-establish its influence over the guano-rich Chincha Islands.
Starting from the Chilean silver rush in the 1830s, the Atacama was prospected and populated by Chileans. Chilean and foreign enterprises in the region eventually extended their control to the Peruvian saltpeter works. In the Peruvian region of Tarapacá, Peruvians were a minority, behind both Chileans and Bolivians.
Boundary Treaty of 1866
Bolivia and Chile negotiated the Boundary Treaty of 1866," or the "Treaty of Mutual Benefits," which established 24° S "from the littoral of the Pacific to the eastern limits of Chile" as the mutual boundary. Both countries also agreed to share the tax revenue from mineral exports from the territory between 23° and 25° S. The bipartite tax collecting caused discontent, and the treaty lasted for only eight years.
Secret Treaty of Alliance of 1873
In February 1873, Peru and Bolivia signed a secret treaty of alliance against Chile. The last clause kept it secret as long as both parties considered its publication unnecessary, until it was revealed in 1879. Argentina, long involved in a dispute with Chile over the Strait of Magellan and Patagonia, was secretly invited to join the pact, and in September 1873, the Argentine Chamber of Deputies approved the treaty and 6,000,000 Argentine peso for war preparations. Eventually, Argentina and Bolivia did not agree on the territories of Tarija and Chaco, and Argentina also feared an alliance of Chile with Brazil. The Argentine Senate postponed and then rejected the approval, but in 1875 and 1877, after border disputes with Chile flared up anew, Argentina sought to join the treaty. At the onset of the war, in a renewed attempt, Peru offered Argentina the Chilean territories from 24° to 27° S if Argentina adhered to the pact and fought in the war.
Historians including G. Bulnes, Basadre, and Yrigoyen agree that the real intention of the treaty was to compel Chile to modify its borders according to the geopolitical interests of Argentina, Peru, and Bolivia, as Chile was militarily weak before the arrival of the Chilean ironclads Almirante Cochrane and Blanco Encalada.
Chile was not informed about the pact until it learned of it, at first cursorily by a leak in the Argentine Congress in September 1873, when the Argentine Senate discussed the invitation to join the Peru-Bolivia alliance. The Peruvian mediator Antonio de Lavalle stated in his memoirs that he did not learn of it until March 1879, and Hilarion Daza was not informed of the pact until December 1878.
The Peruvian historian Basadre states that one of Peru's reasons for signing the treaty was to impede a Chilean-Bolivian alliance against Peru that would have given to Bolivia the region of Arica (almost all Bolivian commerce went through Peruvian ports of Arica before the war) and transferred Antofagasta to Chile. The Chilean offers to Bolivia to change allegiance were made several times even during the war and also from the Bolivian side at least six times.
On December 26, 1874, the recently built ironclad Cochrane arrived in Valparaíso and remained in Chile until the completion of the Blanco Encalada. That threw the balance of power in the South Pacific toward Chile.
Historians disagree on how to interpret the treaty. Some Peruvian and Bolivian historians assess it as rightful, defensive, circumstantial, and known by Chile from the very onset. Conversely, some Chileans historians assess the treaty as aggressive against Chile, causing the war, designed to take control by Peru of the Bolivian salitreras and hidden from Chile. The reasons for its secrecy, its invitation to Argentina to join the pact, and Peru's refusal to remain neutral are still discussed.
Boundary Treaty of 1874
In 1874, Chile and Bolivia replaced the 1866 boundary treaty by keeping the boundary at 24° S but granting Bolivia the authority to collect all tax revenue between 23° and 24° S. To compensate for the relinquishment of its rights, Chile received a 25-year guarantee against tax increases on Chilean commercial interests and their exports.
Article 4 explicitly forbade tax increases on Chilean enterprises for 25 years:
All disputes arising under the treaty would be settled by arbitration.
Causes of war
The American historian William F. Sater gives several possible and compatible reasons for the war. He considers the causes to be domestic, economic, and geopolitical. Several authors agree with them, but others only partially support his arguments.
Some historians argue that Chile was devastated by the economic crisis of the 1870s and was looking for a replacement for its silver, copper and wheat exports. It has been argued that the economic situation and the view of new wealth in nitrate were the true reasons for the Chilean elite to go to war against Peru and Bolivia. The holder of the Chilean nitrate companies, according to Sater, "bulldozed" Chilean President Aníbal Pinto into declaring war to protect the owner of the Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta (CSFA) and then to seize Bolivia's and Peru's salitreras. Several members of the Chilean government were shareholders of CSFA, and they are believed to have hired the services of one of the country's newspapers to push their case.
Another American historian, David Healy, rejects that thesis, and Fredrick B. Pike calls the allegation "absurd." The economic development that accompanied and followed the war was so remarkable that Marxist writers feel justified in alleging that Chile's great military adventure was instigated by self-seeking capitalists to bring their country out of the business stagnation that had begun in 1878 since the war provided Chile with the economic means to come of age. Sater states that that interpretation overlooks certain important facts. The Chilean investors in Bolivia correctly feared that Daza, the Bolivian dictator, would use the war as an excuse to expropriate their investments. Among them were Melchor de Concha y Toro, the politically powerful president of Chile's Camara de Diputados, Jerónimo Urmeneta, and Lorenzo Claro, a Chilean founder of the Banco de Bolivia and a prominent member of the National Party. A Santiago newspaper claimed that Melchor de Concha y Toro offered President Pinto 2,000,000 Chilean pesos to end the dispute and to return to the 1874 border. "In other words," writes W. Sater, "there were as many powerful interests opposed to helping the Compañía de Salitres as there were those seeking to aid the corporation." Also, B. Farcau objects to the argument: "On the other hand, the sorry state of the Chilean armed forces at the outbreak of the war, as will be discussed in the following chapter, hardly supports a theory of conscious, premeditated aggression."
Sater cites other sources that state that the true causes of the conflict were not economic but geopolitical, a struggle for control of the southeastern portion of the Pacific Ocean. In 1836 the Peruvian government tried to monopolize commerce in the South Pacific by rewarding ships that sailed directly to Callao, to the detriment of Valparaíso. Peru tried to impede the agreement that had been reached between Spain and Chile to free its new warships built and embargoed in Britain during the Chincha Islands War. Sater cites Germany's minister in Chile, who argued that the war with Peru and Bolivia would "have erupted sooner or later, [and] on any pretext." He considered that Bolivia and Peru had developed a "bitter envy" against Chile and its material progress and good government. Frederik B. Pike states: "The fundamental cause for the eruption of hostilities was the mounting power and prestige and the economic and political stability of Chile, on one hand, and the weakness and the political and economic deterioration of Bolivia, on the other.... The war—and its outcome—was as inevitable as the 1846—1848 conflict between the United States and Mexico. In both instances, a relatively well-governed, energetic, and economically expanding nation had been irresistibly tempted by neighboring territories that were underdeveloped, malgoverned, and sparsely occupied."
Another reason, according to Sater, was Peru's desire to monopolize and appropriate the nitrate works to strengthen its nitrate monopoly, which required the Bolivian and Chilean salitreras to be controlled by Peru. As unenviable as Chile’s situation was in the 1870s, that of Peru was much worse. The 1870s was for Peru's economy "a decade of crisis and change". Nitrate extraction rose while guano exports, the source of substantial revenue for Peru, declined from 575,000 tons in 1869 to less than 350,000 tons in 1873, and the Chincha Islands and other guano islands were depleted or nearly so.
William Edmundson writes in A History of the British Presence in Chile, "Peru has its own reasons to enter the dispute. Rory Miller (1993) argues that the depletion of guano resources and poor management of the economy in Peru had provoked a crisis. This has caused Peru to default on its external debt in 1876.... In that year [1875] the Peruvian government decided to procure a loan of seven millions pounds of which four millions pounds were earmarked to purchase privately owned oficinas [salitreras]... and Peru defaulted again in 1877."
To increase guano revenue, Peru created a monopoly on nitrate commerce in 1875. Its aims were to increase prices, curb exports and to impede competition, but most larger nitrate firms opposed the monopoly on sales of nitrate. When they were unsuccessful, Peru in 1876 began to expropriate nitrate producers and to buy nitrate concessions such as that of Henry Meiggs in Bolivia ("Toco", south of the Loa River). However, the CSFA was too expensive to be purchased. As Peruvian historian Alejandro Reyes states, the Bolivian salitreras needed to be controlled, which resulted in the internationalization of the conflict since they were owned by Chilean and European merchants. As the Chilean company was to be auctioned on February 14, 1879, in Antofagasta, it was considered that the Peruvian consul would be the highest bidder.
However, some sources, according to Sater, see the declarations of war between Chile and Peru as a product of popular domestic forces. The Peruvian President had to declare war to keep his position. Sater cites the British minister in Lima, Spencer St. John: "the rival parties may try to make political capital out of jealousy for the national honor, and His Excellency [Peruvian President Prado] may be forced to give way to the popular sentiment." Chilean President Pinto was under similar pressures. Bruce Farcau considers that to be the main cause for the war outbreak: "The argument that the attitude of the peoples of the region was just ripe for war seems best to fit the bill."
Crisis
Ten Cents' Tax
The license of November 27, 1873
Beginning in 1866, the Chilean entrepreneurs José Santos Ossa and Francisco Puelma had exploited deposits of sodium nitrate in Bolivian territory (the salitreras "Las Salinas" and "Carmen Alto", and from Antofagasta, respectively) and secured concessions from Bolivian President Mariano Melgarejo.
In 1868, a company named Compañía Melbourne Clark was established in Valparaíso, Chile, with 34% British capital provided by Antony Gibbs & Sons of London, which also held shares of salitreras in Peru. Its shareholders included a number of leading Chilean politicians. The company obtained a license from the Melgarejo administration to construct a railroad from Antofagasta to Salinas, and was renamed Compañía de Salitres y Ferrocarril de Antofagasta (CSFA).
In 1871, a new Bolivian government canceled all contracts signed by Melgarejo, but on November 22, 1872, a Bolivian decree allowed the government to renegotiate the contracts.
On November 27, 1873, CSFA obtained a license from the new administration in Bolivia to exploit saltpeter without duty for 15 years, but a dispute arose regarding whether the original 1872 decree, under which the 1873 license was issued, required the authorization of the Bolivian Congress. Some lawyers placed emphasis on con cargo a dar cuenta a la próxima legislatura (Spanish for: "to be considered during the next legislative session [of the parliament]"), but others on sólo en los casos de no avenimiento (Spanish for "only in cases that no settlement [is reached]").
Peruvian monopoly of saltpeter
In 1873, the Peruvian government dictated the Ley del estanco del salitre, which limited the salitre production and authorized the government to purchase the whole production to a fixed price. However, the plan failed, and the law was repealed. In 1875, the Peruvian government expropriated the salitreras of Tarapacá to create a monopoly in guano and nitrate, and in 1876, Antony Gibbs & Sons became the consignee of the nitrate trade for the Peruvian government. President Mariano Ignacio Prado was "determined to complete the monopoly," and in 1876, Peru bought the nitrate licenses for "El Toco" auctioned by a Bolivian decree of January 13, 1876. However, the Chilean company remained the most serious competitor and clearly weakened Peru's monopoly. President Pardo, Prado's predecessor, had urged Gibbs to secure the monopoly by limiting the CSFA's output, and Henry Gibbs had warned the CSFA's board of directors in a letter on April 16, 1878, that its refusal to limit its output would bring administrative trouble with Peru and Bolivia "as it is made more and more to the interest of a neighboring Government that they should be so."
Gibbs made repeated unsuccessful efforts in 1876 and 1877 to persuade Edwards, the Chilean majority shareholder, to accept a limit to its production.
The historian Ronald Bruce St. John in Foreign Policy of Peru states, "Although persuasive evidence linking Peru to either the ten-centavo tax or Bolivia's decision to confiscate Chilean holdings in Antofagasta never surfaced, it must be recognized that Peruvian interests had deep-seated economical and political reasons for going to war."
Tax and Chilean refusal
In 1875, the city of Antofagasta had attempted to impose a 3 cents tax on the CSFA, but the Bolivian State Council (Consejo de Estado), headed by Serapio Reyes Ortiz, who would be Minister of Foreign Affairs during the crisis, rejected the tax because it violated the license of 1873 and the Boundary Treaty of 1874.
On February 14, 1878, the National Congress of Bolivia and the National Constituent Assembly approved the 1873 license if the company paid a 10 cents per quintal tax, but the company objected by citing the 1874 treaty that the increased payments were illegal and demanded an intervention from the Chilean government.
The CSFA's directory board perceived the tax as a Peruvian move to displace Chileans from the nitrate production, as had occurred in Tarapacá in 1875 when the Peruvian government expropriated the salitreras.
Having surrendered its claim to the disputed territories in return for a Bolivian promise to avoid increasing the tax, Chile claimed that the treaty did not allow for such a tax hike. Bolivia suspended the tax in April 1878. In November, Chile proposed mediation and cautioned that Daza's refusal to cancel the tax would force Chile to declare null the 1874 treaty. In December 1878, Bolivia, counting on its military alliance with Peru, challenged Chile, stated the tax was unrelated to the treaty and that the claim of the CSFA should be addressed in Bolivian courts, and revived the tax. When the company refused to pay the tax, Bolivia confiscated its property on February 11 and threatened to sell it on February 14 to liquidate the company's debt.
Chilean Invasion of Antofagasta
In December 1878, Chile had dispatched a warship to the area. On February 6, the Bolivian government nullified the CSFA's exploitation license and confiscated the property. The news reached Valparaíso on February 11 and so the Chilean government decided on the occupation of the region of Antofagasta south of 23° South. On the day of the planned auction, 200 Chilean soldiers arrived by ship at the port city of Antofagasta and seized it without resistance. The occupying forces received widespread support from the local population, 93–95% of which was Chilean.
The Bolivian territory between 23° South and the Loa River, the border with Peru, remained unoccupied by Chilean forces almost one month after the Bolivian declaration of war. On March 21, Cobija and then Calama, Tocopilla, and other hamlets were occupied. The Chilean government asked the Bolivian office-holders to remain in office, but they refused.
Peruvian mediation and Bolivian declaration of war
On February 22, Peru sent a diplomatic team headed by José Antonio de Lavalle to Santiago to act as a mediator between the Chilean and the Bolivian governments. Peru meanwhile ordered its fleet and army to prepare for war. De Lavalle arrived in Valparaíso on March 4. On February 27, Daza had made a public manifesto to inform the Bolivians on the occupation of Antofagasta and to call for patriotic support. The same day, the Bolivian legislature authorized a formal declaration of war upon Chile although it was not immediately announced. On March 1, Daza issued instead a decree to prohibit all commerce and communications with Chile "while the state-of-war provoked upon Bolivia lasts." It provided Chileans ten days to leave Bolivian territory unless they were gravely ill or handicapped and embargoed Chilean furniture, property, and mining produce; allowed Chilean mining companies to continue operating under a government-appointed administrator; and provided all embargoes as temporary "unless the hostilities exercised by Chilean forces requires an energetic retaliation from Bolivia."
In Santiago, Lavalle asked for Chile's withdrawal from Antofagasta to transfer the province to a tripartite administration of Bolivia, Chile, and Peru without Bolivia guaranteeing to end the embargo or to cancel the new tax.
On March 14, in a meeting with foreign powers in Lima, Bolivia announced that a state of war existed with Chile. The declaration was aimed to impede further Chilean arms purchases in Europe and to scuttle the Peruvian mediation in Chile. Bolivia called on Peru to activate the treaty of alliance arguing that Chile's invasion was a casus foederis.
Also on March 14, Alejandro Fierro, Chile's minister of foreign affairs, sent a telegram to Chile's representative in Lima, Joaquin Godoy, to request the immediate neutrality of the Peruvian government. On March 17, Godoy formally presented the Chilean proposal in a meeting with Peruvian President Prado.
On March 21, Godoy telegraphed the Chilean government on the secret treaty between Peru and Bolivia, which had been revealed to him by Peruvian President Prado.
On March 23, on their way to occupy Calama, 554 Chilean troops and cavalry defeated 135 Bolivian soldiers and civilians, who were dug in at two destroyed bridges next to the Topáter ford. The Battle of Topáter was the first battle of the war.
When the Chilean government asked Lavalle directly and officially whether a defensive alliance existed that committed Peru to assist Bolivia in a war with Chile and whether Lima planned to honor the agreement, Lavalle could prevaricate no longer and answered yes to both. Chilean President Pinto sought and received legislative approval to declare war, which he did on 5. April 1879. Peru responded on April 6, when Prado declared the casus foederis.
War
Forces
Historians agree that the belligerents were not prepared for the war financially or militarily. None of the three nations had a General Staff, medical corps, or military logistics and their warships were in a deplorable state. In Chile, for example, the military contingent had been reduced continuously from 3,776 (by 1867) to 2,400 (by 1879) men, and no military unit was deployed north of Valparaíso, 1700 km south of Iquique. By the end of the war, 53% of chief engineers serving in Chilean warships were foreigners. The government of Peru was again in default of payment, and in Bolivia, famine spread over the country.
According to William Sater, Chile and Peru enlisted temporarily 2% of the male population but Bolivia only 1%. After the Battle of Tacna, both of the Allied armies were disbanded and had to be formed again.
The Allied forces, at first glance, had some advantages over the Chilean forces. Their population and armies doubled the Chileans in numbers, and the Peruvian port of Callao's powerful artillery was impregnable for the Chilean navy and a secure haven for the Peruvian navy. In Callao, an English company offered the service of a floating dock for ships up to 3000 tonnes, and the Peruvian government used it to repair their ships at the outset of the war. Those are some reasons that led the international press to expect a Chilean defeat as the war started. Moreover, the ambivalent Argentine position and the ongoing Mapuche conflict overshadowed the Chilean perspective. J. Basadre commented on the public opinion in Peru and Bolivia: "They ignored the real power of Chile and the horrors of war, and simple minded people believed that the Allied would win the war because they together were bigger than Chile."
However, other observers made a more in-depth analysis, which showed Chilean political and military advantages. Chile had a stable political system since 1833 that had developed and strengthened its institutions. The Chilean army and the navy had educated officers, soldiers with professional experience in the Mapuche conflict, and uniformly modern arms. Almost all Chilean soldiers were armed with Comblain or Gras rifles. The Chilean navy also possessed two new ironclads, which were invincible against the older Peruvian warships. Although there was interference between military and government over policy during the war, the primacy of the government was never questioned. The Chilean supply line from Europe through the Magellan Strait was only once threatened unsuccessfully by the Peruvian navy.
The Allied armies were heavily involved in domestic politics and neglected their military duties, and poor planning and administration caused them to buy different rifles with different calibers. That hampered the instruction of conscripts, the maintenance of arms, and the supply of ammunition. The Peruvian navy warships manned before the war by Chilean sailors had to be replaced by foreign crews when the war began. Bolivia had no navy. The Allied armies had nothing comparable to the Chilean cavalry and artillery.
Struggle for sea control
Its few roads and railroad lines made the nearly waterless and largely unpopulated Atacama Desert difficult to occupy. From the beginning, naval superiority was critical. Bolivia had no navy and so on March 26, 1879, Hilarión Daza formally offered letters of marque to any ships willing to fight for Bolivia. The Armada de Chile and the Marina de Guerra del Perú fought the naval battles.
Early on, Chile blockaded the Peruvian port of Iquique on April 5.
In the Battle of Iquique, on May 21, 1879, the Peruvian ironclad Huáscar engaged and sank the wooden Esmeralda. Meanwhile, during the Battle of Punta Gruesa, the Peruvian Independencia struck a submerged rock and sank in the shallow waters near Punta Gruesa while chasing the schooner Covadonga. Peru broke the blockade of Iquique, and Chile lost the old Esmeralda, but the loss of the Independencia cost Peru 40% of its naval offensive power. It also made a strong impression upon military leaders in Argentina, and the possibility of Argentina's intervention in the war became far more remote.
Despite being outnumbered, the Peruvian monitor Huáscar held off the Chilean Navy for six months and upheld Peru's morale during the early stages of the conflict.
The capture of the steamship Rímac on July 23, 1879, carrying a cavalry regiment (the Carabineros de Yungay) was the Chilean Army's largest loss until then. That led to the resignation of Contraalmirante (Rear Admiral) Juan Williams Rebolledo, the chief of the Chilean Navy, on August 17. Commodore Galvarino Riveros Cárdenas replaced him and devised a plan to catch the Huáscar.
Meanwhile, the Peruvian navy pursued other actions, particularly in August 1879 when the Unión unsuccessfully raided Punta Arenas, near the Strait of Magellan, in an attempt to capture the British merchant ship Gleneg, which was transporting weapons and supplies to Chile.
The Battle of Angamos proved decisive on October 8, 1879, and Peru was reduced almost exclusively to land forces. In the battle, the Chilean Navy captured the Huáscar after several hours of fierce fighting, even though her surviving crewmen sought to scuttle her. The Chilean Navy was thereafter free to carry troops for the invasion of Peru and to provide fire support for amphibious assault and other troops operating in the conflict areas. Chilean warships also had to impose a naval blockade of Peruvian ports and end the smuggling of arms from Panama into Peru via the Pacific.
After the battle, despite the loss of both of Peru's main ships, the Peruvians used simple and ingenious ruses to sink two important Chilean ships, the Loa (July 1880) and the Covadonga (August 1880), but its remaining vessels were locked in Callao during its long blockade by the Chileans.
On the other hand, the Chilean Navy captured the ship Pilcomayo in November 1879 and the torpedo boat Alay in December 1880.
When Lima fell after the Battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores, the Peruvian naval officers scuttled their remaining fleet to prevent its capture by the Chilean forces.
During the Sierra campaign, Chilean ships were dedicated to guarding the Peruvian coast and transporting military detachments and war material for land operations.
In November 1883, during the final phase of the war, the Chilean military command sent the to Lake Titicaca, via railroad, from Mollendo to Puno to control that lake. The presence of the torpedo boat prevented communications through this route and its use for military purposes, and the Peruvian vessels that had taken refuge in the vicinity surrendered to the Chileans. The deployment of the torpedo boat also induced the Bolivian government to agree to a peace treaty with Chile in 1884.
Land war
After the Battle of Angamos, once Chile achieved naval supremacy, the government had to decide where to strike. The options were Tarapacá, Moquegua or directly Lima. Because of its proximity to Chile and the capture of the Peruvian Salitreras, Chile decided to occupy the Peruvian province of Tarapacá first.
Arica and Iquique were isolated and separated by the Atacama Desert; since the capture of the Huáscar in October 1879, neither port had naval protection needed to be adequately supplied by sea. Without any communication or withdrawal lines, the area was essentially cut off from the rest of Peru. After the loss of its naval capabilities, Peru had the option to withdraw to central Peru to strengthen its army around Lima until the re-establishment of a naval balance or to build up new alliances, as hinted by the Chilean historian Wilhelm Ekdahl. However, Jorge Basadre assumes that it would have been "striking and humiliating" to abandon Tarapacá, the source of Peru's wealth.
On April 30, 1879, after 13 days of marching, 4,500 Bolivian soldiers, commanded by Daza, arrived in Tacna, a town 100 km (60 mi) north of Arica. The Bolivians had come to join the Peruvian forces, commanded by Juan Buendia. The Allied forces were deployed to the places that a Chilean landing could be expected; the Iquique-Pisagua or Arica-Tacna regions. There were reserves stationed at Arequipa, farther north in Peru, under Lizardo Montero, as well as in southern Bolivia, under Narciso Campero The reserves were to be deployed to the coast after a landing but failed to arrive.
The land war can be seen as four Chilean military campaigns that successively occupied Tarapacá, Arica-Tacna, and Lima and a final campaign that ended the Peruvian resistance in the sierra. The occupation of Arequipa and Puno at the end of the war saw little military action.
Tarapacá Campaign
The Campaign of Tarapacá began on November 2, 1879, when nine steam transporters escorted by half of the Chilean Navy transported 9,500 men and more than 850 animals to Pisagua, some north of Antofagasta. After neutralizing the coastal batteries, the Chileans landed and attacked beach defenses in Pisagua.
In the event of a Chilean landing, the Allied forces planned to counterattack the Chilean forces in a pincer movement involving advances from the north (Daza's forces coming from Arica) and from the south (Buendia's forces coming from Iquique). Although Peruvian forces marched northwards as planned after the fall of Pisagua, Daza, coming from Arica, decided in Camarones (44 km from Pisagua) to give up his part of the counterattack and return to Arica.
The Chileans meanwhile marched towards Iquique and, on November 19, 1879, defeated the Allied troops without Daza's men gathered in Agua Santa in the Battle of San Francisco and Dolores. Disbanded Bolivian forces there and the southern force retreated to Oruro, and the Peruvians fell back to Tiliviche. The Chilean army captured Iquique (80 km/50 mi south of Pisagua) without resistance. Some of the Peruvian forces that had been defeated at San Francisco retreated on Tarapacá, a little town with same name as the province, where they combined with Peruvian troops who withdrew to Tarapacá directly from Iquique.
A detachment of Chilean soldiers, with cavalry and artillery, was sent to face the Peruvian forces in Tarapacá. Both sides clashed on November 27 in the Battle of Tarapacá, and the Chilean forces were defeated, but the Peruvian forces, without lines of communication with their supply bases in Peru or Bolivia, could not maintain their occupation of the territory. Consequently, the Peruvians retreated north through harsh desert terrain to Arica and lost many troops during their withdrawal. Bruce W. Farcau comments that, "The province of Tarapacá was lost along with a population of 200,000, nearly one tenth of the Peruvian total, and an annual gross income of £28 million in nitrate production, virtually all of the country's export earnings." The victory afforded Santiago an economic boon and a potential diplomatic asset.
Domestic policies until the fall of Iquique
The Rimac’s capture, the sinking of the Esmeralda, and the passiveness of the Chilean fleet showed that the command of the navy was unprepared for the war, and the army also had trouble with the logistics, medical service, and command. Public discontent with poor decisions led to riots, and the government had to replace the "sclerotics" chief of the navy Juan Williams Rebolledo (by Galvarino Riveros), and the Chief of the army Justo Arteaga (by Erasmo Escala). After Tarapacá, the army was reorganized into divisions.
Chile's foreign policy tried to separate Bolivia from Peru. Gonzalo Bulnes writes: "The target of the política boliviana was the same as before, to seize Tacna and Arica for Bolivia and put Bolivia as a buffer state between Peru and Chile, on the assumption that Peru would accept the Chilean peace conditions. The initiated called such policy 'to clear up Bolivia.'" Moreover, the Chilean government had to find a border agreement with Argentina to avoid war.
After the occupation of the salpeter and guano deposits, the Chilean government restituted the oficinas salitreras, which had been nationalized by Peru, to the owner of the certificate of debt. The alternative of a Chilean State Company of Salpeter was discarded as too onerous for a government waging war and lacking experienced personnel, and the creditors pressed the issue. In 1879, Chile began to exact a tax of 40 cents per "quintal métrico" (100 kg), increasing to $1.60 in 1880.
As provided by the secret treaty, the allies agreed in the Protocol of Subsidies for Bolivia to bear the costs of the war. The agreement, which regulated the tax income for many years, caused resentments and fears in Bolivia, whose deployment of forces to Tacna was seen as helping Peru. Also, Bolivia knew that its army would be sent not to free the occupied region of Bolivia but to protect Peru. As Daza and his officers came to Tacna and Arica, they failed to see the expected Peruvian military strength and understood that their position of power in Bolivia was threatened by a defeat of the Allies. The Bolivian historian Querejazu suggests that Daza successfully used the Chilean offer of Tacna and Arica for Bolivia to exert pressure on Peru to get a more favorable Protocol of Subsidies.
The reason that Daza abandoned the Peruvian forces in Iquique and turned back to Arica just before the Battle of San Francisco is uncertain. Some historians say that he wanted to keep the "Regimiento Colorados" untouched since the force secured his political power in Bolivia. Daza later stated that his officers refused to continue the march through the desert, but his shameful withdrawal accelerated his downfall, and he was succeeded by Narciso Campero. In the new government, there was a strong tendency to accept the Chilean offer of Tacna and Arica, but it was eventually refused. Bolivia signed the creation of the United States of Peru and Bolivia, a political fantasy without any practical consequences. Bolivia helped Peru with money and weapons, but the Bolivian army never again intervened in the war.
In Peru, the political situation was complicated. President Prado had declared war on Chile for longstanding economical and political reasons but without the funds or international credit to finance the war. He turned over the administration of the state to Vice President Luis La Puerta de Mendoza to assume for himself the command of the army. Because of the Chilean blockade, Peru could not export revenuemaking goods via its ports. As a consequence, public revenue was half of what had been expected, and spending tripled. The Peruvian government in 1879 experienced several political crises and seven ministers of finance. General Buendía, who led the defeated allied troops in Iquique, and More, chief of the sunken warship Independence, were both put on trial but were eventually acquitted.
The Peruvian government was confronted with widespread rioting in Lima because of its failures. On December 18, 1879, as the fall of Iquique became known in Peru, Prado went from Callao to Panama, allegedly with the duty to oversee the purchase of new arms and warships for the nation. In a statement for the Peruvian newspaper El Comercio, he turned over the command of the country to Vice President Luis La Puerta de Mendoza. History has condemned his departure as a desertion. Nicolás de Piérola overthrew Puerta's government and took power on December 23, 1879.
Piérola has been criticised because of his sectarianism, frivolous investment, bombastic decrees, and lack of control in the budget, but it must be said that he put forth an enormous effort to obtain new funds and to mobilize the country for the war. Basadre considered his work an act of heroism, abnegation in a country invaded, politically divided, militarily battered, and economically bloodless.
Campaign of Tacna and Arica
Meanwhile, Chile continued its advances in the Tacna and Arica Campaign. On November 28, ten days after the Battle of San Francisco, Chile declared the formal blockade of Arica. On December 31, a Chilean force of 600 men carried out an amphibious raid at Ilo as a reconnaissance in force, to the north of Tacna and withdrew the same day.
Lynch's Expedition
On February 24, 1880, approximately 11,000 men in 19 ships, protected by Blanco Encalada, Toro, and Magallanes and two torpedo boats, sailed from Pisagua. Two days later, on February 26, the Chileans arrived off Punta Coles, near Pacocha, Ilo. The landing took several days to conclude but faced no resistance. The Peruvian commander, Lizardo Montero, refused to try to drive the Chileans from the beachhead, as the Chileans had expected. On March 22, 3,642 Chilean troops defeated 1,300 Peruvian troops in the Battle of Los Ángeles, cutting any direct Peruvian supply from Lima to Arica or Tacna (supply was possible only through the long way, via Bolivia). After the Battle of Los Ángeles, only three allied positions remained in southern Peru: General Leyva's 2nd Army at Arequipa (including some survivors from Los Ángeles), Bolognesi's 7th and 8th Divisions at Arica, and at Tacna the 1st Army. These forces were under Campero's direct command. However, the numbers proved meaningless, as the Peruvians were unable to concentrate troops or even to move from their garrisons. After crossing of desert, on May 26 the Chilean army (14,147 men) destroyed the allied army of 5,150 Bolivians and 8,500 Peruvians in the Battle of Tacna. The need for a port near the army to supply and reinforce the troops and to evacuate the wounded compelled the Chilean command to concentrate on the remaining Peruvian stronghold of Arica. On June 7, after the Battle of Arica, the last Peruvian bastion in the Tacna Department fell. After the campaign of Tacna and Arica, the Peruvian and Bolivian regular armies largely ceased to exist, and Bolivia effectively left the war.
Lackawanna Conference
On October 22, 1880, delegates of Peru, Chile, and Bolivia held a 5-day conference aboard the in Arica. The meeting had been arranged by the United States Ministers Plenipotentiary in the belligerent countries. The Lackawanna Conference, also called the Arica Conference, attempted to develop a peace settlement.
Chile demanded Peruvian Tarapacá Province and the Bolivian Atacama, an indemnity of 20,000,000 gold pesos, the restoration of property taken from Chilean citizens, the return of the Rimac, the abrogation of the treaty between Peru and Bolivia, and a formal commitment by not to mount artillery batteries in Arica's harbor. Arica, as a settlement, was to be limited to commercial use. Chile planned to retain the territories of Moquegua, Tacna, and Arica until all peace treaty conditions were satisfied. Although willing to accept the negotiated settlement, Peru and Bolivia insisted for Chile to withdraw its forces from all occupied lands as a precondition for discussing peace. Having captured the territory at great expense, Chile declined, and the negotiations failed. Bruce St. John states in Foreign Policy of Peru (page 116), "Peru attended only out of deference to the [US government] latter, hoping a failure of the talks might lead to more aggressive US involvement."
Campaign of Lima
The occupation of the southern departments of Peru (Tacna, Arica, and Tarapacá) and the Lynch expedition showed that the army of Peru no longer possessed the skilled military manpower to defend the country. However, nothing could convince the Peruvian government to sue for peace. The defeated allies failed to realize their situation and, despite the empty Bolivian treasury, on June 16, 1880, the Bolivian National Assembly voted to continue the war. On June 11, 1880, a document was signed in Peru declaring the creation of the United States of Peru-Bolivia, but Piérola continued the struggle. W. Sater states, "Had Piérola sued for peace in June 1880, he would have saved countless Peruvian lives and the nation's treasure."
The Chilean government struggled to satisfy the public demands to end the war and to secure the peace. The situation forced the Chilean government to plan the occupation of Lima.
Landings on Pisco, Chilca, Curayaco, and Lurín
Once the size of the Chilean army had been increased by 20,000 men to reach a strength of 41,000 soldiers, deployed from the forts of the Chile–Mapuche frontier to the outskirts of Lima, the Chilean army began the campaign of Lima. Lacking the ships to transport all the troops at once from Arica, the Chileans decided to land a division and then the rest of the army in stages. Their shortage of shipping also precluded an immediate landing at Lima. Instead, Pisco, approximately south of Lima, was the first landing point.
On November 19, 8,800 men, twenty cannons and their supplies reached Pisco. A party of 400 men was landed near the port and they learned that a garrison of 3,000 men defended Pisco. Bypassing it required a landing to be made directly into the port and so a Chilean vanguard was landed in Paracas, ten miles to the south. The force managed to capture Pisco and on November 20 the rest of the Chilean troops landed, later occupying various other nearby coastal cities, securing for the Chileans de facto control of the Peruvian province of Ica.
On December 2, 3,500 additional men and 416 horses disembarked in Pisco. Some two weeks later, on December 15, 14,000 Chilean men, 2,400 horses and mules, and supplies left Arica for the north. Baquedano, the Chilean commander, decided that only one brigade in the Pisco region, Lynch's brigade, would march the north to the coastal town of Chilca, a town only from Lima. All other Chilean forces would be re-embarked in Pisco for naval transport to Chilca. The Chilean troops disembarked in Curayaco, slightly north of Chilca, on December 22, 1880. The artillery was later disembarked at Lurín, on the southern outskirts of Lima, as the Chilean army was able to advance quickly after landing.
Piérola, who had expected a landing north of Lima, ordered the construction of two parallel lines of Peruvian defences, one at Chorrillos and one at Miraflores. It was hoped that the Peruvian professional Army would defeat the Chileans in Chorrillos. If that measure failed, a reserve army, increased with remnants of Chorrillos and the Callao troops, were expected to hold the Chilean advance at Miraflores. The Peruvian forces numbered approximately 25,000 to 32,000 men and were titled the Army of Lima.
The main Peruvian defense line ran from the seaside resort of Chorrillos through Morro Solar, Santa Teresa, San Juan, the Pamplona (hills) until Monterrico Chico, a line of defence approximately 15 km long. Gatling guns, artillery, covering forts and trenches located along the top of the steeply natural hills (280 m in Morro Solar, 170 m in Sta. Teresa and San Juan) and minefields around the roads to Lima crossing the hamlets of San Juan and Santa Teresa, settlements that the Peruvians anticipated would be important targets of the Chilean attack, all of which were used by the Peruvian military.
The second line of defense was less strong, consisting of 7 redoubts (one every 800 meters) for infantry and artillery, which the Peruvians hoped would stop any Chilean offensive.
The Chilean General Staff had two plans for the attack. Baquedano, the army chief, advocated a direct and frontal advance through the Tablada de Lurín. The area was known, with large areas of relatively flat terrain against the line of Chorrillos. The advantages of that path of advance were the shorter distances to be covered, a withdrawal line, the possibility of support from the Chilean navy, water supply from Lurín, and less need to train troops and the complex Chilean discipline to control any advance and subsequent attack. The alternative plan of War Minister José Francisco Vergara laid down a turning movement that would bypass the Peruvian line by attacking from further to the east: through the Lurín valley, moving via Chantay and reaching Lima at Ate. Using that approach meant that Lima could be seized without resistance or both defense lines could be attacked from the rear.
Vergara's plan avoided the bloody frontal attack, circumvented all defense works, cut any Peruvian withdrawal line to the east into the formidable Andes, and demoralized the Peruvians. However, there were no steady roads for movement of Chilean artillery and baggage, no water to allow navy support, and many bottlenecks in which a small force might stop the whole Chilean army on the way to Lima or if it had to withdraw. In addition, Vergara's plan required a well-trained and disciplined army. Baquedano pushed and eventually succeeded in having his plan adopted.
Battle of Chorrillos and Miraflores
In the afternoon of January 12, 1881, three Chilean formations (referred to as divisions) stepped off from Lurín toward Chorrillos at about 4:00, reaching their attack positions at around 3:00 the next morning. At 5:00 a.m. an assault was begun on the Peruvian forts. Lynch's division charged Iglesias's positions (Morro Solar to Santa Teresa), Sotomayor's men against Caceres's sector (Santa Teresa to San Juan) and Lagos's division charged Davila's sector (San Juan to Monterrico Chico). Chilean and Peruvian soldiers locked in hand-to-hand combat and attacked one another with rifles, bayonets, rocks and even their bare hands. At the beginning, Sotomayor was unable to deploy in time, and Lynch's advance was repulsed. Baquedano was forced to throw in reserve brigades to salvage Lynch's flank. At 8:00 a.m., the Peruvian defenders were forced to withdraw from San Juan and Santa Teresa to Morro Solar and Chorrillos (town). At noon, Morro Solar was captured and the battle continued into Chorrillos, which fell at 14:00 (2 p.m.). During the Battle of Chorrillos, the Chileans inflicted a harsh defeat on the regular Peruvian forces, eliminating Lima's first defensive line. Two days later, the second line of defense was also penetrated in the Battle of Miraflores.
Piérola's division of forces in two lines has been criticised by Chilean analyst Francisco Machuca. Whether such criticism is justified is debatable. According to Gonzalo Bulnes the battles of Chorrillos and Miraflores have been some of the largest in South America regarding the number of combatants, 45,000 in Chorrillos and 25,000 in Miraflores. The estimated death toll was 11,000 to 14,000 personnel, with a further 10,144 injured.
Domestic policies until the fall of Lima
On June 15, 1881 Domingo Santa María was elected president of Chile and assumed office on September 18, 1881. A new Congress was elected on schedule in 1882.
Argentina had declared itself neutral at the onset of the war but allowed the transport of weapons to the Allies over Argentine territories, exerted influence on the US and European powers to stop the Chilean advance in the war, and pleaded for monetary indemnification instead of cession of territories to Chile. There was a strong drift in its public opinion in favor of Peru and Bolivia. Moreover, there were Peruvian and Bolivian hopes that Argentina could change its stance and enter a war against Chile.
On July 23, 1881, a few months after the fall of Lima, Chile and Argentina signed the Boundary Treaty, which ceded eastern Patagonia to Argentina and control over the Strait of Magellan to Chile.
Carlos Escudé and Andrés Cisneros state that the treaty was a true victory for Argentina, but Michael Morris believes, "Rearguard Argentine efforts had been made to gain recognition for some kind of shared management regime for the Strait [of Magellan], in order to mitigate what was perceived as the striking diplomatic defeat for Argentina in the 1881 treaty granting Chile control over the strait."
The situation in Bolivia stayed the same after the fall of Lima. The Bolivian government lacked the money, men, weapons, and means to transport an army to Peru.
War in the Peruvian Sierra
After the confrontations in Chorrillos and Miraflores, the Peruvian dictator Piérola refused to negotiate with the Chileans and escaped to the central Andes to try governing from the rear but soon lost the representation of the Peruvian state.(He left Peru in December 1881).
The occupation commanders, Manuel Baquedano, Pedro Lagos, and then Patricio Lynch, had their respective military headquarters in the Government Palace, Lima. The new Chilean administration continued to push for an end to the costly war, but contrary to expectations, neither Lima's capture nor the imposition of heavy taxes led Peru to sue for peace. Conversely, Peruvian caudillos advocated to wage a defensive war of attrition that consumed Chile's power so much that it renounced their demand for the territory.
On February 22, 1881, the Piérola Congress, allowed by Chile, reinstated the 1860 constitution and chose Francisco García Calderón as the provisional president but he was assisted by the US minister in Lima in refusing the cession of territories to Chile. He was overthrown by the Chileans in September 1881, but before his relegation to Chile, he had appointed Lizardo Montero Flores as successor.
The Peruvian caudillos organized a resistance, which would be known as the Campaign of the Breña or Sierra, a widespread, prolonged, brutal, and eventually futile guerrilla campaign. They harassed the Chilean troops and their logistics to such a point that Lynch had to send expeditions to the valleys in the Andes.
The resistance was organised by Andrés Avelino Cáceres in the regions Cajamarca (north), Arequipa (south) and the Sierra Central (Cerro Pasco to Ayacucho) However, the collapse of national order in Peru brought on also domestic chaos and violence, most of which was motivated by class or racial divisions. Chinese and black laborers took the opportunity to assault haciendas and the property of the rich to protest their mistreatment suffered in previous years. Lima's masses attacked Chinese grocery stores, and Indian peasants took over highland haciendas. For the occupation forces, the region was an unknown, difficult terrain, force inhibitor, insalubrious (tunga penetrans, dysentery), inaccessible, and Chilean military supplies had to be transported from Lima or other points on the coast, purchased from locals, or confiscated, each option being either very expensive or politically hazardous.
An additional problem for the Chileans was collecting information in support of their expeditionary force. While Cáceres was informed about the dispositions and moves of his foes, Chileans often did not know the whereabouts of the guerrillas.
Letelier's expedition
In February 1881, Chilean forces, under Lieutenant Colonel Ambrosio Letelier started the first expedition into the Sierra, with 700 men, to defeat the last guerrilla bands from Huánuco (April 30) to Junín. After many losses, the expedition achieved very little and returned to Lima in early July, where Letelier and his officers were courts-martialed for diverting money into their own pockets.
1882 Sierra Campaign
To annihilate the guerrillas in the Mantaro Valley, in January 1882, Lynch ordered an offensive with 5,000 men under the command of Gana and Del Canto, first towards Tarma and then southeast towards Huancayo, reaching Izcuchaca. Lynch's army suffered enormous hardships including cold temperatures, snow and mountain sickness. On July 9, 1882, they fought the emblematic Battle of La Concepción. The Chileans had to pull back with a loss of 534 soldiers: 154 in combat, 277 of disease and 103 deserters.
García Calderón refused to relinquish Peruvian control over the Tarapacá Region and so was arrested. Before García Calderón left Peru for Chile, he named Admiral Lizardo Montero as his successor. At the same time, Piérola stepped back and supported Cáceres for the presidency. Cáceres refused to serve but supported Lizardo Montero. Montero moved to Arequipa and so García Calderón's arrest unified the forces of Piérola and Cáceres.
1883 Sierra Campaign
On April 1, 1882 Miguel Iglesias, Defence Minister under Piérola, became convinced that the war had to be brought to an end or Peru would be completely devastated. He issued a manifesto, :es:Grito de Montán, calling for peace and in December 1882 convened a convention of representatives of the seven northern departments, where he was elected "Regenerating President" To support Iglesias against Montero, on April 6, 1883, Patricio Lynch started a new offensive to drive the guerrillas from central Peru and to destroy Caceres's army. The Chilean troops pursued Caceres northwest through narrow mountain passes until July 10, 1883, winning the definitive Battle of Huamachuco, the final Peruvian defeat.
Last days
Chile and Iglesias's government signed the Peace Treaty of Ancón on October 20, 1883, which ended the war and ceded Tarapacá to Chile.
Lizardo Montero tried to resist in Arequipa with a force of 4,000 men, but when Chile's 3,000 fighters arrived from Mollendo, Moquegua, and Ayacucho and began the assault to Arequipa, the Peruvian troops mutinied against Montero and allowed the Chileans to occupy the city on October 29, 1883. Montero opted for a Bolivian asylum. The occupation of Ayacucho by Chilean Colonel Urriola on October 1 lasted only 40 days, as Urriola withdrew to Lima. Ayacucho was occupied by Cáceres's new army of 500 men. Caceres continued to refuse the cession of territories to Chile.
The basis of Cáceres's war the increasingly powerful Indian insurrection against the Chileans, which had changed the nature of the war. Indian guerrillas fought "white men from all parties," looted towns, and seized land of the white owners. In June 1884, Cáceres accepted Treaty of Ancón "as an accomplished fact" but continued to fight Iglesias.
On Cáceres's true reasons for his change of mind, Florencia Mallon wrote:
Yet long before the civil war was over, it became clear to the hero of la Breña that, in order to build an alliance that would carry him to the presidential palace, he had to mend fences with the "hacendados" as a class, included those who had collaborated with the Chileans. The only way to do so was to give the "hacendados" what they wanted and repress the very guerrillas who had made the Breña campaign possible in the first place.
On October 29, 1883, the Chilean occupation of Lima ended, and on August 4, 1884, Lynch and the rest of the Chilean Expeditionary Forces embarked in Callao for Chile.
Peace
Peace treaty between Chile and Peru
On October 20, 1883, hostilities between Chile and Peru formally came to an end under the Treaty of Ancón, whose terms had Peru formally cede Tarapacá Province to Chile, and the use of the guano and nitrate resources to repay Peru's debts were regulated. Chile was also to occupy the provinces of Tacna and Arica for 10 years, when a plebiscite was to be held to determine nationality. For decades thereafter, the two countries failed to agree on the terms of the plebiscite. Finally, in 1929, mediation under US President Herbert Hoover caused the Treaty of Lima to be signed by which Chile kept Arica, and Peru reacquired Tacna.
Peace treaty between Bolivia and Chile
In 1884, Bolivia signed a truce, the Treaty of Valparaiso and accepted the military occupation of the entire Bolivian coast. The Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1904) ceded the complete region of Antofagasta to Chile. In return, Chile agreed to build the Arica–La Paz railway to connect the capital city of La Paz, Bolivia, with the port of Arica, and Chile guaranteed freedom of transit for Bolivian commerce through Chilean ports and territory.
Military analysis
Comparison
As the war began, the Peruvian Army numbered 5,241 men of all ranks, organized in seven infantry battalions, three squadrons of cavalry and two regiments of artillery. The most common rifles in the army were the French Chassepot and the Minié rifles. The artillery, with a total of 28 pieces, was composed mostly of British-made Blakely cannons and counted four machine guns. Much of the artillery dated from 1866 and had been bought for the Chincha Islands War against Spain. The mounts used by the cavalry were small and inferior to those used by the Chileans.
The Bolivian Army numbered no more than 2,175 soldiers and was divided into three infantry regiments, two cavalry squadrons, and two sections of artillery. The Colorados Battalion, President Daza's personal guard, was armed with Remington Rolling Block rifles, but the remainder carried odds and ends including flintlock muskets. The artillery had rifled three pounders and four machine guns, and the cavalry rode mules given a shortage of good horses.
The regular Chilean Army was well equipped, with 2,694 soldiers. The regular infantry was armed with the modern Belgian Comblain rifle, of which Chile had a stock of some 13,000. Chile also had Gras, Minie, Remington and Beaumont rifles, most of which fired the same caliber cartridge (11 mm). The artillery had 75 artillery pieces, most of which were of Krupp and Limache manufacture, and six machine guns. The cavalry used French sabers and Spencer and Winchester carbines.
Strategy
Control of the sea was Chile's key to an inevitably difficult desert war: supply by sea, including water, food, ammunition, horses, fodder, and reinforcements, was quicker and easier than marching supplies through the desert or across the Bolivian high plateau. While the Chilean Navy started an economic and military blockade of the Allies' ports, Peru took the initiative and used its smaller navy as a raiding force. The raids delayed the ground invasion for six months and forced Chile to shift its fleet from blockading to hunting and capturing the Huáscar. After achieving naval supremacy, sea-mobile forces proved to be an advantage for desert warfare on the long coastline. Peruvian and Bolivian defenders found themselves hundreds of kilometers from home, but the Chilean forces were usually just a few kilometers from the sea.
The Chileans employed an early form of amphibious warfare, which saw the co-ordination of army, navy, and specialized units. The first amphibious assault of the war took place when 2,100 Chilean troops took Pisagua on November 2, 1879. Chilean Navy ships bombarded beach defenses for several hours at dawn, followed by open, oared boats landing army infantry and sapper units into waist-deep water under enemy fire. An outnumbered first landing wave fought at the beach; the second and third waves in the following hours were able to overcome resistance and move inland. By the end of the day, an expeditionary army of 10,000 had disembarked at the captured port. In 1881 Chilean ships transported approximately 30,000 men, along with their mounts and equipment, in order to attack Lima. Chilean commanders were using purpose-built, flat-bottomed landing craft that would deliver troops in shallow water closer to the beach, possibly the first purpose-built amphibious landing craft in history: "These 36 shallow draft, flat-bottomed boats would be able to land three thousand men and twelve guns in a single wave."
Chile's military strategy emphasized preemption, offensive action, and combined arms. It was the first to mobilize and deploy its forces and took the war immediately to Bolivian and Peruvian territories. It adopted combined arms strategy that used naval and ground forces to rout its allied foes and capture enemy territory. It landed ground forces in enemy territory to raid in strength to split and to drive out defenders, and it then garrisoned the territory as the fighting moved north. Chileans received the support of the Chinese coolies immigrants, who had been enslaved by Peruvians and joined the Chilean Army during the campaign of Lima and in the raids to the north Peruvian cities.
Peru and Bolivia fought a defensive war, maneuvering through long overland distances and relied when possible on land or coastal fortifications with gun batteries and minefields. Coastal railways reached to central Peru, and telegraph lines provided a direct line to the government in Lima.
The occupation of Peru from 1881 and 1884 took a different form. The theater was the Peruvian Sierra, where the remains of the Peruvian Army had easy access to the population, resource, and supply centers far from the sea, which supported indefinite attrition warfare. The occupying Chilean force was split into small garrisons across the theater and could devote only part of its strength to hunting down dispersed pockets of resistance and the last Peruvian forces in the Sierra. After a costly occupation and prolonged counterinsurgency campaign, Chile sought a diplomatic exit. Rifts within Peruvian society and Peruvian defeat in the Battle of Huamachuco resulted in the peace treaty that ended the occupation.
Technology
Both sides used late 19th-century military technology, such as breech-loading rifles and cannons, remote-controlled land mines, armor-piercing shells, naval torpedoes, torpedo boats, and purpose-built landing craft. The second generation of ironclads, designed after the Battle of Hampton Roads, were used in battle for the first time. That was significant for a conflict in which no major power was involved and attracted British, French, and US observers. During the war, Peru developed the Toro Submarino ("Submarine Bull"), which never saw action and was scuttled at the end to prevent capture.
The USS Wachusett (1861) commanded by Alfred Thayer Mahan, was stationed at Callao, Peru, to protect American interests during the war's final stages. Mahan formulated his concept of sea power while he was reading history in a British gentlemen's club in Lima, Peru. The concept became the foundation for his celebrated The Influence of Sea Power upon History.
Flow of information
Since 1876, a submarine cable connected Valparaíso and Lima. At the beginning of the war, Antofagasta and Iquique were connected to the cable. Both navies tried to take control of the cable or severed it according to its military and naval interests.
Lima was not connected by cable to Panama, the southernmost post of the North American cable network. Valparaíso had been connected to Buenos Aires by a cable over the Andes since July 26, 1872. Buenos Aires was connected via Uruguay and Brazil, to Portugal and Britain and, from there, to the US over a submarine cable. It must be emphasized that La Paz, Bolivia's capital, was not connected by telegraph to the rest of the world. News coming from Tacna, Arica, and Antofagasta to La Paz had to be brought by foot or horse. The alternative way was from Peruvian port Mollendo (Querejazu: Moliendo) by railroad to Puno and then by boat service to Chichilaya, at the Bolivian shore of Lake Titicaca. The last route to La Paz was by horse or foot. The only telegraph in Bolivia was in Tupiza, south from La Paz, as the crow flies. Tupiza is at the border to Argentina and was connected to Buenos Aires via telegraph.
The traditional transport for long distances were the steamships that connected Valparaíso, Caldera, Antofagasta, Iquique, Arica, and Lima to the rest of the world.
The disruption of maritime trade routes and the unavailability of submarine telegraph cables from and in the war zone presented special problems for the press coverage of the war. On the other hand, the west coast was important for investors, farmers, manufacturers, and government officials because of their financial commitments. Hence, The Times of London and The New York Times covered the events of the war as much as possible, in spite of the absence of their own correspondents. Information was culled from government representatives in Europe and the US, merchant houses and Lloyd's of London, articles printed in the Panama Star and Herald, and Reuters.
The result was a mix of brief telegraphic dispatches a few days' old from cities with cable stations, along with lengthier but older reports carried by steamships to London or New York. For example, the Battle of Iquique occurred on May 21, but its first mention appeared in the May 30 edition of both The Times and The New York Times with an incorrect message. It was only on June 17 that The Times could provide a reasonably accurate version of the battle.
Atrocities
The three nations claimed to adhere to the Geneva Red Cross Convention to protect the war wounded, prisoners, refugees, civilians, and other noncombatants.
At the onset of the war, 30,000 Chileans were expelled from Peru (within 8 days) and Bolivia (within 10 days) and their property confiscated, most of them having to shelter in the camps, boats, and pontoons of the Peruvian ports until they were transported by ship to Antofagasta. It is calculated that 7,000 of the refugees from Peru enlisted in the Chilean battalions, and their resentfulness would later influence the war. Peruvian and Bolivian residents in Chile were not expelled.
Both sides complained that the other side had killed wounded soldiers after the battle and cited eyewitness accounts.
Besides the Peruvian-Chilean slaughter in the irregular war after the occupation of Lima, an ethnic and social conflict was simmering in Peru between the indigenous peoples and (Chinese) coolies who had been enslaved by Peru's white criollo and mestizo upper class. On July 2, 1884, the guerrillero Tomás Laymes and three of his men were executed in Huancayo by Caceres's forces because of the atrocities and crimes committed by the guerrillas against the Peruvian inhabitants of the cities and hamlets. In Ayacucho, indigenous peoples stood up against "the whites," and in Chincha, the Afro-Peruvians banded together against their owners in the Haciendas of "Larán," "San José," and "Hoja Redonda". Only the Peruvian army could forcibly suppress the revolt.
Chinese coolies formed the battalion "Vulcano" within the Chilean Army. There were also interethnic tensions under blacks and coolies. For example, in Cañete, 2000 coolies from the Haciendas "Montalbán" and "Juan de Arona" were massacred by blacks.
Foreign intervention
The British historian B. Farcau stated: "Contrary to the concept of the 'merchants of death,' the arms manufacturers of Europe and the United States conniving to keep alive the conflict, from which they had earned some welcome sales of their merchandise, the most influential foreign businessmen and their respective consuls and ambassadors were the traders in nitrate and the holders of the growing stacks of debts of all the belligerents. They were all aware that the only way they could hope to receive payment on their loans and earn the profits from the nitrate business was to see the war ended and trade resumed on a normal footing without legal disputes over ownership of the resources of the region hanging over their heads."
Nonethelesses, belligerents were able to purchase torpedo boats, arms, and munitions abroad and to circumvent ambiguous neutrality laws, and firms like Baring Brothers in London were not averse to dealing with both Chile and Peru. Arms were sold freely to any side that could pay for them but the British abstained from selling warships. For example, in 1879 to 1880, Peru acquired weapons from the United States, Europe, Costa Rica, and Panama. Weapons offloaded on the Caribbean coast of Panama were sent overland to the Pacific coast by the isthmus railway. In the Pacific, a number of ships, including the Talismán, Chalaco, Limeña, Estrella, Enriqueta and Guadiana, transported the cargo to Peru. The trade was done with the consent of the president of the Sovereign State of Panamá, then part of Colombia. The Chilean consul in Panama persistently protested the trade by citing a Chile–Colombia agreement of 1844 that prohibited Colombia from providing war supplies to Chile's enemies.
After the Chilean occupation of Arica, Tarapacá, and Antofagasta, the governments of Peru and Bolivia turned as their last hope to the United States to block the Chilean annexation of the occupied territories. American diplomats were worried that European powers might be tempted to intervene in the Pacific. The Bolivian Minister in Washington offered US Secretary of State William Maxwell Evarts the prospects of lucrative guano and nitrate concessions to American investors in return for official protection of Bolivia's territorial integrity. Isaac P. Christiancy, US Minister in Peru, organized the USS Lackwanna Conference, which ultimately failed, as none of the belligerents was ready to negotiate. Earlier, Christiancy had written to the US that Peru should be annexed for ten years and then admitted in the Union to provide the United States with access to the rich markets of South America.
In 1881, US President James Garfield took the oath of office, and the Anglophobic Secretary of State James G. Blaine supported an assertive role for the US in the war, ostensibly regarding the interests of promoting US ownership of nitrate and guano concessions. Blaine argued that the South American republics "are young sisters of this government" and so he would not tolerate European intervention in South America. The groups "Credit Industriel" and "Peruvian Company," representing European and American creditors, had guaranteed to the Peruvian provisional government of Francisco García Calderón to pay the Peruvian external debt and the reparations to Chile, but in return, the Peruvian government had to grant mining concessions in Tarapacá to these corporations. With the acquiescence of García Calderón, both companies began to lobby in the United States for the territories to remain under Peruvian sovereignty. For example, the US "Levi P. Morton, Bliss and Company" would get a monopoly on the sales of Peruvian nitrate in the US.
Beside the economic plans, Stephen A. Hurlbut, Christiancy's successor, had negotiated with García Calderón the cession to the US of a naval base in Chimbote and the railroads to the coal mines upcountry. When it became known that Blaine's representative in Peru, Hurlbut, would personally profit from the settlement, it was clear he was complicating the peace process The American attempts reinforced Garcia Calderon's refusal to discuss the matter of territorial cession. Blaine then dispatched William H. Trescot in a mission to Chile to establish that problems would be resolved through arbitration and that acts of war would not justify territorial seizures. After the assassination of Garfield (July 2, 1881) and the accession of Chester A. Arthur to the US presidency, Blaine was replaced by Frederick Theodore Frelinghuysen as Secretary of State. Frelinghuysen thought that the US was in no position to back Blaine's policy and recalled the Trescot mission.
Kenneth D. Lehmann commented the US policy:
Washington had interjected itself into the middle of the controversy without developing a realistic position: the moralizing of the United States had an air of hypocrisy in light of his own history, and veiled threats carried no weight.
Regarding a British intervention in the war, the British historian Victor Kiernan had stated: "It should be emphasized that the Foreign Office never at any time contemplated any kind of active intervention.... It was especially scrupulous in seeing to it that no warships were smuggled out for sale to either side, for it was in mortal dread of another Alabama Award." During the war, the British government embargoed four warships sold to Chile and Perú.
Looting, damages, and war reparations
The case of looting and war reparations done by Chilean occupation forces in Peru has caused controversy between historians. It is overlooked in Chile and a source of anti-Chilean sentiment in Peru. The Chilean historian Milton Godoy Orellana distinguishes the looting after the battle of Chorrillos y Miraflores; the looting by Peruvians in Lima before the Chilean troops entered the city; and the Chilean destruction of locomotives, rails, printing machines, weapons, etc. The Chilean government tried to control it through the "Oficina Recaudadora de las Contribuciones de Guerra," whose tasks were to inventory and realize the confiscation and to record and to confirm transport to Chile, the destination, and the sender. Allegedly, the strategic purposes were to obtain the peace. There is no general list of the looted goods, but many of the shipments were registered in private and official letters, newspaper articles, manifests, etc. Also, looting of cultural assets of Peru by the Chileans and Peruvians occurred; the development of international law regarding the protection of cultural objects evolved over the 19th and 20th centuries, but the idea of protecting cultural assets first emerged in Europe in the 18th century.
The Lieber Code of 1863 unconditionally protected works of art during an armed conflict (Art. 35) but expressly consented to the use of cultural property as war reparations (Art. 36). In fact, Sergio Villalobos states that in 1817, the US accepted the confiscation of art works but the 1874 Project of an International Declaration concerning the Laws and Customs of War asserted that the cultural assets were to be considered as protected.
In March 1881, the Chilean government began to seize the Biblioteca Nacional del Perú, and 45,000 books were seized, but some of the books were sold in Lima by Peruvians, and so it is contested how much of the booty was taken by the Chilean forces. In any case, in late March 1881, some of the books arrived to Chile, and the press began to inform and discuss about the legitimacy of looting oil paintings, books, statues, etc., or "international robbery", as a journalist of "La Epoca" described it.
On January 4, 1883, in a session of the Chilean Congress, the deputy Augusto Matte Pérez questioned Minister of the Interior José Manuel Balmaceda on the "opprobrious and humiliating" shipments of Peruvian cultural assets. Montt asked the devolution of the assets and was supported by deputies McClure and Puelma. The minister vowed to impede further exactions and to repatriate the objects mentioned in the discussion. Apparently, he did so since the shipments stopped, and the mentioned statues are not there anymore, but it was not until November 2007 that Chile returned 3,778 stolen books to the Biblioteca Nacional del Perú. S. Villalobos asserted, "There was no justification for the theft."
Another issue was the damage from acts of war on properties owned by citizens of neutral countries. In 1884, the Tribunales Arbitrales were constituted with a Chilean judge, who was named by the country of the claimant, as well as a Brazilian judge to deal with the claims of citizens from Britain (118 claims), Italy (440 claims), and France (89 claims). A tribunal was established in 1886 for German citizens. The "Italian" tribunal also dealt with Belgian citizens, and the "German" tribunal acted for Austrian and Swiss citizens. Spaniards accepted the decision of the Chilean state without the tribunal's assistance and the US did not agree at the time.
According to international law, animus manendi claims by foreign citizens could not be made unless the damaged property had been in an actual battleground (such as Arica, Chorrillos, and Miraflores, with Pisagua and Tacna being in a similar situation), but damages caused by individual or scattered soldiers were dismissed. Only 3.6% (1,080,562 Chilean pesos) of the value that was claimed was recognized by the tribunals. According to Villalobos, the verdicts proved that the accusations against the Chilean forces had been exaggerated by Peruvians because of their wounded pride and by foreign citizens because of monetary interests.
Consequences
The war had a profound and longlasting effect on the societies of all countries involved. The negotiations concerning territorial cessions continued until 1929, but the war ended in 1884 for all practical purposes.
Commemoration
Día del Mar is celebrated in Bolivia on March 23, at the conclusion of the weeklong Semana del Mar with a ceremony at La Paz's Plaza Abaroa, in homage to war hero Eduardo Abaroa, and in parallel ceremonies nationwide.
Naval Glories Day is a Chilean anniversary that commemorates two naval battles that occurred on Wednesday, May 21, 1879: that of Iquique, where captain of frigate Arturo Prat died along with the entire crew of the corvette Esmeralda, sunk by the Peruvian monitor Huáscar (built in the United Kingdom for the Peruvian government in 1864, it served in the Peruvian Navy until it was captured by Chile in 1879) under the command of Captain Miguel Grau; and that of Punta Gruesa, where the schooner Covadonga, under the command of Carlos Condell, ran aground the Peruvian armored frigate Independencia, under the command of Juan Guillermo More, in the rocks of Punta Gruesa.
Cultural impact
Caliche sangriento, 1969 Chilean film directed by Helvio Soto
Explanatory notes
References
Cited works and further reading
Boyd. Robert N. Chili: Sketches of Chili and the Chilians During the War 1879–1880. (1881)
External links
Chilean caricatures during the war in Tesis of Patricio Ibarra Cifuentes, Universidad de Chile, 2009.
"Caliche: The Conflict Mineral That Fuelled the First World War" in The Guardian by Daniel A. Gross, June 2, 2014.
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19th century in Bolivia
19th century in Chile
Territorial disputes of Chile
Territorial disputes of Bolivia
Territorial disputes of Peru
Bolivia–Chile relations
Chile–Peru relations
Bolivia–Peru relations
Conflicts in 1879
Conflicts in 1880
Conflicts in 1881
Conflicts in 1882
Conflicts in 1883 | [
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234178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evert%20Horn | Evert Horn | Evert Karlsson Horn af Kanckas (11 June 1585 – 30 July 1615) was a Swedish Field Marshall and Governor of Narva.
Biography
He was born at Haapsalu Castle in the Swedish province of Estonia. He was a son of Field Marshal Carl Horn and Agneta von Dellwig. His younger brother was Field Marshal Gustav Horn, Count of Pori (1592–1657).
In 1608, Horn was assigned to service with Jakob De la Gardie (1583–1652), Chief Commander in Finland.
Evert Horn was appointed Governor (Ståthållare) of Narva in 1613 and Field Marshal in 1614. During the Ingrian War, he was killed by a bullet during the early days of the Swedish
siege of Pskov in 1615.
Personal life
In 1613, he married Margareta Fincke (ca. 1611-1647), daughter of Governor Gödik Fincke (ca. 1546–1617) and his first wife Ingeborg Boije (ca. 1550-1580). Their son Gustav Evertsson Horn af Marienborg (1614–1666) was a member of the Privy Council of Sweden and Governor General of Finland.
See also
Horn family
De la Gardie Campaign
References
External links
1585 births
1615 deaths
People from Haapsalu
Swedish nobility
Field marshals of Sweden
17th-century Swedish military personnel
16th-century Swedish people | [
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234179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesper%20Mattson%20Cruus%20af%20Edeby | Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby | Jesper Mattson Cruus af Edeby (1576–1622) was a Swedish soldier and politician, being appointed Privy Councilor in 1612, Field Marshal in 1615, Lord High Treasurer in 1615, and Governor of Riga in 1621. In the Kalmar War (1611–1613) he led the Swedish troops to victory against the Danish forces, led by King Christian IV of Denmark, at the Battle of Kölleryd, on 21 February 1612. In 1622 he died in Riga after being wounded in a dispute with a local clergyman.
References
Cruus, Jesper Mattson at Nationalencyklopedins Internettjänst (Swedish)
1576 births
1622 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
17th-century Swedish military personnel
Swedish-speaking Finns
17th-century Swedish politicians
People of the Kalmar War | [
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234181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Gyllenhielm | Carl Gyllenhielm | Baron Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm (4 March 1574 – 17 March 1650) was a Swedish soldier and politician. He was made a baron (friherre) in 1615, appointed Field Marshal in 1616, Privy Councilor in 1617, Governor General of Ingria in 1617 and served as Lord High Admiral from 1620 until his death.
Biography
He was an illegitimate son of Duke Carl, later King Charles IX of Sweden, and Karin Nilsdotter, the daughter of a clergyman from Östergötland. He was raised at the royal estate of Julita Abbey (Julita gård) in Södermanland. He was thus the older half-brother of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. It was the tradition in Sweden in this period that noble children born out of wedlock were acknowledged by their fathers, as long as they were not the product of adultery. Carl Carlsson was ennobled in 1592 with the surname Gyllenhielm and entered the service of the crown as a soldier. He served with the navy in the 1590s before moving to the army during the Swedish-Polish War (1600-11).
He was captured by the enemy in Poland in 1601 and remained a prisoner of war for twelve years. After attempting to escape, he was forced to wear leg irons for the last six and a half years of his captivity. He was freed in 1613, and shortly after raised to the rank of baron and field marshal by his half-brother, the king.
On 27 February 1617 the Treaty of Stolbovo ended the Ingrian War (1610–1617), fought between the Swedish Empire and Russia. From 1617, Gyllenhielm was the governor general of the province of Ingria, until he returned to Sweden in 1620 to become Lord High Admiral. Admirals in this period were expected to lead the navy at sea as well as administrate, but Gyllenhielm did not often take command himself. He delegated much of the day-to-day business of the navy to Clas Fleming, and focused his naval efforts on overseeing the navy's finances. In September 1628, he served as the chairman of the tribunal convened to investigate the loss of the new warship Vasa.
After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany during 1632, Gyllenhielm was responsible for returning his half-brother's body to Sweden. In the following year, he was appointed to the regency government which ruled in the name of Queen Christina of Sweden during her minority, until 1644. He built Karlberg Palace to the northwest of Stockholm and spent his last years there. He died at Karlberg in 1650, and was buried at Strängnäs Cathedral. Karlberg was eventually taken over as an administrative headquarters for the Swedish military, but several of the central reception rooms are preserved as they were in Gyllenhielm's lifetime.
References
Other sources
Glete, Jan (2010) Swedish Naval Administration: Resource flows and organizational capacity (Leiden: Brill)
1574 births
1650 deaths
Illegitimate children of Swedish monarchs
Ingria
17th-century Swedish politicians
Field marshals of Sweden
Swedish admirals
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
16th-century Swedish people | [
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234182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman%20Wrangel | Herman Wrangel | Herman Wrangel (born either 1584 or 1587- died 10 December 1643) was a Swedish military officer and politician of Baltic German extraction.
Biography
Herman Wrangel was born in Livonia. He came to Sweden around 1608. In 1612, he participated in the Kalmar War against Denmark. In 1619, Wrangel was commander of Älvsborg fortress. He was appointed Field Marshal in 1621, Privy Councillor in 1630, and Governor General of Swedish Livonia in 1643.
Wrangel was married three times. In 1636, he married Amalia Magdalena, daughter of Johann VII, Count of Nassau-Siegen. He was the father of statesman and military commander Carl Gustaf Wrangel (1613–1676).
See also
Wrangel family
Polish-Swedish War
References
Other Sources
Wrangel, 1. Herman, "Nordisk familjebok" (2nd edition, 1921)
External links
1580s births
1643 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Baltic-German people
17th-century Swedish military personnel
People from Põltsamaa
17th-century Swedish politicians
Wrangel family | [
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234183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustav%20Horn%2C%20Count%20of%20Pori | Gustav Horn, Count of Pori | Count Gustav Horn af Björneborg (October 22, 1592 – May 10, 1657) was a Finnish nobleman of the Swedish Empire, military officer, and Governor-General.
He was appointed member of the Royal Council in 1625, Field Marshal in 1628, Governor General of Livonia in 1652 and Lord High Constable since 1653. In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), he was instrumental as a commander in securing victory at the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631. He was High Councillor of the realm in 1625, elevated to the rank of field marshal in 1628, and sometimes commander-in-chief of Swedish forces in Germany during Thirty Years' War. After the war, he served as Governor-General of Livonia 1652, President of War department and Lord High Constable in 1653. In 1651, Queen Christina created him Count of Björneborg (Horn af Björneborg).
Biography
Background
Gustaf Horn was born at Örbyhus in Uppsala County, Sweden. He was the youngest son of Field Marshal Carl Horn and Agneta von Dellwig. He was born while his father was imprisoned in Örbyhus Castle at Tierp. He was born into the Swedish (geographically and ethnically Finnish) noble family Horn af Kankas and was educated extensively in European universities. He studied military sciences under prince Maurice of Orange in the Netherlands. As a colonel, Gustav Horn took part in the siege of Riga in 1621 and was seriously wounded. He led troops which conquered Tartu in Livonian Estonia. With Count Jakob De la Gardie, he led the defense of Livonia against Poland in the late 1620s. At age 35, he was elevated to the rank of Field Marshal by King Gustav II Adolf.
Command of Swedish forces
When King Gustav II Adolf decided to join the war in Germany (1630), he appointed Gustav Horn as his second in command. At the battle of Breitenfeld in 1631, Horn prevented the Imperial force under Tilly from flanking the main body of the Swedish army, after their Saxon allies had fled the field. After this Horn led troops in Upper (southern) Franconia and conquered among others, Mergentheim, the town of the Teutonic Order and the bishopric of Bamberg). He then went to Bavaria with the king. Horn was sent to lead troops in the Rhineland, where he occupied Koblenz and Trier, and continued to Swabia.
After the death of King Gustav II Adolf at Lützen in November 1632, Field Marshal Horn and General John Banér were appointed to the overall command of Swedish forces in Germany. Gustav Horn's father-in-law, the Chancellor Oxenstierna, took the leadership of the civil government.
When Horn was ordered to combine his troops with those of Bernhard of Weimar, the two men found themselves unable to work together, and they were given separate commands.
After Wallenstein's murder in 1634, Horn took some areas in Swabia: in the spring of that year, his troops unsuccessfully laid siege to the imperial city of Überlingen, which would have been a rich and valuable prize. In early September 1634 his forces, and those of Bernard of Saxony, were crushed at the battle of Nördlingen by combined Habsburg and Spanish forces. Horn was taken prisoner and held by the Roman Catholic army in Burghausen Castle until 1642. He was exchanged for three imperial generals.
Later career
Following his exchange, Horn was appointed Vice President of the War Department. During the war against Denmark in 1644, Horn led the attack on Skåne and conquered the whole province, except the towns of Malmö and Kristianstad. Malmö's siege lasted until the Treaty of Brömsebro brought the war to an end.
In 1651, Horn received Pori (Björneborg) on the west coast of Finland. His estate at Alūksne in Livonia (Marienborg) was made into a barony. Horn then served as Governor-General in Livonia, and as Lord High Constable of the empire, becoming Lord President of the War Department.
When the war against Poland broke out in 1655, Gustav Horn directed the defense of Sweden against possible Polish invasion.
Gustav Horn was one of the most capable of Gustav II Adolf's military commanders, and also an able administrator. His particular skills were in arranging defenses for several sorts of situations. He also maintained relatively strict discipline, so his troops did not plunder and pillage as much as others.
Häringe Manor
Gustaf Horn acquired Häringe Manor (Häringe slott) at Västerhaninge parish in Södermanland during 1625. The estate was received as a gift from King Gustav II Adolf. The main building was built on the initiative of Gustaf Horn and was completed in 1657. After the death of Gustaf Horn in 1657, the estate was inherited by his daughter Agneta Horn (1629–1672), by her daughter Hedvig Catharina Lillie (1695–1745) in 1730 and then by Carl Julius De la Gardie (1729–1786) in 1745.
Family
In 1628 Horn married first to Kristina Oxenstierna (1609 1631), daughter of Count and Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna. They had two children:
Agneta Horn (1629–1672) who married baron Lars Cruus of Gudhem, Lord of Harviala.
Axel Horn (1630–1631).
In 1643 Horn married Sigrid Bielke (1620–1679). They had nine children:
Anna Katarina Horn (born and died 1644)
Kristina Horn (born and died 1646)
Ebba Sigrid Horn (born and died 1646), twin with Kristina
Helena Horn (1647–1648)
Maria Eleonora Horn (1648–1652)
Gustav Karl Horn (1650–1654)
Evert Horn (1652–1654)
Eva Horn (1653–1740), married Nils Bielke.
Hedvig Lovisa Horn (1655–17??), married firstly Ture Karlsson Sparre and secondly Bernhard von Liewen.
See also
Horn family
References
External links
Häringe slott website
1592 births
1657 deaths
People from Tierp Municipality
Finnish admirals
Swedish admirals
Finnish Navy personnel
Finnish sailors
Finnish generals
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish Livonia
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Finnish Privy Councillors
Finnish people of the Thirty Years' War
17th-century Finnish nobility
Prisoners of war
17th-century Swedish politicians
16th-century Finnish nobility | [
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234184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashikaga%20Yoshizumi | Ashikaga Yoshizumi | was the 11th shōgun of the Ashikaga shogunate who reigned from 1494 to 1508 during the Muromachi period of Japan. He was the son of Ashikaga Masatomo and grandson of the sixth shōgun Ashikaga Yoshinori. His childhood name was Seikō (清晃), Yoshizumi was first called Yoshitō (sometimes translated as Yoshimichi), then Yoshitaka.
Yoshizumi was adopted by the 8th shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimasa. He was installed by Hosokawa Masamoto as Sei-i Taishōgun. He was stripped of the title in 1508 by the 10th shōgun Ashikaga Yoshitane, who became shōgun for a second period of time.
Two of Yoshizumi's sons would themselves become shōguns. Ashikaga Yoshiharu would hold nominal powers as the twelfth Muromachi shōgun; and Ashikaga Yoshihide assumed nominal powers as the fourteenth shōgun.
Family
Father: Ashikaga Masatomo (1435-1491)
Mother: daughter of Mushanakoji Takamitsu
Adopted Father: Ashikaga Yoshimasa
Adopted Mother: Hino Tomiko
Wife: Hino Akiko
Concubine: speculated daughter of Shiba Yoshihiro or daughter of Rokkaku Takayori
Children:
Ashikaga Yoshiharu by Akiko
Ashikaga Yoshitsuna by daughter of Shiba or Rokkaku
Events of Yoshizumi's bakufu
Significant events shape the period during which Yoshizumi was shōgun:
1494 – Hosokawa Masamoto has Yoshizumi appointed shōgun.
1495 – Hōjō Sōun captures Odawara.
1500 – Go-Kashiwabara succeeds.
Eras of Yoshizumi's bakufu
The years in which Yoshizumi was shogun are more specifically identified by more than one era name or nengō.
Meiō (1492–1501)
Bunki (1501–1504)
Eishō (1504–1521)
Notes
References
Ackroyd, Joyce. (1982) Lessons from History: The Tokushi Yoron. Brisbane: University of Queensland Press. ; OCLC 7574544
Titsingh, Isaac. (1834). Nihon Ōdai Ichiran; ou, Annales des empereurs du Japon. Paris: Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland. OCLC 585069
1481 births
1511 deaths
15th-century shōguns
16th-century shōguns
Yoshizumi
Yoshizumi
Rinzai Buddhists | [
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234185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compartment%20syndrome | Compartment syndrome | Compartment syndrome is a condition in which increased pressure within one of the body's anatomical compartments results in insufficient blood supply to tissue within that space. There are two main types: acute and chronic. Compartments of the leg or arm are most commonly involved.
Symptoms of acute compartment syndrome (ACS) can include severe pain, poor pulses, decreased ability to move, numbness, or a pale color of the affected limb. It is most commonly due to physical trauma such as a bone fracture (up to 75% of cases) or crush injury, but it can also be caused by acute exertion during sport. It can also occur after blood flow returns following a period of poor blood flow. Diagnosis is generally based upon a person's symptoms and may be supported by measurement of intracomparmental pressure before, during, and after activity. Normal compartment pressure should be within 12-18 mmHg; anything greater than that is considered abnormal and would need treatment. Treatment is by surgery to open the compartment, completed in a timely manner. If not treated within six hours, permanent muscle or nerve damage can result.
In chronic compartment syndrome (aka chronic exertional compartment syndrome), there is generally pain with exercise but the pain dissipates once activity ceases. Other symptoms may include numbness. Symptoms typically resolve with rest. Common activities that trigger chronic compartment syndrome include running and biking. Generally, this condition does not result in permanent damage. Other conditions that may present similarly include stress fractures and tendinitis. Treatment may include physical therapy or—if that is not effective—surgery.
Acute compartment syndrome occurs in about 3% of those who have a midshaft fracture of the forearm. Rates in other areas of the body and for chronic cases are unknown. The condition occurs more often in males and people under the age of 35, in line with the occurrence of trauma. Compartment syndrome was first described in 1881 by German surgeon Richard von Volkmann. Untreated, acute compartment syndrome can result in Volkmann's contracture.
Signs and symptoms
Compartment syndrome usually presents within a few hours of an inciting event, but may present anytime up to 48 hours after. The limb affected by compartment syndrome is often associated with a firm, wooden feeling or a deep palpation, and is usually described as feeling tight. There may also be decrease pulses in the limb along with associated parasthesia. Usually, the pain cannot be relieved by NSAIDs. Range of motion may be limited while the compartment pressure is high. In acute compartment syndrome, the pain will not be relieved with rest. In chronic exertional compartment syndrome the pain will dissipate with rest.
Acute
There are five characteristic signs and symptoms related to acute compartment syndrome: pain, paraesthesia (reduced sensation), paralysis, pallor, and pulselessness. Pain and paresthesia are the early symptoms of compartment syndrome.
Common
Pain – A person may experience pain disproportionate to the findings of the physical examination. This pain may not be relieved by strong analgesic medications. The pain is aggravated by passively stretching the muscle group within the compartment. However, such pain may disappear in the late stages of the compartment syndrome. The role of local anesthesia in delaying the diagnosis of compartment syndrome is still being debated.
Paresthesia (altered sensation) – A person may complain of "pins & needles", numbness, and a tingling sensation. This may progress to loss of sensation (anesthesia) if no intervention is made.
Uncommon
Paralysis – Paralysis of the limb is a rare, late finding. It may indicate both a nerve or muscular lesion.
Pallor and pulselessness – A lack of pulse rarely occurs in patients, as pressures that cause compartment syndrome are often well below arterial pressures. Absent pulses only occur when there is arterial injury or during the late stages of the compartment syndrome, when compartment pressures are very high. Pallor can also result from arterial occlusion.
Chronic
The symptoms of chronic exertional compartment syndrome, CECS, may involve pain, tightness, cramps, weakness, and diminished sensation. This pain can occur for months, and in some cases over a period of years, and may be relieved by rest. Moderate weakness in the affected region can also be observed. These symptoms are brought on by exercise and consist of a sensation of extreme tightness in the affected muscles followed by a painful burning sensation if exercise is continued. After exercise is ceased, the pressure in the compartment will decrease within a few minutes, relieving painful symptoms. Symptoms will occur at a certain threshold of exercise which varies from person to person but is rather consistent for a given individual. This threshold can range anywhere from 30 seconds of running to 2-3 miles of running. CECS most commonly occurs in the lower leg, with the anterior compartment being the most frequently affected compartment. Foot drop is a common symptom of CECS.
Complications
Failure to relieve the pressure can result in the death of tissues (necrosis) in the affected anatomical compartment, since the ability of blood to enter the smallest vessels in the compartment (capillary perfusion pressure) will fall. This, in turn, leads to progressively increasing oxygen deprivation of the tissues dependent on this blood supply. Without sufficient oxygen, the tissue will die. On a large scale, this can cause Volkmann's contracture in affected limbs, a permanent and irreversible process. Other reported complications include neurological deficits of the affected limb, gangrene, and chronic regional pain syndrome. Rhabdomyolysis and subsequent kidney failure are also possible complications. In some case series, rhabdomyolysis is reported in 23% of patients with ACS.
Causes
Acute
Acute compartment syndrome (ACS) is a medical emergency that can develop after traumatic injuries, such as in automobile accidents or dynamic sporting activities – for example, a severe crush injury or an open or closed fracture of an extremity. Rarely, ACS can develop after a relatively minor injury, or due to another medical issue. The lower legs and the forearms are the most frequent sites affected by compartment syndrome. Other areas of the body such as thigh, buttock, hand, abdomen, and foot can also be affected. The most common cause of acute compartment syndrome is fracture of a bone, most commonly the tibia. There is no difference between acute compartment syndrome originating from an open or closed fracture. Leg compartment syndrome is found in 2% to 9% of tibial fractures. It is strongly related to fractures involving the tibial diaphysis as well as other sections of the tibia. Direct injury to blood vessels can lead to compartment syndrome by reducing the downstream blood supply to soft tissues. This reduction in blood supply can cause a series of inflammatory reactions that promote the swelling of the soft tissues. Such inflammation can be further worsened by reperfusion therapy. Because the fascia layer that defines the compartment of the limbs does not stretch, a small amount of bleeding into the compartment, or swelling of the muscles within the compartment, can cause the pressure to rise greatly. Intravenous drug injection, casts, prolonged limb compression, crush injuries, anabolic steroid use, vigorous exercise, and eschar from burns can also cause compartment syndrome. Patients on anticoagulant therapy have an increased risk of bleeding into a closed compartment.
Abdominal compartment syndrome occurs when the intra-abdominal pressure exceeds 20 mmHg and abdominal perfusion pressure is less than 60 mmHg. This disease process is associated with organ dysfunction and multiple organ failures. There are many causes, which can be broadly grouped into three mechanisms: primary (internal bleeding and swelling); secondary (vigorous fluid replacement as an unintended complication of resuscitative medical treatment, leading to the acute formation of ascites and a rise in intra-abdominal pressure); and recurrent (compartment syndrome that has returned after the initial treatment of secondary compartment syndrome).
There have been cases of compartment syndrome associated with hypothyroidism.
Chronic
When compartment syndrome is caused by repetitive use of the muscles, it is known as chronic compartment syndrome (CCS). This is usually not an emergency, but the loss of circulation can cause temporary or permanent damage to nearby nerves and muscles.
A subset of chronic compartment syndrome is chronic exertional compartment syndrome (CECS), often called exercise-induced compartment syndrome (EICS). Oftentimes, CECS is a diagnosis of exclusion. CECS of the leg is a condition caused by exercise which results in increased tissue pressure within an anatomical compartment due to an acute increase in muscle volume – as much as 20% is possible during exercise. When this happens, pressure builds up in the tissues and muscles causing tissue ischemia. An increase in muscle weight will reduce the compartment volume of the surrounding fascial borders and result in an increased compartment pressure. An increase in the pressure of the tissue can force fluid to leak into the interstitial space (extracellular fluid), leading to a disruption of the micro-circulation of the leg. This condition occurs commonly in the lower leg and various other locations within the body, such as the foot or forearm. CECS can be seen in athletes who train rigorously in activities that involve constant repetitive actions or motions.
Pathophysiology
In a normal human body, blood flow from the arterial system (higher pressure) to venous system (lower pressure) requires a pressure gradient. When this pressure gradient is diminished, blood flow from the artery to the vein is reduced. This causes a backup of blood and excessive fluid to leak from the capillary wall into spaces between the soft tissues cells, causing swelling of the extracellular space and a rise in intracompartmental pressure. This swelling of the soft tissues surrounding the blood vessels compresses the blood and lymphatic vessels further, causing more fluid to enter the extracellular spaces, leading to additional compression. The pressure continues to increase due to the non-compliant nature of the fascia containing the compartment. This worsening cycle can eventually lead to a lack of sufficient oxygen in the soft tissues (tissue ischemia) and tissue death (necrosis). Tingling and abnormal sensation (paraesthesia) can begin as early as 30 minutes from the start of tissue ischemia and permanent damage can occur as early as 12 hours from the onset of the inciting injury.
Diagnosis
Compartment syndrome is a clinical diagnosis, meaning that a medical provider's examination and the patient's history usually give the diagnosis. Apart from the typical signs and symptoms, measurement of intracompartmental pressure can also be important for diagnosis. Using a combination of clinical diagnosis and serial intracompartmental pressure measurements increases both the sensitivity and specificity of diagnosing compartment syndrome. A transducer connected to a catheter is inserted 5 cm into the zone of injury. A compartment pressure no less than 30 mmHg of the diastolic pressure in a conscious or unconscious person is associated with compartment syndrome. Fasciotomy is indicated in that case. For those patients with low blood pressure (hypotension), a pressure of 20 mmHg higher than the intracompartmental pressure is associated with compartmental syndrome. Noninvasive methods of diagnosis such as near-infraredspectroscopy (NIRS) which uses sensors on the skin, shows promise in controlled settings. However, with limited data in uncontrolled settings, clinical presentation and intracompartmental pressure remain the gold standard for diagnosis.
Chronic exertional compartment syndrome is usually a diagnosis of exclusion, with the hallmark finding being absence of symptoms at rest. Measurement of intracompartmental pressures during symptom reproduction (usually immediately following running) is the most useful test. Imaging studies (X-ray, CT, MRI) can be useful in ruling out the more common diagnoses. Additionally, MRI has been shown to be effective in diagnosing chronic exertional compartment syndrome. The average duration of symptoms prior to diagnosis is 28 months.
Treatment
Acute
Any external compression (tourniquet, orthopedic casts or dressings applied on the affected limb) should be removed. Cutting of the cast will reduce the intracompartmental pressure by 65%, followed by 10 to 20% pressure reduction once padding is cut. After removal of the external compression the limb should be placed at the level of the heart. The vital signs of the patient should be closely monitored. If the clinical condition does not improve, then fasciotomy is indicated to decompress the compartments. An incision large enough to decompress all the compartments is necessary. This surgical procedure is performed inside an operating theater under general or local anesthesia. The timing of the fasciotomy wound closure is debated. Some surgeons suggest wound closure should be done seven days after fasciotomy. Multiple techniques exist for closure of the surgical site including vacuum-assisted and shoelace. Both techniques are acceptable methods for closure, but the vacuum-assisted technique has led to longer hospitalization time. A skin graft may be required to close the wound, which would complicate the treatment with a much longer hospitalization stay.
Chronic
Treatment for chronic exertional compartment syndrome can include decreasing or subsiding exercise and/or exacerbating activities, massage, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medication, and physiotherapy. Chronic compartment syndrome in the lower leg can be treated conservatively or surgically. Conservative treatment includes rest, anti-inflammatory medications, and manual decompression. Warming the affected area with a heating pad may help to loosen the fascia prior to exercise. Icing the area may result in further constriction of the fascia and is not recommended before exercise. The use of devices that apply external pressure to the area, such as splints, casts, and tight wound dressings, should be avoided. If symptoms persist after conservative treatment or if an individual does not wish to give up the physical activities which bring on symptoms, compartment syndrome can be treated by a surgery known as a fasciotomy.
A US military study conducted in 2012 found that teaching individuals with lower leg chronic exertional compartment syndrome to change their running style to a forefoot running technique abated symptoms in those with symptoms limited to the anterior compartment. Running with a forefoot strike limits use of the tibialis anterior muscle which may explain the relief in symptoms in those with anterior compartment syndrome.
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy has been suggested by case reports – though as of 2011 not proven in randomized control trials – to be an effective adjunctive therapy for crush injury, compartment syndrome, and other acute traumatic ischemias, by improving wound healing and reducing the need for repetitive surgery.
Prognosis
A mortality rate of 47% has been reported for acute compartment syndrome of the thigh. According to one study the rate of fasciotomy for acute compartment syndrome varied from 2% to 24%. This is due to uncertainty and differences in labeling a condition as acute compartment syndrome. The most significant prognostic factor in people with acute compartment syndrome is time to diagnosis and subsequent fasciotomy. In people with a missed or late diagnosis of acute compartment syndrome, limb amputation may be necessary for survival. Following a fasciotomy, some symptoms may be permanent depending on factors such as which compartment, time until fasciotomy, and muscle necrosis. Muscle necrosis can occur quickly, within 3 hours of original injury in some studies. Fasciotomy of the lateral compartment of the leg may lead to symptoms due to the nerves and muscles in that compartment. These may include foot drop, numbness along leg, numbness of big toe, pain, and loss of foot eversion.
Epidemiology
In one case series of 164 people with acute compartment syndrome, 69% of the cases had an associated fracture. The authors of that article also calculated an annual incidence of acute compartment syndrome of 1 to 7.3 per 100,000. There are significant differences in the incidence of acute compartment syndrome based on age and gender in the setting of trauma. Men are ten times more likely than women to develop ACS. The mean age for ACS in men is 30 years while the mean age is 44 years for women. Acute compartment syndrome may occur more often in individuals less than 35 years old due to increased muscle mass within the compartments . The anterior compartment of the leg is the most common site for ACS.
See also
Abdominal compartment syndrome
Escharotomy
Ischemia-reperfusion injury of the appendicular musculoskeletal system
References
External links
Compartment Syndrome of the Forearm – Orthopaedia.com
Chronic Exertional Compartment Syndrome detailed at MayoClinic.com
Compartment syndrome
American Association of Orthopaedic Surgeons Compartment Syndrome
Disorders of fascia
Syndromes
Early complications of trauma
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate | [
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234189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Individual%20branding | Individual branding | Individual branding, also called individual product branding, flanker brands or multibranding, is "a branding strategy in which products are given brand names that are newly created and generally not connected to names of existing brands offered by the company." Each brand, even within a same company, has a unique name, identity and image, allowing the company to target different market segments, tailor pricing and marketing strategies, and separate the image and reputation of different products.
Individual branding contrasts with umbrella branding and corporate branding, in which the firm markets all of its product together, using the same brand name and identity.
Applicability
Individual branding is the most effective when a company offers numerous unconnected commodities, which vary in quality and price and target different market segments. It is also useful when introducing a new, high-risk product to the market, in order to manage risks to existing brands if the new product should fail. However, the expected revenue from a new brand must justify the higher costs of marketing and advertising.
Advantages
Reduced corporate identity attached to a product allows brands to be positioned differently, so that product brand isn't connected with the company brand;
Each brand can use different marketing strategies;
Brand separation allows a wider variety of products of different quality to be offered: lower-quality products under their own brand will not weaken the image of higher-quality products;
Each brand can serve consumers in a different way, i.e. brands can work on different markets or appeal to different consumers aims, wishes and so-called 'pains';
The company's global reputation is not tied to products: the failure of one product will not affect the company's global reputation.
Disadvantages
Instability within a company can occur because of competition between its brands;
Multiple brands may divide the market and split efforts within one company;
Risk of undesired market cannibalism;
Brand creation incurs a high cost in marketing, advertising and sales promotion;
Launching new products as their own brand is higher risk: new brands lack acknowledgement and customer loyalty and need to find recognition.
Examples
Procter & Gamble
The American-based Procter & Gamble is the world's second largest FMCG company (2019). They have a portfolio of 65 brand overall, mostly in the domain of personal and household care. Examples of their brands include:
The company has the portfolio of the following categories:
Beauty & grooming: Always, Gilette, Head & Shoulders, Herbal Essences, Lacoste fragrances, Max Factor, Old Spice, Oral-B, Pantene, Tampax
Household care: Ace, Ambi Pur, Ariel, Lenor, Fairy Liquid, Pampers
In 2014, 21 brands had annual sales of $1 billion to about $10 billion, and 11 with sales of $500 million to $1 billion. The global annual sales of the company was $83 billion in 2014.
Unilever
The British-Dutch consumer goods company Unilever operates in 190 countries worldwide. The company has a portfolio that includes the following categories and brands:
Food and drink: Flora, Algida, Hellmann's, Knorr, Lipton, Magnum, Ben&Jerry's, Carte D'or, Cornetto, Cremissimo, I Can't Believe It's Not Butter, Rama, Bertolli
Home care: Domestos , Surf, Cajoline, Cif, Persil, Comfort
Personal care: Axe, Dove , Lux, Rexona, Signal,
Water purifier: Pureit
Of the company's 400 brands, 14 have a yearly profit of over €1 billion, while the global yearly turnover of the company was €48.4 billion in 2014.
See also
Branding strategies
Corporate branding
Umbrella brand
Brand architecture
Brand management
Marketing
References
Branding terminology
Brand management
Types of branding | [
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234194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positioning%20%28marketing%29 | Positioning (marketing) | Positioning refers to the place that a brand occupies in the minds of the customers and how it is distinguished from the products of the competitors and different from the concept of brand awareness. In order to position products or brands, companies may emphasize the distinguishing features of their brand (what it is, what it does and how, etc.) or they may try to create a suitable image (inexpensive or premium, utilitarian or luxurious, entry-level or high-end, etc.) through the marketing mix. Once a brand has achieved a strong position, it can become difficult to reposition it.
Positioning is one of the most powerful marketing concepts. Originally, positioning focused on the product and with Al Ries and Jack Trout grew to include building a product's reputation and ranking among competitor's products. Schaefer and Kuehlwein extend the concept beyond material and rational aspects to include 'meaning' carried by a brand's mission or myth. Primarily, positioning is about "the place a brand occupies in the mind of its target audience". Positioning is now a regular marketing activity or strategy. A national positioning strategy can often be used, or modified slightly, as a tool to accommodate entering into foreign markets.
The origins of the positioning concept are unclear. Scholars suggest that it may have emerged from the burgeoning advertising industry in the period following World War I, only to be codified and popularized in the 1950s and 60s. The positioning concept became very influential and continues to evolve in ways that ensure it remains current and relevant to practising marketers.
Definitions
David Ogilvy noted that while there was no real consensus as to the meaning of positioning among marketing experts, his definition is "what a product does, and who it is for". For instance, Dove has been successfully positioned as a bar of soap for women with dry hands, vs. a product for men with dirty hands.
Al Ries and Jack Trout advanced several definitions of positioning. In an article, Industrial Marketing, published in 1969, Jack Trout stated that positioning is a mental device used by consumers to simplify information inputs and store new information in a logical place. He said this is important because the typical consumer is overwhelmed with unwanted advertising, and has a natural tendency to discard all information that does not immediately find a comfortable (and empty) slot in their mind. In Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind, the duo expanded the definition as "an organized system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept that communication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances".
Positioning is closely related to the concept of perceived value. In marketing, value is defined as the difference between a prospective customer's evaluation of the benefits and costs of one product when compared with others. Value can be expressed in numerous forms including product benefits, features, style, value for money.
Origins
The precise origins of the positioning concept are unclear. Cano (2003), Schwartzkopf (2008), and others have argued that the concepts of market segmentation and positioning were central to the tacit knowledge that informed brand advertising from the 1920s, but did not become codified in marketing textbooks and journal articles until the 1950s and 60s.<ref>Cano, C., "The Recent Evolution of Market Segmentation Concepts and Thoughts Primarily by Marketing Academics," in E. Shaw (ed) The Romance of Marketing History, Proceedings of the 11th Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing (CHARM), Boca Ranton, FL, AHRIM, 2003</ref>
Al Ries and Jack Trout are often credited with developing the concept of product or brand positioning in the late-1960s with the publication of a series of articles, followed by a book. Ries and Trout, both former advertising executives, published articles about positioning in Industrial Marketing in 1969 and Advertising Age in 1972. By the early 1970s, positioning became a popular word with marketers, especially those in advertising and promotion. In 1981, Ries and Trout published their now-classic book, Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind. However, the claim that Ries and Trout devised the concept has been challenged by marketing scholars. According to Stephen A. Fox, Al Ries, and Jack Trout "resurrected the concept and made it their trademark."
Some scholars credit advertising guru, David Ogilvy, with developing the positioning concept in the mid-1950s, at least a decade before Ries and Trout published their now-classic series of articles. In their early writing, Ries and Trout suggest that the positioning concept was widely used in the advertising industry before the 1950s. Ogilvy's writings indicate that he was well aware of the concept and drilled his creative team with this idea from at least the 1950s. Among other things, Ogilvy wrote that "the most important decision is how to position your product", and "Every advertisement is part of the long-term investment in the personality of the brand." Ogilvy is on record as having used the positioning concept in several campaigns in the mid-1950s and early 1960s, well before Ries and Trout published their articles on the positioning. In relation to a Dove campaign launched in 1957, Ogilvy explained, "I could have positioned Dove as a detergent bar for men with dirty hands, but chose instead to position it as a toilet bar for women with dry skin. This is still working 25 years later." In relation to a SAAB campaign launched in 1961, Ogilvy later recalled that "In Norway, the SAAB car had no measurable profile. We positioned it as a car for winter. Three years later it was voted the best car for Norwegian winters."
Yet other scholars have suggested that the positioning concept may have much earlier heritage, attributing the concept to the work of advertising agencies in both the US and the UK in the first decades of the twentieth century. Cano, for example, has argued that marketing practitioners followed competitor-based approaches to both market segmentation and product positioning in the first decades of the twentieth century; long before these concepts were introduced into the marketing literature in the 1950s and 60s. From around 1920, American agency, J. Walter Thompson (JWT), began to focus on developing brand personality, brand image, and brand identity—concepts that are very closely related to positioning. Across the Atlantic, the English agency, W. S. Crawford's Ltd, began to use the concept of 'product personality' and the 'advertising idea' arguing that in order to stimulate sales and create a 'buying habit' advertising had to 'build a definitive association of ideas round the goods'. For example, in 1915 JWT acquired the advertising account for Lux soap. The agency suggested that the traditional positioning as a product for woolen garments should be broadened so that consumers would see it as a soap for use on all fine fabrics in the household. To implement, Lux was repositioned with a more up-market posture and began a long association with expensive clothing and high fashion. Cano has argued that the positioning strategy JWT used for Lux exhibited an insightful understanding of the way that consumers mentally construct brand images. JWT recognized that advertising effectively manipulated socially shared symbols. In the case of Lux, the brand disconnected from images of household drudgery and connected with images of leisure and fashion.
As advertising executives in their early careers, both Ries and Trout were exposed to the positioning concept via their work. Ries and Trout codified the tacit knowledge that was available in the advertising industry; popularizing the positioning concept with the publication of their articles and books. Ries and Trout were influential in diffusing the concept of positioning from the advertising community through to the broader marketing community. Their articles were to become highly influential. By the early 1970s, positioning became a popular word with marketers, especially those that were working in the area of advertising and promotion. In 1981 Ries and Trout published their classic book, Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind (McGraw-Hill 1981). The concept enjoys ongoing currency among both advertisers and marketers as suggested by Maggard who notes that positioning provides planners with a valuable conceptual vehicle, which is effectively used to make various strategy techniques more meaningful and more productive.
Several large brands – Lipton, Kraft, and Tide – developed "precisely worded" positioning statements that guided how products would be packaged, promoted, and advertised in the 1950s and 1960s. The article, "How Brands Were Born: A Brief History of Modern Marketing," states, "This marked the start of almost 50 years of marketing where 'winning' was determined by understanding the consumer better than competitors and getting the total 'brand mix' right. This early positioning tactic was focused on the product itself – its "form, package size, and price", according to Al Ries and Jack Trout
The positioning concept continues to evolve. Traditionally called product positioning, the concept was limited due to its focus on the product alone. In addition to the previous focus on the product, positioning now includes building a brand's reputation and competitive standing. John P. Maggard notes that positioning provides planners with a valuable conceptual vehicle for the implementation of more meaningful and productive marketing strategies. Many branding practitioners make positioning a part of brand strategy and even label it as "brand positioning". However, in the book Get to Aha! Discover Your Positioning DNA and Dominate Your Competition, Andy Cunningham proposes that branding is actually "derived from positioning; it is the emotional expression of positioning. Branding is the yang to positioning's yin, and when both pieces come together, you have a sense of the company's identity as a whole".
Developing the positioning statement
Positioning is part of the broader marketing strategy which includes three basic decision levels, namely segmentation, targeting and positioning, sometimes known as the S-T-P approach:
Segmentation: refers to the process of dividing a broad consumer or business market, normally consisting of existing and potential customers, into sub-groups of consumers (known as segments)
Targeting: refers to the selection of a segment or segments that will become the focus of special attention (known as target markets).
Positioning: refers to an overall strategy that "aims to make a brand occupy a distinct position, relative to competing brands, in the mind of the customer".
In general terms, there are three broad types of positioning: functional, symbolic, and experiential position. Functional positions resolve problems, provide benefits to customers, or get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders. Symbolic positions address self-image enhancement, ego identification, belongingness and social meaningfulness, and affective fulfillment. Experiential positions provide sensory and cognitive stimulation.
Positioning statement
Both theorists and practitioners argue that the positioning statement should be written in a format that includes an identification of the target market, the market need, the product name and category, the key benefit delivered and the basis of the product's differentiation from any competing alternatives. A basic template for writing positioning statements is as follows: "For (target customer) who (statement of the need or opportunity), the (product name) is a (product category) that (statement of key benefit – that is, compelling reason to buy). Unlike (primary competitive alternative), our product (statement of primary differentiation)." An annotated example of how this positioning statement might be translated for a specific application appears in the text-box that follows.
Notes: Annotations, added in square brackets, were not in the original positioning statement, but are included here to show how the general format and elements of positioning statements described in the preceding discussion, have been applied to the specific example, which in this case is Volvo.Differentiation vs positioning
Differentiation is closely related to the concept of positioning. Differentiation is how a company's product is unique, by being the first, least expensive, or some other distinguishing factor. A product or brand may have many points of difference, but they may not all be meaningful or relevant to the target market. Positioning is something (a perception) that happens in the minds of the target market whereas differentiation is something that marketers do, whether through product design, pricing or promotional activity.
Strategies
To be successful in a particular market a product must occupy an "explicit, distinct and proper place in the minds of all potential and existing consumers". It has to also be relative to other rival products with which the brand competes. This may require considerable research of customer perceptions and competitor activity in order to ensure that the points of difference are meaningful in the minds of customers. Perceptual mapping (discussed below) is often used for this type of research.
Visibility and recognition is what product positioning is all about as the positioning of a product is what the product represents for a buyer the business is targeting. As markets become increasingly competitive, buyer have more purchase choices, and the process of setting one brand apart from rival brands is critical success factor. It is vital that a product or service needs to have a clear identity and placement to the needs of the consumers targeted as they will not only purchase the product, but can warrant a larger margin for the company through increased added value.
A number of different positioning strategies have been cited in the marketing literature:
Perceptual mapping
To identify suitable positions that a company or brand might occupy in a given market, analysts often turn to techniques such as perceptual mapping or correspondence analysis. Perceptual maps are a diagrammatic representation of consumers' mental perceptions of the relative place various brands occupy within a category. Traditionally perceptual mapping selects two variables that are relevant to consumers (often, but not necessarily, price and quality) and then asks a sample of the market to explain where they would place various brands in terms of the two variables. Results are averaged across all respondents, and results are plotted on a graph to indicate how the average'' member of the population views the brand that make up a category and how each of the brands relates to other brands within the same category. While perceptual maps with two dimensions are common, multi-dimensional maps are also used. A key advantage of perceptual mapping is that it can identify gaps in the market which the firm may choose to 'own.'
Algorithms used in positioning analysis
The following statistical procedures have been found to be useful in carrying out positioning analysis:
Cluster analysis including overlapping clustering
Correspondence analysis
Conjoint analysis
Multidimensional scaling especially non-metric scaling (NMS)
Multivariate analysis
Repositioning
The right positioning strategy at the right time can help a brand build a powerful image in the mind of consumer(s). From time to time, the current positioning strategy fails to resonate. This could be due to new market entrants, changed customer preferences, structural change within the target market (such as ageing, segment creep) or simply that customers have forgotten about a brand and its position. When this happens, the company may need to consider a number of options:
* Strengthen current positioning: reinforce the concepts of features that led to customers adopting a favourable view in the first instance;
* Establish a new position: look for suitable niches where customers are underserviced and occupy that space;
* Reposition (or de-position): change the way customers think about the product or brand, usually through comparative advertising;
Repositioning involves a deliberate attempt to alter the way that consumers view a product or brand. Repositioning can be a high risk strategy, but sometimes there are few alternatives.
Fishbein and Rosenberg's attitude models indicate that it is possible for a business to influence and change the positioning of the brand by manipulating various factors that will affect a consumer's attitude. Research on persons' attitudes suggests that a brand's position in a prospective consumer's mind is likely to be determined by the "combined total of a number of product characteristics such as the price, quality, durability, reliability, colour, and flavour". The consumer places important weights on each of these product characteristics and it can be possible by using things such as promotional efforts to realign the weights of price, quality, durability, reliability, colour and flavour of which can then help adjust the position of a brand in the mind of the prospective consumer. Companies engaging in repositioning can choose to downplay some points of difference and emphasize others.
Repositioning a company
In volatile markets, it can be necessary – even urgent – to reposition an entire company, rather than just a product line or brand. When Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley suddenly shifted from investment to commercial banks, for example, the expectations of investors, employees, clients and regulators all needed to shift, and each company needed to influence how these perceptions changed. Doing so involves repositioning the entire firm. This is especially true of small and medium-sized firms, many of which often lack strong brands for individual product lines. In a prolonged recession, business approaches that were effective during healthy economies often become ineffective and it becomes necessary to change a firm's positioning. Upscale restaurants, for example, which previously flourished on expense account dinners and corporate events, may for the first time need to stress value as a sale tool.
Repositioning a company involves more than a marketing challenge. It involves making hard decisions about how a market is shifting and how a firm's competitors will react. Often these decisions must be made without the benefit of sufficient information, simply because the definition of "volatility" is that change becomes difficult or impossible to predict.
See also
Advertising management
Brand management
Brand community
Competitive advantage
Consumer behaviour
Customer engagement
Marketing management
Marketing strategy
Point of difference
Product management
Renamed products list
Right-time marketing
Strategic management
Advertising models
References
External Link
What is Positioning? In Hindi
Brand management
Marketing research
Marketing strategy
Market segmentation
Product management | [
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234196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant%20and%20Castle | Elephant and Castle | The Elephant and Castle is an area around a major road junction in London, England, in the London Borough of Southwark. The name also informally refers to much of Walworth and Newington, due to the proximity of the London Underground station of the same name. The name is derived from a local coaching inn. In the first half of the 20th century, because of its vitality, the area was known as "the Piccadilly of South London". In more recent years is now viewed as a part of central London given its location in Zone 1 on the London Underground.
"The Elephant", as locally abbreviated, consists of major traffic junctions connected by a short road called Elephant and Castle, the nascent part of the A3. Traffic runs to and from Kent along the A2 (New Kent Road and Old Kent Road), much of the south of England on the A3, to the West End via St George's Road, and to the City of London via London Road and Newington Causeway at the northern junction. Newington Butts and Walworth Road adjoin the southern junction. The whole junction forms part of the London Inner Ring Road and part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone.
The subterranean River Neckinger, which originates from the Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park area, flows east directly under the area towards St Saviour's Dock where it enters the Thames.
The area was significantly remodelled in the 1960s as part of the post-war reconstruction. A new and major wave of redevelopment was initiated in the late 2000s with the demolition of the brutalist Heygate Estate. The various phases of the project are due to last until the late 2020s. The demolition of the shopping centre and The Coronet started in early 2021.
The Elephant has two linked London Underground stations, on the Northern and Bakerloo lines, and a National Rail station served by limited Southeastern services and Thameslink suburban loop line services to Mitcham, Sutton and Wimbledon, and services to Kentish Town and St.Albans to Orpington or Sevenoaks via Catford.
Notable buildings and institutions
Skipton House, home of Public Health England; a large part of the London South Bank University campus; the London College of Communication (part of UAL), home to the Stanley Kubrick Archive; the Ministry of Sound nightclub; the Imperial War Museum, which sits in Geraldine Mary Harmsworth Park; the Michael Faraday Memorial; the Siobhan Davies Studios, an award-winning Victorian school conversion by Sarah Wigglesworth; West Square; the original Bakerloo Line depot; the Inner London Crown Court; the Revolving Doors Agency; the London School of Musical Theatre; the Baitul Aziz Islamic Cultural Centre, the Cinema Museum; and the Metropolitan Tabernacle. The Cuming Museum is nearby on Walworth Road. A K2 model phone box from 1927, designed by Giles Gilbert Scott and located on the southern side of the New Kent Road, which was moved a few metres and reinstalled at the entrance of Ash Avenue in 2021, is a Grade II listed structure since 1986.
Name
The name "Elephant and Castle" is derived from the name of a pub/coaching inn located at this major crossroad. The earliest surviving record of this name in relation to this area appears in the Court Leet Book of the Manor of Walworth, which met at "Elephant and Castle, Newington" on 21 March 1765.
Previously the site was occupied by a blacksmith and cutler – the crest of the Worshipful Company of Cutlers features an elephant with a castle (representing a howdah) on its back, which in turn was used because of the use of elephant ivory in handles; this association with the Cutlers is considered a far more likely explanation for the name.
The inn was rebuilt in 1816 and again in 1898, and the present Elephant & Castle pub, at the junction of New Kent Road and Newington Causeway, was part of 1960s comprehensive redevelopment.
Newington, which was the name of the village forming the basis to the neighbourhood before the inn's name took over, is a common place name in England. London quickly expanded into the northern parts of the parish from 1750 to 1830. By the end of the 19th century ten daughter parishes had arisen in Newington including its secondary manor, Walworth. No notable upper, lower, or hill parts of the ancient parish nor compass points have been used, so to locate businesses and homes without reference to traditional saints divisions, many people popularised the informal name, of the notable public house. Other instances in Inner London are 'Angel' at Islington and Bricklayers Arms at the east end of New Kent Road.
The myth of the infanta
The popular and enduring idea that the inn itself derives its name from an English corruption of the phrase "La Infanta de Castilla", as a reference to Eleanor of Castile, has been debunked by local historian Stephen Humphrey in his 2013 book Elephant and Castle, a History.
After examining how the image of an elephant with a castle on its back has been popular for centuries and throughout Europe (the earliest example predating Queen Eleanor by 1,500 years), and pointing out the fact that the sign only begins to be used in the area about 500 years after Eleanor was alive, he states: "The story of Queen Eleanor in relation to the Elephant and Castle is therefore a myth. It is wildly anachronistic both in respect of the sign in general and in its specific use in Newington, and she has no connection with the sign or with the place."
History
Medieval and early modern
Known previously as Newington (Newington Butts and Newington Causeway are two of the principal roads of the area), in the medieval period it was part of rural Surrey, in the manor of Walworth. This is listed in the Domesday Book as belonging to the Archbishop of Canterbury; the income from its rents and tithes supplied the monks at Christ Church Canterbury with their clothing, and a 'church' is mentioned. The parish was called St Mary, Newington, which church occupied the southwest side of today's southern roundabout, near the Tabernacle, and was first recorded by name in 1222.
In May 1557, William Morant, Stephen Gratwick and a man named King, known as the Southwark Martyrs, were burnt at the stake in St George's Field on the site of the present Tabernacle during the Marian Persecutions.
St Mary's Church was rebuilt in 1720 and completely replaced in 1790, to a design of Francis Hurlbatt. Within another hundred years this too was to be demolished, with its replacement on Kennington Park Road ready in 1876. It was destroyed by bombing in 1940 during the Second World War. The remains of the tower and an arch were incorporated into its replacement of 1958. The open space is still known as St Mary's Churchyard, and the narrow pedestrian walk at its south end is Churchyard Row.
There is record of a 'hospital' before the Reformation. In 1601 the Worshipful Company of Fishmongers erected St Peter's Hospital on the site of the present London College of Communication. This expanded and survived until 1850, when it was removed to Wandsworth. The Drapers' livery company created Walters' Almshouses on a site now at the southern junction island in 1640, giving the tower block opposite the name Draper House. The almshouses were relocated to Brandon Street in the 1960s as part of the major redevelopment.
Rise to metropolitan prominence (1750–1900)
The neighbourhood became urbanised and somewhat commercial after the building of Westminster Bridge in 1751 and the improvements to London Bridge in the same period. These required 'by-pass' roads across the south side approaches to each other and also to the main routes to the south and southeast coasts. These road improvements – Great Dover Street, Westminster Bridge, New Kent Road, St George's Road and Borough Road – connect to the older Kennington and Old Kent Roads to facilitate this traffic. In 1769 the new Blackfriars Bridge was connected to this system at what is now St George's Circus and Blackfriars Road (originally Great Surrey Road) and to the Elephant junction with the new London Road. As a result of these improvements, the area became a built-up part of the metropolis during the late Georgian and Victorian periods.
The railway arrived here in 1863 and the first deep-level tube line, now part of the Northern line's City Branch, in 1890. The Bakerloo line terminus was created in 1906. The middle-class and working-class populations increased, the first settling on the major roads, the latter on the streets behind these. The area declined socio-economically in much of the Walworth (south-east) side as work in London Docklands shifted further east and became more mechanised, and the regional-level railway yard work decreased (see Bricklayers Arms railway station).
In the 19th century the nationally famed Baptist preacher Charles Haddon Spurgeon built the Metropolitan Tabernacle here. The building, designed by William Willmer Pocock, was finished in 1861 and dedicated on 18 March. It was bombed in the bombing of London but the portico and basement survived. In 1957 the tabernacle was rebuilt to a new, much smaller design, accommodating surviving original features.
The Theatre Royal was built in 1872 and destroyed by fire only six years later. Renovations were initiated by Jethro Thomas Robinson after the fire, and completed by Frank Matcham, to what became the Elephant and Castle Theatre in 1879. The Theater was converted to an ABC cinema in 1928, and became The Coronet Cinema in 1981.
During the late 19th century there was a cemetery in the vicinity, but it was built over during London's rapid expansion. A few gravestones remain in St. Mary's Churchyard. At the north side of the churchyard, the church of St Gabriel's Newington was built in 1874 before being demolished in 1937 on what is now a walkway called St Gabriel Walk.
20th century
Peak years: 1900–1939
The area became the location for a thriving shopping area, known as "the Piccadilly (Circus) of South London", with its own department store (William Tarn and Co) and many smaller outlets. Also featured were a shoe factory, a branch of Burton and a renowned hatter.
In 1930, the Trocadero, a monumental neo-Renaissance style picture house seating over 3000 and fitted with the largest Wurlitzer organ imported to the United Kingdom, was built at the northern corner of the New Kent Road (a plaque commemorating the building was unveiled in 2008 by Denis Norden, who had worked there in his youth). This was replaced in 1966 by a smaller cinema (the Odeon, known for a time after closure as an Odeon in 1982 as the Coronet, not to be confused with the Coronet below) which was demolished in 1988.
In 1932, another cinema opened across the street, The Coronet. It is now mostly used as a night-club and concert venue. At the time it seated over 2000 people, and was an art-deco conversion of the Elephant and Castle theatre, opened in 1879 on the site of the short-lived Theatre Royal (built in 1872 and burnt down six years later). It was reconstructed in 1882 and again in 1902.
One monument to cinema still remains just off the Elephant, the Cinema Museum is a volunteer-run museum with screenings of classic cinema and a vast collection of cinema memorabilia. It is located in the old workhouse where Charlie Chaplin spent time as a child.
Second World War
The Elephant was the centre of the target zone for the German air raids on London on 10 May 1941 and suffered "raging fires".
Post-war rebuilding (1945–2000)
The major development of the 1960s consisted of post-war reconstruction to a larger metropolitan plan, much of it replacing properties destroyed by bombing in World War II and creating two infamous roundabouts,
The Metropolitan Tabernacle was reconstructed behind its preserved classical facade to a smaller scale than the original. Alexander Fleming House (1959), originally a group of government office blocks and now Metro Central Heights residential complex, is a prime example of the work of the Hungarian modernist architect Ernő Goldfinger.
The shopping centre, designed by Boissevain & Osmond for the Willets Group, was opened in March 1965. It was the first covered shopping mall in Europe, with 120 shops on three levels and a two-storey underground car-park. In the sales brochure (1963), Willets claimed it to be the "largest and most ambitious shopping venture ever to be embarked upon in London. In design planning and vision it represents an entirely new approach to retailing, setting standards for the sixties that will revolutionise shopping concepts throughout Britain." When it opened, budget restrictions meant that the proportions and finishes of the building had had to be scaled down and only 29 out of a possible 120 shops were trading. The demolition of the shopping centre and The Coronet started in early 2021.
The Elephant is the location of the London College of Communication, formerly the London College of Printing, an internationally renowned dedicated college, part of University of the Arts London. The present structure was constructed during the redevelopment of the area in the early 1960s. It is slated for demolition in the mid 2020s, when the college is due to move to a new campus being built on the site of the Coronet Theatre.
In 1974 the Brutalist Heygate Estate, designed by Tim Tinker, was completed. It was home to more than 3,000 people. The estate was once a popular place to live, the flats being thought light and spacious, but the estate later developed a reputation for crime, poverty and dilapidation. It was demolished in the 2010s and replaced with the Elephant Park development, which, the developer claimed, includes "the largest new green space to be created in London for 70 years."
Perronet House, an award-winning residential block owned by Southwark Council, was designed by Sir Roger Walters. It was completed in 1970 and extended in 1987.
At the south of the area, stood Castle House (an office building now replaced by Strata SE1), which was part of the Draper Estaste. When Draper House, which still exists, was built in 1964, with its 25 floors, it was the tallest structure in London. The design was by Hubert Bennett of the London City Council's (LCC's) Architects Department and inspired by Le Corbusier. Well regarded at the time, the building was featured in Architecture Review which said it, ‘sets a standard of clarity and vigour’.
21st century: regeneration
In recent times the area has had a reputation for successful ethnic diversity and centrality. The area's proximity to major areas of employment, including Westminster, the West End and the City, has meant that a certain amount of gentrification has taken place.
From the mid-2000s, the area became the subject to a master-planned redevelopment budgeted at £1.5 billion. A Development Framework was approved by Southwark Council in 2004. It covers 170 acres (688,000 m2) and envisages restoring the Elephant to the role of major urban hub for inner London that it occupied before World War II.
A substantial amount of post-World War II social housing that was claimed to have failed by the Council has been demolished, including the Heygate Estate, replaced with developments consisting of a mix of social and private-sector housing and a green space, Elephant Park, part of rebranding the whole development. This portion of the site is being developed by Lendlease. There have also been moves to protect the last of the architecturally important tenement blocks nearby through the creation of a conservation area covering the Pullens buildings.
Locally, tall, mainly residential buildings have been approved or are under construction since the 148-metre Strata SE1 tower was completed in 2010. These include:
One The Elephant (124m)
Highpoint a residential build-to-rent building (134m), which also includes affordable housing, Council housing, a café and a theatre space leased to the Southwark Playhouse.
"Two Fifty One" Southwark Bridge Road (134m)
"Elephant Central" (three high-rise buildings on a shared podium).
Southwark Council opened the new Castle leisure centre in 2016. This replaced the original Castle centre, which closed in 2012.
In 2015, the new owners of the shopping centre, Delancey, announced redevelopment plans for a new "town centre", which is due to be completed by the mid-2020s. The project is in two phases. The first aims to replace the existing shopping centre and the Coronet Theatre, and comprise:
a new campus building for the nearby London College of Communication (LCC)
a cinema
retail units and housing.
a new underground station entrance, though funding is currently uncertain.
Once the first phase is completed, the current site of the LCC is to be redeveloped to host residential towers and a live-music venue.
In February 2014, a small shipper-container precinct on three levels, inspired by the Boxpark concept, was put together at the corner of the Walworth Road and Elephant Road. Baptised The Artworks, the venue hosted small start-up businesses and a library. The project was closed and demolished in 2019.
London's Latin American population, prominent from this zone to Stockwell, has been an inspiration to aspects of the regeneration. Plans are being made for shops and artwork to emphasise a Latin American corridor.
In December 2018, it was announced that London Mayor Sadiq Khan had approved redevelopment plans, and that Southwark Council had too, after changes to proposals to ensure more windows in the shopping centre, 350 out of 1000 homes for rent at "genuinely affordable levels" and for traders in the current centre with rents capped for 15 years. A judicial review of the decision was finally lost by campaigners in May 2021.
In January 2020, a closure date was set for the centre of 30 July 2020. The closure date was postponed to 24 September 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The centre will be redeveloped despite public opposition. Demolition of the shopping centre, Hannibal House and the Coronet theatre started in January 2021.
Transport
London Underground
Elephant & Castle tube station serves the area.
The station is served by Northern line trains on the Bank branch, linking the area directly to the City, and destinations such as London Bridge, King's Cross St Pancras, and Camden Town to the north. Southbound trains travel towards Morden via key destinations such as Kennington, Clapham, and South Wimbledon and Battersea following the opening of the line's extension from Kennington as of the Autumn of 2021.
The station is the southern terminus of the Bakerloo line, which runs northbound to Harrow and Wealdstone. The line links the area to Waterloo, the West End, Paddington, Willesden, and Wembley Central along the way.
The station is on the boundary between London fare zones 1 and 2.
Transport for London (TfL) is proposing to extend the Bakerloo line southwards from Elephant & Castle to Lewisham. The line would run beneath Old Kent Road.
National Rail
Elephant & Castle railway station is served by Southeastern and Thameslink trains (More so by Thameslink services), which serve destinations across London, the South East, and East England. Key destinations include Ashford International, Bedford, Dover Priory, London Blackfriars (in the city), Luton and Luton Airport (), St Albans City, St Pancras International, Sutton, and Wimbledon.
The station is on the boundary between London fare zones 1 and 2.
Buses
Elephant & Castle is served by London Buses routes 1, 12, 35, 40, 45, 53, 63, 68, 133, 136, 148, 155, 168, 171, 172, 176, 188, 196, 333, 343, 344, 360, 363, 388, 415, 453, 468, C10, P5, N1, N35, N63, N68, N89, N133, N155, N171 and N343.
Cycling
TfL and the London Borough of Southwark maintain cycling infrastructure in the area.
In 2014 the northern junction was "Britain’s highest cycle casualty roundabout".
Elephant and Castle is the southern terminus of Cycleway 6, which runs northwards to Blackfriars, Farringdon, Bloomsbury, and King's Cross. The cycleway runs unbroken and signposted along the entirety of its route. The section between Elephant and Castle and Farringdon runs along traffic-free bike freeway. The northern terminus of C6 is in Kentish Town.
Cycle Superhighway 7 passes north–south through Elephant and Castle. The route is signposted and carries cyclists from Elephant and Castle northbound to the city, via Southwark Bridge. Southbound, the route runs without interruption to Collier's Wood, via Kennington, Stockwell, Clapham, and Tooting.
A shared-use path for pedestrians and cyclists runs alongside New Kent Road east from Elephant and Castle, which links the area to the nearby Bricklayer's Arms.
The Santander Cycles bicycle-sharing system operates in Elephant and Castle.
Road
Elephant and Castle is a busy road junction. The London Inner Ring Road passes through the junction. The A3 also passes through the junction, which carries traffic between the city and destinations such as Kennington, Clapham, Gatwick Airport (), and Portsmouth.
Air pollution from road traffic in Elephant and Castle has significantly improved in recent years. In 2015, Elephant and Castle exceeded the UK government legal limit on Nitrogen Dioxide, with the local borough recording an annual mean concentration of 41 micrograms per cubic metre (μg/m^3). In 2017, this figure was 34μg/m^3, below the legal limit, and in 2018, the figure was 32μg/m^3. The limit set by the Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs is 40μg/m^3.
The Elephant was to have been served by the Cross-River Tram, which was cancelled in 2008 due to budgetary constraints.
In 2010, the southern roundabout was converted to traffic light operation, with the creation of new cycle lanes and pedestrian crossings. This included the removal of the pedestrian subways, described as "unpopular and imtimidating" by a local councillor.
In 2014 the Elephant & Castle junction was still "Britain’s highest cycle casualty roundabout", prompting a TfL proposal to remove the northern roundabout as part of a £4bn package of road improvements targeting cyclists' safety. TfL implemented its proposal in 2015, connecting the roundabout island to the shopping centre, thereby creating a new public space called Elephant Square.
Notable residents
Playwright and associate of Shakespeare Thomas Middleton lived in the area in later life and was buried in St Mary's Churchyard when he died in 1627.
The Forty Elephants or Forty Thieves were an 18th to 20th century all-female London crime syndicate who specialised in shoplifting. They operated from the Elephant and Castle and were allied to the Elephant and Castle Mob led by the McDonald brothers. Shirley Pitts was "educated" by the gang, while Alice Diamond was one of its leaders, in the first half of the 20th century.
Fanny Blood, a friend of Mary Wollstonecraft's, met in 1775, lived in Newington Butt. In 1777, Wollstonecraft persuaded her family to move to Walworth. She soon became a lodger of philosopher Thomas Taylor and his family, in Manor Place. Taylor became her tutor and by 1778, she was working as a paid companion for him. She moved in with the Blood family in 1782.
The mathematician Charles Babbage was born in Walworth in 1791 and was baptised at St Mary's Newington. The family lived at 44 Crosby Row, which is now called Larcom Street. A blue plaque is visible at the corner of Larcom Street and Walworth Road.
In the middle of Elephant Square, is the Michael Faraday Memorial, a large stainless steel box built in honour of Michael Faraday, who was born nearby in 1791. It contains an electrical substation for the Northern line. Alternative DJ Aphex Twin has long been rumoured to have lived for some time inside the monument, although this story has been debunked. He is also rumoured to have lived in a disused bank building on Newington Causeway (now demolished) in the 1990s.
Elhanan Bicknell was a businessman and shipowner. He became one of the leading collectors of contemporary British art. Around 1809, he entered into partnership with his uncle John Walter Langton who was a tallow chandler at Newington Butts. The firm, which was located opposite St Mary's Church, become the leading oil merchants and spermaceti refiners in London by 1835. A friend and close business associate there at Newington Butts was fellow oil merchant and shipowner, Thomas Sturge, who was also a cement manufacturer, railway company director, social reformer and philanthropist. Thomas Sturge the elder had founded what was to become Thomas Sturge & Sons in the early 1780s. The business remained there until the 1840s.
The inventor of the periodic table, John Newlands, was born on 26 November 1837, in West Square, just behind the Bethlem Hospital, which now houses the Imperial War Museum.
On 18 March 1861, renowned Particular Baptist preacher Charles Spurgeon moved his congregation to the newly constructed purpose-built Metropolitan Tabernacle, which seated 5,000 people with standing room for another 1,000. It was the largest church edifice of its day. Spurgeon remained in charge of the church until his death in 1892.
Liberal politician, banker and City merchant James Daniel Gilbert was born on 5 February 1864 and subsequently brought up in the ward of West Newington, which he later came to represent at the London County Council.
Communist militant and trade union leader Jack Dash was born in Southwark on 23 February 1907, and grew up on Rockingham Street.
Gangster "Mad" Frankie Fraser was born on Cornwall Road in Waterloo, London. At the age of five, he moved with his family to a flat on the Walworth Road.
Actor Tod Slaughter took over the Elephant and Castle Theatre from 1924 until several months before its closure in 1927. His company revived Victorian "blood-and-thunder" melodramas to enthusiastic audiences. Slaughter also staged other types of production such as the annual Christmas pantomime, where he would cast prominent local personalities in bit-parts for audience recognition.
By at least 1924, Barbadian-born physician, Pan-Africanist and co-founders of the League of Coloured Peoples Cecil Belfield Clarke practised at 112 Newington Causeway, as he would do for the rest of his professional career. He may have practised there as early as 1920.
English comedian, actor, writer and singer Charlie Drake was born there on 19 June 1925.
On 17 January 1932, agriculturalist and Labour Co-operative politician Denis Carter was born in Elephant and Castle, where his parents, Albert and Annie Carter, worked in a tea warehouse and as an office cleaner, respectively.
Speedway rider George Barclay was born in Elephant on 1 April 1935.
Actor Alan Ford, who was born in Camberwell on 23 February 1938, grew up on the area.
Rock singer Terry Dene was born in Lancaster Street on 20 December 1938.
Actor Windsor Davies taught English and Maths at a school in Elephant and Castle.
Journalist and war correspondent David Blundy grew up near Elephant and Castle in a house that was also the location of his father's antique store.
DJ, club promoter and music producer Jeff Dexter was born 15 August 1946 in Lambeth Hospital and grew up in Newington Butts, moving to Camberwell Road when he was ten years old.
In 1956, Austin Osman Spare moved to a flat situated above the loading bay of a Woolworth's store at 56a Walworth Road. Aged 17, in May 1904, he had held his first public art exhibition in the foyer of the Newington Public Library on the same road.
Charlie Chaplin and Michael Caine, who were born and grew up locally.
Charlie Mullins OBE, the founder of Pimlico Plumbers, was born 28 October 1952 and grew up on the Rockingham Estate.
Footballer Tommy Langley was born in Elephant on 8 February 1958.
In December 1962, John Major started work at the London Electricity Board.
Actress and television presenter Lisa Maxwell was born in the area on 24 November 1963, where she was raised by her single mother and her grandparents.
Trade Unionist Steve Turner grew up on the now demolished Heygate Estate.
Irish writer and novelist Darren O'Shaughnessy, who was born in 1972, spent the first six years of life in Elephant, going to the English Martyrs' RC Primary School from the age of three.
Actress Nicola Stapleton was born in Elephant on 9 August 1974, grew up near East Street and attended Townsend Primary School.
In 1975, in his mid-twenties, gay American artist and writer Philip Core settled permanently in London, living in a flat in Elephant and Castle that was painted completely black.
Rapper Jahaziel was born on 26 July 1976 and was raised in the area.
In 1979, David Bruce started his first Firkin Brewery brewpub in Elephant and Castle.
During the 1980s, Mark Ashton lived in a council flat in Claydon House on the Heygate Estate, which is where he formed with his friend Mike Jackson the group Lesbians and Gays Support the Miners in 1984.
Horse racing announcer Mark Johnson attended the then London College of Printing, receiving a bachelor's degree in television, film, and theatre studies, and a postgraduate diploma in radio journalism.
Joy Crookes was born in the Lambeth district of South London on 9 October 1998 and grew up in the area of Elephant and Castle, where she spent eight years at a Catholic state primary school.
In October 2004, Richard Reynolds, a then resident of Perronet House, launched GuerrillaGardening.org as a record of his solo attempts at guerrilla gardening. The site launched the trend in the UK and world.
Gay rights activist Peter Tatchell lives on the Rockingham Estate, where the Council installed a blue plaque in his name in 2010.
In 2012, Anglican priest, journalist and broadcaster, Giles Fraser became the priest-in-charge at St Mary's, Newington.
Arsenal footballer Reiss Nelson was born in Elephant and Castle.
Circuit Judge Sir (Anthony) Mark David Havelock-Allan, 5th Baronet, QC, FCIArb, lives in the area with his second wife Alison née Foster, whom he married 1986.
Academic, author, and broadcaster Kieran Maguire was born in the Elephant and Castle to Irish parents.
Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Fanny Cornforth, who apparently took her nickname "elephant" from the place, as well as Elizabeth Siddal, Samuel Palmer, George Tinworth, Robert Browning, Sarah Wardroper and Octavia Hill are also thoughts to have lived in the area.
In popular culture
A "Fancy Toy Dog Show" is held at Elephant and Castle in 1834.
On 19 October 1856, during the first sermon by Charles Spurgeon at the Surrey Music Hall, seven were killed in a stampede and many injured.
Don John of Seville, a blank verse work by Edgardo Colona was first performed at the Elephant and Castle Theatre in 1876.
In the early scenes of the 1944 musical film Champagne Charlie, the hero Joe Saunders and his brother Fred arrive in London from Kent, and go to the Elephant and Castle pub, the haunt of Tom Sayers, a leading boxer. While his brother, an aspiring boxer, is having a trial bout with Sayers, Joe Saunders is persuaded to sing a song to entertain the bar's customers.
On 26 October 1932, the BBC's home service broadcast a performance by Quentin Maclean from the organ of the Trocadero cinema. Maclean had been Chief Organist there since 1930.
In 1949, R.C. Hutchinson published Elephant and Castle: A Reconstruction, a fictionalised account of his investigation into a murder that took place in the area in 1938.
Photographer Bert Hardy's documentary series on the area was published in Picture Post magazine, under the title 'Scenes From The Elephant' on 8 January 1949. They depicted everyday life in the area.
There is a short film, from 1953, about the demise of London's trams, entitled The Elephant Never Forgets. The elephant shown alongside the title is the model elephant from the Elephant and Castle. Although trams ran across all of London, the film focuses on south London.
The music video for the 1982 song Come on Eileen by the Dexys Midnight Runners was filmed on Brook Drive and Hayles Street, then known as Austral Street and Holyoak Road.
Hannibal House was the location for the influential Macpherson Inquiry into the murder of Stephen Lawrence, ordered in 1997, and of the inquiry into the Murder of Victoria Climbié in 2001.
On Christmas 2002, performance artist Mark McGowan rolled along the pavement from the Elephant and Castle to Gallery 1,000,000 mph in Bethnal Green Road, a distance of four and a half miles, wearing yellow rubber marigold cleaning gloves and singing We Wish You A Merry Christmas. He did this in an attempt to "get people to be kind and polite to cleaners for Christmas", inspired by a time he'd worked as a cleaner and hadn't received a kind comment or a thank you.
Scenes for the 2002 BBC sitcom 15 Storeys High were filmed in the shopping centre, featuring notably the bowling alley and the Sundial restaurant.
A lead character of the 2003 BBC sitcom The Crouches, Natalie, played by Jo Martin, managed Poundkickers, a discount store in the Elephant and Castle Shopping Centre, where she longs for some sophistication in her life.
The Walworth Farce is a 2006 play by Enda Walsh set in a council flat on the Walworth Road.
In December 2007 Hollywood actress Daryl Hannah made a surprise visit to Perronet House. Her arrival made the front page of the South London Press. See a scan of the article here
Several scenes of the 2007 music video by David Guetta and The Egg Love Don't Let Me Go (Walking Away) are shot in the Heygate Estate, featuring parkour performances by Daniel Ilabaca.
Some of contemporary artist and ornithologist Marcus Coates' work has focused on housing in Elephant and Castle, including a film (Vision Quest – a Ritual for Elephant & Castle) and an on-stage trance in 2009.
On 24 May 2011, Barack Obama drove through the junction in the Beast on his way to visiting the Ark Globe Academy on Harper Road, with David Cameron.
In 2011/2012 social documentary photographer and university lecturer Paul Reas completed From a Distance, a year-long commission on the regeneration of the Elephant and Castle in part of The Elephant Vanishes project, directed by Patrick Sutherland, for London College of Communication. He photographed people candidly, showing fraught and tense emotions (with the aid of an assistant with a boom mounted flashgun); portraits; cans of incense intended to provide help under specific social pressures; and discarded furniture. The photographs were exhibited in 2012 and published by Photography and the Archive Research Centre (PARC) in Fieldstudy 16: From a Distance.
Despite some general opposition from residents to the estate being used as a dystopian backdrop on film, scenes for the 2011 British science fiction comedy horror film Attack the Block, and for 2013 American action horror film World War Z were shot on the Heygate Estate.
Some of the interior and exterior scenes of the 2013 British action thriller film Welcome to the Punch were filmed at London College of Communication in Elephant and Castle in August 2011.
The rock band The Maccabees, who has its studio nearby, released its 4th album, Marks to Prove It, on 31 July 2015, which pays tribute to the area.
Part of the action of the 2012 post-apocalypse novel Ice Diaries by Lexi Revellian, published by Hoxton Press, is set in Strata SE1.
Teddy is a 2015 musical set in the Elephant and Castle in London in 1956.
The area gives its name to a 2017 screenplay by gay writer Samuel Bernstein. Elephant and Castle is also the name of the EastEnders-style soap opera starring the hero of the story. The screenplay won awards and citations at The British Independent Film Festival, the London Independent Film Awards and the New York International Screenplay Awards.
The images on both sides of Aphex Twin's 2005 record Analord 11 feature the Michael Faraday Memorial. In 2018, The artist also used stealth marketing to trail the release of his latest album by posting a logo associated with him in the corridors of the Tube Station.
Scenes from the 2019 music video for the song London Mine, by local girl Joy Crookes, were shot in the shopping centre, and around the area, including the Walworth Road and Wansey Street.
Gallery
See also
Elephant and Castle Pub and Restaurant, a restaurant chain in North America named after this area in London
Cultural depictions of elephants
Éléphant de la Bastille
Elephantine Colossus
Lucy the Elephant
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Elephant and Castle regeneration masterplan
Elephant and Castle Town Centre - redevelopment of the shopping centre site
Elephant and Castle Roundabout "Making a Space a Place" - campaigning site against the changes in the road layout.
Areas of London
Buildings and structures in the London Borough of Southwark
Districts of the London Borough of Southwark
London South Bank University
Redevelopment projects in London
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234198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portfolio | Portfolio | Portfolio may refer to:
Objects
Portfolio (briefcase), a type of briefcase
Collections
Portfolio (finance), a collection of assets held by an institution or a private individual
Artist's portfolio, a sample of an artist's work or a case used to display artwork, photographs etc.
Career portfolio, an organized presentation of an individual's education, work samples, and skills
Electronic portfolio, a collection of electronic documents
IT portfolio, in IT portfolio management, the portfolio of large classes of items of enterprise Information Technology
Patent portfolio, a collection of patents owned by a single entity
Project portfolio, in project portfolio management, the portfolio of projects in an organization
Ministry (government department), the post and responsibilities of a head of a government department
Computing
Atari Portfolio, a palmtop computer
Extensis Portfolio, a digital asset manager
Media
The Portfolio, a British fine arts magazine published from 1870 to 1893
Portfolio Magazine, an American fine arts magazine published from 1979 to 1983
Portfolio (Grace Jones album)
Portfolio (Yolandita Monge album)
Portfolio.com, a business magazine
Portfolio: An Intercontinental Quarterly, a cross-disciplinary literary journal published between 1945 and 1947
Portfolio, 1949 graphic design magazine by Alexey Brodovitch
Portfolio (publisher), a business imprint of Penguin Group in the United States
People
Almerindo Portfolio (1878–1966), businessman and New York City Treasurer
See also
B.C.G. Analysis
Minister without portfolio
Port Folio (disambiguation)
Portfolio company
Portfolio investment
Portfolio management (disambiguation) | [
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234201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Five | Big Five | Big Five may refer to:
Animals
the Big Five, large African wild animals said to be most difficult to hunt: lion, leopard, rhinoceros, elephant and Cape buffalo
Big Five animals of the Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India: Indian rhinoceros, Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, swamp deer and wild water buffalo
the Big Five fish UK consumers overwhelmingly eat: Atlantic cod, haddock, Atlantic salmon, tuna and prawns.
Arts and entertainment
Big Five (Eurovision), the five main sponsoring countries of the Eurovision Song Contest: Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the UK
Big Five Academy Awards, the five main award categories
Big Five (orchestras), the traditional top five orchestras of the United States
Big Five (Yu-Gi-Oh!), a group of fictional characters in the Yu-Gi-Oh! universe
The Big Five ITV companies in the 1980s: Thames, LWT, Central, Granada and Yorkshire
Big Five (publishers) in English-language book publishing: Hachette, Holtzbrinck Publishing Group/Macmillan, Penguin Random House, HarperCollins and Simon & Schuster
Toho's Big Five Kaiju: Godzilla, Mothra, King Ghidorah, Rodan and Mechagodzilla
Big Five (album), a 1972 album by Prince Buster
Big Five, the national performing arts companies of Scotland
The Five (composers), also known as the Mighty Handful, group of 19th century Russian composers
Business
Big Five (banks), the five largest banks in Canada
Big Five (Hawaii), an oligarchy of five corporations that ruled over Hawaii
Big Five (technology companies), a name given to Big Tech companies in the 2010s (Alphabet (Google), Amazon, Apple, Meta (Facebook), and Microsoft)
Big Five auditors, a group of accounting firms that have since been reduced to the Big Four
Big Five auto shows: Detroit, Frankfurt, Geneva, Paris, Tokyo
Big Five law firms, the five largest law firms of South Africa
Big Five Software, 1980s game developer
Big 5 Sporting Goods, a publicly traded (NASDAQ) sporting goods company
Government and politics
Big Five (California politics), an informal institution of California's government
Big Five (Germany), the five major metropolitan regions in Germany
Big Five of Bayview, a group of political activists in the Bayview-Hunters Point neighborhood of San Francisco
A colloquial name to refer to the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (United States, United Kingdom, France, China, Russia), or the five leading powers of the preceding League of Nations (United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy, Japan)
Sports
Big Five (Argentine football), the leading teams of Argentine football
"Big Five" or Power Five conferences, a group of U.S. college sports conferences that are larger than the other "Group of Five conferences"
Big Five Conference, a name used by the Athletic Association of Western Universities, now known as the Pac-12 Conference, from 1959 to 1962
Philadelphia Big 5, an association of college athletic programs in and near Philadelphia, mostly referencing the men's basketball programs of said schools
Science and technology
Big5, a character encoding method for Traditional Chinese characters
Big Five personality traits, a theoretical construct which describes human personality as organized along five dimensions or factors
Big Five Weapons, five biological weapons developed by the United States Army
The five major extinction events since life on Earth began
The big five subsystems of second order arithmetic in reverse mathematics
Rule of big 5, an expansion of the rule of three in C++11
Other uses
Five Families, a group of crime families in New York, United States
Oceanic Big 5, a project for cleaning up the oceans
See also
Big One (disambiguation)
Big Two (disambiguation)
Big Three (disambiguation)
Big Four (disambiguation)
Big Six (disambiguation)
Big Seven (disambiguation)
Big Eight (disambiguation)
Big Ten (disambiguation)
Big 12
Big 16 | [
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234203 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Kent%20Road | New Kent Road | New Kent Road is a road in the London Borough of Southwark. The road was created in 1751 when the Turnpike Trust upgraded a local footpath. This was done as part of the general road improvements associated with the creation of Westminster Bridge; in effect it was possible to travel from the West End/ Westminster to the south-east without having to go via the Borough of Southwark but could now cross St George's Fields to the junction of Newington Causeway and Newington Butts which is where New Kent Road starts at Elephant and Castle. The route runs eastward for a few hundred yards to the junction of Great Dover Street and Tower Bridge Road, known as Bricklayers Arms, where it joins the original route to the south-east Old Kent Road (the A2).
The road forms part of the London Inner Ring Road and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone. New Kent Road is designated the A201 which, to the north-west past the Elephant and Castle, becomes London Road.
In 1878, historian Edward Walford noted that the New Kent Road was formerly named Greenwich Road, and explained that "[it] is a broad and open roadway; it has been lately planted on either side with trees, so that in course of time it will doubtless form a splendid boulevard, of the Parisian type, and one worthy of being copied in many other parts of London."
The 1955 Survey of London still maintained that "[the] road also has a spaciousness lacking in many of its 19th-century counterparts, for the 1751 Act stipulated that the road should be not less than wide and many of the older houses still retain their front gardens." Just a few older houses still remain, mostly on the south side.
South side
Shopping Centre and around
The southern side of New Kent Road starts at the site of the former Elephant and Castle Shopping Centre, built in the 1960s and often cited as London's ugliest building and demolished in 2021.
The 1955 Survey of London reports that 16–18 New Kent Road, part of the current site of the Shopping Centre, was "the auction yard for horses, ponies and vehicles known as the London (Elephant and Castle) Repository."
At 26 New Kent Road, a pub attached to the Shopping Centre was named after a famous local ex-resident Charlie Chaplin. It is said that Chaplin had a martini at the pub during a visit to the area in the 1950s. It closed in 2018 and was demolished in 2020.
Until it closed in 2018 The Coronet club and music venue stood at 28 New Kent Road. The site was first occupied by the Theatre Royal, built in 1872 and destroyed by fire only six years later. Rebuilt as the Elephant and Castle Theatre in 1879, Charlie Chaplin performed there. It was converted to an ABC cinema in 1928. After several more name changes, it became the Coronet Cinema in 1981. The Coronet Cinema closed down in 1999, leaving the Elephant and Castle area with no cinemas.
Elephant Road is a short road that connects New Kent Road with the Walworth Road. The railway arches on the west side house businesses including a bike shop, Corsica Studios art space and several businesses selling Latin American goods.
Elephant Road to Rodney Place
East of the railway bridge is the site of the large Elephant Park complex of businesses and residential units which is still under construction. It is being developed by Oakmayne Properties who also built the nearby South Central East residential building on Walworth Road. The site of Oakmayne Plaza was formerly occupied by UK's largest used Volvo showroom and the Elephant Road Industrial Estate. From Elephant Road to Rodney Place previously stood the Heygate Estate
In the summer of 2008, a high sculpture of a stag by Ben Long was erected on the Oakmayne Plaza site. It was constructed from scaffolding materials, and after a few months was dismantled and reformed into a new structure on a new site.
Multi-coloured spherical lights in the trees were installed in 2005 by the Elephant Impacts project. The project has repainted and added feature lighting to a number of bridges and buildings in the area, including the adjoining railway bridges on Walworth Road and Newington Causeway, and to London College of Communication and the Metropolitan Tabernacle. Proposed feature lighting at Metro Central Heights was abandoned when residents feared it would cause light pollution.
Crossway United Reformed Church was the last part of the Heygate Estate that remained standing, until it closed in 2017 and was relocated to a new building nearby. The Two Caryatids sculpture by Henry Poole, originally created in 1897 for the old Rotherhithe Public Library, stood in a locked garden behind the church for many years, but was removed in 2009
Beyond Rodney Place
At 128 New Kent Road, Watling House is a new development of flats managed by the Landmark Housing Association.
The distinctive Baroque style building at 172–180 is Driscoll House. It was originally built as a women's hostel in 1913 and became a hostel primarily aimed at international students, until it closed in 2007. It reopened as Restup London in 2012, extensively refurbished but with some of the distinctive tiled interiors of Driscoll House still intact.
There is a small green space next to Driscoll House, and beyond Searles Road there is a larger one called Paragon Gardens, named after the building erected on the site in 1787, designed by Michael Searles the Surveyor of the Rolls Estate. It was demolished in the 1890s when the road was widened and replaced with more modest housing — on Searles Road — and the Paragon School for Girls and Boys, later under the ILEA (Inner London Education Authority) Paragon Secondary Boys' School with Sixth Form. The school closed in 1988 and was for a number of years run by Southwark Council as a centre for Evening Classes and art studios before finally being sold for private development and converted into a residential building named The Paragon.
North side
Metro Central Heights to Falmouth Road
The first few hundred yards of New Kent Road consist of the Elephant and Castle pub and the Metro Central Heights residential block, although both premises have addresses on Newington Causeway, not New Kent Road. A plaque next to the Metro Central Heights convenience store explains that this was previously the site of the Trocadero Cinema at 1–17 New Kent Road, which closed in 1963.
Beyond the railway bridge stands Albert Barnes House, an 18-storey block of council flats owned by the London Borough of Southwark. From 1883 to 1886, this was the site of a fish and provisions market promoted by Samuel Plimsoll.
Albert Barnes House was completed in 1964 and contains 99 flats. There was a serious fire in Albert Barnes House in the early hours of 30 January 2007 and all 250 residents were evacuated. One flat was gutted, and another seriously damaged
At Meadow Row stands St Matthews at the Elephant, a contemporary Anglican church and community centre built in 1993 on a site near to the old St Matthew's church (Southwark Holy Trinity and St Matthew) which was demolished in 1992. The church has particularly good acoustics and hosts musical performances as well as community events and services. The main building is built low, with the separate minimalist iron spire at the street entrance suggesting old and new-style church architecture simultaneously. It includes some rented flats.
83 New Kent Road is a residence for students at the nearby London South Bank University, with 81 students living in shared flats.
Falmouth Road junction
The small Falmouth Road Park opened in March 2006. The bench is made from timber from a London plane tree that once stood on the Tower of London Wharf, and originally featured designs created by local children, although these have now worn away with use.
Next to the park, Tavern Court at number 95 is a six-storey shared-ownership residential building managed by Family Mosaic Housing Association, and which opened in 2005. The site was previously occupied by the County Terrace Tavern, a pub that was built in 1811. At the Old Bailey in 1836, the proprietor's lawyer insisted that the County Terrace Tavern was misnamed: "the right name is County Coffee-house—they should alter it—it is situated in the county Terrace, New Kent-road.". It closed in 2003 and was demolished.
The Museum of London Archaeology Service surveyed the site in May 2004 and found that "There was no evidence to confirm that this site was occupied until the post medieval period. It appears that this low lying area ... was fields until the development of the County Terrace public house and adjoining properties during the 19th century. A thick layer of top soil containing 18th and 19th century material including broken bricks, clay pipe stems and 19th century pottery was found."
The 1888 red brick church behind Tavern Court is the former Welsh Presbyterian Chapel, a listed building designed by Charles Evans-Vaughan in mixed Queen Anne and Romanesque revival styles. English Heritage comments that "[the] combination of different features and materials [is] calculated to produce a most variable and picturesque composition. An early instance of the Queen Anne manner applied to a church or chapel." Since 1991, the church has been the main London home of the Brotherhood of the Cross and Star, an African Initiated Church based in Nigeria and led by Olumba Olumba Obu, who followers describe as "the sole spiritual head of the universe". Worshippers wear distinctive white robes known as "soutane", with women also wearing a wimple-like headdress.
David Copperfields Garden
The narrow public garden from here to Harper Road is called David Copperfields Garden. A plaque placed on a plinth in the garden in September 1931 by the Dickens Fellowship explained that this was the place where in the Charles Dickens novel, David Copperfield stopped "in the Kent Road ... at a terrace with a piece of water before it, and a great foolish image in the middle, blowing a dry shell". The plinth had a small statue that eventually lost both its shell and its head to vandalism. The plinth and plaque were removed in 2006 when the park was closed for redevlopment.
It reopened in July 2007 after a complete re-landscaping, including removal of the railings between the footpath and the garden. The original design included benches based on the milestones that David Copperfield passed on his fictional journey, but the final version has no benches. With the removal of the plinth and plaque, the only remaining reference to the Dickens novel is a quotation from Copperfield's aunt inlaid into the path through the park: "...a little change, and a glimpse of life out of doors, may be useful, in helping you to know your own mind..."
Harper Road to the Bricklayers Arms
At the corner of Harper Road is a five-storey residential block comprising fifteen apartments, with a branch of Tesco Metro on the ground floor. The site formally housed Pole Position, which was a motorcycle workshop and racing team HQ that relocated to East London in 2009.
Adjacent to this is a short parade of commercial premises. In 2005, journalist Peter Preston noted that the multi-cultural nature of the area is that this block of businesses includes an African hairdresser, a Turkish grocers, a Chinese take-away and a Bolivian restaurant. Only the Bolivian restaurant remains.
The petrol station and attached supermarket have changed ownership many times. Originally a BP station with a Safeway shop, it became a Marks and Spencer Simply Food store, then in 2016 a Spar forecourt supermarket in 2016 when the petrol station changed from a to Esso franchise. The commercial premises now includes a branch of Costa Coffee. The building was home to an Amazon locker until its removal in 2019.
The last building on the north side of New Kent Road, after Bartholemew St, is St Saviour's and St Olave's Church of England School on land given by Lord LLangatock (of the Rolls family) to the ancient Southwark grammar school foundation which was required to provide a girls school to supplement its teaching of boys. This opened in 1903 as a grammar school and is for girls aged 11 to 18.
Bricklayers Arms is the site of an important road intersection with the Old Kent Road and was formerly the site of an important railway terminus.
References
External links
April 2005 Guardian article about multi-cultural Old and New Kent Road
London SE1 guide to bars and restaurants on the New Kent Road
Short history of the Coronet and Theatre Royal, with some vintage theatre programmes
Streets in the London Borough of Southwark
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234205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentonville%20Road | Pentonville Road | Pentonville Road is a road in Central London that runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road at The Angel, Islington. The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone.
The road was originally built in the mid-18th century as part of the New Road, a bypass of Central London for coach traffic. It was named Pentonville Road after the new town of Pentonville, that encouraged manufacturing to move out of the city and into suburbia. Numerous factories and commercial premises became established on the road in the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly after the arrival of London railways in the 1840s.
As industrial manufacturing fell out of favour in London in the late 20th century, many properties are now residential or student accommodation. Current premises include the Crafts Council Gallery on the site of a former chapel, the Scala nightclub in a former cinema, and The Castle, a public house.
Geography
The road is long and runs east from King's Cross station as a continuation of Euston Road. It ends at the Angel, Islington, at a junction with Islington High Street and Goswell Road; the road ahead becoming City Road. Only eastbound traffic can travel on the full extent of the road; westbound traffic is diverted south via Swinton Street. The road is on the London Inner Ring Road (A501) and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone. Since 1995, it has been a red route, prohibiting stopping of any kind, including loading and unloading.
Most of the road is in the London Borough of Islington but a small part near Kings Cross is in the London Borough of Camden, including the King's Cross Thameslink railway station and the "Lighthouse" Block. London Underground and National Rail stations in the vicinity include Kings Cross and Angel Underground station.
There has been a bus service on Pentonville Road since 1829. Regular bus routes running along the road are 30, 73 and 146.
History
What is now Pentonville Road was built as the final section of the New Road in 1756, connecting the City of London to the western suburbs, so that coach traffic could avoid Central London. At the time, the route now covered by Pentonville Road was mostly fields, with Battle Bridge occupying the space where King's Cross now is. It included a tavern known as Busby's Folly, a meeting place of a drinking group known as the Society of Bull Feathers. It is marked on John Ogilby's map of London in 1675. It was moved around 1780 to Penton Street and renamed the Belvedere Tavern. The current building dates from 1876.
The road was designed as part of Pentonville, a new suburb away from the city and became a local hub for manufacturing in the area. There was some debate over the final route of the road; the original plan to run straight through fields owned by the Skinners Company and the New River Company was rejected in favour of the route further north via Battle Bridge. As it was always intended to be a main road, a coach service began in 1798 between Paddington and Bank but was quickly withdrawn. The road was turnpiked in 1830 and renamed Pentonville Road after landowner Henry Penton in 1857. Until 1882, the upkeep of the road was paid by the local parish, paying a ground rent to Penton's estate for the disused toll house at No. 274.
The street is distinguished by the "set back" housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare. The original 1756 act to create the New Road prohibited the construction of any building within of its side. Though the area had been designed to be a pleasant suburb, the arrival of railways in the 1840s turned the road into an industrial urban street, with factories and workshops aligning the road. The original bylaw restricting property on the front of the road was ignored and shops were built on top of gardens.
By the 21st century, most of the manufacturing base along Pentonville Road had disappeared. The original townhouses are now apartments.
Properties
Alexander Cumming, former clockmaker and organ builder to Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, built a house at No. 166 Pentonville Road. In 1807, the year after his death, the house became the London Female Penitentiary, housing "fallen women" and rehabilitating them into society. It was extended between 1811 and 1812, roughly tripling its capacity, and moved to Stoke Newington in 1884.
The Thomas S. Jones organ builders were based at No. 25 Pentonville Road between 1860 and 1935. The Dunn & Hewett cocoa factory was established at No. 9 Pentonville Road in 1833 by Daniel Dunn, who went into partnership with Charles Hewett in the 1850s. The business claimed to have invented soluble chocolate and cocoa, and moved to No. 136, expanding to No. 138 in the 1870s. The building was enlarged and partially rebuilt over the 1880s and 90s, and included a staff tea-room at No. 140 by 1907. The factory closed around 1930 and was subsequently sub-let to various businesses. The Ealing Radiator Company was established at Nos. 152–154 Pentonville Road in 1936, manufacturing car radiators. A first floor extension was added in 1952, while Nos. 136–150 were cleared to accommodate a low metal-framed building. These premises have now been sub-let to various businesses.
The Claremont Chapel was at No. 44a Pentonville Road. It was named after Claremont House, home of the then-recently deceased Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales. The chapel was designed by Thomas Wilson, who acquired the 2-acre site in 1818 for £700, spending an additional £6,000 on building works. It opened in October 1819, though a regular pastor was not appointed until 1822. The building was extended in 1847 to accommodate a Sunday school, while sash windows were installed in 1853. In 1860, the building was refurbished and given a Classical facade, but reducing the capacity of the inside gallery. Attendance declined and the chapel was sold to the London Congregational Union, before closing in 1899. It re-opened in 1902 as Claremont Hall, a mission institute. It was let for commercial purposes in the 1960s, and sub-let to the Crafts Council in 1991. The building is now the Crafts Council Gallery, a public gallery funded by the Arts Council England. It contains a number of exhibition rooms that are available for use.
The block of properties at No. 295–297 Pentonville Road, at its junction with Gray's Inn Road, is known as the "Lighthouse Block" owing to the lead clad tower at the top of the building. The site avoided being compulsory purchased and demolished (in order to provide improvements to King's Cross station's eastern entrance) and is now Grade II listed.
The Vernon Square school opened on Pentonville Road in 1913, expanding to cover secondary school students in 1949. It was renamed the Sir Philip Magnus School in 1952 and closed in the 1970s. It became part of Kingsway College before being purchased by the School of Oriental and African Studies in 2001. The SOAS has several other halls of residence along Pentonville Road, including Dinwiddy House.
The Lexington is a music venue at Nos. 96-98. It has played host to local bands, and as a warm-up venue for more established acts. The Scala at No. 275–277 Pentonville Road opened as the King's Cross Cinema in 1920 with a capacity of 1,300. Construction had begun just before World War I and was halted because of it. It was damaged by bombs during World War II, and while it remained open during wartime, it eventually had to be shut between 1949 and 1952 for renovations and repair. It closed in 1970, and re-opened as an independent cinema, which showed old 16mm films including King Kong. The Stooges played their only gig in London at the venue in June 1972, shortly before recording the album Raw Power with David Bowie; a shot of Iggy Pop onstage here became the album's front cover. The venue closed in 1992, and is now a nightclub.
The Castle is a pub at No. 54 Pentonville Road, at the junction with Baron Street. In 2015, the perpetrators of the Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary met at the pub to discuss the crime shortly after it occurred, but were secretly filmed there by the Flying Squad. All were subsequently arrested and sent to prison. The current owners, Geronimo Inns, wish to distance themselves from the burglary and forbid staff to discuss it with customers.
The original Angel, Islington, sits at the far east end of Pentonville Road, at its junction with Islington High Street. It was named after the Angel of the Annunciation that appeared on its sign. The inn pre-dated the construction of Pentonville Road, and had become one of the largest coaching inns in the local area by the 18th century. The site was cut in two by the construction of the road, with the inn remaining on the north side. A new building was constructed in 1899, later becoming a Lyons Corner House. It closed in 1959, and was threatened with demolition as a plan to improve junction improvements around Pentonville Road, but survived and is now partly occupied by a branch of The Co-operative Bank.
Cultural references
The poet John Betjeman's parents ran a cabinet makers at No. 34–42 Pentonville Road. It was established since 1859 and produced the Tantalus drinks cabinet in 1881.
Pentonville Road is one of the locations on the London version of the Monopoly board game. It is one of the light blue squares alongside The Angel, Islington and Euston Road, both of which it connects to. The magazine Mixmags main offices are at Nos. 90–92 Pentonville Road.
See also
Joseph Grimaldi Park
References
Citations
Sources
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234206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer | Customer | In sales, commerce, and economics, a customer (sometimes known as a client, buyer, or purchaser) is the recipient of a good, service, product or an idea - obtained from a seller, vendor, or supplier via a financial transaction or exchange for money or some other valuable consideration.
Etymology and terminology
Early societies relied on a gift economy based on favours. Later, as commerce developed, less permanent human relations were formed, depending more on transitory needs rather than enduring social desires. Customers are generally said to be the purchasers of goods and services, while clients are those who receive personalized advice and solutions. Although such distinctions have no contemporary semantic weight, agencies such as law firms, film studios, and health care providers tend to prefer client, while grocery stores, banks, and restaurants tend to prefer customer instead.
Clients
The term client is derived from Latin clients or care meaning "to incline" or "to bend", and is related to the emotive idea of closure. It is widely believed that people only change their habits when motivated by greed and fear. Winning a client is, therefore, a singular event, which is why professional specialists who deal with particular problems tend to attract long-term clients rather than regular customers. Unlike regular customers, who buy merely on price and value, long-term clients buy on experience and trust.
Customers
Clients who habitually return to a seller develop customs that allow for regular, sustained commerce that allows the seller to develop statistical models to optimize production processes (which change the nature or form of goods or services) and supply chains (which changes the location or formalizes the changes of ownership or entitlement transactions).
Customer segmentation
In the 21st century customers are generally categorized into two types:
an entrepreneur or trader (sometimes a commercial Intermediary) - a dealer who purchases goods for re-sale.
an end user or ultimate customer who does not re-sell the things bought but is the actual consumer or an agent such as a Purchasing officer for the consumer.
A customer may or may not also be a consumer, but the two notions are distinct. A customer purchases goods; a consumer uses them. An ultimate customer may be a consumer as well, but just as equally may have purchased items for someone else to consume. An intermediate customer is not a consumer at all. The situation is somewhat complicated in that ultimate customers of so-called industrial goods and services (who are entities such as government bodies, manufacturers, and educational and medical institutions) either themselves use up the goods and services that they buy, or incorporate them into other finished products, and so are technically consumers, too. However, they are rarely called that, but are rather called industrial customers or business-to-business customers. Similarly, customers who buy services rather than goods are rarely called consumers.
Six Sigma doctrine places (active) customers in opposition to two other classes of people: not-customers and non-customers:
Customers of a given business have actively dealt with that business within a particular recent period that depends on the product sold.
Not-customers are either past customers who are no longer customers or potential customers who choose to interact with the competition.
Non-customers are people who are active in a different market segment entirely.
Geoff Tennant, a Six Sigma consultant from the United Kingdom, uses the following analogy to explain the difference: A supermarket's customer is the person buying milk at that supermarket; a not-customer buys milk from a competing supermarket, whereas a non-customer doesn't buy milk from supermarkets at all but rather "has milk delivered to the door in the traditional British way".
Tennant also categorizes customers in another way that is employed outwith the fields of marketing. While marketers, market regulation, and economists use the intermediate/ultimate categorization, the field of customer service more often categorizes customers into two classes:
An external customer of an organization is a customer who is not directly connected to that organization.
An internal customer is a customer who is directly connected to an organization, and is usually (but not necessarily) internal to the organization. Internal customers are usually stakeholders, employees, or shareholders, but the definition also encompasses creditors and external regulators.
Before the introduction of the notion of an internal customer, external customers were, simply, customers. Quality-management writer Joseph M. Juran popularized the concept, introducing it in 1988 in the fourth edition of his Quality Control Handbook . The idea has since gained wide acceptance in the literature on total quality management and service marketing; and many organizations recognize the customer satisfaction of internal customers as a precursor to, and a prerequisite for, external customer satisfaction, with authors such as regarding service organizations which design products for internal customer satisfaction as better able to satisfy the needs of external customers. Research on the theory and practice of managing the internal customer continues in a variety of service-sector industries.
Arguments against use of the term "internal customers"
Leading authors in management and marketing, like Peter Drucker, Philip Kotler, W. Edwards Deming, etc., have not used the term "internal customer" in their works. They consider the "customer" as a very specific role in society which represents a crucial part in the relationship between the demand and the supply. Some of the most important characteristics of any customer are that: any customer is never in a subordination line with any supplier; any customer has equal positions with the supplier within negotiations, and any customer can accept or reject any offer for a service or a product. Peter Drucker wrote, "They are all people who can say no, people who have the choice to accept or reject what you offer."
In opposition to the stated customer's characteristics, relationships between colleagues in a company are always based on subordination – direct or indirect. Company employees are obliged to follow the processes of their companies. Company employees do not have the authority to choose a unit/colleague to fulfill any task. Company employees are obliged to use an existing unit/colleague by using the company's structure and approved processes, therefore these internal relationships are not considered as an option.
Many authors in ITIL and Six Sigma methodologies define "internal customer" as an internal part of a company that uses the output of another part of a company as its input. But actually, this definition describes better a classical internal process rather than a relationship between a customer and a supplier. Peter Drucker considers that there are no customers inside organizations. He wrote "Inside an organization, there are only cost centers. The only profit center is a customer whose check has not bounced." In addition, William Deming advises managers, in his 9th point, to "Break down barriers between departments. They must work as a team", which means that there have to be teamwork in a company rather than a supplier/customer relationship. One more argument, even the ITIL methodology admits that "the term 'colleague' may be more accurate in describing how two internal groups are related to one another.".
See also
Client (business)
Customer centricity
Customer data integration
Customer delight
Customer relationship management
Early adopter
Guided selling
Procurement
Service level agreement
The customer is always right
Notes
References
Further reading
Forget Demographics. Target Communities Instead (Marketing)
Sales
Supply chain management | [
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234208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20Road | City Road | City Road or The City Road is a road that runs through central London. The northwestern extremity of the road is at Angel where it forms a continuation of Pentonville Road. Pentonville Road itself is the modern name for London's first bypass, the New Road from Paddington to Islington, which was constructed in 1756. The City Road was built in 1761 as a continuation of that route to the City of London.
From Angel, City Road runs roughly south-east and downhill past the City Road Basin of Regent's Canal and Moorfields Eye Hospital, after which it bears closer to south, and has a junction with Old Street at a large roundabout. After Old Street, it continues south, continuing past Bunhill Fields, Wesley's Chapel and the Honourable Artillery Company, after which the road continues south as Finsbury Square, then Finsbury Pavement, then Moorgate—the latter beginning at the border with the City of London. These roads form a major entry point into the City of London, and were extended in 1846 through the City itself (as Princes Street and King William Street) to connect with London Bridge.
The part of the road north of Old Street is on the London Inner Ring Road and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone. The ringroad continues east along Old Street. Most of the road is in the London Borough of Islington, although the stretch from Wharf Road down to the Old Street roundabout is the border between Islington and Hackney, so the two sides are in different boroughs.
Nearby London Underground stations are , and Moorgate. The disused City Road station was on City Road itself.
London Bus routes serving the length of City Road include 43, 205, 214, 394.
The City Road and The Eagle is mentioned in an additional verse written for the nursery rhyme Pop Goes the Weasel by 1856, when it was quoted in a performance at the Theatre Royal:
The rhyme appears on the wall of the Eagle.
See also
Honourable Artillery Company Museum
References
Further reading
Weinreb, Ben; Hibbert, Christopher (1983), "City Road" in The London Encyclopedia, Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Streets in the London Borough of Islington
Streets in the City of London
Honourable Artillery Company
1761 establishments in England
1760s in London | [
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234212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Street | Old Street | Old Street is a street in inner north-east Central London that runs west to east from Goswell Road in Clerkenwell, in the London Borough of Islington, via St Luke's and Old Street Roundabout, to the crossroads where it meets Shoreditch High Street (south), Kingsland Road (north) and Hackney Road (east) in Shoreditch in the London Borough of Hackney.
It has London Underground station Old Street on the Northern line which has other platforms for National Rail's Northern City Line.
Its west half is inside London's Congestion Charging Zone; a short part of its eastern half is the inner ring marking its limit.
History
Old Street was recorded as Ealdestrate in about 1200, and le Oldestrete in 1373. As befits its name there are some suggestions that the road is of ancient origin. It lies on the route of an old Roman or possibly pre-Roman track connecting Silchester and Colchester, skirting round the walls of Londinium, today the areas known as the City of London.
The western part was widened between 1872 and 1877, but it narrows east of Coronet Street; there survive, at №s. 340-342 on the south side of the street and №s. 323 and 325-329 on the north side, some domestic buildings from the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, though somewhat battered and altered in function. At the east end of Old Street there is a notable deviation of the line of the street as it joins the old Roman Road north to York. This deviation is visible on old maps but unexplained, and is today fronted by Shoreditch Town Hall and the former Shoreditch Magistrates Court (now a hotel). Together with St Leonard's, Shoreditch at the east end of Old Street, this was the civic hub of the former Metropolitan Borough of Shoreditch.
The eastern half of the road is on the London Inner Ring Road and forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone. Old Street and the surrounding areas of Hoxton Square and Great Eastern Street host a thriving night life. The street and its adjacent areas have attracted IT and tech companies, both established and start-ups, and Old Street Roundabout, located at the junction with City Road, has been dubbed Silicon Roundabout. Old Street station is located under the roundabout. With the increase in passenger numbers using the station, in 2014 Transport for London announced that it was to offer pop-up retail space there as part of a drive to increase its revenue.
Within the past few years Old Street has become favoured for notable graffiti artists such as Banksy and Jef Aérosol. Banksy has featured several pieces on "Shoreditch Bridge".
Notes
Bridget Cherry and Nikolaus Pevsner (1998) London: North. London: Penguin Books.
Ben Weinreb and Christopher Hibbert (1983) "Old Street" in The London Encyclopedia.
Transport
Old Street is served greatly by bus routes:
55: Leyton, Bakers Arms - Oxford Circus
243: Wood Green - Waterloo
N55: Woodford Wells - Oxford Circus
205: Paddington - Bow Church DLR Station
214: Liverpool Street - Hampstead Lane (Highgate)
Briefly:
242: Homerton Hospital - Aldgate Bus Station
271: Highgate Village - Moorgate, Finsbury Square
In fiction
In the Charles Dickens novel Bleak House the lawyer's clerk Mr Guppy lunches in Old Street with Richard Carstone on 'lobster and lettuce, without the slugs this time'.
References
Streets in the London Borough of Islington
Streets in the London Borough of Hackney
High-technology business districts in the United Kingdom
Information technology places
Shoreditch | [
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234214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial%20Street%2C%20London | Commercial Street, London | Commercial Street is an arterial road in Tower Hamlets, east London that runs north to south from Shoreditch High Street to Whitechapel High Street through the East End district of Spitalfields. The road is a section of the A1202 London Inner Ring Road and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone.
As the name implies, Commercial Street has historically been dominated by industrial and commercial activity, which it maintains to this day. It is on the City fringes, and much industry that was seen as too noisome for the City was once exiled to such areas as this. However, since the early 1990s the street has grown increasingly fashionable, while maintaining its busy commercial feel.
History
Spitalfields was historically one of the poorest, most overcrowded and most crime-ridden districts in London: a parliamentary report of 1838 described this area as harbouring "an extremely immoral population; women of the lowest character, receivers of stolen goods, thieves and the most atrocious offenders". The southern section of Commercial Street was created in 1843–5 as part of a slum clearance programme, and to connect the Whitechapel thoroughfare with Spitalfields Market. It was laid out by the architect and planner Sir James Pennethorne along the approximate line of former Essex Street, Rose Lane and Red Lion Street, and entailed the demolition of some 250 sub-standard properties in Whitechapel and Spitalfields. The extension north from the market, to the Eastern Counties Railway's Bishopsgate terminus and to Shoreditch High Street, was made between 1849 and 1857 and opened in 1858. In both phases of development there was some initial difficulty in finding tenants for the building plots, and much of the street was not built up until the 1860s and 1870s. Only once Great Eastern Street had been laid out further north between 1872 and 1876, creating a continuation of the route towards Old Street and the City Road, did Commercial Street really begin to succeed as what had always been Pennethorne's aim, an artery allowing traffic to bypass the City of London. With the implementation of the London Congestion Zone in the 2000s, the road has once again seen continued activity from private and commercial vehicles seeking to avoid the 7am–6pm charge, and is a typical arterial route for emergency vehicles.
Until the late twentieth century, the street was heavily dominated by the activities of Spitalfields wholesale fruit and vegetable market, and by outlets for the "rag trade" (the wholesale clothing and textile trade). Since the mid-1970s, however, the area has been increasingly subject to a process of gradual gentrification. In part this reflects the changing character of Spitalfields more generally, but in Commercial Street in particular it was stimulated by the departure of the market in 1991 (and subsequent redevelopment of its buildings), the arrival of a number of private residential developments (especially at the northern end of the street), and the introduction of some modest traffic-calming measures. Many of the commercial units in the street are now occupied by fashionable clothing shops or restaurants.
Topography and architecture
The street's most significant features are Hawksmoor's grand Christ Church, on the corner of Fournier Street; and (almost opposite) Spitalfields Market, the old fruit and vegetable market that is now bustling again after a long period of uncertainty. Both the market buildings and Christ Church are lucky survivors, as demolition has loomed for both of them at one point or another.
The northern end of the street is dominated on its eastern side by the sprawling Exchange Building, an Art Deco former tobacco works, now residential. On the western side stands the former Commercial Street Police Station (built 1874-5, with an extra storey added in 1906), also now a residential block named Burhan Uddin House. Just to its south, with a wing extending into Folgate Street, is the first tenement block of model dwellings to be erected by the Peabody Donation Fund (now the Peabody Trust) for London's "industrious poor". The red-brick Jacobethan block was designed by H. A. Darbishire and opened in 1864, but was sold by the Trust in the late 1970s and is now a private residential block named The Cloisters.
On the opposite corner of Fournier Street from Christ Church is the Ten Bells, a pub that is popularly associated with Jack the Ripper, as two of his female prostitute victims are supposed to have frequented the establishment. Many Ripper tours (a thriving trade) start out nearby. Although the pub has long been refurbished, it still retains some fine original tilework. Prostitution remained a feature of Commercial Street until recently. Dorset Street, which ran off Commercial Street to the west immediately south of Spitalfields Market, was dubbed the "worst street in London".
Much of the southern section of the street is occupied by warehouse buildings of the 1860s. Wentworth Street (part of the busy Petticoat Lane Market) runs off Commercial Street to the west. Immediately to the south of Wentworth Street lies the Holland Estate, a social housing estate with elements dating back to the 1920s, but which is dominated on its Commercial Street frontage by blocks of the late 1960s and early 1970s, including a 22-storey tower block, Denning Point. The estate is now managed by Eastend Homes, and in 2012 was undergoing a major programme of regeneration that would see the demolition and replacement of several of the blocks. To the south again is the 11-storey Ibis London City budget hotel (opened 2005), and beyond that, at the junction with Whitechapel High Street, the Relay Building, a 21-storey residential development (completed 2014). On the eastern side of Commercial Street stands Toynbee Hall, the university settlement founded in 1884.
Nearby stations
The nearest London Underground station is Aldgate East, at Commercial Street's southern end. Shoreditch High Street London Overground station is close to the northern end, by the former Bishopsgate Goods Yard. London Liverpool Street is a National Rail and London Underground interchange, a short walk to the west.
References
Further reading
Streets in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets | [
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234215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial%20Street | Commercial Street | Commercial Street may refer to:
Commercial Street, Bangalore, India
Commercial Street, Leeds, England
Commercial Street, London, England
Commercial Street, Newport, Wales
Commercial Street, Portland, Maine, USA
Commercial Street, San Francisco, USA
See also
Commercial Drive, Vancouver | [
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234216 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean%20river | Subterranean river | A subterranean river is a river that runs wholly or partly beneath the ground surface – one where the riverbed does not represent the surface of the Earth. It is distinct from an aquifer, which may flow like a river but is contained within a permeable layer of rock or other unconsolidated materials. A river flowing below ground level in an open gorge is not classed as subterranean.
Subterranean rivers may be entirely natural, flowing through cave systems. In karst topography, rivers may disappear through sinkholes, continuing underground. In some cases, they may emerge into daylight further downstream. The longest subterranean river in the world is the Sistema Sac Actun cave system in Mexico.
Subterranean rivers can also be the result of covering over a river or diverting its flow into culverts, usually as part of urban development. Reversing this process is known as daylighting a stream and is a visible form of river restoration. One successful example is the Cheonggyecheon in the centre of Seoul.
Some fish (colloquially known as cavefish) and other troglobite organisms are adapted to life in subterranean rivers and lakes.
Examples of subterranean rivers also occur in mythology and literature.
Natural examples
There are many natural examples of subterranean rivers. Among them:
In Bosnia and Herzegovina: Unac; Mušnica-Trebišnjica-Krupa/Ombla (Ombla springs out of huge cave near Dubrovnik, Croatia and after just ca. 30 meters empties into Adriatic Sea's ria called Rijeka Dubrovačka); Zalomka-Buna/Bunica/Bregava; Vrljika-Trebižat; Lištica-Jasenica; Šuica-Ričina
In Bulgaria:
Banderishka reka, subterranean section below Kutelo Peak, Pirin Mountain
Struma River subterranean currents in Duhlata cave, Vitosha Mountain
Negovanka River subterranean currents in Emen cave, Veliko Tarnovo Province
Trigradska reka, subterranean section where Devil's Throat Cave and Trigrad Gorge, Rhodope Mountains
The Camuy River located in the northwestern region of Puerto Rico is one of the largest underground river systems in the world.
The Cross Cave system in Loška Dolina, Slovenia includes 22 subterranean lakes
The Lost River in the Appalachian Mountains of West Virginia disappears underground and reappears as the Cacapon River
The Mojave River in southern California flows underground in most places
The Phong Nha-Kẻ Bàng National Park in Vietnam has an underground river flowing through its cave system
The Puerto Princesa Subterranean River on the island of Palawan, Philippines flows underground before emerging into the West Philippine Sea
The Punkva in Moravian Karst, Moravia, Czech Republic underground river flowing through cave system - Punkva Caves and Macocha gorge.
The Santa Fe River in northern Florida drops into a large sinkhole in O'Leno State Park and reappears in the adjacent River Rise Preserve State Park, downstream.
Artificial examples
In many cities there are natural streams which have been partially or entirely built over. Such man-made examples of subterranean urban streams are too numerous to list, but notable examples include:
The Bièvre underneath Paris, France
The Boyanska reka (Boyana river), partially underneath Sofia, Bulgaria
Castle Frank Brook, Garrison Creek, Russell Creek, and Taddle Creek, and other subterranean urban streams in Toronto
The River Farset, which Belfast is named after, which runs in tunnels underneath the city.
The Fleet and other subterranean rivers of London
The Frome underneath Bristol
The Hobart Rivulet in Tasmania
Mill Creek in Philadelphia
The Neglinnaya River, which runs through a series of tunnels underneath the central part of Moscow
The Park River underneath Hartford
The Spirit Lake Outlet Tunnel underneath Harry's Ridge in Skamania County, Washington, United States
The River Team underneath the Team Valley Trading Estate, Gateshead, United Kingdom
The Tank Stream underneath Sydney, Australia
The Zenne underneath Brussels, following the covering of the Zenne between 1865 and 1871
Ecology
Some fish (popularly known as cavefish) and other troglobite organisms are adapted to life in subterranean rivers and lakes.
Mythology and literature
Greek mythology included the Styx, Phlegethon, Acheron, Cocytus, and Lethe as rivers within the Underworld. Dante Alighieri, in his Inferno, included the Acheron, Phlegethon, and Styx as rivers within his subterranean Hell. The river Alph, running "Through caverns measureless to man / Down to a sunless sea" is central to the poem Kubla Khan, by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
The characters in Jules Verne's Journey to the Center of the Earth encounter a subterranean river:
"Hans was not mistaken," he said. "What you hear is the rushing of a torrent."
"A torrent?" I exclaimed.
"There can be no doubt; a subterranean river is flowing around us."
Several other novels also feature subterranean rivers. The subterranean rivers of London feature in the novel Drowning Man by Michael Robotham as well as in the novel Thrones, Dominations by Dorothy L. Sayers and Jill Paton Walsh in which a character remarks:
"You can bury them deep under, sir; you can bind them in tunnels, ... but in the end where a river has been, a river will always be."
See also
References
Dinaric karst formations
Fluvial landforms
Hydrology
Hydrology and urban planning | [
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234217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%85ke%20Henriksson%20Tott | Åke Henriksson Tott | Åke Henriksson Tott (or Achatius Tott) (1598–1640) was a Finnish soldier and politician. His estates included Ekolsund in Sweden, Sjundeby in Finland, Polchow in Swedish Pomerania and Lihula in Swedish Livonia.
He was born in Lohja to Princess Sigrid of Sweden and nobleman Henrik Klasson Tott. He was appointed Privy Councilor in 1630, and Field Marshal in 1631.
In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), he commanded troops at the Battle of Grubin, in 1627 and the Battle of Breitenfeld, in 1631. King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden is said to have called him "the snow plow, who is going to clear the path for the rest".
He married Sigrid Bielke (1607–1634), and fathered Clas Åkesson Tott the younger, and Åke Henrik Åkesson Tott.
Gallery
References
Nordisk familjebok, 2:a upplagan, Malmö
Article Tott, Åke in Biografiskt lexikon för Finland (2008).
External Links
Find-a-grave link
1598 births
1640 deaths
People from Lohja
Field marshals of Sweden
Finnish people of the Thirty Years' War
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish nobility
17th-century Swedish politicians
Swedish-speaking Finns | [
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234218 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodo%20zu%20Innhausen%20und%20Knyphausen | Dodo zu Innhausen und Knyphausen | Dodo Freiherr zu Innhausen und Knyphausen (sometimes Knijphausen or Kniphausen; 2 July 1583 – 11 January 1636) was a German professional soldier who saw extensive service in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), rising to the rank of Field Marshal in Swedish service in 1633.
Early career
Knyphausen was from Lütetsburg, East Frisia. He learnt his trade in Dutch service under Maurice of Orange, rising to the rank of captain by 1603. He later served the Hanseatic League, then the Protestant Union. In the 1620s, with the Thirty Years' War turning against the Protestants, Knyphausen had the misfortune to be repeatedly on the losing side, witnessing the defeats at the Battle of Höchst (1622) and the battle of Stadtlohn (1623). After the latter battle he was accused of treason and even sentenced to death, only to be exonerated. He fought under Ernst von Mansfeld at the Battle of Dessau Bridge in 1626, but was captured. In 1628 during the siege of La Rochelle, he went into English service and raised troops, during the final abortive English attempt to relieve the Huguenot stronghold.
Swedish service
Knyphausen entered into Swedish service in 1630 and raised several German regiments for the Swedish crown. As a result of his many years of professional experience he was greatly valued by King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, and was often assigned the most critical tasks, such as the defence of Neubrandenburg in 1631 (where he was captured by the forces of Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly) and command of the Sweden's most important military supply base in central Germany at Nuremberg in 1632.
At the 1632 Battle of Lützen, where the Swedish king was killed, Knyphausen, now holding the rank of Major General, was third in command of the Swedish army and responsible for the entire second (reserve) line. At the height of the battle, and with the Swedish army close to panic as a result of the king's death and destruction of the Swedish infantry centre, Knyphausen played a large part in holding the Swedish army together for two crucial hours. The Swedish royal secretary Philipp Sattler wrote that Knyphausen had contributed greatly to the final victory, having "done the most to sustain the wavering battleline".
In January 1633, as a reward for his service at Lützen, Knyphausen was appointed Field Marshal and commander-in-chief of all Swedish forces operating in Lower Saxony, an important side-theatre to the main Swedish operations in Southern Germany. In this role he served at the major Swedish victory at the Battle of Oldendorf in 1633. From 1633 to 1634 he participated in an unsuccessful Siege of Hildesheim. At the minor Battle of Haselünne in early 1636 he was killed.
A distant relative, Edzard zu Innhausen und Knyphausen (1827–1908) was a noted politician.
Notes and references
1583 births
1636 deaths
People from Aurich (district)
German military leaders
German people of the Thirty Years' War
Swedish nobility
German emigrants to Sweden
Field marshals of Sweden
Military personnel killed in action
Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War | [
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234219 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Leslie%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Leven | Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven | Alexander Leslie, 1st Earl of Leven (15804 April 1661) was a Scottish soldier in Swedish and Scottish service. Born illegitimate and raised as a foster child, he subsequently advanced to the rank of a Swedish Field Marshal, and in Scotland became Lord General in command of the Army of the Covenanters, a privy councillor, captain of Edinburgh Castle, Lord Balgonie and Earl of Leven. In England he commanded the Army of the Solemn League and Covenant and was senior commander of the Army of Both Kingdoms (1642–1647). Leslie served in the Thirty Years' War, the Bishops' Wars, and most of the English Civil War, fighting primarily in the First English Civil War. Leslie would live a long life, dying roughly at the age of 80 or 81.
Early life
Alexander Leslie was born in 1580 as an illegitimate son of George Leslie, a captain of Blair Castle, and a mother sometimes described as "a wench in Rannoch". He was a member of the Clan Leslie.
At an early age, Alexander was fostered out to the Campbells of Glenorchy. The fosterage bond was strong and still written about by Leslie into the 1640s. Indeed, it was this link that brought Leslie into the orbit of the House of Argyll as Lord Lorne, the son of the marquis of Argyll was also a Glenorchy fosterling. This relationship perhaps explains the presence of Campbells in the same regiments as Leslie in Sweden, most notably Captain Charles Campbell (Karl Kammel), whose portrait hangs to this day in Skokloster Castle in Sweden.
Foreign service
Dutch service
It is sometimes claimed that Alexander Leslie entered Dutch service in 1605, and eventually attained the rank of captain in the Dutch States Army. However, this remains speculated and disputed between many historians.
Swedish service
In 1608, he transferred to the Swedish army where he served with distinction. In 1627 the Swedish monarch knighted Alexander Leslie, by now a full colonel, along with three of his countrymen; Patrick Ruthven, David Drummond and John Hepburn. Gustavus Adolphus had a particular affection for him, trusting him with guarding the crucial strategic garrisons in North Germany while the main Swedish army established a foothold on the Baltic shoreline and advanced slowly southwards. In 1628, Leslie was appointed governor during the Siege of Stralsund, replacing Colonel Alexander Seaton and the Scottish regiment of Donald Mackay who had been holding the town on behalf of the Danes. Leslie continued the defence of Stralsund successfully defending the town against Albrecht von Wallenstein's imperial army in what effectively constituted Sweden's entrance into the Thirty Years' War, Gustavus Adolfus also sending eight warships to help raise the siege. In 1630 he seized the island of Rügen in the name of the king of Sweden.
In 1631, Leslie organized English and Scottish troops raised for the Swedish army by James Hamilton, 1st Duke of Hamilton, then the 3rd Marquis of Hamilton, and was promoted Major-General. Leslie was badly wounded in February 1632 near Hamburg. Despite his injury, Leslie was present at the Battle of Lützen (1632). He was appointed Sweden's 13th Field Marshal in 1636 and was one of the Swedish commanders at the Battle of Wittstock in that same year. The overall commander, however, is said by some Swedish historians to have been Johan Banér; but at the time the two commanders had held equal rank: Baner commanding the Swedish Crown Army and Leslie commanding the Army of the Weser. The spectacular victory, however, was largely the work of Leslie and his subordinate, a fellow Scotsman, Lieutenant-General James King, a fact related by Banér himself in his report of the battle to Axel Oxenstierna and the other contemporary reports of the battle.
Leslie was furious with Banér and in his own account of the battle infers there had been a dispute about the tactics for the day. As it was, Leslie was forced to sacrifice many of his veteran troops in the process of saving Banér's men from being routed. Leslie intimated to Oxenstierna that he would stand down from Swedish service but was persuaded to remain and restructure the Army of the Weser. However, by 1637, Leslie was in Scotland preparing the way for his final retirement from Swedish service. He cherished his old commander's memory to the day of his death, and he kept with particular care a jewel and miniature presented to him by the king.
Return to Scotland
Bishops' Wars
In 1638, events in his native country again compelled him to return to Scotland, where he was appointed "Lord General" in command of the Army of the Covenant by the Scottish administration, and as such participated in the Bishops' Wars. Scottish regiments were generally called into service by the lairds and clan chieftains obliging their tenants with feudal duty or coercion to send their kin into battle. However, support among the Presbyterians of Scotland was widespread and the Covenanters' army swelled to over 20,000 men. From 1639 they rallied under a flag bearing the motto "For Christ's Crown and Covenant". Most of the officers of the Army of the Covenant were veterans of Swedish service brought home from the continental wars to form Scotland's first professional army. This took place after careful negotiations in the Swedish Riksråd (state council) during which Leslie worked behind the scenes to ensure Chancellor Axel Oxenstierna allowed up to 300 officers to be decommissioned along with an unknown number of ordinary soldiers. He was also able to bring from Sweden his arrears of pay in the form of cannon and muskets as "parting gifts" and these were transported for him on Swedish naval vessels. The payment arrangement meant that the Swedes could claim that they were not supporting rebellion in Scotland, only paying off a debt.
One of his first actions was to lead an army of some 6,000 soldiers to Aberdeen to reduce the largely Royalist town. On his departure on 12 April Leslie left the Marquis of Montrose in charge.
Leslie's reputation, guile and discretion were frequently noted by contemporary observers including the English officer John Aston and intellectual, Sir Cheney Culpeper, who both commented on his qualities in their writings. His reputation was well earned and he took Edinburgh Castle without the loss of a single man. He had also by now amassed a considerable fortune and was able to live in a manner befitting a commander-in-chief, even when in the field. In the First Bishops' War, Leslie marched his army to Dunse Law where he encamped and awaited the arrival of the Royalist forces. Rather than fight them when they arrived, Leslie invited the Royalist officers to dinner before allowing them to inspect his army. Having seen they were out-classed by the Army of the Covenant, the Royalists chose to retire rather than to engage Leslie's superior forces. In the Second Bishops' War, Leslie conducted a brilliant campaign in the North of England, overwhelming the Royalists at the Battle of Newburn. From there he took Newcastle with ease putting pressure on the King to come to a treaty with the Scottish Covenanters. Thus followed the treaty of London.
In 1641 King Charles I in reward for his extraordinary military achievements at home and abroad appointed Leslie to the Scottish Privy Council and bestowed upon him, at Holyrood, the titles of Lord Balgonie and Earl of Leven, and made him captain of Edinburgh Castle. His affirmations of loyalty to the crown, which later events caused to be remembered against him, were sincere enough, but the complicated politics of the time made it difficult for Leslie, as lord general of the Scottish army, to maintain consistent policies.
A little later, Leven used his influence in support of a proposal to raise a Scottish army to help the Elector palatine in Germany, but the Ulster massacres gave this force, when raised, a fresh direction and Leven himself accompanied it to Ireland as lord general. He did not remain there long, for the Civil War had begun in England, and negotiations were opened between the English and the Scottish parliaments for mutual armed assistance.
Solemn League and Covenant
Leven eventually accepted command of the forces raised for the intervention in England on behalf of the English Parliament. He rose to become a commander of the Covenanter Army between 1644 and 1647 and fought for the Solemn League and Covenant, which bound both the Scottish and English parliaments together against the Royalist forces in the Three Stuart Kingdoms.
In 1644, Leven commanded the Army of the Solemn League and Covenant as it marched to England to take part in the unsuccessful Siege of York, before participating in the Battle of Marston Moor as senior commander of the allied Army of Both Kingdoms which included the two English parliamentary armies led respectively by Ferdinando Fairfax and the Earl of Manchester. Under Leven's command these forces inflicted a crushing defeat on the Royalists under Prince Rupert. The allied army then invested and captured York which surrendered within a fortnight. Later in the year Newcastle also fell after a spectacular siege and storm campaign. When Charles I surrendered to the Army of the Solemn League and Covenant at Newark in 1646, he was placed under the charge of Leven. As part of the negotiation for the Army of the Solemn League to leave England, Leven transferred the king to his Presbyterian allies unaware that these would soon lose power to the Independents. Nevertheless, Leven remained in control of Northern England and only agreed to relinquish his garrisons there when back-pay owing to his troops had been paid. The final instalment of this came in January 1647 after which Leven marched his army back across the Scottish border.
With the demise of the Army of the Solemn League and Covenant, Leven retired from active military command. Splits within the Scottish Parliament saw the Royalist Engager party led by James, 3rd Marquis Hamilton oust the Argyll radicals. Leven and his subordinate David Leslie, both declined command of this army. Hamilton led an ill-supported army over the border in support of the king. They were soundly defeated by English parliamentary forces at the Battle of Preston in 1648. This led to the return of the Argyll faction in Scotland after the Whiggamore Raid. After the execution of Charles I, Argyll declared his son, Charles II, King of Great Britain and Ireland leading to the Cromwellian invasion of Scotland. The Covenanters were defeated (1650) at the battle of Dunbar.
Afterward
In the new war, and in the disastrous campaign of Dunbar, Leven took no part despite officially being Lord General. Actual field command fell to David Leslie who failed to control his infantry and lost the battle in consequence. Leven took only a nominal part, though attempts were afterwards made to hold him responsible. But once more the parliament refused to accept his resignation.
In August 1651 Leven was captured in the town of Alyth by a group of Cromwellian dragoons in an incident known as 'the Onfall of Alyth', and was sent to London. He was confined to the Tower of London for some time, until he was released on providing a bond of £20,000, whereupon he retired to Northumberland. Sometime later in London he was arrested for a second time, but negotiations involving Queen Christina of Sweden obtained him his liberty, and he was finally freed from his engagements in 1654.
In one of his final military acts, Leven helped his son-in-law, Colonel William Cranston, to raise troops for Swedish service largely drawn from Scottish prisoners of war. These fought in Poland in the Toruń campaign.
He died in 1661 at Balgonie Castle, Fife, Scotland.
Family
Alexander Leslie was married to Agnes Renton (died 29 June 1651, daughter of David Renton of Billie in Berwickshire). They had two sons and five daughters: Gustavus, who apparently died young, Alexander (2nd Lord Balgonie), Barbara, Christian, Anne, Margaret and Mary. Barbara married General Sir John Ruthven (not Patrick Ruthven as often stated). Alexander, his eldest son and namesake, became a colonel in the Swedish Army. In 1636 Lord Balgonie married daughter of John Leslie, Earl of Rothes. Young Leslie later followed his father into service in the Army of the Solemn League and Covenant, commanding Leven's lancers and cavalry on the right wing at the battle of Marston Moor. He pre-deceased his father.
One known descendant is the writer and musician Adam S. Leslie.
Nursery rhyme and Song
The nursery rhyme "There Was a Crooked Man" is allegedly about Sir Alexander Leslie:
The song "General Lesley's March" is said to have been sung by Scottish soldiers during the wars of the Covenant in the 1640s, though it is more likely to be a mockery of the Covenanters:
When to the kirk we come,
We'll purge it ilka room,
Frae popish relics, and a' sic innovation,
That a' the world may see,
There's nane in the right but we,
Of the auld Scottish nation.
See also
Clan Leslie
Scotland and the Thirty Years' War
References
Sources
Further reading
1661 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Earls of Leven
Scottish generals
Scottish people of the Thirty Years' War
Scottish mercenaries
Scottish expatriates in Sweden
17th-century soldiers
17th-century Scottish people
Peers of Scotland created by Charles I
Members of the Privy Council of Scotland
Covenanters
Prisoners in the Tower of London
Members of the Convention of the Estates of Scotland 1643–44
Members of the Parliament of Scotland 1648–1651
Scottish soldiers
Alexander
People of the Swedish Empire
Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War
Military personnel of the English Civil War
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234221 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peel | Peel | Peel or Peeling may refer to:
Places
Australia
Peel (Western Australia)
Peel Island, Queensland
Peel, New South Wales
Peel River (New South Wales)
Canada
Peel Parish, New Brunswick
Peel, New Brunswick, an unincorporated community in Peel Parish
Peel River (Canada), tributary of the Mackenzie River
Peel Sound, Nunavut
Regional Municipality of Peel, Ontario (Peel County until 1973)
Peel (federal electoral district)
Peel (provincial electoral district)
United Kingdom
Peel Fell, a hill in Kielder Forest
Peel Island, Cumbria
United States
Peel, Arkansas
Peel, Oregon
Elsewhere
Peel, Isle of Man
Peel, Netherlands
People
Surname
Andrée Peel (1905–2010), member of the French Resistance during the Second World War
Ann Peel (born 1961), Canadian race walker
Arthur Peel (disambiguation)
Clifford Peel (1894–1918), Australian World War I pilot
Dwayne Peel (born 1981), Welsh rugby union player
Edward Peel (big-game fisherman) (1884–1961), British army officer, businessman and amateur sportsman
Edward Peel (born 1943), British actor
Frederick Peel (1823–1906), British politician and railway commissioner
Harry Peel (disambiguation)
Homer Peel (1902–1997), American Major League Baseball player
John Peel (disambiguation)
Jonathan Peel (1799–1879), British soldier and politician
Lawrence Peel (1799–1884), British judge in India
Mark Peel (born 1959), Australian historian and academic
Paul Peel (1860–1892), Canadian painter
Peter Peel (1866–1960), United States soccer administrator
Robert Peel (1788–1850), British founder of the (London) Metropolitan Police, later Prime Minister
Robert Peel (disambiguation)
Samuel W. Peel (1831–1924), U.S. Representative from Arkansas
Sir Sidney Peel, 1st Baronet (1870–1938), British soldier, financier and politician
Thomas Peel (1793–1865), early settler of Western Australia
William Peel (disambiguation)
Titles
Earl Peel, British peerage
Peel baronets, several
Arts, entertainment, and media
Music
Peel (band), indie rock band from Austin, Texas
Peel (US band), a US band active from 1999–2001 formed by Kevin Ridel from Los Angeles, California
Other arts, entertainment, and media
Peel (1982 film), an Australian short film directed by Jane Campion
Peel (2019 film), a British comedy-drama starring Emile Hirsch
Emma Peel, a fictional character in the television series The Avengers
Brands and enterprises
Peel Hotels, UK hotel company
Peel Engineering Company, Manx boat and car manufacturer
Peel Technologies, makers of the Peel Smart Remote, an Android and iOS app to control TV and other home devices
The Peel Group or Peel Holdings, UK property company, owner of several "Peel Centres"
Technology
Peel (software), Mac application for listening to songs from MP3 blogs
Peel (tool), long handled tool used in baking
PEEL, programmable electrically erasable logic, variant of the GAL (generic array logic)
Bitrate peeling, Ogg Vorbis technique for changing the bitrate of an audio stream
Transit
Peel Hall tram stop, in Manchester, England
Peel railway station (Isle of Man), in Peel, Isle of Man
Peel Road railway station, in Peel, Isle of Man
Peel station (Montreal Metro), in Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Skin or rind
Peel (fruit), skin of fruit
Peeling of animal skin, also called moulting
Peeling of human skin, also called desquamation, such as from a sunburn
Chemical peel, a treatment that uses a chemical solution to remove the outer layer of dead skin
Sports
Peel, in croquet, to send a ball other than the striker's ball through its hoop
Peel Thunder Football Club, an Australian rules football club
Other uses
Center peel, or "Peel", infantry retreat technique
Peel Commission, Royal Commission of Inquiry into Palestine, 1936–1937
Peel tower, a fortified keep or watchtower
See also
Orange Peel (disambiguation)
Peal (disambiguation)
Peale (disambiguation)
Peel Park (disambiguation)
Peel Street (disambiguation)
Peele (disambiguation)
Peeler (disambiguation) | [
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234224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praline | Praline | Praline (; New Orleans, Cajun, and ) is a form of confection containing, at a minimum, culinary nuts – usually almonds, pecans and hazelnuts – and sugar. Cream is a common third ingredient.
There are three main types:
Belgian pralines, which consist of a chocolate shell with a softer, sometimes liquid filling, traditionally made of different combinations of hazelnut, almond, sugar, syrup, and often milk-based pastes. These high-fat, low-melting point chocolates are at the luxury end of Belgian chocolate and represent an important product of many Belgian chocolatiers.
French pralines, a firm combination of almonds and caramelized sugar
American pralines, a softer, creamier combination of syrup and pecans, hazelnuts or almonds with milk or cream, resembling fudge
A praline cookie is a chocolate biscuit containing ground nuts. Praline is usually used as a filling in chocolates or other sweets.
Varieties
European nut pralines
Praline may have originally been inspired in France by the cook of Marshal du Plessis-Praslin (1602–1675), with the word praline deriving from the name Praslin. Early pralines were whole almonds individually coated in caramelized sugar, as opposed to dark nougat, where a sheet of caramelized sugar covers many nuts.
Although the New World had been discovered and settled by Europeans by this time, chocolate-producing cocoa from there was originally not associated with the term. The European chefs used local nuts such as almonds and hazelnuts.
The powder made by grinding up such caramel-coated nuts is called pralin, and is an ingredient in many cakes, pastries, and ice creams. After this powder has been mixed with chocolate, it becomes praliné in French, which gave birth to what is known in French as chocolat praliné. The word praliné is used colloquially in France and Switzerland to refer to these various centres coated with chocolate, known simply as "chocolates" in English. In mainland Europe, the word praline is often used to mean either this nut powder or the chocolate paste made from it, which is widely used to fill chocolates, hence its use in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom to refer to filled chocolates in general. In the United Kingdom, the term can refer either to praline (the filling for chocolates) or, less commonly, to the original whole-nut pralines.
Belgian soft-centre pralines
Pralines from Belgium are also known as "(soft-center) Belgian chocolates", "Belgian chocolate fondants" and "chocolate bonbons" in English-speaking countries – cases of chocolate (if from Belgium usually a quality, branded lower-melting point Belgian chocolate) filled with a soft centre. They were first introduced by Jean Neuhaus II, a Belgian chocolatier, in 1912.
There have always been many types and shapes: nearly always containing a chocolate shell with a softer filling. Confusion can arise over the use of the word praline in Belgium as it may refer to filled chocolates in general known as pralines and it may also refer to a traditional praline filling common in Europe (caramelised hazelnuts (noisettes) or almonds (amandes) ground into a paste, sometimes with whey powder, condensed milk or cream) described as praliné . Belgian chocolates (pralines) are not limited to the traditional praliné filling and often include nuts, marzipan, salted caramel, coffee, a spirit, cream liqueur, cherry or a chocolate blend that contrasts with the outer shell. They are often sold in stylised boxes in the form of a gift box. The largest manufacturers are Neuhaus, Godiva, Leonidas, and Guylian.
American cream-based pralines
French settlers brought the recipe to Louisiana, where both sugar cane and pecan trees were plentiful. In 19th century New Orleans, emancipated black women substituted pecans for almonds, added cream to thicken the confection, and thus created what became known throughout the American South as the praline.
Pralines have a creamy consistency, similar to fudge. They are usually made by combining sugar (often brown), butter, cream or buttermilk, and pecans in a pot over medium-high heat, and stirring constantly until most of the water has evaporated and it has reached a thick texture with a brown color. This is then usually dropped by spoonfuls onto wax paper or a sheet of aluminum foil greased with butter, and left to cool.
"Pralines and Cream" is a common ice cream flavor in the United States and Canada. In New Orleans, Acadiana, and Baton Rouge, Louisiana, pralines are sometimes called "pecan candy".
See also
List of cookies
List of desserts
References
Belgian cuisine
Chocolate
Cuisine of New Orleans
French cuisine
Nut confections
Almond desserts | [
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234225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansell%20Street | Mansell Street | Mansell Street is a street in East London, which is part of the London Inner Ring Road. For most of its length from the north, this street marks the boundary between the City of London and the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. However. the southernmost part is entirely in Tower Hamlets.
History
Mansell Street was named after a relative of William Leman, whose great-uncle, John Leman had bought Goodman's Fields earlier in the seventeenth century. Alie Street ran along the western side, with Leman Street to the east, Prescot Street to the south, and Alie Street to the North. These new streets were developed in the late seventeenth century while Goodman's Fields was used as a tenterground.
Mansell Street estate
This estate was built in 1977 by the Guinness Trust.
References
Streets in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets | [
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234226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic%20congestion | Traffic congestion | Traffic congestion is a condition in transport that is characterised by slower speeds, longer trip times, and increased vehicular queueing. Traffic congestion on urban road networks has increased substantially, since the 1950s. When traffic demand is great enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the traffic stream, this results in some congestion. While congestion is a possibility for any mode of transportation, this article will focus on automobile congestion on public roads.
As demand approaches the capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road), extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped for periods of time, this is known as a traffic jam or (informally) a traffic snarl-up. Traffic congestion can lead to drivers becoming frustrated and engaging in road rage.
Mathematically, traffic is modeled as a flow through a fixed point on the route, analogously to fluid dynamics.
Causes
Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal split generates demand for space greater than the available street capacity; this point is commonly termed saturation. There are a number of specific circumstances which cause or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of a road at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number of vehicles required for a given volume of people or goods. About half of U.S. traffic congestion is recurring, and is attributed to sheer weight of traffic; most of the rest is attributed to traffic incidents, road work and weather events. In terms of traffic operation, rainfall reduces traffic capacity and operating speeds, thereby resulting in greater congestion and road network productivity loss.
Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which conditions a "traffic jam" (as opposed to heavy, but smoothly flowing traffic) may suddenly occur. It has been found that individual incidents (such as crashes or even a single car braking heavily in a previously smooth flow) may cause ripple effects (a cascading failure) which then spread out and create a sustained traffic jam when, otherwise, normal flow might have continued for some time longer.
Separation of work and residential areas
People often work and live in different parts of the city. Places of work are often located away from housing areas, resulting in the need for people to commute to work.
According to a 2011 report published by the United States Census Bureau, a total of 132.3 million people in the United States commute between their work and residential areas daily.
Movement to obtain or provide goods and services
People may need to move about within the city to obtain goods and services, for instance to purchase goods or attend classes in a different part of the city.
Brussels, a city with a strong service economy, has one of the worst traffic congestion in the world, wasting 74 hours in traffic in 2014.
Mathematical theories
Some traffic engineers have attempted to apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, likening it to the flow of a fluid in a pipe. Congestion simulations and real-time observations have shown that in heavy but free flowing traffic, jams can arise spontaneously, triggered by minor events ("butterfly effects"), such as an abrupt steering maneuver by a single motorist. Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden freezing of supercooled fluid.
However, unlike a fluid, traffic flow is often affected by signals or other events at junctions that periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerner's three-phase traffic theory (see also spatiotemporal reconstruction of traffic congestion).
Because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models. Their working traffic models typically use a combination of macro-, micro- and mesoscopic features, and may add matrix entropy effects, by "platooning" groups of vehicles and by randomising the flow patterns within individual segments of the network. These models are then typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on the links in the network, and the baseline flows are adjusted accordingly.
A team of MIT mathematicians has developed a model that describes the formation of "phantom jams," in which small disturbances (a driver hitting the brake too hard, or getting too close to another car) in heavy traffic can become amplified into a full-blown, self-sustaining traffic jam. Key to the study is the realization that the mathematics of such jams, which the researchers call "jamitons," are strikingly similar to the equations that describe detonation waves produced by explosions, says Aslan Kasimov, lecturer in MIT's Department of Mathematics. That discovery enabled the team to solve traffic-jam equations that were first theorized in the 1950s.
Economic theories
Congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the commons. Because roads in most places are free at the point of usage, there is little financial incentive for drivers not to over-use them, up to the point where traffic collapses into a jam, when demand becomes limited by opportunity cost. Privatization of highways and road pricing have both been proposed as measures that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, which may reduce the road's capacity below normal levels.
Economist Anthony Downs argues that rush hour traffic congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a relatively standard work day . In a capitalist economy, goods can be allocated either by pricing (ability to pay) or by queueing (first-come first-served); congestion is an example of the latter. Instead of the traditional solution of making the "pipe" large enough to accommodate the total demand for peak-hour vehicle travel (a supply-side solution), either by widening roadways or increasing "flow pressure" via automated highway systems, Downs advocates greater use of road pricing to reduce congestion (a demand-side solution, effectively rationing demand), in turn plowing the revenues generated therefrom into public transportation projects.
A 2011 study in The American Economic Review indicates that there may be a "fundamental law of road congestion." The researchers, from the University of Toronto and the London School of Economics, analyzed data from the U.S. Highway Performance and Monitoring System for 1983, 1993 and 2003, as well as information on population, employment, geography, transit, and political factors. They determined that the number of vehicle-kilometers traveled (VKT) increases in direct proportion to the available lane-kilometers of roadways. The implication is that building new roads and widening existing ones only results in additional traffic that continues to rise until peak congestion returns to the previous level.
Classification
Qualitative classification of traffic is often done in the form of a six-letter A-F level of service (LOS) scale defined in the Highway Capacity Manual, a US document used (or used as a basis for national guidelines) worldwide. These levels are used by transportation engineers as a shorthand and to describe traffic levels to the lay public. While this system generally uses delay as the basis for its measurements, the particular measurements and statistical methods vary depending on the facility being described. For instance, while the percent time spent following a slower-moving vehicle figures into the LOS for a rural two-lane road, the LOS at an urban intersection incorporates such measurements as the number of drivers forced to wait through more than one signal cycle.
Traffic congestion occurs in time and space, i.e., it is a spatiotemporal process. Therefore, another classification schema of traffic congestion is associated with some common spatiotemporal features of traffic congestion found in measured traffic data. Common spatiotemporal empirical features of traffic congestion are those features, which are qualitatively the same for different highways in different countries measured during years of traffic observations. Common features of traffic congestion are independent on weather, road conditions and road infrastructure, vehicular technology, driver characteristics, day time, etc. Examples of common features of traffic congestion are the features [J] and [S] for, respectively, the wide moving jam and synchronized flow traffic phases found in Kerner's three-phase traffic theory. The common features of traffic congestion can be reconstructed in space and time with the use of the ASDA and FOTO models.
Negative impacts
Traffic congestion has a number of negative effects:
Wasting time of motorists and passengers ("opportunity cost"). As a non-productive activity for most people, congestion reduces regional economic health.
Delays, which may result in late arrival for employment, meetings, and education, resulting in lost business, disciplinary action or other personal losses.
Inability to forecast travel time accurately, leading to drivers allocating more time to travel "just in case", and less time on productive activities.
Wasted fuel increasing air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions owing to increased idling, acceleration and braking.
Wear and tear on vehicles as a result of idling in traffic and frequent acceleration and braking, leading to more frequent repairs and replacements.
Stressed and frustrated motorists, encouraging road rage and reduced health of motorists
Emergencies: blocked traffic may interfere with the passage of emergency vehicles traveling to their destinations where they are urgently needed.
Spillover effect from congested main arteries to secondary roads and side streets as alternative routes are attempted ('rat running'), which may affect neighborhood amenity and real estate prices.
Higher chance of collisions due to tight spacing and constant stopping-and-going.
Road rage
Road rage is aggressive or angry behavior by a driver of an automobile or other motor vehicle. Such behavior might include rude gestures, verbal insults, deliberately driving in an unsafe or threatening manner, or making threats. Road rage can lead to altercations, assaults, and collisions which result in injuries and even deaths. It can be thought of as an extreme case of aggressive driving.The term originated in the United States in 1987–1988 (specifically, from Newscasters at KTLA, a local television station), when a rash of freeway shootings occurred on the 405, 110 and 10 freeways in Los Angeles, California. These shooting sprees even spawned a response from the AAA Motor Club to its members on how to respond to drivers with road rage or aggressive maneuvers and gestures.
Economic loss
Positive effects
Congestion has the benefit of encouraging motorists to retime their trips so that expensive road space is in full use for more hours per day.
It has been argued that traffic congestion, by reducing road speeds in cities, could reduce the frequency and severity of road crashes.
Countermeasures
Improving Road infrastructure
Increasing capacity
One standard response to congestion is to expand road capacity, perhaps by widening an existing road or adding a new road, bridge or tunnel. However, increasing capacity has been shown to result in attracting more traffic, otherwise known as induced demand. The result can be greater congestion on the expanded artery itself or on auxiliary roads. In a similar vein, Braess's paradox shows that adding road capacity might make congestion worse, even if demand does not increase. In his paper, "The Law of Peak Hour Express Way Congestion," published in 1962, Anthony Downs formulated this phenomenon as a "law": “on urban commuter expressways, peak-hour traffic congestion rises to meet maximum capacity.”
Junction improvements
Grade separation, using bridges (or, less often, tunnels) freeing movements from having to stop for other crossing movements
Ramp signalling, 'drip-feeding' merging traffic via traffic signals onto a congested motorway-type roadway
Reducing junctions
Local-express lanes, providing through lanes that bypass junction on-ramp and off-ramp zones
Limited-access road, roads that limit the type and amounts of driveways along their lengths
Reversible lanes, where certain sections of highway operate in the opposite direction on different times of the day(s) of the week, to match asymmetric demand. These pose a potential for collisions, if drivers do not notice the change in direction indicators. This may be controlled by variable-message signs or by movable physical separation
Separate lanes for specific user groups (usually with the goal of higher people throughput with fewer vehicles)
Bus lanes as part of a busway system
Express toll lanes
HOV lanes, for vehicles with at least three (sometimes at least two) riders, intended to encourage carpooling
Slugging, impromptu carpooling at HOV access points, on a hitchhiking or payment basis
Market-based carpooling with pre-negotiated financial incentives for the driver
Urban planning and design
City planning and urban design practices can have a huge impact on levels of future traffic congestion, though they are of limited relevance for short-term change.
Grid plans including fused grid road network geometry, rather than tree-like network topology which branches into cul-de-sacs (which reduce local traffic, but increase total distances driven and discourage walking by reducing connectivity). This avoids concentration of traffic on a small number of arterial roads and allows more trips to be made without a car.
Zoning laws that encourage mixed-use development, which reduces distances between residential, commercial, retail, and recreational destinations and encourage cycling and walking. Cycling modal share is strongly associated with the availability of local cycling infrastructure.
Carfree cities, car-light cities, and eco-cities designed to eliminate the need to travel by car for most inhabitants.
Transit-oriented development are residential and commercial areas designed to maximize access to public transport by providing a transit station or stop (train station, metro station, tram stop, or bus stop).
Supply and demand
Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity (supply), or by reducing traffic (demand). Capacity can be increased in a number of ways, but needs to take account of latent demand otherwise it may be used more strongly than anticipated. Critics of the approach of adding capacity have compared it to "fighting obesity by letting out your belt" (inducing demand that did not exist before). For example, when new lanes are created, households with a second car that used to be parked most of the time may begin to use this second car for commuting. Reducing road capacity has in turn been attacked as removing free choice as well as increasing travel costs and times, placing an especially high burden on the low income residents who must commute to work.
Increased supply can include:
Adding more capacity at bottlenecks (such as by adding more lanes at the expense of hard shoulders or safety zones, or by removing local obstacles like bridge supports and widening tunnels)
Adding more capacity over the whole of a route (generally by adding more lanes)
Creating new routes
Traffic management improvements (see separate section below)
Reduction of demand can include:
Parking restrictions, making motor vehicle use less attractive by increasing the monetary and non-monetary costs of parking, introducing greater competition for limited city or road space. Most transport planning experts agree that free parking distorts the market in favour of car travel, exacerbating congestion.
Park and ride facilities allowing parking at a distance and allowing continuation by public transport or ride sharing. Park-and-ride car parks are commonly found at metro stations, freeway entrances in suburban areas, and at the edge of smaller cities.
Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other travel modes. Methods include traffic calming and the shared space concept.
Road pricing, charging money for access onto a road/specific area at certain times, congestion levels or for certain road users
"Cap and trade", in which only licensed cars are allowed on the roads. A limited quota of car licences are issued each year and traded in a free market fashion. This guarantees that the number of cars does not exceed road capacity while avoiding the negative effects of shortages normally associated with quotas. However, since demand for cars tends to be inelastic, the result are exorbitant purchase prices for the licenses, pricing out the lower levels of society, as seen Singapore's Certificate of Entitlement scheme.
Congestion pricing, including:
Congestion zone charges - a certain area, such as the inner part of a congested city, is surrounded with a cordon into which entry with a car requires payment. The cordon may be a physical boundary (i.e., surrounded by toll stations) or it may be virtual, with enforcement being via spot checks or cameras on the entry routes. Major examples are Singapore's electronic road pricing, the London congestion charge system, Stockholm congestion tax
Fixed (the same at all times of day), variable (higher at peak times), or dynamic (higher during actual congestion) toll roads, toll bridges, toll tunnels, and toll lanes
Managed lanes
High-occupancy toll lanes
Reversible lanes
High-occupancy vehicle lanes
Bus lanes
Truck lane restrictions and climbing lanes, to allow faster vehicles to move unimpeded
Allowing driving on highway shoulders at peak times
Road space rationing, where regulatory restrictions prevent certain types of vehicles from driving under certain circumstances or in certain areas.
Number plate restrictions based on days of the week, as practiced in several large cities in the world, such as Athens, Mexico City, Manila and São Paulo. In effect, such cities are banning a different part of the automobile fleet from roads each day of the week. Mainly introduced to combat smog, these measures also reduce congestion. A weakness of this method is that richer drivers can purchase a second or third car to circumvent the ban.
Permits, where only certain types of vehicles (such as residents) are permitted to enter a certain area, and other types (such as through-traffic) are banned. For example, Bertrand Delanoë, the mayor of Paris, has proposed to impose a complete ban on motor vehicles in the city's inner districts, with exemptions only for residents, businesses, and the disabled.
Policy approaches, which usually attempt to provide either strategic alternatives or which encourage greater usage of existing alternatives through promotion, subsidies or restrictions.
Incentives to use public transport, increasing modal shares. This can be achieved through infrastructure investment, subsidies, transport integration, pricing strategies that decrease the marginal cost/fixed cost ratios, improved timetabling and greater priority for buses to reduce journey time e.g. bus lanes or bus rapid transit .
Cycling promotion through legislation, cycle facilities, subsidies, and awareness campaigns. The Netherlands has been pursuing cycle friendly policies for decades, and around a quarter of their commuting is done by bicycle.
Promotion of more flexible work place practices. For example, a flexible workplaces pilot was undertaken in Brisbane, Australia during 2009 to test the applicability of a voluntary travel behaviour change program to achieve transport system outcomes, particularly as they related to managing congestion, either through mode shift or peak spreading. During the one-month Pilot, amongst almost 900 Brisbane CBD workers across 20 private and public sector organisations, shifts of more than 30% out of the morning and afternoon peak travel was recorded.
Telecommuting encouraged through legislation and subsidies.
Online shopping promotion, potentially with automated delivery booths helping to solve the last mile problem and reduce shopping trips made by car.
Traffic management
Use of so-called intelligent transportation systems, which guide traffic:
Traffic reporting, via radio, GPS and mobile apps, to advise road users
Variable message signs installed along the roadway, to advise road users
Navigation systems, possibly linked up to automatic traffic reporting
Traffic counters permanently installed, to provide real-time traffic counts
Automated highway systems, a future idea which could reduce the safe interval between cars (required for braking in emergencies) and increase highway capacity by as much as 100% while increasing travel speeds
Parking guidance and information systems providing dynamic advice to motorists about free parking
Active traffic management system opens up UK motorway hard shoulder as an extra traffic lane; it uses CCTV and VMS to control and monitor the traffic's use of the extra lane.
Other associated
School opening times arranged to avoid rush hour traffic (in some countries, private car school pickup and drop-off traffic are substantial percentages of peak hour traffic).
Considerate driving behaviour promotion and enforcement. Driving practices such as tailgating and frequent lane changes can reduce a road's capacity and exacerbate jams. In some countries signs are placed on highways to raise awareness, while others have introduced legislation against inconsiderate driving.
Visual barriers to prevent drivers from slowing down out of curiosity (often called "rubbernecking" in the United States). This often includes crashes, with traffic slowing down even on roadsides physically separated from the crash location. This also tends to occur at construction sites, which is why some countries have introduced rules that motorway construction has to occur behind visual barrier
Speed limit reductions, as practiced on the M25 motorway in London. With lower speeds allowing cars to drive closer together, this increases the capacity of a road. Note that this measure is only effective if the interval between cars is reduced, not the distance itself. Low intervals are generally only safe at low speeds.
Lane splitting/filtering, in which some jurisdictions allow motorcycles, scooters and bicycles to travel in the space between cars, buses, and trucks.
Reduction of road freight avoiding problems such as double parking with innovative solutions including cargo bicycles and Gothenburg's Stadsleveransens.
Reducing the quantity of cars that are on the road, i.e. through proof-of-parking requirements, circulation plans, corporate car sharing, bans on on-street parking or by increasing the costs of car ownership
By country
Australia
Traffic during peak hours in major Australian cities, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane and Perth, is usually very congested and can cause considerable delay for motorists. Australians rely mainly on radio and television to obtain current traffic information. GPS, webcams, and online resources are increasingly being used to monitor and relay traffic conditions to motorists.
Bangladesh
Traffic jams have become intolerable in Dhaka. Some other major reasons are the total absence of a rapid transit system; the lack of an integrated urban planning scheme for over 30 years; poorly maintained road surfaces, with potholes rapidly eroded further by frequent flooding and poor or non-existent drainage; haphazard stopping and parking; poor driving standards; total lack of alternative routes, with several narrow and (nominally) one-way roads.
Brazil
According to Time magazine, São Paulo has the world's worst daily traffic jams. Based on reports from the Companhia de Engenharia de Tráfego, the city's traffic management agency, the historical congestion record was set on May 23, 2014, with of cumulative queues around the city during the evening rush hour. The previous record occurred on November 14, 2013, with of cumulative queues.
Despite implementation since 1997 of road space rationing by the last digit of the plate number during rush hours every weekday, traffic in this 20-million-strong city still experiences severe congestion. According to experts, this is due to the accelerated rate of motorization occurring since 2003 and the limited capacity of public transport. In São Paulo, traffic is growing at a rate of 7.5% per year, with almost 1,000 new cars bought in the city every day. The subway has only of lines, though 35 further kilometers are under construction or planned by 2010. Every day, many citizens spend between three up to four hours behind the wheel. In order to mitigate the aggravating congestion problem, since June 30, 2008 the road space rationing program was expanded to include and restrict trucks and light commercial vehicles.
Canada
According to the Toronto Board of Trade, in 2010, Toronto is ranked as the most congested city of 19 surveyed cities, with an average commute time of 80 minutes.
China
The Chinese city of Beijing started a license plate rationing since the 2008 Summer Olympics whereby each car is banned from the urban core one workday per week, depending on the last digit of its licence plate. As of 2016, 11 major Chinese cities have implemented similar policies. Towards the end of 2010, Beijing announced a series of drastic measures to tackle the city's chronic traffic congestion, such as limiting the number of new plates issued to passenger cars to 20,000 a month, barring vehicles with non-Beijing plates from entering areas within the Fifth Ring Road during rush hours and expanding its subway system. The government aims to cap the number of locally registered cars in Beijing to below 6.3 million by the end of 2020. In addition, more than nine major Chinese cities including Shanghai, Guangzhou and Hangzhou started limiting the number of new plates issued to passenger cars in an attempt to curb the growth of car ownership. In response to the increased demand to public transit caused by these policies, aggressive programs to rapidly expand public transport systems in many Chinese cities are currently underway.
A unique Chinese phenomenon of severe traffic congestion occurs during Chunyun Period or Spring Festival travel season. It is a long-held tradition for most Chinese people to reunite with their families during Chinese New Year. People return to their hometown to have a reunion dinner with their families on Chinese New Year. It has been described as the largest annual human migration in the world. Since the economic boom and rapid urbanization of China since the late 1970s, many people work and study a considerable distance from their hometowns. Traffic flow is typically directional, with large amounts of the population working in more developed coastal provinces needing travel to their hometowns in the less developed interior. The process reverses near the end of Chunyun. With almost 3 billion trips made in 40 days of the 2016 Chunyun Period, the Chinese intercity transportation network is extremely strained during this period.
The August 2010 China National Highway 110 traffic jam in Hebei province caught media attention for its severity, stretching more than from August 14 to 26, including at least 11 days of total gridlock. The event was caused by a combination of road works and thousands of coal trucks from Inner Mongolia's coalfields that travel daily to Beijing. The New York Times has called this event the "Great Chinese Gridlock of 2010." The congestion is regarded as the worst in history by duration, and is one of the longest in length after the long Lyon-Paris traffic jam in France on February 16, 1980.
Recently, in Hangzhou City Brain has become active, reducing traffic congestion somewhat.
A 2021 study of subway constructions in China found that in the first year of a new subway line, road congestion declined.
India
The number of vehicles in India is quickly increasing as a growing middle class can now afford to buy cars. India's road conditions have not kept up with the exponential growth in number of vehicles.
Various causes for this include:
Private encroachments
Non cooperation among drivers
Unscientific road design
Lack of free ways / exit ways where local roads and main roads intersect
Lack of demarcated footpaths
Lack of bus bays
Lack of cycle tracks
Lack of coordination among various government departments (e.g. digging of roads by telecom/water department and leaving it open)
Indonesia
According to a 2015 study by motor oil company Castrol, Jakarta is found to be the worst city in the world for traffic congestion. Relying on information from TomTom navigation devices in 78 countries, the index found that drivers are stopping and starting their cars 33,240 times per year on the road. After Jakarta, the worst cities for traffic are Istanbul, Mexico City, Surabaya, and St. Petersburg.
Daily congestion in Jakarta is not a recent problem. The expansion of commercial area without road expansion shows worsening daily congestion even in main roads such as Jalan Jenderal Sudirman, Jalan M.H. Thamrin, and Jalan Gajah Mada in the mid 1970s.
In 2016, 22 people died as a result of traffic congestion in Java. They were among those stuck in a three-day traffic jam at a toll exit in Brebes, Central Java called Brebes Exit or 'Brexit'. The traffic block stretched for 21 km here and thousands of cars clogged the highway. Many people died because of carbon monoxide poisoning, fatigue or heat.
New Zealand
New Zealand has followed strongly car-oriented transport policies since after World War II (especially in Auckland, where one third of the country's population lives, is New Zealand's most traffic congested city, and has been labelled worse than New York for traffic congestion with commuters sitting in traffic congestion for 95 hours per year), and currently has one of the highest car-ownership rates per capita in the world, after the United States. Traffic congestion in New Zealand is increasing with drivers on New Zealand's motorways reported to be struggling to exceed 20 km/h on an average commute, sometimes crawling along at 8 km/h for more than half an hour.
Philippines
According to a survey by Waze, traffic congestion in Metro Manila is called the "worst" in the world, after Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, and Jakarta. It is worsened by violations of traffic laws, like illegal parking, loading and unloading, beating the red light, and wrong-way driving. Traffic congestion in Metro Manila is caused by the large number of registered vehicles, lack of roads, and overpopulation, especially in the cities of Manila and Caloocan, as well as the municipality of Pateros. Traffic caused losses of ₱137,500,000,000 on the economy in 2011, and unbuilt roads and railway projects also causes worsening congestion. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) feared that daily economic losses will reach Php 6,000,000,000 by 2030 if traffic congestion cannot be controlled.
Turkey
In recent years, the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality has made huge investments on intelligent transportation systems and public transportation. Despite that, traffic is a significant problem in İstanbul.
İstanbul has chosen the second most congested and the most sudden-stopping traffic in the world. Travel times in Turkey's largest city take on average 55 percent longer than they should, even in relatively less busy hours.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom the inevitability of congestion in some urban road networks has been officially recognized since the Department for Transport set down policies based on the report Traffic in Towns in 1963:
Even when everything that it is possibly to do by way of building new roads and expanding public transport has been done, there would still be, in the absence of deliberate limitation, more cars trying to move into, or within our cities than could possibly be accommodated.
The Department for Transport sees growing congestion as one of the most serious transport problems facing the UK. On 1 December 2006, Rod Eddington published a UK government-sponsored report into the future of Britain's transport infrastructure. The Eddington Transport Study set out the case for action to improve road and rail networks, as a "crucial enabler of sustained productivity and competitiveness". Eddington has estimated that congestion may cost the economy of England £22 bn a year in lost time by 2025. He warned that roads were in serious danger of becoming so congested that the economy would suffer. At the launch of the report Eddington told journalists and transport industry representatives introducing road pricing to encourage drivers to drive less was an "economic no-brainer". There was, he said "no attractive alternative". It would allegedly cut congestion by half by 2025, and bring benefits to the British economy totalling £28 bn a year.
A congestion charge for driving in central London was introduced in 2003. In 2013, ten years later, Transport for London reported that the scheme resulted in a 10% reduction in traffic volumes from baseline conditions, and an overall reduction of 11% in vehicle kilometres in London. Despite these gains, traffic speeds in central London became progressively slower.
United States
The Texas Transportation Institute estimated that, in 2000, the 75 largest metropolitan areas experienced 3.6 billion vehicle-hours of delay, resulting in 5.7 billion U.S. gallons (21.6 billion liters) in wasted fuel and $67.5 billion in lost productivity, or about 0.7% of the nation's GDP. It also estimated that the annual cost of congestion for each driver was approximately $1,000 in very large cities and $200 in small cities. Traffic congestion is increasing in major cities and delays are becoming more frequent in smaller cities and rural areas.
30% of traffic is cars looking for parking.
According to traffic analysis firm INRIX in 2019, the top 31 worst US traffic congested cities (measured in average hours wasted per vehicle for the year) were:
The most congested highway in the United States, according to a 2010 study of freight congestion (truck speed and travel time), is Chicago's Interstate 290 at the Circle Interchange. The average truck speed was just .
See also
Connected car
Journal of Transport and Land Use
Peak car
Smeed's law
Transims
Transportation forecasting
Tourist rental cars
Traffic Message Channel (TMC)
Donald Shoup
Traffic obstruction
Urban planning
References
Bianchi Alves, B., & Darido, G. (2016, February 7). Sustainable cities, two related challenges: high quality mobility on foot and efficient urban logistics (Part II). Retrieved November 2, 2019, from https://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/sustainable-cities-two-related-challenges-high-quality-mobility-foot-and-efficient-urban-logistics-1.
2019 Top 100 Truck Bottlenecks. (2019, February 14). Retrieved November 3, 2019, from https://truckingresearch.org/2019/02/06/atri-2019-truck-bottlenecks/.
Haag, M., & Hu, W. (2019, October 27). 1.5 Million Packages a Day: The Internet Brings Chaos to N.Y. Streets. Retrieved November 1, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/27/nyregion/nyc-amazon-delivery.html?searchResultPosition=1.
Popovich, N., & Lu, D. (2019, October 10). The Most Detailed Map of Auto Emissions in America. Retrieved November 1, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/10/10/climate/driving-emissions-map.html?module=inline.
Reed, S. (2018, September 21). In London, Electric Trucks Are Helping UPS Make 'Eco-Friendly' Deliveries. Retrieved November 3, 2019, from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/21/business/energy-environment/electric-ups-trucks-in-london.html?module=inline.
Rooney, K. (2019, April 3). Online shopping overtakes a major part of retail for the first time ever. Retrieved November 2, 2019, from https://www.cnbc.com/2019/04/02/online-shopping-officially-overtakes-brick-and-mortar-retail-for-the-first-time-ever.html.
Further reading
B.S. Kerner, Introduction to Modern Traffic Flow Theory and Control: The Long Road to Three-Phase Traffic Theory, Springer, Berlin, New York 2009
B.S. Kerner, The Physics of Traffic, Springer, Berlin, New York 2004
Koslowsky, Meni; Avraham N. Kluger; and Mordechai Reich. Commuting Stress, New York: Plenum, 1995.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute (March 2013), Smart Congestion Relief – Comprehensive Analysis Of Traffic Congestion Costs and Congestion Reduction Benefits
R. Wiedemann, Simulation des Straßenverkehrsflusses. Schriftenreihe des IfV, 8, 1974. Institut für Verkehrswesen. Universität Karlsruhe (in German).
External links
Institute of Transportation Engineers
How Traffic Works from HowStuffWorks.com
Road transport
Road traffic management
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234227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Christoff%20von%20K%C3%B6nigsmarck | Hans Christoff von Königsmarck | Count Hans Christoff von Königsmarck, of Tjust (4 March 1600 – 8 March 1663), son of Conrad von Königsmarck and Beatrix von Blumenthal, was a German soldier who commanded Sweden's legendary flying column, a force which played a key role in the Swedish military strategy in the Thirty Years' War.
Biography
He was born in Kötzlin, Altmark. After serving as a page on the court of Prince Frederick Ulrich of Wolfenbüttel, he entered Imperial military service in 1620. After the dissolution of Wallenstein's troops and Gustavus Adolphus' intervention, Königsmarck offered his services to the Swedish King. By 1635 he commanded his own regiment. He was appointed major general in 1640, governor general of Bremen-Verden in 1645, Privy Councilor in 1651 and field marshal in 1655. He is best known for the Siege of Prague between 25 June and 1 November 1648, where he managed to capture and loot the left-bank part of Prague but failed to take the Old Town until fighting ended with news of the Peace of Westphalia.
During the Second Northern War, Königsmarck was captured on a sea passage to the polish front by Danzigian ships and held prisoner at Weichselmünde until the Treaty of Oliva 1660.
In 1655 Königsmarck erected a castle in Lieth and named it after his wife Agathe von Leesten. The name of the castle, Agathenburg, also became the toponym of the village Lieth. Their children were:
Otto Wilhelm von Königsmarck
Conrad or Kurt Christoph von Königsmarck, whose children were:
Karl Johann von Königsmarck
Maria Aurora von Königsmarck.
Amalia Wilhelmina von Königsmarck
Philip Christoph von Königsmarck
Beata Elisabet von Königsmarck
He died, aged 63, in Stockholm.
References
:de:s:ADB:Königsmarck, Hans Christoph Graf von
Notes
External links
WorldCat page
1605 births
1663 deaths
People from Kyritz
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish people of the Thirty Years' War
German emigrants to Sweden
Swedish people of German descent
Swedish nobility
People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg
17th-century Swedish military personnel
17th-century Swedish politicians
Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War | [
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234228 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustaf%20Adolf%20Lewenhaupt | Gustaf Adolf Lewenhaupt | Count Gustaf Adolf Levenhaupt (aka Löwenhaupt; 1619–1656) was a Swedish soldier and statesman.
He was appointed Major General in 1645, Privy Councilor in 1650, General in 1651, Field Marshal, in 1655 and Governor General of Riga, in 1656. In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) he commanded troops at the Battle of Breitenfeld (First Battle of Leipzig), in 1642.
Queen Christina of Sweden promised him the Himmelpforten Convent with all its revenues, and on 30 July/ 9 August 1651O.S./N.S. he was invested with the convent as a fief heritable in the male line (Mannlehen). In the course of the Great Reduction of 1680 in the following year the general government of Swedish Bremen-Verden revoked the enfeoffment to the Lewenhaupt/Löwenhaupt counts, so that Lewenhaupt's son Gustaf Mauritz (1651–1700) lost Himmelpforten again to the Swedish crown.
References
1619 births
1656 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish people of German descent
Swedish counts
17th-century Swedish politicians
17th-century Swedish military personnel | [
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234229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lars%20Kagg | Lars Kagg | Lars Kagg (1 May 1595 – 19 November 1661) was a Swedish count and military officer. He was a political ally of King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, a member of the Privy Council of Sweden and Field Marshal during the Thirty Years' War.
Kagg was born at the Kiellstorp estate in Örslösa parish in Skaraborg, now Västra Götaland County. He was the son of Chamberlain Nils Mathisson Kagg. In 1609, at the age of fourteen, he was taken to the court of King Charles IX of Sweden, where he formed a lifelong relationship with Crown Prince Gustav Adolph.
In 1626, he became deputy governor of Narva and Ivangorod in Swedish Ingria. In 1628, he became colonel of in the Jönköping infantry regiment. In 1631, he became commander in Brandenburg an der Havel and Spandau. In 1632, he became governor of the city of Magdeburg. He was made Lord High Constable of Sweden in 1660.
In 1647, Kagg acquired Kaggeholms gård, an estate on the island of Helgö situated in Lake Mälaren, today the site of Kaggeholm Castle (Kaggeholms slott).
References
External links
Kaggeholms slott
1595 births
1661 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
17th-century Swedish politicians
17th-century Swedish military personnel | [
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] |
234231 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leach%27s%20storm%20petrel | Leach's storm petrel | Leach's storm petrel or Leach's petrel (Hydrobates leucorhous) is a small seabird of the tubenose order. It is named after the British zoologist William Elford Leach. The scientific name is derived from Ancient Greek. Hydrobates is from hydōr "water", and batēs "walker", and leucorhous is from leukos, "white" and orrhos, "rump". It was formerly defined in the genus Oceanodroma before that genus was synonymized with Hydrobates.
It breeds on inaccessible islands in the colder northern areas of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It nests in colonies close to the sea in well concealed areas such as rock crevices, shallow burrows, or even logs. It lays a single white egg, which often has a faint ring of purple spots at the large end. This storm petrel is strictly nocturnal at the breeding sites to avoid predation by gulls and skuas, and even avoids coming to land on clear, moonlit nights. The largest colony of Leach's storm petrels can be found on Baccalieu Island of eastern Canada, an ecological reserve with ~1.95 million pairs of the birds at last estimate in 2013.
Description
Leach's petrel, known in some rural areas (particularly in Newfoundland) as Mother Carey's chicks, Carey chicks, or Careys, is a small bird at 18–21 cm in length with a 43– to 48-cm wingspan. Like many other storm petrels, it has all-dark plumage and usually a white rump. However, dark-rumped individuals exist on the west coast of North America; they are very rare north of southern California, but the percentage increases suddenly on the United States-Mexico border, where 90-100% of breeding birds are dark-rumped. In Europe, it can be readily distinguished from the European storm petrel and Wilson's storm petrel by its larger size, forked tail, different rump pattern, and flight behavior. Identification in the Americas, however, proves more difficult. On the Atlantic Coast, separating this species from band-rumped storm petrels is difficult; identification involves characteristics such as the extent of white on the rump and flight pattern. Discerning this species from others is arguably hardest on the Pacific Coast, where the dark-rumped form can be confused with at least three other all-dark storm petrel species. Here, identification involves close attention to wingbeats and overall color. It has a fluttering flight, and patters on the water as it picks planktonic food items from the ocean surface. Like most petrels, its walking ability is limited to a short shuffle to the burrow.
Subspecies
H. l. leucorhous — (Vieillot, 1818) — coasts of the North Pacific and the North Atlantic
H. l. chapmani — von Berlepsch, 1906 — Coronados and San Benito Island (Mexico)
Distribution and habitat
It is strictly pelagic outside the breeding season, and this, together with its remote breeding sites, makes Leach's petrel a difficult bird to see from land. Only in storms might this species be pushed into headlands. Unlike the European storm petrel, it does not follow ships. In Europe, the best chance of seeing this species is in September in Liverpool Bay between north Wales and England. Strong north-westerlies funnel migrating Leach's petrels into this bay. British ornithologists Robert Atkinson and John Ainslie observed the communities of Leach's petrel on the remote Scottish islands of North Rona between 16 July and 12 August 1936, and on Sula Sgeir between 3 and 4 August 1939. The bird was first photographed at the nest in 1958, on Eilean Mor, one of the Flannan Isles off the west coast of the Outer Hebrides in Scotland, by Jo Moran.
Ecology
Lifespan for this bird is unusually long for a bird of such small size, with an average of 25 years and a maximum recorded lifespan of 38+ years (a bird banded between 1979 and 1982 recaptured in 2019 still healthy). In 2003, Haussmann et al. found that the bird's telomeres lengthen with age, the only known example to date of such a phenomenon. However, this phenomenon likely also occurs in other members of the Procellariiformes, which all have a rather long lifespan compared to their size.
They feed primarily on plankton, including euphausiids, copepods, and a form of amphipod that is parasitic to jellyfish gonadal pouches. They also feed to a large extent on myctophids (lantern fish), which only occur at the surface at night in water over the continental slope. Individuals have been observed to feed at distances up to 1000 km from their breeding colony. A breeding individual stores energy-rich lipids in a sac anterior to its stomach, which is used to either sustain itself while incubating its single egg, to feed its chick, or as a defensive mechanism when caught by a predator, as do many other Procellariformes. Some evidence shows that parents feed their chicks different prey species from what they consume themselves. Parent birds also accidentally feed their chicks plastic debris, which they mistake for food items floating on the surface of the ocean. Chicks grow to a prefledging weight almost double that of when they actually fledge from the burrow in late September. During their migration, they travel to waters associated with the North Equatorial Current, or to waters associated with the Benguela Current. Fall storms can cause these young fledging individuals to wreck on the mainland.
References
External links
Leach’s Storm Petrel - The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Leach's storm-petrel [Oceanodroma leucorhoa] - photos, Christopher Taylor Nature Photography
Leach's storm-petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
Stamps (for Canada, Faroe Islands and Marshall Islands)
Leach's Storm-Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa - photos, VIREO
Leach's Storm-Petrel (Oceanodroma leucorhoa) - Avibase
Leach's storm petrel
Birds of the Atlantic Ocean
Birds of the Pacific Ocean
Birds of Iceland
Birds of Europe
Birds of Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Native birds of Eastern Canada
Native birds of Western Canada
Subterranean nesting birds
Leach's storm petrel
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot
Holarctic birds | [
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234232 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graham%27s%20number | Graham's number | Graham's number is an immense number that arose as an upper bound on the answer of a problem in the mathematical field of Ramsey theory. It is much larger than many other large numbers such as Skewes's number and Moser's number, both of which are in turn much larger than a googolplex. As with these, it is so large that the observable universe is far too small to contain an ordinary digital representation of Graham's number, assuming that each digit occupies one Planck volume, possibly the smallest measurable space. But even the number of digits in this digital representation of Graham's number would itself be a number so large that its digital representation cannot be represented in the observable universe. Nor even can the number of digits of that number—and so forth, for a number of times far exceeding the total number of Planck volumes in the observable universe. Thus Graham's number cannot be expressed even by physical universe-scale power towers of the form .
However, Graham's number can be explicitly given by computable recursive formulas using Knuth's up-arrow notation or equivalent, as was done by Graham. As there is a recursive formula to define it, it is much smaller than typical busy beaver numbers. Though too large to be computed in full, the sequence of digits of Graham's number can be computed explicitly through simple algorithms; the last thirteen digits are ...7262464195387. With Knuth's up-arrow notation, Graham's number is , where
Graham's number is named after the American mathematician Ronald Graham, who used the number in conversations with popular science writer Martin Gardner as a simplified explanation of the upper bounds of the problem he was working on. In 1977, Gardner described the number in Scientific American, introducing it to the general public. At the time of its introduction, it was the largest specific positive integer ever to have been used in a published mathematical proof. The number was described in the 1980 Guinness Book of World Records, adding to its popular interest. Other specific integers (such as TREE(3)) known to be far larger than Graham's number have since appeared in many serious mathematical proofs, for example in connection with Harvey Friedman's various finite forms of Kruskal's theorem. Additionally, smaller upper bounds on the Ramsey theory problem from which Graham's number derived have since been proven to be valid.
Context
Graham's number is connected to the following problem in Ramsey theory:
In 1971, Graham and Rothschild proved the Graham–Rothschild theorem on the Ramsey theory of parameter words, a special case of which shows that this problem has a solution N*. They bounded the value of N* by 6 ≤ N* ≤ N, with N being a large but explicitly defined number
where in Knuth's up-arrow notation; the number is between 4 → 2 → 8 → 2 and 2 → 3 → 9 → 2 in Conway chained arrow notation. This was reduced in 2014 via upper bounds on the Hales–Jewett number to
which contains three tetrations. In 2019 this was further improved to:
The lower bound of 6 was later improved to 11 by Geoffrey Exoo in 2003, and to 13 by Jerome Barkley in 2008. Thus, the best known bounds for N* are .
Graham's number, G, is much larger than N: , where . This weaker upper bound for the problem, attributed to an unpublished work of Graham, was eventually published and named by Martin Gardner in Scientific American in November 1977.
Publication
The number gained a degree of popular attention when Martin Gardner described it in the "Mathematical Games" section of Scientific American in November 1977, writing that Graham had recently established, in an unpublished proof, "a bound so vast that it holds the record for the largest number ever used in a serious mathematical proof." The 1980 Guinness Book of World Records repeated Gardner's claim, adding to the popular interest in this number. According to physicist John Baez, Graham invented the quantity now known as Graham's number in conversation with Gardner. While Graham was trying to explain a result in Ramsey theory which he had derived with his collaborator Bruce Lee Rothschild, Graham found that the said quantity was easier to explain than the actual number appearing in the proof. Because the number which Graham described to Gardner is larger than the number in the paper itself, both are valid upper bounds for the solution to the problem studied by Graham and Rothschild.
Definition
Using Knuth's up-arrow notation, Graham's number G (as defined in Gardner's Scientific American article) is
where the number of arrows in each subsequent layer is specified by the value of the next layer below it; that is,
where
and where a superscript on an up-arrow indicates how many arrows there are. In other words, G is calculated in 64 steps: the first step is to calculate g1 with four up-arrows between 3s; the second step is to calculate g2 with g1 up-arrows between 3s; the third step is to calculate g3 with g2 up-arrows between 3s; and so on, until finally calculating G = g64 with g63 up-arrows between 3s.
Equivalently,
and the superscript on f indicates an iteration of the function, e.g., . Expressed in terms of the family of hyperoperations , the function f is the particular sequence , which is a version of the rapidly growing Ackermann function A(n, n). (In fact, for all n.) The function f can also be expressed in Conway chained arrow notation as , and this notation also provides the following bounds on G:
Magnitude
To convey the difficulty of appreciating the enormous size of Graham's number, it may be helpful to express—in terms of exponentiation alone—just the first term (g1) of the rapidly growing 64-term sequence. First, in terms of tetration () alone:
where the number of 3s in the expression on the right is
Now each tetration () operation reduces to a power tower () according to the definition
where there are X 3s.
Thus,
becomes, solely in terms of repeated "exponentiation towers",
and where the number of 3s in each tower, starting from the leftmost tower, is specified by the value of the next tower to the right.
In other words, g1 is computed by first calculating the number of towers, (where the number of 3s is ), and then computing the nth tower in the following sequence:
1st tower: 3
2nd tower: 3↑3↑3 (number of 3s is 3) = 7625597484987
3rd tower: 3↑3↑3↑3↑...↑3 (number of 3s is 7625597484987) = …
⋮
g1 = nth tower: 3↑3↑3↑3↑3↑3↑3↑...↑3 (number of 3s is given by the n-1th tower)
where the number of 3s in each successive tower is given by the tower just before it. Note that the result of calculating the third tower is the value of n, the number of towers for g1.
The magnitude of this first term, g1, is so large that it is practically incomprehensible, even though the above display is relatively easy to comprehend. Even n, the mere number of towers in this formula for g1, is far greater than the number of Planck volumes (roughly 10185 of them) into which one can imagine subdividing the observable universe. And after this first term, still another 63 terms remain in the rapidly growing g sequence before Graham's number G = g64 is reached. To illustrate just how fast this sequence grows, while g1 is equal to with only four up arrows, the number of up arrows in g2 is this incomprehensibly large number g1.
Rightmost decimal digits
Graham's number is a "power tower" of the form 3↑↑n (with a very large value of n), so its rightmost decimal digits must satisfy certain properties common to all such towers. One of these properties is that all such towers of height greater than d (say), have the same sequence of d rightmost decimal digits. This is a special case of a more general property: The d rightmost decimal digits of all such towers of height greater than d+2, are independent of the topmost "3" in the tower; i.e., the topmost "3" can be changed to any other non-negative integer without affecting the d rightmost digits.
The following table illustrates, for a few values of d, how this happens. For a given height of tower and number of digits d, the full range of d-digit numbers (10d of them) does not occur; instead, a certain smaller subset of values repeats itself in a cycle. The length of the cycle and some of the values (in parentheses) are shown in each cell of this table:
The particular rightmost d digits that are ultimately shared by all sufficiently tall towers of 3s are in bold text, and can be seen developing as the tower height increases. For any fixed number of digits d (row in the table), the number of values possible for 33↑…3↑x mod 10d, as x ranges over all nonnegative integers, is seen to decrease steadily as the height increases, until eventually reducing the "possibility set" to a single number (colored cells) when the height exceeds d+2.
A simple algorithm for computing these digits may be described as follows: let x = 3, then iterate, d times, the assignment x = 3x mod 10d. Except for omitting any leading 0s, the final value assigned to x (as a base-ten numeral) is then composed of the d rightmost decimal digits of 3↑↑n, for all n > d. (If the final value of x has fewer than d digits, then the required number of leading 0s must be added.)
Let k be the numerousness of these stable digits, which satisfy the congruence relation G(mod 10k)≡[GG](mod 10k).
k=t-1, where G(t):=3↑↑t. It follows that, .
The algorithm above produces the following 500 rightmost decimal digits of Graham's number ():
...02425950695064738395657479136519351798334535362521
43003540126026771622672160419810652263169355188780
38814483140652526168785095552646051071172000997092
91249544378887496062882911725063001303622934916080
25459461494578871427832350829242102091825896753560
43086993801689249889268099510169055919951195027887
17830837018340236474548882222161573228010132974509
27344594504343300901096928025352751833289884461508
94042482650181938515625357963996189939679054966380
03222348723967018485186439059104575627262464195387
References
Bibliography
; reprinted (revised) in Gardner (2001), cited below.
The explicit formula for N appears on p. 290. This is not the "Graham's number" G published by Martin Gardner.
On p. 90, in stating "the best available estimate" for the solution, the explicit formula for N is repeated from the 1971 paper.
External links
Sbiis Saibian's article on Graham's number
"A Ramsey Problem on Hypercubes" by Geoff Exoo
Mathworld article on Graham's number
How to calculate Graham's number
Conceptualizing Graham's number
Some Ramsey results for the n-cube prepublication mentions Graham's number
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
The last 16 million digits of Graham's number by the Darkside communication group
Ramsey theory
Integers
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234233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axel%20Lillie | Axel Lillie | Count Axel Lillie, also spelled Lillje (23 July 1603 – 20 December 1662) was a Swedish soldier and politician. He was appointed Lieutenant Governor General of Pomerania in 1643, Privy Councilor in 1648, Governor General of Pomerania in 1652, Field Marshal in 1657, and Governor General of Livonia in 1661. In the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), he commanded troops at the Battle of Leipzig, in 1642. He had Löfstad Castle built.
1603 births
1662 deaths
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish Pomerania
17th-century Swedish military personnel
17th-century Swedish politicians | [
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234234 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustaf%20Otto%20Stenbock | Gustaf Otto Stenbock | Count Gustaf Otto Stenbock (7 September 1614 – 24 September 1685) was a Swedish soldier and politician.
He was son of Friherre Gustav Eriksson Stenbock (1575–1629) and Countess Beata Margareta Brahe (1583–1645), born in Torpa, Länghem parish, Tranemo Municipality, Västergötland, Sweden.
He was appointed commanding officer of the Kronoberg Regiment in 1637, Major General in 1643, Privy Councilor in 1652, Field Marshal in 1656, under the terms of the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658 became Governor General of Scania, Halland and Blekinge, Lord High Admiral in 1664, and Chancellor of Lund University in 1666. He was deposed as admiral by King Charles XI of Sweden in 1675.
Family
22 July 1645 married 1stly Baroness Brita Horn of Åminne (died 1685).
Children
Count Gustaf Stenbock (1646–1672)
Beata Stenbock (died 1648)
Sigrid Stenbock (died 1648)
Christina Katharina Stenbock (1649–1719), married Swedish statesman and Governor-General of Estonia Anders Torstenson.
Magdalena Katharina Stenbock (1652–1676), married Gustaf Mauritz Lewenhaupt (1651–1700), son of Gustaf Adolf Lewenhaupt
Count Carl Otto Stenbock (1653–1697), married baroness Margareta Soop of Limingo
1 June 1658 married 2ndly Gothenburg countess Christina Catharine De la Gardie (1632–1704), daughter of Field Marshal and Count Jakob De la Gardie (1583–1652) and Countess Ebba Brahe (1596–1674) in Gothenburg and bought one of the largest estate in the Baltic area (Kolga manor, Kuusalu Parish) in Estonia from De la Gardie family with a land of 500 km².
Children
Brigitta Stenbock (1660–1682)
Beata Margareta Stenbock (1661–1735), married count Gustaf Douglas (1648–1705)
Count Erik Gustaf Stenbock (1662–1722), married Countess Johanna Eleonora De la Gardie (1661–1708)
Count Jakob Stenbock
Count Magnus Stenbock (1663–1717), Swedish military officer, married Eva Magdalena Oxenstierna
Hedvig Eleonora Stenbock (1664–1729), 1684 married Freiherr Lorentz Creutz d.y.(1646–1698).
Charlotta Maria Stenbock (1667–1740), married count Axel Johan Lewenhaupt (1660–1717).
External links
Worldroots.com - The Descendants of Gustaf I Eriksson, King of Sweden
Gustaf Otto Stenbock (Gustavsson) Swedish
Stenbock family tree at Ancestry.com community
Gustaf Otto Stenbock family
Portrait, 1729: Gustavus Otto Stenbock
1614 births
1685 deaths
People from Tranemo Municipality
Field marshals of Sweden
Governors-General of Sweden
Swedish nobility
Members of the Privy Council of Sweden
Swedish admirals
17th-century Swedish military personnel
17th-century Swedish politicians | [
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234235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20grouse | Black grouse | The black grouse, northern black grouse, Eurasian black grouse, blackgame, or blackcock (Lyrurus tetrix), is a large game bird in the grouse family. It is a sedentary species, spanning across the Palearctic in moorland and steppe habitat when breeding, often near wooded areas. They will spend the winter perched in dense forests, feeding almost exclusively on the needles of conifers. The black grouse is one of 2 species of grouse in the genus Lyrurus, the other being the lesser-known Caucasian grouse.
The female is greyish-brown and has a cackling or warbling call. She takes all responsibility for nesting and caring for the chicks, as typical with most galliforms.
The black grouse's genome was sequenced in 2014.
Taxonomy and naming
The black grouse was formally described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Tetrao tetrix. Both Tetrao and tetrix come from Ancient Greek words referring to some form of game bird. The black grouse is now placed in the genus Lyrurus that was introduced in 1832 by the English naturalist William John Swainson.
The male and female are sometimes referred to by their folk names, blackcock and greyhen, respectively. These names first occur in the literature with John Ray in 1674. Heathcock and Heathhen are also common names.
Subspecies
Seven subspecies of black grouse are recognized. Black grouse populations differ slightly in size and coloration, with birds increasing in size further east of their range:
L. tetrix brittanicus (British black grouse) - parts of Great Britain; Scotland, Wales, and northern England; the smallest and darkest
L. tetrix tetrix - most of its range; Scandinavia and western Europe to northeast Siberia
L. tetrix viridanus - northern Kazakhstan, southeast European Russia and southwestern Siberia between Don River and Irtysh River, including the Ural Mountains; has the most white on its wings, upperparts streaked brown
L. tetrix tschusii - Irtysh River to Lake Baikal, north to Tomsk and Krasnoyarsk, and south to the Altai and Sayan Mountains
L. tetrix mongolicus (Mongolian black grouse) - Kyrgyzstan and Tien Shan east to the Altai, Sayan, and nearby mountain ranges in western Mongolia
L. tetrix baikalensis (Baikal black grouse) - southeast Siberia from Lake Baikal eastward to Amurland and southward to northern Mongolia and northeast China (Inner Mongolia); possibly the largest, gloss is lighter blue in color
L. tetrix ussuriensis (Ussuri black grouse) - Far East Russia; Amurland, northeastern China (sp. Heilongjiang and Jilin) down to the Ussuri River and northeast Korea; smaller than baikalensis
Description and appearance
The black grouse is a large bird with males measuring roughly around in length and weighing , sometimes up to , with females approximately and weighing . The cock's fancy plumage is predominantly black with deep-blue hues on his neck and back, which contrasts the white wingline and undertail coverts, as well as red bare skin above each eye. On the other hand, the hen is much drabber and cryptically-colored to blend in easily with the dense undergrowth, especially when nesting. The black grouse, along with the Caucasian grouse, has long outer rectrices (tail feathers) that curl outward and arranged in a way it resembles the frame of a Greek lyre, hence the genus name, Lyrurus.
Distribution and habitat
Black grouse can be found on open habitats across Europe (Swiss-Italian-French Alps specially) from Great Britain (but not Ireland) through Scandinavia, Estonia and across Russia. In Eastern Europe they can be found in Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Romania and Ukraine. There is a population in the Alps, and isolated remnants in Germany, France, Belgium and the Netherlands. It formerly occurred in Denmark, but the Danish Ornithological Society (DOF) has considered it extinct since 2001. The species disappeared from Bulgaria in the 19th century. In Asia, a huge portion of their population can be found in Russia (particularly southern Siberia), though they also inhabit parts of Kazakhstan, Mongolia, China, and possibly Korea.
Black grouse are adapted to a extensive array of habitats across Eurasia, though most frequently utilize the transitionary zones between forests and open clearings, especially steppe, heathland, grassland and pasture when near agricultural fields. Depending on the season, they will overwinter in large flocks in dense forests, and feed primarily on the leaves and buds of coniferous and broadleaf trees, such as Scots pine, Siberian larch, silver birch, and Eurasian aspen. Throughout the spring and summer, they tend to favor open spaces to seek potential mates and raise broods, switching their diet to berries, shoots and stems of cranberries, bog bilberries, myrtleberries, and other Vaccinium shrubs. They avoid the most extreme of desert and polar regions.
Conservation status
Although this species has declined throughout most of its range in western Europe, it is not considered to be vulnerable globally due to the large population (global estimate is 15–40 million individuals) and slow rate of decline. Its decline is due to loss of habitat, disturbance, predation by foxes, crows, etc., and small populations gradually dying out.
The IUCN implemented a Black Grouse Action Plan 2007–2010. This has looked at local populations that are vulnerable to the extinction vortex. For example, in Styria, Austria.
In the United Kingdom black grouse are found in upland areas of Wales, the Pennines and most of Scotland. Best looked for on farmland and moorland with nearby forestry or scattered trees. They have traditional lek sites where the males display.
They have declined in some parts of the UK (especially England), having disappeared from many of their former haunts. They are now extirpated in Lancashire, Derbyshire, Exmoor, East Yorkshire, New Forest, Nottinghamshire, Worcestershire, Quantock Hills, Cornwall, Dartmoor, Kent, Wiltshire and Surrey.
A programme to re-introduce black grouse into the wild started in 2003 in the Upper Derwent Valley area of the Peak District in England. 30 grouse were released in October 2003, followed by 10 male grouse in December 2004 and a further 10 males and 10 females in April 2005. The programme is being run jointly by the National Trust, Severn Trent Water and Peak District National Park.
Conservation groups helping to revive the black grouse include the RSPB and the Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust.
In France there has been much work regarding the birds and their risk of flying into ski-lifts.
From 1950-2000, local black grouse populations have steadily diminished in Manchuria and northeastern China by about 39%, with birds being most affected (and possibly extirpated) in the Jilin Province. Though the exact causes for local declines remain largely unclear, habitat loss and excess hunting have played a part in the overall reduction. Additionally, climate change might have modified the range and densities of black grouse. Shifts in their location, however, can happen concurrently with the depletion over decades, so short-term research projects may not provide much proof of driving forces behind population alterations.
Based on historical info gathered from various sources (including wildlife surveys and scientific papers), aspen, birch, and poplar make up the black grouse's staple diet and habitat. The climate and precipitation during the month of June is also linked to the breeding success of black grouse.
Breeding and nesting
Black grouse have a very distinctive and well-recorded courtship ritual. Every dawn in the spring, male grouse begin competition with other males in hopes of attracting a hen to mate with. They will display to signal their territory and vigor by fanning out their elaborate lyre-shaped tails and inflating their necks on designated open ground called a lek. Their song consists of a long, dove-like bubbling coo or murmur. Black grouse hens visiting the lek decide the overall healthiest male, though not all females may arrive at every lek.
In western Europe, these leks seldom contain more than 40 birds; in Russia, 150 is not uncommon and 200 have been recorded.
When mated successfully, she will fly away from the site to a suitable nesting site with an abundance of dense shrub or tall vegetation, often located at a tree base in between roots, under low branches, beside a boulder, or extremely rarely, a used raptor's or corvid's nest off the ground. A dent ( wide by deep) is scraped out on the dirt floor and cushioned with grasses, sticks, leaves, and feathers. About 6-11 pale buff eggs speckled brown are then laid in the nest, incubated for approx. 23–28 days. The chicks consume invertebrates, transitioning to more plant matter as they mature. By around 10–14 days and so forth, they are capable of short flights.
Where their range overlaps in similar biomes of other species, they are capable of hybridizing with the ringneck pheasant, western capercaillie, black-billed capercaillie, Siberian grouse, hazel grouse, and willow ptarmigan.
Relationship to humans
The tails of black-cocks have, since late Victorian times, been popular adornments for hats worn with Highland Dress. Most commonly associated with Glengarry and Balmoral or Tam o' Shanter caps, they still continue to be worn by pipers of civilian and military pipe bands. Since 1904, all ranks of the Royal Scots and King's Own Scottish Borderers have worn them in their full-dress headgear and that tradition is carried on in the dress glengarries of the current Scottish super regiment, the Royal Regiment of Scotland.
Gallery
References
External links
Black Grouse in the UK Published in support of the UK Biodiversity Action Plan for black grouse
Black Grouse at RSPB Birds by Name
Black Grouse Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust
Black Grouse photos and voice at nature-pictures.org
Black Grouse Lekking (Video)
Lyrurus
black grouse
Birds of Eurasia
black grouse
Articles containing video clips
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234236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Friedrich%20Hermann | Karl Friedrich Hermann | Karl Friedrich Hermann (4 August 1804 – 31 December 1855) was a German classical scholar and antiquary.
Biography
He was born at Frankfurt-am-Main. Having studied philosophy at the universities of Heidelberg and Leipzig (and taking a degree in 1824), he went on a tour of Italy; on his return from which he lectured as privatdozent in Heidelberg. In 1832 he was appointed professor of classical philology at the University of Marburg, and in 1833 received the additional offices of second librarian at the university, and director of the philological seminary. In 1842 he transferred to Göttingen as the chair of philology and archaeology, vacant by the death of Otfried Müller. At Göttingen, his colleagues were Friedrich Wilhelm Schneidewin, Ernst von Leutsch and Friedrich Wieseler.
Works
His knowledge of all branches of classical learning was profound, but he was chiefly distinguished for his works on Greek antiquities and ancient philosophy. Among these may be mentioned, the Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten (1858) dealing with political, religious and domestic antiquities; the Geschichte und System der Platonischen Philosophie (1839), unfinished; an edition of the Platonis Dialogi ("Platonic dialogues"), 6 volumes, 1851–1853); and Culturgeschichte der Griechen und Römer (1857), published after his death by Karl Gustav Schmidt. He also edited the text of Juvenal and Persius (1854) and Lucian's De conscribenda historia (1828). A collection of Abhandlungen und Beiträge appeared in 1849.
References
This work in turn cites:
M. Lechner, Zur Erinnerung an Karl Friedrich Hermann (1864)
External links
1804 births
1855 deaths
German classical scholars
German classical philologists
Leipzig University alumni
Heidelberg University alumni
Archaeologists from Frankfurt
University of Marburg faculty
University of Göttingen faculty | [
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234237 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire%20Dales | Yorkshire Dales | The Yorkshire Dales is an upland area of the Pennines in the historic county of Yorkshire, England, most of it in the Yorkshire Dales National Park created in 1954.
The Dales comprise river valleys and the hills rising from the Vale of York westwards to the hilltops of the Pennine watershed. In Ribblesdale, Dentdale and Garsdale, the area extends westwards across the watershed, but most of the valleys drain eastwards to the Vale of York, into the Ouse and the Humber. The extensive limestone cave systems are a major area for caving in the UK and numerous walking trails run through the hills and dales.
Etymology
The word dale, like dell, is derived from the Old English word dæl. It has cognates in the Nordic/Germanic words for valley (dal, tal), and occurs in valley names across Yorkshire and Northern England. Usage here may have been reinforced by Nordic languages during the time of the Danelaw.
Most of the dales are named after their river or stream (e.g., Arkengarthdale, formed by Arkle Beck). The best-known exception is Wensleydale, which is named after the small village and former market town of Wensley, rather than the River Ure, although an older name for the dale is Yoredale. River valleys all over Yorkshire are called "(name of river)+dale"—but only the more northern valleys (and only the upper, rural, reaches) are included in the term "The Dales".
Geography
The Yorkshire Dales are surrounded by the North Pennines and Orton Fells in the north, the Vales of York and Mowbray in the east, the South Pennines in the south, and the Lake District and Howgill Fells to the west. They spread to the north from the market and spa towns of Settle, Skipton, and Harrogate in North Yorkshire, to the southern boundary in Wharfedale and Airedale. Natural England define the area as most of the Yorkshire Dales National Park with fringes of the Nidderdale AONB, but without the towns listed above apart from Settle.
The lower reaches of Airedale and Wharfedale are not usually included in the area, and Calderdale, south of Airedale and in the South Pennines, is not often considered part of the Dales (even though it is a dale, is in Yorkshire, and its upper reaches are as scenic and rural as many further north). Additionally, although the National Park includes the Howgill Fells and Orton Fells, they are not usually considered part of the Dales.
Most of the larger southern dales – Ribblesdale, Malhamdale and Airedale, Wharfedale and Nidderdale – run roughly parallel from north to south. The more northerly dales – Wensleydale and Swaledale – run generally from west to east. There are many other smaller or lesser-known dales such as Arkengarthdale, Bishopdale, Clapdale, Coverdale, Kingsdale, Littondale, Langstrothdale, Raydale, Waldendale and the Washburn Valley whose tributary streams and rivers feed into the larger valleys, and Barbondale, Dentdale, Deepdale and Garsdale which feed west to the River Lune.
The characteristic scenery of the Dales is green upland pastures separated by dry-stone walls and grazed by sheep and cattle. A survey carried out in 1988 estimated that there were just over of dry-stone walling in the Yorkshire Dales. Many upland areas consist of heather moorland, used for grouse shooting from 12 August (the Glorious Twelfth).
Cultural aspects
Much of the rural area is used for agriculture, with residents living in small villages and hamlets or in farmsteads. Miles of dry-stone walls and much of the traditional architecture has remained, including some field barns, though many are no longer in active use. Breeding of sheep and rearing of cattle remains common. To supplement their incomes, many farmers have diversified, with some providing accommodations for tourists. A number of agricultural shows are held each year.
Lead mining was common in some areas of the Dales in the 19th century, particularly during 1821 to 1861, and some industrial remains can still be found, such as the Grassington miners’ cottages. Certain former mining sites are maintained by Historic England. The Grassington Moor Lead Mining Trail, with its many remaining structures, has received funding from a variety of sources. The Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority provides a mobile-device software app for those who wish to explore the relevant areas.
Tourism
In this primarily agricultural area, tourism has become an important contributor to the economy. In 2016, there were 3.8 million visits to the Yorkshire Dales National Park including 0.48 million who stayed at least one night. The park authority estimates that this contributed £252 million to the economy and provided 3,583 full-time equivalent jobs. The wider Yorkshire Dales area received 9.7 million visitors who contributed £644 million to the economy.
Visitors are often attracted by the hiking trails, including some that lead to beautiful waterfalls and by the picturesque villages and small towns. These include Kirkby Lonsdale (just outside the area), Hawes, Appletreewick, Masham, Clapham, Long Preston and Malham.
The 73 mile-long Settle–Carlisle line railway, operated by Network Rail, runs through the National Park using tunnels and viaducts, including Ribblehead.
The top-rated attractions according to travellers using the Trip Advisor site include Aysgarth Falls, Malham Cove (scenic walking areas), Ingleborough (hiking trails) and Ribblehead Viaduct.
The DalesBus service provides service in the Dales on certain days in summer, "including the Yorkshire Dales National Park and Nidderdale Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty". In summer, these buses supplement the other services operating year-round in the Dales.
Tourism in the region declined due to restrictions necessitated by the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, and into 2021. Later in 2021, the volume of visits was expected to increase as a result of the 2020 TV series All Creatures Great and Small, largely filmed within the Dales. The first series aired in the UK in September 2020 and in the US in early 2021. One source stated that visits to Yorkshire websites had increased significantly by late September 2020. By early 2021, the Discover England websites, for example, were using the tagline "Discover 'All Creatures Great and Small' in Yorkshire".
Geology
The dales are 'U' and 'V' shaped valleys, the former enlarged and shaped by glaciers, mainly in the most recent Devensian ice age. The underlying rock is mainly Carboniferous Limestone, which results in a large areas of karst topography, in places overlain with shale and sandstone and topped with Millstone Grit, although to the north and west of the Dent Fault the hills are formed from older Silurian and Ordovician rocks.
Cave systems
The underlying limestone in parts of the Dales has extensive cave systems, including the long Three Counties System, making it a major area for caving in the UK. There are over 2500 known caves; some are open to the public for tours. Visitors can try caving at one of the show caves: White Scar Cave, Ingleborough Cave or Stump Cross Caverns near Greenhow.
The systems include:
Gaping Gill System
Alum Pot System
Mossdale Caverns
Leck Fell Caves
Easegill System
White Scar Caves in Chapel-le-Dale near Ingleton
Ingleborough Cave in Clapdale near Clapham
Stump Cross Caverns near Pateley Bridge
Goyden System near Pateley Bridge
Gallery
See also
List of peaks in the Yorkshire Dales
All Creatures Great and Small
Emmerdale
References
Sources
External links
Yorkshire Dales Tourist Board
Yorkshire Dales National Park Authority
Yorkshire Dales Community Pages
Yorkshire Dales Society
Yorkshire Dales Rivers Trust
Valleys of North Yorkshire
Valleys of West Yorkshire
Valleys of Cumbria
Tourist attractions in North Yorkshire
Tourist attractions in West Yorkshire
Tourist attractions in Cumbria
Parks and open spaces in Cumbria
Parks and open spaces in North Yorkshire
Natural regions of England | [
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234240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transaction | Transaction | Transaction or transactional may refer to:
Commerce
Financial transaction, an agreement, communication, or movement carried out between a buyer and a seller to exchange an asset for payment
Debits and credits in a Double-entry bookkeeping system
Electronic funds transfer, the electronic exchange or transfer of money from one account to another
Real estate transaction, the process whereby rights in a unit of property is transferred between two or more parties
Transaction cost, a cost incurred in making an economic exchange
Transactional law, the practice of law concerning business and commerce
Computing
Transaction processing, information processing that is divided into individual, indivisible operations
Database transaction, a unit of work performed within a database management system
Atomic transaction, a series of database operations such that either all occur, or nothing occurs
Other uses
Transactions, the published proceedings of a learned society:
Transaction Publishers, a New Jersey-based publishing house that specializes in social sciences books
"Transaction" an episode of the Death Note anime series; see List of Death Note episodes
Transactional analysis, a psychoanalytic theory of psychology
Transactional interpretation, an interpretation of quantum mechanics
Transactional leadership, a leadership style described by James MacGregor Burns
See also | [
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234243 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Rally%20Championship | World Rally Championship | The World Rally Championship (abbreviated as WRC) is the highest level of global competition in the motorsport discipline of rallying, owned and governed by the FIA. There are separate championships for drivers, co-drivers, manufacturers and teams. The series currently consists of 12 two to three-day rally events driven on surfaces ranging from gravel and tarmac to snow and ice. Each rally is usually split into 15–25 special stages which are run against the clock on closed roads.
The WRC was formed from well-known and popular international rallies, most of which had previously been part of the European Rally Championship or the International Championship for Manufacturers, and the series was first contested in 1973. The World Rally Car is the current car specification in the series. It evolved from Group A cars which replaced the banned Group B supercars. World Rally Cars are built on production 1.6-litre four-cylinder cars, but feature turbochargers, anti-lag systems, four-wheel-drive, sequential gearboxes, aerodynamic parts and other enhancements brought the price of a WRC car to around €700,000 (US$1 million).
The WRC features two support championships, the World Rally Championship-2 and the World Rally Championship-3 which are contested on the same events and stages as the WRC, but with different regulations. The WRC-2 and WRC-3 and junior entrants contest the stages after the WRC drivers.
History
Early
The World Rally Championship was formed from well-known international rallies, nine of which were previously part of the International Championship for Manufacturers (IMC), which was contested from 1970 to 1972. The 1973 World Rally Championship was the inaugural season of the WRC and began with the Monte Carlo Rally on January 19.
Alpine-Renault won the first manufacturer's world championship with its Alpine A110, after which Lancia took the title three years in a row with the Ferrari V6-powered Lancia Stratos HF, the first car designed and manufactured specifically for rallying. The first drivers' world championship was not awarded until 1979, although 1977 and 1978 seasons included an FIA Cup for Drivers, won by Italy's Sandro Munari and Finland's Markku Alén respectively. Sweden's Björn Waldegård became the first official world champion, edging out Finland's Hannu Mikkola by one point. Fiat took the manufacturers' title with the Fiat 131 Abarth in 1977, 1978 and 1980, Ford with its Escort RS1800 in 1979 and Talbot with its Sunbeam Lotus in 1981. Waldegård was followed by German Walter Röhrl and Finn Ari Vatanen as drivers' world champions.
Group B era
The 1980s saw the rear-wheel-drive Group 2 and the more popular Group 4 cars be replaced by more powerful four-wheel-drive Group B cars. FISA legalized all-wheel-drive in 1979, but most manufacturers believed it was too complex to be successful. However, after Audi started entering Mikkola and the new four-wheel-drive Quattro in rallies for testing purposes with immediate success, other manufacturers started their all-wheel-drive projects. Group B regulations were introduced in the 1982, and with only a few restrictions allowed almost unlimited power. Audi took the constructors' title in 1982 and 1984 and drivers' title in 1983 (Mikkola) and 1984 (Stig Blomqvist). Audi's French female driver Michèle Mouton came close to winning the title in 1982, but had to settle for second place after Opel rival Röhrl. The 1985 title seemed set to go to Vatanen and his Peugeot 205 T16 but a bad accident at the Rally Argentina left him to watch compatriot and teammate Timo Salonen take the title instead. Italian Attilio Bettega had an even more severe crash with his Lancia 037 at the Tour de Corse and died instantly.
The 1986 started with impressive performances by Finns Henri Toivonen and Alén in Lancia's new turbo- and supercharged Delta S4, which could reportedly accelerate from 0–60 mph (96 km/h) in 2.3 seconds, on a gravel road. However, the season soon took a dramatic turn. At the Rally Portugal, three spectators were killed and over 30 injured after Joaquim Santos lost control of his Ford RS200. At the Tour de Corse, championship favourite Toivonen and his co-driver Sergio Cresto died in a fireball accident after plunging down a cliff. Only hours after the crash, Jean-Marie Balestre and the FISA decided to freeze the development of the Group B cars and ban them from competing in 1987. More controversy followed when Peugeot's Juha Kankkunen won the title after FIA annulled the results of the San Remo Rally, taking the title from fellow Finn Markku Alén.
Group A era
As the planned Group S was also cancelled, Group A regulations became the standard in the WRC until 1997. A separate Group A championship had been organized as part of the WRC already in 1986, with Sweden's Kenneth Eriksson taking the title with a Volkswagen Golf GTI 16V. Lancia was quickest in adapting to the new regulations and controlled the world rally scene with Lancia Delta HF, winning the constructors' title six years in a row from 1987 to 1992 and remains the most successful marque in the history of the WRC. Kankkunen and Miki Biasion both took two drivers' titles with the Lancia Delta HF.
The 1990s then saw the Japanese manufacturers, Toyota, Subaru and Mitsubishi, become title favourites. Spain's Carlos Sainz driving for Toyota Team Europe took the 1990 and 1992 titles with a Toyota Celica GT-Four. Kankkunen moved to Toyota for the 1993 season and won his record fourth title, with Toyota taking its first manufacturers' crown. Frenchman Didier Auriol brought the team further success in 1994, and soon Subaru and Mitsubishi continued the success of the Japanese constructors. Scotsman Colin McRae won the drivers' world championship in 1995 and Subaru took the manufacturers' title three years in a row. Finland's Tommi Mäkinen driving a Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution won the drivers' championship four times in a row, from 1996 to 1999. Mitsubishi also won the manufacturers' title in 1998. Another notable car was the Ford Escort RS Cosworth, which was specifically designed for rallying. It was the first production car to produce downforce both at front and rear.
World Rally Car era
For the 1997 World Rally Championship, the World Rally Car regulations were introduced as an intended replacement for Group A (only successive works Mitsubishis still conforming to the latter formula; until they, too, homologated a Lancer Evolution WRC from the 2001 San Remo Rally). After the success of Mäkinen and the Japanese manufacturers, France's Peugeot made a very successful return to the World Rally Championship. Finn Marcus Grönholm took the drivers' title in his first full year in the series and Peugeot won the manufacturers' crown. England's Richard Burns won the 2001 title with a Subaru Impreza WRC, but Grönholm and Peugeot took back both titles in the 2002. 2003 saw Norway's Petter Solberg become drivers' champion for Subaru and Citroën continue the success of the French manufacturers. Citroën's Sébastien Loeb went on to control the following seasons with his Citroën Xsara WRC. Citroën took the constructors' title three times in a row and Loeb surpassed Mäkinen's record of four consecutive drivers' titles, earning his ninth consecutive championship in 2012. Volkswagen Motorsport entered the championship in 2013 and Sebastien Ogier dominated the series with six consecutive titles. New World Rally Car rules were introduced for 2017 which generated faster and more aggressive cars.
In 2018, Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT won the World Rally Championship earning Toyota their first manufacturers' title since 1999. With Tommi Mäkinen heading the team, he became the first person in the history of rally driving to win a Championship both as a driver and as a team principal. At the end of the following year, Citroën withdrew from the championship after Ogier left the team. Ott Tänak took the driver's title breaking the French Sebastien's (Loeb and Ogier) domination of the sport since 2004. Hyundai meanwhile, took the manufacturers championship title and repeated the success in 2020. Ogier returned to championship winning ways for 2020 and 2021 in a Toyota Yaris, though vowed that the new era of Rally1 would not be fully contested by himself. WRC said goodbye to the World Rally Car in 2021 after 25 years.
The championships
Any crew entering any WRC rally qualify for eligibility to score points in the overall World Rally Championships for Drivers and Co-Drivers. This is regardless of car technical class, number of rallies entered or if they are also entered into the support championships.
Manufacturers must register to be eligible to score in the World Rally Championship for Manufacturers and must compete in Group Rally1 specification cars (World Rally Car between 1997 and 2021). As the manufacturers use the highest performance car and usually employ the best drivers it is usually the case that these crews and cars take the majority of drivers/co-drivers championship points. Thus, combined with the money invested by the manufacturer teams, promotion of the WRC only tends to include the manufacturer crews and privateers in the Rally1 car or World Rally Car. These crews are given Priority 1 (P1) status on rallies and contest the stages before other crews. However it is not unusual for competitors in lower performance cars to take points in the drivers or co-driver's championships.
The World Rally Championship for Teams is for non-manufacturing entities. They can only enter in Rally1 or World Rally Cars if the corresponding manufacturer team is also running in the manufacturers' championship.
Support championships
The World Rally Championship also features support championships called the World Rally Championship-2 and World Rally Championship-3. These championships are contested on the same events and stages as the WRC calendar and have tighter restrictions on eligible car criteria.
WRC-2
WRC2 is contested using only Rally2 cars with championships for drivers, co-drivers and teams. Drivers and co-drivers can enter a maximum of 7 events and their best 6 results will count towards their championship tally. Teams must enter two cars into a maximum of 7 events, 1 of which must be outside of Europe and the best 6 results will count towards the championship tally. Power stage points are also awarded. Drivers, co-drivers and teams must all nominate if they wish to be eligible for championship points before a rally and can do so independently. For that reason the same crew pair in the same team may compete in all events in a season yet nominate and score points in different events. Crews competing in WRC2 are given Priority 2 status and run the stages immediately after P1 crews. WRC2 replaced SWRC when Group R was introduced in 2013 and the eligibility rules relaxed.
From 2022, WRC2 Junior Driver and Co-Driver Championships will be run for WRC2 drivers under 30 years old. Masters Cup titles for drivers and co-drivers over 50 in WRC2 will also be awarded.
WRC-3
WRC3 is contested using only Group Rally3 cars (Group Rally2 in 2020 and 2021), with championships for drivers, co-drivers and teams. Designed for privateer drivers, WRC3 has lower entry costs than WRC2 and there are restrictions on who can enter, testing and professional support received. Drivers and co-drivers can enter up to 7 rallies with their best 5 scoring championship points, and scoring rounds must also be nominated beforehand. Power stage points are also awarded. Between 2013 and 2018, the championship was contested using two wheel drive cars from R1, R2 and R3 classes of Group R. No championship ran in 2019 but was reinstated in its current format in . Crews competing in WRC3 are given Priority 3 status to run after the WRC2 crews.
From 2022 WRC3 Junior Driver and Co-Driver championships will be contested. Unlike the open format in WRC2 Junior, this will consist of an arrive-and-drive format over 5 events using Ford Fiesta Rally3 cars provided by M-Sport. Drivers have to be under 29 and must register.
Discontinued support championships
From 2001, Junior World Rally Championship was an open championship for younger drivers in S1600 cars. In 2011 it became an FIA sanctioned championship run by M-Sport or Citroën for drivers under 29. Ford Fiesta R2/Rally4 or Citroën DS3 R3 cars were provided, maintained and serviced for each entrant. Championships were awarded to drivers, co-drivers and nations. Only 5 rounds of the WRC calendar were competed with the best 4 results counting towards championship points, although the final round was worth double points. The highest scoring driver from each country registered points for the nations championship. Uniquely for this series, points were also awarded for stage wins.
World Rally Championship Academy (WRC Academy) was an alternative name for JWRC between 2011 and 2012, the first years the championship became a one-make series before reverting to the JWRC name.
The World Rally Championship Ladies Cup ran from 1990 to 1995 and could be won by any class of car. Louise Aitken-Walker was the first winner.
The Production car World Rally Championship (P-WRC) began in 1987 as the FIA Group N Cup before being renamed in 2002. Cars in the championship were production-based and homologated under Group N rules. From 2013, the Production WRC was renamed WRC-3 including Group R cars with two-wheel drive (R3, R2 and R1).
The 2-Litre World Rally Cup ran from 1993 to 1999 using front wheel drive cars with engine capacities up to 2000cc. With relaxed rules the cars could often outpace the Group A and World Rally Cars of the main category. The series was abandoned due to high costs and the Super 2000 and Super 1600 specification cars that the series inspired later became the origins for SWRC and JWRC.
The Super 2000 World Rally Championship (S-WRC) was started in 2010 using Super 2000 category cars. There were competitions for drivers (known as the S-WRC) and another for teams (the World Rally Championship Cup). From 2013, WRC-2 replaced S-WRC and including cars with four-wheel drive (R5, R4 and S2000).
The WRC Trophy was run in 2017 for privateers entering with older World Rally Cars when the new WRC+ was introduced.
World Rally Championship-2 Pro (WRC2PRO) ran only in 2019 and was open to manufacturer-supported teams entering cars complying with Group R5 regulations. It was replaced in 2020 with the Rally2 based WRC3.
One-make series tournaments have also run on select rounds of the WRC calendar. They were privately administered rally tournaments but permitted to run on the rallies alongside the WRC. Examples include the Ford Fiesta Sporting Trophy (2006, 2007 and 2009) and DMACK Fiesta Trophy (2014–2016), both ran by M-Sport, and Citroën Top Driver (2013) ran by Citroën. Neither team held these tournaments in the years they had the rights to manage the JWRC on the FIA's behalf.
Format and structure
Calendar
Each WRC season consists of a number of rounds within the same calendar year and should ordinarily include rallies on a minimum of 3 continents. Most recently there have been about 13 rallies though there have been as few as 8 such as in 1995. The rallies are typically driven on surfaces ranging from gravel and tarmac to snow and ice.
Rallies
In the current era each rally usually consists of between fifteen and thirty special stages of distances ranging from under (known as super special stages) to over . These competitive stages are driven on closed roads which are linked by non-competitive road sections—open roads on which all road laws of that country must be adhered to. On average a day consists of a total of of driving. A WRC event begins with reconnaissance (recce) on Tuesday and Wednesday, allowing crews to drive through the stages and create or update their pace notes. On Thursday, teams can run through the shakedown stage to practice and test their set-ups. The competition typically begins on Friday and ends on Sunday, though some rallies—most notably the Monte Carlo Rally—may be run over four or five days. Cars start the stages at two-minute intervals in clear weather, or three-minute intervals if it is decided that visibility may be a problem for competitors. Each day, or leg, has a few designated service parks between the stages, where the teams can – within strict time limits – perform maintenance and repairs on their cars. The service park also allows spectators and the media to get close to the teams and their cars and drivers. Between the days, after a 45-minute end of day service, cars are locked away in parc fermé, a quarantine environment where teams are not permitted to access or work on their cars.
Championship points
Points are awarded and contribute towards the world championships, and those with the most points at the end of the season are given the championship title. Points can be awarded derived from the overall final classification or from the Power Stage (below). The driver's championship and manufacturer's championship are separate but based on a similar point system. This means a driver can win the driver's championship driving one car yet a different manufacturer can win the manufacturer's championship which has occurred on several occasions, most recently in 2018, 2019 and 2020.
Points are awarded at the end of each rally to the top ten overall finishers under the following points structure for drivers and co-drivers:
Manufacturers must nominate up to three crews to be eligible for manufacturer championship points before an event. The two fastest nominated crews from each manufacturer essentially form a new classification for the purpose of awarding manufacturer points in the same structure as above. Retired crews cannot score points and it is not unusual for a crew to finish way down the overall order, possibly after restarting, yet still score manufacturers points.
Power Stage
First introduced in 2011, the "Power Stage" is the final stage of the rally and is typically televised live and immediately followed by the rally's podium celebrations. Additional World Championship points are available to the five fastest drivers and co-drivers through the stage regardless of where they actually finish in the rally. The fastest team receiving five points, the second-fastest receiving four points, etc. and the fifth-fastest receiving one. In 2021 manufacturers began scoring power stage points following a similar system to the classification points, where only the top two nominated from each team can be eligible. Ordinary Special Stages are timed with an accuracy to the tenth of a second, the "Power Stage" timing is to the thousandth of a second.
Restarting after retirement
Crews are permitted to restart the following day if they are forced to retire. For each stage not completed however, a ten-minute penalty plus the winning stage time in the same priority group is added to the overall time. Originally known as SuperRally when introduced and later renamed Rally 2, the rules allow for a better return on investment for competitors and more action for spectators. The Rally 2 name was dropped in 2019 as restarting became the norm, indeed crews are expected and assumed to be restarting unless they register a permanent retirement with the clerk of the course. The name was also dropped to avoid confusion with the new Rally2 group of car. Restarting is still at the discretion of the organisers, such as meeting safety standards after a heavy accident.
Cars
The rules surrounding which cars are used in WRC are governed and approved by the FIA. From the WRC's inception, cars had always followed a basic rule of being Category I, 'Series Production Cars' with a minimum production requirement to achieve homologation by the FIA. This ceased to be the case when Group Rally1 cars were introduced for the 2022 season. Rally1 regulations placed them in Category II as 'Competition Cars', which are built as single examples for exclusive use in competition.
The rules have changed over time to suit economic conditions, for safety reasons, to advance technology, to attract more manufacturer entrants or to better promote the series. Specifications of cars used can be for just one type, such as the World Rally Car, or a Group of similar specifications that differ in performance such as Group R. In 2014, the FIA introduced the current sporting classes to help further categorise the different classes and groups based on performance. RC1 has the highest performance cars whilst RC5 has the lowest permitted at WRC level.
To enter a WRC rally in 2022, cars must be homologated in one of the following groups or classes: World Rally Car 1.6L, any of the Groups Rally and R3 or R-GT of Group R
World Rally Car 1.6L
Eligible cars with 1.6L direct injection turbo engines and four-wheel drive built to World Rally Car regulations. The power output is limited to around . The 'WRC+' cars including the Ford Fiesta WRC, Toyota Yaris WRC and the Hyundai i20 Coupe WRC cannot be driven by those who had scored manufacturer points between 2017 and 2021. Earlier WRC cars since 2011, such as the Volkswagen Polo R WRC are permitted without such restrictions. 2021 was the final season of this specification at the top of the sport, being replaced by Rally1 in the manufacturer's championship in 2022.
Groups Rally
The 'Groups Rally' consists of six rally car specifications eligible for WRC.
Rally1 cars will be introduced in 2022 and will replace the World Rally Car as the car permitted in the manufacturer's championship. They will introduce hybrid powertrains for the first time in rallying amongst cost-cutting initiatives such as centrally developed tubular safety structures and simpler suspension and transmissions.
Rally2 cars, formerly R5 of Group R, are the second highest performance cars and are the sole cars eligible for WRC-2.
Rally2-Kit cars, previously known as R4-kit in Group R, are also eligible for overall entry. Rally2 and Rally2-Kit are within the same sporting category - RC2.
Rally3 cars were introduced in 2021 and will be used in WRC-3 from 2022.
Rally4 cars, formerly R2 of Group R, do not have a specific support championship.
Rally5 cars, formerly R1 of Group R, do not have a specific support championship.
Group R
Starting in 2008, a category of rally cars known as Group R were introduced as a rally only replacement to the Group A and Group N categories which were slowly phased out of eligibility. Cars were classified under one of six categories based on their engine capacity and type, wheelbase, and drivetrain. Group R cars still had to be homologated in Group A or N but have the relevant Group R extension approved in common with other rally formulae. As a result, older cars could reclassify under Group R subject to meeting criteria.
With R5, R4, R2 and R1 of Group R being renamed and absorbed by the new Groups Rally, as of the 2021 season R3 and R-GT cars are still currently eligible for overall entry. R3 cars however have been downgraded to RC4 sporting class from RC3, in line with Rally4 cars rather than superseding them. Neither R3 or R-GT have specific WRC support championships.
Historically eligible cars
When the WRC began in 1973, FISA allowed cars from its Group 1 (series-production touring cars), Group 2 (touring cars), Group 3 (series-production grand touring cars) and Group 4 (modified grand touring cars) amongst national classes. These FISA classes were also used in circuit racing and other motorsport championships. The groups formed the basis of new groups in 1982, Group N replaced Group 1, Group A replaced Group 2, and Group B replaced Group 4. Due to the increasing power, lack of reliability and a series of fatal accidents during the 1986 season, Group B was permanently banned. In 1987 Group A became the highest performance car and the choice for manufacturers whilst privateers opted for the budget friendly Group N for use in the newly created Production Car World Rally Championship. A Group N car has won a WRC rally only once - a Renault 5 driven by Alain Oreille won the Rallye Côte d'Ivoire in 1989. Despite the PWRC ending in 2012, Group N cars were allowed to enter WRC2 until 2016 and overall rallies until the end of 2018.
In 1997, the World Rally Car specification was introduced to ease the development of new cars and bring new makes to the competition. An extension of Group A, the WRC cars were used in the manufacturer's championship, although Mitsubishi received special dispensation to run their Group A models into 1999, and won three drivers and one manufacturers championships whilst doing so. In 2011 changes were made to the World Rally Car, the engine capacity was restricted to 1.6L and the minimum length requirement removed to allow for smaller and cost-effective models. Further changes in 2017 allowed for more aero-dynamics, increased safety requirements and a larger air intake restrictor, which increased the effective power from 300 to 380 hp.
Super 2000 cars were allowed to enter the overall rallies from 2007 to 2018. They were eligible in the PWRC from 2007 to 2009 before the Super 2000 World Rally Championship was run between 2010 and 2012. They were also accepted in WRC2 from 2013 to 2016.
Super 1600 cars were only allowed to enter in JWRC and on events that the championship was held on up to 2010 before the R2 became the sole championship car.
Teams and drivers
21 different manufacturers have won a World Rally Championship event: Citroën, Ford, Lancia, Toyota, Peugeot, Subaru, Volkswagen, Mitsubishi, Audi, Fiat, Hyundai, Datsun/Nissan, Opel, Renault, Renault-Alpine, Saab, Mazda, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche and Talbot. With a further 11 having finished on the podium: Seat, Mini, Vauxhall, Alfa Romeo, Volvo, Ferrari, MG, Polski Fiat, Škoda, Triumph and Wartburg. Lancia, with ten Manufacturers' Championships, has won more championships than any other marque.
Suzuki and Subaru pulled out of the WRC at the end of the 2008 championship, both citing the economic downturn then affecting the automotive industry for their withdrawal. Mini and Ford both pulled out of the WRC at the end of the 2012 championship, due to a similar economic downturn affecting the European market, although Ford continued to give technical support to M-Sport.
A typical WRC team will consist of about 40 people on the events, with a further 60–100 at the team base.
Manufacturers and manufacturer-backed teams usually have two or three drivers participating in each rally who are eligible to score points. The total number of crews (driver and their co-driver) in the rallies varied from 47 (Monte Carlo and Mexico) to 108 (Great Britain) during the 2007.
In 2012, the Ford World Rally Team and the Mini WRC Team both announced their departure from the World Rally Championships for the 2013 season. Volkswagen and Hyundai made their return to the championship in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Toyota announced it will return to the World Rally Championships for the 2017 season with its Toyota Gazoo Racing team and its Toyota Yaris WRC car. Also Citroën will return to the sport in 2017 with a fully factory-supported team after competing part-time in 2016 to focus on the development of their 2017-generation brand-new car based on the Citroën C3.
Promotion and coverage
WRC Promoter GmbH owns the commercial rights to the WRC championships, responsible for all media coverage, sponsorship operations and encouraging of participants. WRC Promoter GmbH is jointly owned by Red Bull Media House and KW25 Beteiligungs GmbH. Through the Red Bull Content Pool, WRC provides news, articles and images for professional news and media outlets free of charge. The WRC.com website and mobile apps provides news, live rally times and results, championship standings and information about the rallies and championships.
Internet video
Video coverage is provided in various forms at WRC.com, mobile or smart TV apps. Brief highlights, clips on technology and documentary videos are free to watch, whilst a paid-for subscription is required to watch premium content via WRC+. This service features the same highlights and review videos as produced for TV, as well as onboard footage, live map tracking, and since 2018 WRC+ All Live, live coverage and commentary from every stage during each rally event.
Brief and free video footage is also provided via social media platforms. In addition, the first running of Shakedown is often shown live on YouTube and Facebook though is not shown via WRC+.
Red Bull also produce feature-length programmes for Red Bull TV using stage footage from WRC TV combined with their own presenting team and insight from guest pundits. Dirtfish.com also provide some video content in a similar way, though usually not as long.
WRC TV
WRC TV produces previews, daily highlights and event reviews for each rally, as well as other magazine shows such as season reviews for broadcast television. Some TV stations also broadcast the power stage and select other stages live, usually two stages on a Saturday and the first run of what will be the power stage. Further, TV stations may broadcast the entire All Live live stream, typically via an interactive channel.
The make up and format for these programmes can vary from country to country depending on the local broadcaster and prominence of local drivers. In 2016, the cumulative worldwide TV audience for WRC TV's programmes was more than 700 million, growing to 836 million in 2019. The programming is available in over 150 markets and more than 12,000 hours were screened globally in 2016, reducing to under 10,000 hours in 2019.
Radio
Live radio coverage was provided in English by WRC Live via the Internet, featuring end of stage reports direct from the drivers and teams plus service park news. They also produced podcasts. It also featured contemporary music during breaks in rally coverage. World Rally Radio ceased in 2018 when WRC+ All Live began.
Podcasts
An official podcast is frequently produced. The latest version Backstories has interviewed drivers and co-drivers since 2020.
Champions
Event wins
Updated after 2022 Rally Sweden. Drivers and manufacturers who have participated in the 2022 World Rally Championship are in bold.
Evolution of the calendar
Video games and esports
There have been many video games based on the World Rally Championship, and due to lack of licenses, many more based on only certain cars, drivers or events. Sega Rally was released in 1995, V-Rally and Top Gear Rally in 1997 and the first game in the very popular Colin McRae Rally series in 1998. Rally Trophy, released in 2001 for Microsoft Windows by Bugbear, concentrated on historic cars such as Alpine A110 and Lancia Stratos. RalliSport Challenge, released in 2002 for Windows and Xbox by Digital Illusions CE, featured classic Group B cars and hillclimb models along with modern WRC cars.
Fully FIA licensed WRC: World Rally Championship was released in 2001 for PlayStation 2 by Evolution Studios. The video game series had its fifth game, WRC: Rally Evolved, in 2005. Racing simulator Richard Burns Rally, released in 2004 for several platforms, has gathered recognition for its realism. Recent top-selling games include Colin McRae: DiRT 2, Sega Rally Revo and Dirt 3. Gran Turismo 5 includes WRC licensed cars from manufacturers such as Subaru and Ford. In October 2010, Black Bean Games released WRC: FIA World Rally Championship which features the cars, drivers and events of the 2010 World Rally Championship, including those from the three support categories. A downloadable patch was produced allowing players to drive in Group B cars such as the Audi Quattro. Various cars whose participated in the WRC such as Mitsubishi Lancer WRC and Ford Fiesta RS WRC have also appeared in the Facebook game Car Town. The WRC video game license was acquired by French game development studio Kylotonn from Milestone srl after the release of WRC 4: FIA World Rally Championship in 2013. The first WRC game by Kylotonn was WRC 5, released in 2015, with successive releases on a near-annual basis with WRC 10 due in 2021. The WRC license will pass to Codemasters for the period of 2023 to 2027.
eSports WRC is an online championship run via the latest official video game. Beginning in 2016, the championship is free and open to anybody with a copy of the game. Each esports season ends with a Grand Finale with competitors gathering for an on-site event to race each other, usually in the service park of an actual rally event. Previous eSports WRC champion Jon Armstrong is also a physical rally driver, and racehouse Williams run a team.
See also
List of World Rally Championship records
Footnotes
References
External links
News and information
WRC.com — official site
World Rally Championship regulations at fia.com
Results
eWRC-results.com — complex and up-to-date results database
juwra.com – World Rally Archive — database and statistics
Recurring sporting events established in 1973
Rally racing series
World auto racing series | [
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47478883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stiles%20French | Stiles French | Stiles French (December 6, 1801 – May 9, 1881) was an American teacher and founder of the New Haven Collegiate and Commercial Institute, later known as the Russell Military Academy.
French the third child of David and Anna (Johnson) French, was born in Bethany, a parish of Woodbridge, Conn., December 6, 1801. He began to teach a district school at the age of 17, and it was not until the spring of 1823 that he was able to make systematic preparation for College. He was admitted to the Sophomore Class of Yale College at the end of the first term and graduated in 1827. After graduation, he pursued advanced scientific studies under the direction of the college for two or three years, being also connected from the Spring of 1828 with the New Haven Gymnasium, as mathematical teacher. He taught in New Haven until the spring of 1831, when he accepted the position of teacher of Mathematics in the Round Hill School, at Northampton, Mass., where he remained for two years. In August, 1833, he established, with his brother, a Collegiate and Commercial School in Wooster Square, in New Haven, which he conducted for about twelve years. After an interval of leisure he established another classical and scientific school in this city, which he maintained for over twenty-five years. About the year 1875 he removed to Northampton, but in 1880 returned to New Haven, where he died May 9, 1881, of a disease of the kidneys, after five months' illness.
He was twice married, and by his second marriage had a son and a daughter. His son was drowned in 1869, while a member of the Sophomore Class of Yale. His wife and daughter survived him.
External links
1801 births
1881 deaths
People from Bethany, Connecticut
Yale College alumni
Schoolteachers from Connecticut
19th-century American educators | [
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234244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon%20Martinez%20%28fencing%20instructor%29 | Ramon Martinez (fencing instructor) | Ramón Martínez is an American teacher of classical and historical fencing. He studied classical fencing with the late Maître d'Armes Frederick Rohdes in New York City for ten years. Maître Rohdes was one of the last fencing masters to teach fencing as a martial art , himself having learned a variety of historical fencing systems from his own master, Maître d'Armes Marcel Cabijos. During that time Mr. Martínez became assistant and protégé of Maître Rohdes and was the only one of his pupils permitted to teach with full authorization at the Rohdes Academy.
In all, Ramon Martínez has devoted over 30 years to the study and teaching of classical fencing. He has also done extensive research in historical fencing. Many of the most prominent masters of the past centuries left elaborate, highly detailed treatises of the systems and styles which they taught. Ramon Martínez has spent years carefully and thoroughly researching these treatises in an effort to accurately reconstruct these varied styles. These ancient and historical forms are then taught as authentically as possible to those of his students who are interested. Ramon Martínez' goal is to teach, promote, and preserve this rare martial art.
Ramon Martínez is a past president of the Association for Historical Fencing (AHF), founded to promote, preserve and revive classical and historical fencing. He is also one of the founders of the International Masters at Arms Federation (IMAF).
Furthermore, Ramon Martínez is a researcher on the Spanish system of swordsmanship "La Verdadera Destreza", codified throughout the historical period known as "Siglo de Oro Español", having studied the old fencing techniques developed by such Masters as Don Jerónimo Sánchez de Carranza and Don Luis Pacheco de Narváez, among others.
He is recognized as a leading instructor in classical and historical fencing both in the U.S. and abroad, being considered a teacher on traditional fencing systems to other renowned members of the HEMA community, such as Cecil Longino, founder and head instructor of Academia della Spada in Seattle, Washington and Maestro Alberto Bomprezzi, founder and president of the Spanish Association for Historical Fencing (AEEA).
Ramon Martínez is a frequent instructor at the International Swordfighting and Martial Arts Convention (ISMAC), held in Detroit, Michigan every year. He is also a director of The Grand Assault of Arms, an annual open classical fencing tournament organized by the AHF in New York City.
References
External links
The Martinez Academy of Arms
American male fencers
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Year of birth missing (living people) | [
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234248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Wilkins | Maurice Wilkins | Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins (15 December 1916 – 5 October 2004) was a New Zealand-born British biophysicist and Nobel laureate whose research spanned multiple areas of physics and biophysics, contributing to the scientific understanding of phosphorescence, isotope separation, optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction, and to the development of radar. He is best known for his work at King's College London on the structure of DNA.
Wilkins' work on DNA falls into two distinct phases. The first was in 1948–1950, when his initial studies produced the first clear X-ray images of DNA, which he presented at a conference in Naples in 1951 attended by James Watson. During the second phase, 1951–52, Wilkins produced clear "B form" "X" shaped images from squid sperm, images he sent to James Watson and Francis Crick, causing Watson to write "Wilkins... has obtained extremely excellent X-ray diffraction photographs" [of DNA].
In 1953, Wilkins' group coordinator Sir John Randall instructed Raymond Gosling to hand over to Wilkins a high-quality image of "B" form DNA (Photo 51), which Raymond Gosling had made in 1952, after which his supervisor Rosalind Franklin "put it aside" as she was leaving King's College London. Wilkins showed it to Watson. This image, along with the knowledge that Linus Pauling had proposed an incorrect structure of DNA, "mobilised" Watson and Crick to restart model building. With additional information from research reports of Wilkins and Franklin, obtained via Max Perutz, Watson and Crick correctly described the double-helix structure of DNA in 1953.
Wilkins continued to test, verify, and make significant corrections to the Watson–Crick DNA model and to study the structure of RNA. Wilkins, Crick, and Watson were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, "for their discoveries concerning the molecular structure of nucleic acids and its significance for information transfer in living material".
Early life and education
Wilkins was born in Pongaroa, New Zealand, where his father, Edgar Henry Wilkins, was a medical doctor. His family had come from Dublin, where his paternal and maternal grandfathers were, respectively, Headmaster of Dublin High School and a Chief of Police. The Wilkinses moved to Birmingham, England when Maurice was 6. Later, he attended Wylde Green College and then went to King Edward's School, Birmingham from 1929 to 1934.
Wilkins went to St John's College, Cambridge in 1935; he studied the Natural Sciences Tripos, specialising in Physics, and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1938. Mark Oliphant, who was one of Wilkins' instructors at St. John's, had been appointed to the Chair of Physics at the University of Birmingham, and had appointed John Randall to his staff. Wilkins became a PhD student of Randall at the University of Birmingham. In 1945, they published four papers in the Proceedings of the Royal Society on phosphorescence and electron traps. Wilkins received a PhD for this work in 1940.
Career and research
Post war years: 1945–1950
During World War II Wilkins developed improved radar screens at Birmingham, then worked on isotope separation at the Manhattan Project at the University of California, Berkeley during the years 1944–45.
Meanwhile, Randall had been appointed to the Chair of Physics at the University of St Andrews. In 1945, he appointed Wilkins as Assistant Lecturer in his department at the University of St Andrews. Randall was negotiating with the Medical Research Council (MRC) to set up a laboratory to apply the experimental methods of physics to problems of biology. The combination of these disciplines as biophysics was a novel idea. The MRC told Randall that this had to be done in another university. In 1946 Randall was appointed Wheatstone Professor of Physics, in charge of the entire Physics department at King's College, London, with the funding to set up a Biophysics Unit. He brought Wilkins with him as Assistant Director of the unit. They appointed a team of scientists trained in both the physical and biological sciences. The "management philosophy" was to explore the use of many techniques in parallel, to find which looked promising, and then to focus on these. Wilkins, as the scientist with most diverse experience of physics and Assistant Director of the unit, had general oversight of the varied projects besides direct involvement in his personal research projects that included new types of optical microscopy. King's College received funding to build completely new Physics and Engineering Departments where vaults beneath the Strand level College forecourt had been destroyed by bombs during the War. The Biophysics Unit, several more experimental physics groups and the theoretical group started to move in, during the early months of 1952. The laboratories were opened formally by Lord Cherwell on 27 June. Wilkins' article for Nature described both departments, consistent with his leadership role and prestige within the college at large.
DNA – Phase One
At King's College, Wilkins pursued, among other things, X-ray diffraction work on ram sperm and DNA that had been obtained from calf thymus by the Swiss scientist Rudolf Signer. The DNA from Signer's lab was much more intact than the DNA which had previously been isolated. Wilkins discovered that it was possible to produce thin threads from this concentrated DNA solution that contained highly ordered arrays of DNA suitable for the production of X-ray diffraction patterns. Using a carefully bundled group of these DNA threads and keeping them hydrated, Wilkins and a graduate student Raymond Gosling obtained X-ray photographs of DNA that showed that the long, thin DNA molecule in the sample from Signer had a regular, crystal-like structure in these threads. Gosling later said "When... I first saw all those discrete diffraction spots ...emerging on the film in the developing dish was a truly eureka moment....we realised that if DNA was the gene material then we had just shown that genes could crystallize!" This initial X-ray diffraction work at King's College was done in May or June 1950. It was one of the X-ray diffraction photographs taken in 1950, shown at a meeting in Naples a year later, that sparked James Watson's interest in DNA causing him to write "suddenly I was excited about chemistry.....I began to wonder whether it would be possible for me to join Wilkins in working on DNA". At that time Wilkins also introduced Francis Crick to the importance of DNA. Crick advised him to work on proteins telling Wilkins "what you ought to do is find yourself a good protein". Wilkins knew that proper experiments on the threads of purified DNA would require better X-ray equipment. Wilkins ordered a new X-ray tube and a new microcamera. He also suggested to Randall that the soon-to-be-appointed Rosalind Franklin should be reassigned from work on protein solutions to join the DNA effort.
By the summer of 1950 Randall had arranged for a three-year research fellowship that would fund Rosalind Franklin in his laboratory. Franklin was delayed in finishing her work in Paris. Late in 1950, Randall wrote to Franklin to inform her that rather than work on protein, she should take advantage of Wilkins's preliminary work and that she should do X-ray studies of DNA fibers made from Signer's samples of DNA.
DNA Phase two 1951–52
Early in 1951 Franklin finally arrived. Wilkins was away on holiday and missed an initial meeting at which Raymond Gosling stood in for him along with Alex Stokes, who, like Crick, would solve the basic mathematics that make possible a general theory of how helical structures diffract X-rays. No work had been done on DNA in the laboratory for several months; the new X-ray tube sat unused, waiting for Franklin. Franklin ended up with the DNA from Signer, Gosling became her PhD student, and she had the expectation that DNA X-ray diffraction work was her project. Wilkins returned to the laboratory expecting, on the other hand, that Franklin would be his collaborator and that they would work together on the DNA project that he had started. The confusion over Franklin's and Wilkins' roles in relation to the DNA effort (which later developed into considerable tension between them) is clearly attributable to Randall. In his letter of appointment he told Franklin "as far as the experimental X-ray effort [on DNA] is concerned, there will be at the moment only yourself and Gosling". However, Randall never informed Wilkins of his decision to give Franklin sole responsibility for the DNA effort and Wilkins only learned of the letter years after Franklin's death. He later wrote "My opinion is very clear: that Randall was very wrong to have written to Rosalind telling her that Stokes and I wished to stop our work on DNA, without consulting us. After Raymond [Gosling] and I got a clear crystalline X-ray pattern I was very eager to continue that work ... Trying to understand 'what really happened' when a very admirable scientist [Randall] models himself on Napoleon is not easy ... [but the letter] was very damaging to her and to me".
By November 1951, Wilkins had evidence that DNA in cells as well as purified DNA had a helical structure. Alex Stokes had solved the basic mathematics of helical diffraction theory and thought that Wilkins's X-ray diffraction data indicated a helical structure in DNA. Wilkins met with Watson and Crick and told them about his results. This information from Wilkins, along with additional information gained by Watson when he heard Franklin talk about her research during a King's College research meeting, stimulated Watson and Crick to create their first molecular model of DNA, a model with the phosphate backbones at the center. Upon viewing the model of the proposed structure, Franklin told Watson and Crick that it was wrong. Franklin based this on two observations. First, experiments by J.M. Gulland showed that the CO- and NH2 groups of the bases could not be titrated, and so were probably inaccessible. Secondly, crystallographic evidence showed that the structural units of DNA were progressively separated by the addition of water, leading to the formation of a gel and then a solution. Franklin believed that the simplest explanation of this was for the hydrophilic part of the molecule to be on the outside. Crick tried to get Wilkins to continue with additional molecular modeling efforts, but Wilkins did not take this approach.
Early in 1952, Wilkins began a series of experiments on sepia sperm which were very encouraging. "I...got much clearer patterns than the previous year.....when I met [Sir William Lawrence] Bragg by chance I showed him the pattern [which] very clearly offered strong evidence for a helical structure for DNA....the sharp sperm patterns were very inspiring, and had the special interest that sperm were real live objects and not just purified DNA extracted by chemists from living material". Wilkins was particularly interested in whether living samples would yield meaningful X-ray diffraction patterns – his results showed they could.
During 1952, Franklin also refused to participate in molecular modeling efforts and continued to work on step-by-step detailed analysis of her X-ray diffraction data (Patterson synthesis). By the spring of 1952, Franklin had received permission from Randall to ask to transfer her fellowship so that she could leave King's College and work in John Bernal's laboratory at Birkbeck College, also in London. Franklin remained at King's College until the middle of March 1953.
Linus Pauling had published a proposed but incorrect structure of DNA, making the same basic error that Watson and Crick had made a year earlier. Some of those working on DNA in the United Kingdom feared that Pauling would quickly solve the DNA structure once he recognized his error and put the backbones of the nucleotide chains on the outside of a model of DNA. After March 1952 Franklin concentrated on the X-ray data for the A-form of less hydrated DNA while Wilkins tried to work on the hydrated B-form. Wilkins was handicapped because Franklin had all of the good DNA. Wilkins got new DNA samples, but it was not as good as the original sample he had obtained in 1950 and which Franklin continued to use. Most of his new results were for biological samples like sperm cells, which also suggested a helical structure for DNA. In July 1952 Franklin reported to him and Stokes that her newest results made her doubt the helical nature of the A-form.
In early 1953 Watson visited King's College and Wilkins showed him a high quality image of the B-form X-ray diffraction pattern, now identified as photograph 51, that Franklin had produced in March 1952. Wilkins had shown this image produced by Franklin without notifying or receiving authorization from the principal investigator who produced the image. With the knowledge that Pauling was working on DNA and had submitted a model of DNA for publication, Watson and Crick mounted one more concentrated effort to deduce the structure of DNA. Through Max Perutz, his thesis supervisor, Crick gained access to a progress report from King's College that included useful information from Franklin about the features of DNA she had deduced from her X-ray diffraction data. Watson and Crick published their proposed DNA double helical structure in a paper in the journal Nature in April 1953. In this paper Watson and Crick acknowledged that they had been "stimulated by.... the unpublished results and ideas" of Wilkins and Franklin.
The first Watson-Crick paper appeared in Nature on 25 April 1953. The members of the Cambridge and King's College laboratories agreed to report their interlocking work in three papers with continuous pagination in Nature.
Sir Lawrence Bragg, the director of the Cavendish Laboratory, where Watson and Crick worked, gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday 14 May 1953 which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the News Chronicle of London, on Friday 15 May 1953, entitled "Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life." The news reached readers of The New York Times the next day; Victor K. McElheny, in researching his biography of Watson, Watson and DNA: Making a Scientific Revolution, found a clipping of a six-paragraph New York Times article written from London and dated 16 May 1953 with the headline "Form of 'Life Unit' in Cell Is Scanned." The article ran in an early edition and was then pulled to make space for news deemed more important. (The New York Times subsequently ran a longer article on 12 June 1953). The Cambridge University undergraduate newspaper Varsity also ran its own short article on the discovery on Saturday 30 May 1953. Bragg's original announcement at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953 went unreported by the press.
Post-1953
Following the initial 1953 series of publications on the double helix structure of DNA, Wilkins continued research as leader of a team that performed a range of meticulous experiments to establish the helical model as valid among different biological species, as well as in living systems, to establish the universality of the double helix structure. He became deputy director of the MRC Biophysics Unit at King's in 1955, and succeeded Randall as director of the unit from 1970 to 1972.
Awards and honours
Wilkins was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1959 and an EMBO Member in 1964.
In 1960 he was presented with the American Public Health Association's Albert Lasker Award, and in 1962 he was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Also in 1962 he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Watson and Crick for the discovery of the structure of DNA.
From 1969 to 1991, Wilkins was the founding President of the British Society for Social Responsibility in Science.
In 2000, King's College London opened the Franklin-Wilkins Building in honour of Dr. Franklin's and Professor Wilkins' work at the college.
The wording on the DNA sculpture (donated by James Watson) outside Clare College's Thirkill Court, Cambridge, England is
a) on the base:
i) "These strands unravel during cell reproduction. Genes are encoded in the sequence of bases."
ii) "The double helix model was supported by the work of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins."
b) on the helices:
i) "The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953 by Francis Crick and James Watson while Watson lived here at Clare."
ii) "The molecule of DNA has two helical strands that are linked by base pairs Adenine – Thymine or Guanine – Cytosine."
Launched in 2002 as the Centre for Molecular Biodiscovery at the University of Auckland, in 2006 it was renamed the Maurice Wilkins Centre.
Personal life
Wilkins was married twice. His first wife, Ruth, was an art student whom he met whilst he was at Berkeley. Their marriage ended in divorce, and Ruth bore her son by Wilkins after their divorce. Wilkins married his second wife Patricia Ann Chidgey in 1959. They had four children, Sarah, George, Emily and William. His widow Patricia and the children from their marriage survived him.
In the years before World War II, he was an anti-war activist, joining the Cambridge Scientists Anti-War Group. He joined the Communist Party, until the invasion of Poland by the Soviet Army in September 1939. Formerly classified UK security service papers reveal that Wilkins came under suspicion of leaking atomic secrets. The files, released in August 2010, indicate surveillance of Wilkins ended by 1953. "After the war I wondered what I would do, as I was very disgusted with the dropping of two bombs on civilian centres in Japan," he told Britain's Encounter radio program in 1999.
Wilkins published his autobiography, The Third Man of the Double Helix, in 2003.
References
Books featuring Maurice Wilkins
Maurice Wilkins, The Third Man of the Double Helix: The Autobiography of Maurice Wilkins. Oxford University Press ()
Robert Olby; "Wilkins, Maurice Hugh Frederick (1916–2004)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online edn, Oxford University Press, Jan 2008
Robert Olby; "Francis Crick: Hunter of Life's Secrets", Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, , published in August 2009.
John Finch; A Nobel Fellow on Every Floor, Medical Research Council 2008, 381 pp, ; this book is all about the MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge
Robert Olby; The Path to The Double Helix: Discovery of DNA; first published in October 1974 by MacMillan, with foreword by Francis Crick; ; the definitive DNA textbook, revised in 1994, with a 9-page postscript.
Horace Freeland Judson, The Eighth Day of Creation. Makers of the Revolution in Biology; CSHL Press 1996 .
Watson, James D. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA; The Norton Critical Edition, which was published in 1980, edited by Gunther S. Stent:.
Chomet, S. (Ed.), D.N.A. Genesis of a Discovery, 1994, Newman- Hemisphere Press, London; NB a few copies are available from Newman-Hemisphere at 101 Swan Court, London SW3 5RY (phone: 07092 060530).
Maddox, Brenda, Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA, 2002. .
Sayre, Anne 1975. Rosalind Franklin and DNA. New York: W.W. Norton and Company. .
Crick, Francis, 1990. What Mad Pursuit: A Personal View of Scientific Discovery (Basic Books reprint edition)
Watson, James D., The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA, Atheneum, 1980, (first published in 1968)
Krude, Torsten (Ed.) DNA Changing Science and Society: The Darwin Lectures for 2003 CUP 2003, includes a lecture by Sir Aaron Klug on Rosalind Franklin's involvement in the determination of the structure of DNA.
Ridley, Matt; "Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (Eminent Lives)" was first published in June 2006 in the US and then in the UK September 2006, by HarperCollins Publishers; 192 pp, ; this short book is in the publisher's "Eminent Lives" series.
Light Is A Messenger, the life and science of William Lawrence Bragg by Graeme Hunter, ; Oxford University Press, 2004.
Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II by Soraya de Chadarevian; CUP 2002, 444 pp; ; it includes James Watson's "well kept open secret" from April 2003!
Tait, Sylvia & James Francis Tait. A Quartet of Unlikely Discoveries (Athena Press 2004)
James D. Watson, The Annotated and Illustrated Double Helix, edited by Alexander Gann and Jan Witkowski (2012) Simon & Schuster, .
External links
for the People's Archive/BBC 90 story interview with Crick AND the 236 story interview with Brenner.
with the Nobel Lecture on 11 December 1961 The Molecular Configuration of Nucleic Acids
Reading University site on 50th anniversary of Discovery of the structure of DNA. Includes a list of Books on the subject.
Biography (from the New Zealand Edge)
Discovery Story in BA Magazine
DNA: The King's Story detailing Wilkins' involvement in elucidating the structure of DNA
DNA and Social Responsibility Project: Archiving Maurice Wilkin's Personal Papers
List of classic papers in Nature on DNA structure
Listen to Francis Crick and James Watson talking on the BBC
For reproduction of the original text in June 1953 (PDF)
for Lynne Elkins' article on Franklin.
New York Times 50th anniversary series of excellent articles.
The first American newspaper coverage of the discovery of the DNA structure: Saturday, 13 June 1953 The New York Times (PDF)
Listen to an oral history interview with Maurice Wilkins – a life story interview recorded for National Life Stories at the British Library
1916 births
2004 deaths
Academics of King's College London
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Birmingham
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English biophysicists
English Nobel laureates
English physicists
Fellows of King's College London
New Zealand Fellows of the Royal Society
Manhattan Project people
Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization
New Zealand molecular biologists
Naturalised citizens of the United Kingdom
New Zealand emigrants to the United Kingdom
New Zealand scientists
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
People educated at King Edward's School, Birmingham
Radar pioneers
University of California, Berkeley faculty
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
New Zealand Nobel laureates
British molecular biologists | [
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234249 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persius | Persius | Aulus Persius Flaccus (; 4 December 3424 November 62 AD) was a Roman poet and satirist of Etruscan origin. In his works, poems and satires, he shows a Stoic wisdom and a strong criticism for what he considered to be the stylistic abuses of his poetic contemporaries. His works, which became very popular in the Middle Ages, were published after his death by his friend and mentor, the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Cornutus.
Life
According to the Life contained in the manuscripts, Persius was born into an equestrian family at Volterra (Volaterrae, in Latin), a small Etruscan city in the province of Pisa, of good stock on both parents' side. When six years old he lost his father; his stepfather died a few years later. At the age of twelve Persius came to Rome, where he was taught by Remmius Palaemon and the rhetor Verginius Flavus. During the next four years he developed friendships with the Stoic Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, the lyric poet Caesius Bassus, and the poet Lucan. Lucan would become a generous admirer of all Persius wrote. He also became close friends with Thrasea Paetus, the husband of Arria, a relative of Persius's; over the next ten years Persius and Thrasea Paetus shared many travels together. Later, he met Seneca, but was not impressed by his genius.
In his boyhood, Persius wrote a tragedy dealing with an episode in Roman history, and another work, probably on travel (although this would have been before the travels with Thrasea Paetus). Reading the satires of Lucilius made Persius want to write like him, and he set to work on a book of his own satires. But he wrote seldom and slowly; a premature death (uitio stomachi) prevented him from completing the book. He has been described as having "a gentle disposition, girlish modesty and personal beauty", and is said to have lived a life of exemplary devotion towards his mother Fulvia Sisennia, his sister and his aunt. To his mother and sister he left his considerable fortune. Cornutus suppressed all his work except the satires, to which he made some slight alterations before handing it over to Bassus for editing. It proved an immediate success.
Doubts over his biography
The scholia add a few details—on what authority is, as generally with such sources, very doubtful. The Life itself, though not free from the suspicion of interpolation and undoubtedly corrupt and disordered in places, is probably trustworthy. The manuscripts say it came from the commentary of Valerius Probus, no doubt a learned edition of Persius like those of Virgil and Horace by this same famous "grammarian" of Berytus, the poet's contemporary. The only case in which it seems to conflict with the Satires () themselves is in its statement as to the death of Persius's father. The declaiming of a suasoria in his presence (Sat. 3.4 sqq.) implies a more mature age than that of six in the performer. But pater might here mean "stepfather," or Persius may have forgotten his own autobiography, may be simply reproducing one of his models. The mere fact that the Life and the Satires agree so closely does not of course prove the authenticity of the former. One of the points of harmony is, however, too subtle for us to believe that a forger evolved it from the works of Persius: the Life gives the impression of a "bookish" youth, who never strayed far from home and family. This is also the picture drawn by the Satires; many of the characters that Persius creates have the same names as characters found in Horace.
A keen observer of what occurs within his narrow horizon, Persius did not shy away from describing the seamy side of life (cf. e.g. such hints as Sat. iii.110), especially the relationship between excesses of consumption and moral failure; he shows little of Horace's easy-going acceptance of human weaknesses. Perhaps the sensitive, homebred nature of Persius can also be glimpsed in his frequent references to ridicule, whether of great men by street gamins or of the cultured by philistines. Montaigne mentions Persius several times.
Work
The chief interest of Persius's work lies in its relation to Roman satire, in its interpretation of Roman Stoicism, and in its use of the Latin tongue. The influence of Horace on Persius can, in spite of the silence of the Life, hardly have been less than that of Lucilius. Not only characters, as noted above, but whole phrases, thoughts and situations come direct from him. The resemblance only emphasizes the difference between the caricaturist of Stoicism and its preacher. Persius strikes the highest note that Roman satire reached; in earnestness and moral purpose he rises far superior to the political rancour or good-natured persiflage of his predecessors and the rhetorical indignation of Juvenal. From him we learn how that philosophy could work on minds that still preserved the depth and purity of the old Roman gravitas. Some of the parallel passages in the works of Persius and Seneca are very close, and cannot be explained by assuming the use of a common source. Like Seneca, Persius censures the style of the day, and imitates it. Indeed, in some of its worst failings, straining of expression, excess of detail, exaggeration, he outbids Seneca, whilst the obscurity, which makes his little book of not seven hundred lines so difficult to read and is in no way due to great depth of thought, compares poorly with the terse clearness of the Epistolae morales. A curious contrast to this tendency is presented by his free use of "popular" words. As of Plato, so of Persius, we hear that he emulated Sophron; the authority is a late one (the Byzantine Lydus, De mag. I.41), but we can at least recognize in the scene that opens Sat. 3 kinship with such work as Theocritus' Adoniazusae and the Mimes of Herodas.
Persius's satires are composed in hexameters, except for the scazons of the short prologue above referred to. The first satire censures the literary tastes of the day as a reflection of the decadence of the national morals. The theme of Seneca's 114th letter is similar. The description of the recitator and the literary twaddlers after dinner is vividly natural, but an interesting passage which cites specimens of smooth versification and the languishing style is greatly spoiled by the difficulty of appreciating the points involved and indeed of distributing the dialogue (a not uncommon crux in Persius). The remaining satires handle in order (2) the question as to what we may justly ask of the gods (cf. Second Alcibiades), (3) the importance of having a definite aim in life, (4) the necessity of self-knowledge for public men (cf. Plato's First Alcibiades), (5) the Stoic doctrine of liberty (introduced by generous allusions to Cornutus' teaching), and (6) the proper use of money.
The Life tells us that the Satires were not left complete; some lines were taken (presumably by Cornutus or Bassus) from the end of the work so that it might be quasi finitus. This perhaps means that a sentence in which Persius had left a line imperfect, or a paragraph which he had not completed, had to be omitted. The same authority says that Cornutus definitely blacked out an offensive allusion to the emperor's literary taste, and that we owe to him the reading of the manuscripts in Sat. i.121,—"auriculas asini quis non (for Mida rex ) habet!" Traces of lack of revision are, however, still visible; cf. e.g. v.176 (sudden transition from ambition to superstition) and vi.37 (where criticism of Greek doctores has nothing to do with the context). The parallels to passages of Horace and Seneca are recorded in the commentaries: in view of what the Life says about Lucan, the verbal resemblance of Sat. iii.3 to Phars. x.163 is interesting. Examples of bold language or metaphor: i.25, rupto iecore exierit caprificus, 60, linguae quantum sitiat canis; iii.42, intus palleat, 81, silentia rodunt; v.92, ueteres auiae de pulmone reuello. Passages like iii.87, 100 sqq. show elaboration carried beyond the rules of good taste. "Popular" words: baro, cerdo, ebullire, glutto, lallare, mamma, muttire, obba, palpo, scloppus. Fine lines, etc., in i.116 sqq., ii.6 sqq., 61 sqq., 73 sqq., iii.39 sqq.
Authorities
The manuscripts of Persius fall into two groups, one represented by two of the best of them, the other by that of Petrus Pithoeus, so important for the text of Juvenal. Since the publication of J. Bieger's de Persii cod. pith. recte aestimando (Berlin, 1890) the tendency has been to prefer the tradition of the latter.
The first important editions were: (1) with explanatory notes: Isaac Casaubon (Paris, 1605, enlarged edition by Johann Friedrich Dübner, Leipzig, 1833); Otto Jahn (with the scholia and valuable prolegomena, Leipzig, 1843); John Conington (with translation; 3rd ed., Oxford, 1893), etc.; but there are several modern editions.
Editions
Braund, Susanna M. (2004) Juvenal and Persius. Loeb Classical Library. Harvard University Press.
Notes
References
Bartsch, Shadi. Persius: A Study in Food, Philosophy, and the Figural. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2015).
Hooley, D. M. The Knotted Thong: Structures of Mimesis in Persius (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1997).
Reckford, Kenneth J. Recognizing Persius (Princeton; Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2009) (Martin Classical Lectures).
External links
Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by Persius in .jpg and .tiff format.
Auli Persii Flacci satirarum liber, cum scholiis antiquis, Otto Jahn (ed.), Lipsiae, typis et impensis Breitropfii er Baertelii, 1843.
The Life of Aulus Persius Flaccus from Suetonius's De Viris Illustribus
34 births
62 deaths
1st-century Romans
Latin-language writers
Roman-era poets
Roman-era satirists
Silver Age Latin writers
Etruscans | [
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234251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenshin%20Sh%C5%8Dden%20Katori%20Shint%C5%8D-ry%C5%AB | Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū | is one of the oldest extant Japanese martial arts, and an exemplar of bujutsu. The Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū was founded by Iizasa Ienao, born in 1387 in Iizasa village (modern Takomachi, Chiba Prefecture), who was living near Katori Shrine (Sawara City, Chiba Prefecture) at the time. The ryū gives 1447 as the year it was founded, but some scholars state that it was about 1480.
History
Foundation
Iizasa Ienao (飯篠 長威斎 家直 Iizasa Chōi-sai Ienao, c.1387 – c.1488) was a respected spearman and swordsman whose daimyō was deposed, encouraging him to relinquish control of his household to conduct purification rituals and study martial arts in isolation.
Iizasa was born in the village of Iizasa in Shimōsa Province. When he was young, he moved to the vicinity of the famous Katori Shrine, a venerable Shinto institution northeast of Tokyo in modern-day Chiba Prefecture. The Katori Shrine enjoys a considerable martial reputation; the Shrine's Kami, Futsunushi being revered as a spirit of swordsmanship and martial arts.
After studying swordsmanship he went to Kyoto, where, according to most authorities, he was employed in his youth by the eighth Muromachi shōgun, Ashikaga Yoshimasa (1436–1490), a devotee of the martial arts. Iizasa was later known as Yamashiro no Kami (governor of Yamashiro Province) in accordance with a practice of Muromachi times, whereby noted warriors took old court titles. Later on in his life, Iizasa became a Buddhist lay monk and was known as Chōi-sai, sai being a character that many noted swordsmen chose for their martial name.
When Chōi-sai returned home, he offered prayers to the deities of both Katori Shrine and Kashima Shrine, the latter being a famous local shrine in nearby Ibaraki Prefecture, where shrine officials themselves reputedly practised a form of swordsmanship, called 'Hitotsu no Tachi' (the solitary sword). Even today the Kashima Shrine training hall attracts Kendo practitioners from around the world, and the chief object of interest for visitors is the shrine's sacred sword. Supplementing his considerable skills with assorted weaponry, Chōi-sai was also an expert in Musō Jikiden ryū yawaragi, holding the position of seventh Headmaster in the history of that ryū.
Legend says at the age of 60 Chōi-sai spent 1000 days in Katori Shrine practicing martial techniques day and night, until the kami of the shrine, Futsunushi (経津), appeared to him in a dream and handed down the secrets of martial strategy in a scroll named Mokuroku Heiho no Shinsho. He called his swordsmanship style derived from this miraculous dream the Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, the "Heavenly True, Correctly Transmitted Style of the Way of the God of Katori".
This legend is typical of martial arts ryū and other cultural forms as well. Ryū founders often attributed their mastery to magical teachings transmitted by Shinto or Buddhist deities, by long-dead historical figures like Minamoto no Yoshitsune, or by legendary supernatural creatures such as the tengu, Japanese goblins commonly depicted with a long red nose.
Iizasa's Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, thus presumably linked to the sacred tradition of both Katori and Kashima Shrines, was transmitted through his own family.
Headmasters
Iizasa Yamashiro-no-Kami (later Iga-no-Kami) Ienao Choisai, died 15 April 1488
Iizasa Wakasa-no-Kami Morichika
Iizasa Wakasa-no-Kami Morinobu
Iizasa Yamashiro-no-Kami Moritsuna
Iizasa Saemon-no-Jo Morihide
Iizasa Oi-no-Kami Morishige
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morinobu
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morinaga
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morihisa
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morisada
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morishige
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Moritsugu
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morikiyo
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Nagateru
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Moriteru
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morishige (Kan-Rikusai), died 11 July 1853, at 78 years of age
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morifusa, died 4 January 1854, at 51 years of age
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Morisada, participated in the Mito Rebellion against the shogunate, died 2 June 1896, at 56 years of age
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Kinjiro, died in 1943
Iizasa Shuri-no-Suke Yasusada (current)
In 1896, the 18th sōke died without a male heir. Yamaguchi Eikan shihan governed the ryu until his death 14 March 1917. Until Iizasa Kinjiro married into the Iizasa household, the following eight shihan headed the ryu:
Tamai Kisaburo
Shiina Ichizo
Ito Tanekichi
Kuboki Sazaemon
Isobe Kohei
Motomiya (Hongu) Toranosuke
Hayashi Yazaemon (1882–1964)
Kamagata Minosuke
Recent history
Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū is the source tradition of many Japanese martial arts. Several famous swordsmen (including Tsukahara Bokuden and Matsumoto Bizen no kami Masanobu) who learned directly from Chōi-sai or his immediate followers became founders of their own schools, with either the same name (Shintō, written with a variety of other characters) or different names: Kashima Shintō-ryū (Bokuden-ryū), Kashima-ryū, Kashima shin-ryū (founded by Matsumoto), Arima-ryū, Ichiu-ryū, Shigen-ryū, and others.
Iizasa devised a unique method to ensure warriors could train without serious injury and yet maintain a resemblance to 'riai' (integrity of principle) and combative reality. The weapon training of the ryū, in the form of kata-bujutsu (pre-arranged, combative training drills), illustrates this well. What appears to the outsider as merely a block of the opponent's attacking weapon is, in actuality, only a substitute for the part of the attacker's body intended to be cut or struck. Thus, full impact training could be maintained with safety to the practitioners. Thereby, he extended the training of his students to the use of other weapon systems as well, in order to be totally familiar with their capabilities and not be surprised on the battlefield by something unexpectedly different.
The uniqueness of Iizasa's Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū is still evident today, in the particular aspects of weapon-wielding, posture, stance, and foot and body movements which make allowance for the fact that the bushi (classical samurai warriors) of his era would be wearing 'yoroi' (armour) weighing around 35 kg, and fighting on uneven terrain. These factors tend to keep the wearer's feet firmly and flat on the ground, and slow down mobility considerably. The distinctive techniques and tactics of this ryū also acknowledge the design of classical Japanese armour, which, although protecting the wearer well, had many 'suki' (openings). The main attacking areas included: under the wrists; inside and behind the legs; the hip area; the space between the 'kabuto' (helmet) and 'dō' (chest protector) where the neck arteries and veins could be easily severed. The signature, 'omote' (basic-battlefield) sword technique of the ryū, 'makiuchi-jodan', was created by Iizasa because the bushi could not raise the sword above the head due to the obstruction of the kabuto, and secondly, notwithstanding that restriction, a very powerful 'chopping' blow from above was still needed to be generated in order to produce the maximum destructive force for when circumstances dictated attacking areas of the 'yoroi' other than the 'suki'.
On 6 March 1960 (昭和35年6月3日), the school received the first ever "Intangible Cultural Asset" designation given to a martial art by the Japanese government, naming Hayashi Yazaemon, Ōtake Risuke, and Iizasa Yasusada as its guardians. The Iizasa family dojo was also designated a Cultural Asset. The designation of Cultural Asset status shifted to the Chiba Prefectural Government in 1985 and the art was recertified, again naming Ōtake Risuke and Iizasa Yasusada as guardians. Ōtake Nobutoshi and Kyōsō Shigetoshi were also certified as guardians on 30 March 2004 (平成16年3月30日).
The school claims to have never aligned itself with any estate or faction, no matter what stipend was offered. This allowed the ryū to maintain its independence and integrity.
Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū was popularised in the west by the extensive research and writings of late Donn F. Draeger (1922–1982).
The current, twentieth generation headmaster, is Iizasa Yasusada (飯篠 修理亮 快貞 Iizasa Shūri-no-suke Yasusada). He does not teach his family's system and had instead appointed as his main representative instructor Risuke Ōtake who has a personal dojo close to Narita City. Upon Ōtake Risuke's retirement, he announced his eldest son Nobutoshi would replace him as Shihan and his younger son Shigetoshi would support him as shihan-dai . Kyōsō Shigetoshi was appointed shihan in September 2017, and Ōtake Nobutoshi was issued hamon (excommunicated) on 9 December 2018. However, both Otake Risuke, Otake Nobutoshi and Kyōsō Shigetoshi are still recognised as guardians of the school, by the Chiba Prefecture Board of Cultural Affairs.
Gallery
Curriculum
The Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū is a comprehensive martial system. This means that unlike modern martial ways such as kendo or iaido, which concentrate on one specific area of training, study is made of a broad range of martial skills.
The main emphasis of the school is kenjutsu (sword techniques). A wide range of other weapons are being taught as part of the curriculum, but the sword remains the central weapon.
The primary curriculum includes:
The Gogyo and Gokui kata are only taught to advanced practitioners after many years of fundamental practice.
Other, more advanced areas of study of the school include:
Ninjutsu (intelligence gathering and analysis)
Chikujojutsu (field fortification art)
Gunbai-Heihō (strategy and tactics)
Tenmon Chirigaku (Chinese astrology and geomantic divination)
In-Yo kigaku (philosophical and mystical aspects derived from Mikkyō, specifically Shingon Buddhism)
Keppan
Historically, before beginning any training in Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū, every prospective pupil had to sign an oath of allegiance to the school. The method was to make keppan (blood oath) in support of the following kisho or kishomon (pledge). This oath was a written one with the prospective member being required to sign his name in his own blood. The applicant would prick or cut a finger or sometimes the inner arm and with the blood drawn, sign the following pledge:
On becoming a member of the Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū which has been transmitted by the Great Deity of the Katori Shrine, I herewith affirm my pledge that:
I will not have the impertinence to discuss or demonstrate details of the ryū to either non-members or members, even if they are relatives;
I will not engage in altercations or misuse the art against others;
I will never engage in any kind of gambling nor frequent disreputable places.
I will not cross swords with any followers of other martial traditions without authorization.
I hereby pledge to firmly adhere to each of the above articles. Should I break any of these articles I will submit to the punishment of the Great Deity of Katori and the Great Deity Marishiten. Herewith I solemnly swear and affix my blood seal to this oath to these Great Deities.
Marishiten is originally the Brahman figure of Krishna. In later Chinese Buddhist mythology she became the heavenly queen who lives in one of the stars of the Great Bear. She is mostly depicted with eight arms, two of which are the symbols of the sun and the moon.
Most Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū variants headed by instructors other than Risuke Ōtake do not require keppan. However, Risuke Ōtake regarded the keppan as a strict requirement for all candidates seeking entrance into his school in order to preserve the secrecy and integrity of the ryū's teachings. Even so, students joining his various overseas branches readily receive instruction from the local instructors until such time as they may be able to travel to Ōtake's dojo to take keppan. Additional opportunities arise should an overseas dojo be visited by one of the school's senior instructors who has been authorised to take keppan from those members wishing so to do. This was the case in 2007, and again in 2009 when Kyōsō Shigetoshi, younger son of Risuke Ōtake, held an open European seminar and existing participants of varying levels of expertise from the different organisations were invited to take keppan.
Branches
The mainline of Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū is currently represented by the Kyōsō Shibu led by Kyōsō Shigetoshi, Ōtake Risuke's younger son. The honbu dojo is located at Iizasa Yasusada's home near the Katori shrine and is used by branches in good standing on special occasions. The Kyōsō Shibu regularly trains out of the Shisui Town Community Plaza and the Matsuyamashita Koen Sports Gymnasium in Inzai City. Several branches have existed alongside or split from the mainline with varying ties to the Iizasa family.
Shinbukan Dojo – The Shinbukan Dojo in Narita was built by Ōtake Risuke and represented the mainline of the ryū for over fifty years.Before Ōtake Risuke retired as shihan, he named Otake Nobutoshi as his successor and continued to oversee instruction in the Shinbukan which was led by Otake Nobutoshi, until his death in 2021. Otake Nobutoshi continues to lead training in the Shinbukan. unfortunately he was excommunicated from the school in 2018.
Sugino Dojo – Sugino Yoshio, a judoka, began training in Katori Shintō-ryū when Kanō Jigorō invited four shihan to teach swordsmanship at the Kodokan dojo. He continued his training under Shiina Ichizo. Many of his students have taught Katori Shintō-ryū outside of Japan. His son, Sugino Yukihiro has continued to teach, and has received public acknowledgement from Iizasa Yasusada as representing an official branch of Katori Shintō-ryū.
Hatakeyama Goro – A high-ranking student of Sugino's, Hatakeyama Goro, had led several dojos internationally prior to his death. These dojos now operate independently.
Sugawara Budo – Sugawara Tetsutaka edited and published The Deity and The Sword through his own publishing company. He was awarded menkyo kyoshi (teaching license) in 1986, but later separated from the mainline. He currently teaches Katori Shintō-ryū as part of Sugawara Martial Arts Institute's curriculum.
Noda-ha – Noda Shinzan (1848–1917) began training in Katori Shintō-ryū in 1853 under Yamada Naomune, a retainer of the Date clan. Many Date retainers had trained in Katori Shintō-ryū and developed their own distinctive style. After Naomune's death in 1912, Shinzan enrolled his grandson, Seizan, under Yamaguchi Kumajiro, the most senior mainline shihan at the time. Following the deaths of Yamaguchi and his grandfather, Noda Seizan continued to train under Motomiya Toranosuke. After Motomiya's passing, Noda studied with Hayashi Yazaemon who began reforming and standardizing the mainline curriculum. Finding his style incompatible with Hayashi's, Noda Seizan quietly withdrew to private teaching, referring to his branch as Noda-ha Katori Shintō-ryū. Noda-ha preserves some kata that have been lost in the mainline.
Ichigidō – Shiigi Munenori began training in Katori Shintō-ryū under his father, who had trained with Motomiya Toranosuke, before formally training at Ōtake Risuke's dojo for over thirty years. He incorporates Katori Shintō-ryū as part of the curriculum of his Ichigidō organization and maintains a positive relationship with the Iizasa family. He writes "Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū" as "天真正伝香取神刀流" with '道' (way) with '刀' (sword).
Yoseikan Budo – Mochizuki Minoru, a judoka from the Kodokan who trained alongside Sugino Yoshio, has incorporated Katori Shintō-ryū into the curriculum of Yoseikan Budo. His son, Mochizuki Hiro, now heads Yoseikan.
Ranking & Appointed Positions
The different branches recognize different levels of ranks and appointments. The traditional ranks are a variant of the menkyo system.
Ōtake
Ranks
Mokuroku (目録, "catalog")
Menkyo (免許, "license, certificate")
Gokui Kaiden (極意皆伝, "deepest transmission")
Appointments
Shidōsha (指導者, "mentor, coach"; given as license to teach outside of Shinbukan dojo)
Shihan (師範, 'instructor'; head-teacher)
Sugino
The Sugino line uses modern dan system only, in respect of Yoshio Sugino's (10th dan) judo teacher Kanō Jigorō, who was using this way of ranking as well, excluding the traditional menkyo system.
Hatakeyama
The Hatakeyama line (which has no current headmaster) makes use of the modern dan system alongside the traditional menkyo system, issuing ranks in both with shōden/chūden/okuden gradations to create equivalent ranks from the menkyo system.
Ranks
1st dan – kirikami shōden
2nd dan – kirikami chūden
3rd dan – mokuroku shōden
4th dan – mokuroku chūden
5th dan – menkyo mokuroku
6th dan – menkyo chūden
7th dan – menkyo okuden
8th dan – menkyo kaiden
Sugawara Budo
Sugawara Budo issues mokuroku and menkyo certifications. English-speaking members of Sugawara Budo refer to the rank of menkyo as a "kyōshi license", or "menkyo kyōshi".
Notable swordsmen in relation to Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū
Tsukahara Bokuden – from the early sengoku period who developed his own style of swordsmanship Kashima Shintō-ryū
Musō Gonnosuke – founder of Shintō Musō-ryū
Miyamoto Musashi – he meditated in the Kashima-Katori shrines
Yamazaki Susumu – Shinsengumi officer, physician and spy
Katakura Murakiyo – eighth head of the Katakura clan, earned menkyo kaiden
Kuroda Yoshitaka – late Sengoku daimyo and advisor to Toyotomi Hideyoshi, appointed shihan
Takenaka Shigeharu – advisor to Toyotomi Hideyoshi and jōseki shihan of Katori Shintō-ryū
Kamiizumi Nobutsuna – founder of Shinkage-ryū, student of Katori Shintō-ryū, Nen-ryū, and Kage-ryū
Anazawa Morihide – founder of Anazawa-Ryū naginatajutsu, studied under 5th soke of Katori Shintō-ryū and killed at the Siege of Osaka
Notes
References
Further reading
Amdur, Ellis (2002). Old School: Essays on Japanese Martial Traditions, Edgework, p. 21–45
Draeger, Donn F. The Martial Arts and Ways of Japan series, 3 volumes.
Friday, Karl F (1997). Legacies of the Sword, the Kashima-Shinryu and Samurai Martial Culture, University of Hawaii Press, p. 26 & 93,
Hall, David Avalon. Marishiten: Buddhism and the warrior Goddess, Ph.D. dissertation, Ann Arbor: University microfilms, p. 274–292.
Hurst III, G. Cameron (1998). Armed Martial Arts of Japan, Swordsmanship and Archery, Yale University Press, p. 46–49 & 58,
Mol, Serge (2001). Classical Fighting Arts of Japan, A Complete Guide to Koryu JuJutsu, Kodansha International, p. 43 & 151,
Ōtake, Risuke (1977). The Deity and the Sword – Katori Shinto-ryu Vol. 1, Japan, Japan Publications Trading Co. (Original Japanese title for all three volumes in this series is Mukei Bunkazai Katori Shinto-ryu)
Ōtake, Risuke (1977). The Deity and the Sword – Katori Shinto-ryu Vol. 2, Japan, Japan Publications Trading Co.
Ōtake, Risuke (1977). The Deity and the Sword – Katori Shinto-ryu Vol. 3, Japan, Japan Publications Trading Co.
Ōtake, Risuke (2016). Strategy and the Art of Peace: Tenshinshō-den Katori Shintō-ryū (English Edition). Nippon Budokan Foundation. (description page)
Ratti, Oscar & Westbrook, Adele (1973). Secrets of the Samurai, A Survey of the Martial Arts of Feudal Japan, Charles E. Tuttle Co.
Skoss, Diane (editor) (1997). Koryu Bujutsu, Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Koryu Books, vol 1,
Skoss, Diane (editor) (1999). Sword & Spirit, Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Koryu Books, vol 2, p. 67–69.
Skoss, Diane (editor) (2002). Keiko Shokon, Classical Warrior Traditions of Japan, Koryu Books, vol 3,
Sugino, Yoshio & Ito, Kikue (1977). Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu Budo Kyohan (A Textbook of Tenshin Shoden Katori Shinto-ryu Martial Training; originally published in 1941).
Warner, Gordon & Draeger, Donn F. (1982). Japanese Swordsmanship: Technique And Practice,
External links
Shinbukan Dojo Official Website
Katori Shinto-ryu United Kingdom
Katori Shinto-ryu United States
Katori Shinto-ryu Kyōsō Shibu Official Website
Katori Shinto-ryu Soke Official Website
Ko-ryū bujutsu
Japanese martial arts | [
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