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255952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head-driven%20phrase%20structure%20grammar | Head-driven phrase structure grammar | Head-driven phrase structure grammar (HPSG) is a highly lexicalized, constraint-based grammar
developed by Carl Pollard and Ivan Sag. It is a type of phrase structure grammar, as opposed to a dependency grammar, and it is the immediate successor to generalized phrase structure grammar. HPSG draws from other fields such as computer science (data type theory and knowledge representation) and uses Ferdinand de Saussure's notion of the sign. It uses a uniform formalism and is organized in a modular way which makes it attractive for natural language processing.
An HPSG grammar includes principles and grammar rules and lexicon entries which are normally not considered to belong to a grammar. The formalism is based on lexicalism. This means that the lexicon is more than just a list of entries; it is in itself richly structured. Individual entries are marked with types. Types form a hierarchy. Early versions of the grammar were very lexicalized with few grammatical rules (schema). More recent research has tended to add more and richer rules, becoming more like construction grammar.
The basic type HPSG deals with is the sign. Words and phrases are two different subtypes of sign. A word has two features: [PHON] (the sound, the phonetic form) and [SYNSEM] (the syntactic and semantic information), both of which are split into subfeatures. Signs and rules are formalized as typed feature structures.
Sample grammar
HPSG generates strings by combining signs, which are defined by their location within a type hierarchy and by their internal feature structure, represented by attribute value matrices (AVMs).
Features take types or lists of types as their values, and these values may in turn have their own feature structure. Grammatical rules are largely expressed through the constraints signs place on one another. A sign's feature structure describes its phonological, syntactic, and semantic properties. In common notation, AVMs are written with features in upper case and types in italicized lower case. Numbered indices in an AVM represent token identical values.
In the simplified AVM for the word (in this case the verb, not the noun as in "nice walks for the weekend") "walks" below, the verb's categorical information (CAT) is divided into features that describe it (HEAD) and features that describe its arguments (VALENCE).
"Walks" is a sign of type word with a head of type verb. As an intransitive verb, "walks" has no complement but requires a subject that is a third person singular noun. The semantic value of the subject (CONTENT) is co-indexed with the verb's only argument (the individual doing the walking). The following AVM for "she" represents a sign with a SYNSEM value that could fulfill those requirements.
Signs of type phrase unify with one or more children and propagate information upward. The following AVM encodes the immediate dominance rule for a head-subj-phrase, which requires two children: the head child (a verb) and a non-head child that fulfills the verb's SUBJ constraints.
The end result is a sign with a verb head, empty subcategorization features, and a phonological value that orders the two children.
Although the actual grammar of HPSG is composed entirely of feature structures, linguists often use trees to represent the unification of signs where the equivalent AVM would be unwieldy.
Implementations
Various parsers based on the HPSG formalism have been written and optimizations are currently being investigated. An example of a system analyzing German sentences is provided by the Freie Universität Berlin. In addition the CoreGram project of the Grammar Group of the Freie Universität Berlin provides open source grammars that were implemented in the TRALE system. Currently there are grammars for German, Danish, Mandarin Chinese, Maltese, and Persian that share a common core and are publicly available.
Large HPSG grammars of various languages are being developed in the Deep Linguistic Processing with HPSG Initiative (DELPH-IN). Wide-coverage grammars of English, German, and Japanese are available under an open-source license. These grammars can be used with a variety of inter-compatible open-source HPSG parsers: LKB, PET, Ace, and agree. All of these produce semantic representations in the format of “Minimal Recursion Semantics,” MRS. The declarative nature of the HPSG formalism means that these computational grammars can typically be used for both parsing and generation (producing surface strings from semantic inputs). Treebanks, also distributed by DELPH-IN, are used to develop and test the grammars, as well as to train ranking models to decide on plausible interpretations when parsing (or realizations when generating).
Enju is a freely available wide-coverage probabilistic HPSG parser for English developed by the Tsujii Laboratory at The University of Tokyo in Japan.
See also
Lexical-functional grammar
Minimal recursion semantics
Relational grammar
Situation semantics
Syntax
Transformational grammar
Type Description Language
References
Further reading
Carl Pollard, Ivan A. Sag (1987): Information-based Syntax and Semantics. Volume 1: Fundamentals. Stanford: CSLI Publications.
Carl Pollard, Ivan A. Sag (1994): Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ()
Ivan A. Sag, Thomas Wasow, Emily M. Bender (2003): Syntactic Theory: a formal introduction, Second Edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ()
External links
Stanford HPSG homepage – includes on-line proceedings of an annual HPSG conference
Ohio State HPSG homepage
International Conference on Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar
DELPH-IN network for HPSG grammar development
Basic Overview of HPSG
Comparison of HPSG with alternatives, and a historical perspective
Bibliography of HPSG Publications
LaTeX package for drawing AVMs – includes documentation
Generative linguistics
Grammar frameworks
Syntactic theories | [
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255953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood%20hoopoe | Wood hoopoe | The wood hoopoes or scimitarbills are a small African family, Phoeniculidae, of near passerine birds. They live south of the Sahara Desert and are not migratory. While the family is now restricted to Sub-Saharan Africa, fossil evidence shows that it once had a larger distribution. Fossils attributed to this family have been found in Miocene rocks in Germany.
The wood hoopoes are related to the kingfishers, the rollers, and the hoopoe, forming a clade with this last according to Hackett et al. (2008). A close relationship between the hoopoe and the wood hoopoes is also supported by the shared and unique nature of their stapes. The wood hoopoes most resemble the true hoopoes with their long down-curved bills and short rounded wings. According to genetic studies, the two genera, Phoeniculus and Rhinopomastus, appear to have diverged about ten million years ago, so some systematists treat them as separate subfamilies or even separate families.
Description
The wood hoopoes are a morphologically distinct group, unlikely to be mistaken for any other. These species are medium-sized ( long, much of which is the tail). They have metallic plumage, often blue, green or purple, and lack a crest. The sexes are similar in all but two species, the forest wood hoopoe and the common scimitarbill. Their bills are either red or black, although young red-billed species also have black bills and bill colour is correlated with age. The legs are scarlet or black, short, with thick tarsi. They climb tree trunks in the manner of a woodpecker, and when feeding on the ground they hop rather than walking like the true hoopoe. Their tails are long and strongly graduated (the central feathers are the longest), and marked conspicuously with white, as are their wings.
Range and behaviour
These are birds of open woodland, savannah, or thornbrush, and are mainly arboreal. They require large trees both for feeding on as well as to provide hollows for nesting and nocturnal roosting. Two species are found exclusively in rainforest, the forest wood hoopoe and the white-headed wood hoopoe. All the other species are found in more open woodland and bush.
They feed on arthropods, especially insects, which they find by probing with their bills in rotten wood and in crevices in bark. They nest in unlined tree holes, laying two to four eggs, which are blue, grey, or olive, and unmarked in most species.
Species
There are eight species.
Family: Phoeniculidae
References
External links
Wood hoopoe videos on The Cornell Lab of Ornithology - Macaulay Library
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Afrotropics
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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255954 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA%20microarray | DNA microarray | A DNA microarray (also commonly known as DNA chip or biochip) is a collection of microscopic DNA spots attached to a solid surface. Scientists use DNA microarrays to measure the expression levels of large numbers of genes simultaneously or to genotype multiple regions of a genome. Each DNA spot contains picomoles (10−12 moles) of a specific DNA sequence, known as probes (or reporters or oligos). These can be a short section of a gene or other DNA element that are used to hybridize a cDNA or cRNA (also called anti-sense RNA) sample (called target) under high-stringency conditions. Probe-target hybridization is usually detected and quantified by detection of fluorophore-, silver-, or chemiluminescence-labeled targets to determine relative abundance of nucleic acid sequences in the target. The original nucleic acid arrays were macro arrays approximately 9 cm × 12 cm and the first computerized image based analysis was published in 1981. It was invented by Patrick O. Brown. An example of its application is in SNPs arrays for polymorphisms in cardiovascular diseases, cancer, pathogens and GWAS analysis. Also for identification of structural variations and measurement of gene expression.
Principle
The core principle behind microarrays is hybridization between two DNA strands, the property of complementary nucleic acid sequences to specifically pair with each other by forming hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotide base pairs. A high number of complementary base pairs in a nucleotide sequence means tighter non-covalent bonding between the two strands. After washing off non-specific bonding sequences, only strongly paired strands will remain hybridized. Fluorescently labeled target sequences that bind to a probe sequence generate a signal that depends on the hybridization conditions (such as temperature), and washing after hybridization. Total strength of the signal, from a spot (feature), depends upon the amount of target sample binding to the probes present on that spot. Microarrays use relative quantitation in which the intensity of a feature is compared to the intensity of the same feature under a different condition, and the identity of the feature is known by its position.
Uses and types
Many types of arrays exist and the broadest distinction is whether they are spatially arranged on a surface or on coded beads:
The traditional solid-phase array is a collection of orderly microscopic "spots", called features, each with thousands of identical and specific probes attached to a solid surface, such as glass, plastic or silicon biochip (commonly known as a genome chip, DNA chip or gene array). Thousands of these features can be placed in known locations on a single DNA microarray.
The alternative bead array is a collection of microscopic polystyrene beads, each with a specific probe and a ratio of two or more dyes, which do not interfere with the fluorescent dyes used on the target sequence.
DNA microarrays can be used to detect DNA (as in comparative genomic hybridization), or detect RNA (most commonly as cDNA after reverse transcription) that may or may not be translated into proteins. The process of measuring gene expression via cDNA is called expression analysis or expression profiling.
Applications include:
Specialised arrays tailored to particular crops are becoming increasingly popular in molecular breeding applications. In the future they could be used to screen seedlings at early stages to lower the number of unneeded seedlings tried out in breeding operations.
Fabrication
Microarrays can be manufactured in different ways, depending on the number of probes under examination, costs, customization requirements, and the type of scientific question being asked. Arrays from commercial vendors may have as few as 10 probes or as many as 5 million or more micrometre-scale probes.
Spotted vs. in situ synthesised arrays
Microarrays can be fabricated using a variety of technologies, including printing with fine-pointed pins onto glass slides, photolithography using pre-made masks, photolithography using dynamic micromirror devices, ink-jet printing, or electrochemistry on microelectrode arrays.
In spotted microarrays, the probes are oligonucleotides, cDNA or small fragments of PCR products that correspond to mRNAs. The probes are synthesized prior to deposition on the array surface and are then "spotted" onto glass. A common approach utilizes an array of fine pins or needles controlled by a robotic arm that is dipped into wells containing DNA probes and then depositing each probe at designated locations on the array surface. The resulting "grid" of probes represents the nucleic acid profiles of the prepared probes and is ready to receive complementary cDNA or cRNA "targets" derived from experimental or clinical samples.
This technique is used by research scientists around the world to produce "in-house" printed microarrays from their own labs. These arrays may be easily customized for each experiment, because researchers can choose the probes and printing locations on the arrays, synthesize the probes in their own lab (or collaborating facility), and spot the arrays. They can then generate their own labeled samples for hybridization, hybridize the samples to the array, and finally scan the arrays with their own equipment. This provides a relatively low-cost microarray that may be customized for each study, and avoids the costs of purchasing often more expensive commercial arrays that may represent vast numbers of genes that are not of interest to the investigator.
Publications exist which indicate in-house spotted microarrays may not provide the same level of sensitivity compared to commercial oligonucleotide arrays, possibly owing to the small batch sizes and reduced printing efficiencies when compared to industrial manufactures of oligo arrays.
In oligonucleotide microarrays, the probes are short sequences designed to match parts of the sequence of known or predicted open reading frames. Although oligonucleotide probes are often used in "spotted" microarrays, the term "oligonucleotide array" most often refers to a specific technique of manufacturing. Oligonucleotide arrays are produced by printing short oligonucleotide sequences designed to represent a single gene or family of gene splice-variants by synthesizing this sequence directly onto the array surface instead of depositing intact sequences. Sequences may be longer (60-mer probes such as the Agilent design) or shorter (25-mer probes produced by Affymetrix) depending on the desired purpose; longer probes are more specific to individual target genes, shorter probes may be spotted in higher density across the array and are cheaper to manufacture.
One technique used to produce oligonucleotide arrays include photolithographic synthesis (Affymetrix) on a silica substrate where light and light-sensitive masking agents are used to "build" a sequence one nucleotide at a time across the entire array. Each applicable probe is selectively "unmasked" prior to bathing the array in a solution of a single nucleotide, then a masking reaction takes place and the next set of probes are unmasked in preparation for a different nucleotide exposure. After many repetitions, the sequences of every probe become fully constructed. More recently, Maskless Array Synthesis from NimbleGen Systems has combined flexibility with large numbers of probes.
Two-channel vs. one-channel detection
Two-color microarrays or two-channel microarrays are typically hybridized with cDNA prepared from two samples to be compared (e.g. diseased tissue versus healthy tissue) and that are labeled with two different fluorophores. Fluorescent dyes commonly used for cDNA labeling include Cy3, which has a fluorescence emission wavelength of 570 nm (corresponding to the green part of the light spectrum), and Cy5 with a fluorescence emission wavelength of 670 nm (corresponding to the red part of the light spectrum). The two Cy-labeled cDNA samples are mixed and hybridized to a single microarray that is then scanned in a microarray scanner to visualize fluorescence of the two fluorophores after excitation with a laser beam of a defined wavelength. Relative intensities of each fluorophore may then be used in ratio-based analysis to identify up-regulated and down-regulated genes.
Oligonucleotide microarrays often carry control probes designed to hybridize with RNA spike-ins. The degree of hybridization between the spike-ins and the control probes is used to normalize the hybridization measurements for the target probes. Although absolute levels of gene expression may be determined in the two-color array in rare instances, the relative differences in expression among different spots within a sample and between samples is the preferred method of data analysis for the two-color system. Examples of providers for such microarrays includes Agilent with their Dual-Mode platform, Eppendorf with their DualChip platform for colorimetric Silverquant labeling, and TeleChem International with Arrayit.
In single-channel microarrays or one-color microarrays, the arrays provide intensity data for each probe or probe set indicating a relative level of hybridization with the labeled target. However, they do not truly indicate abundance levels of a gene but rather relative abundance when compared to other samples or conditions when processed in the same experiment. Each RNA molecule encounters protocol and batch-specific bias during amplification, labeling, and hybridization phases of the experiment making comparisons between genes for the same microarray uninformative. The comparison of two conditions for the same gene requires two separate single-dye hybridizations. Several popular single-channel systems are the Affymetrix "Gene Chip", Illumina "Bead Chip", Agilent single-channel arrays, the Applied Microarrays "CodeLink" arrays, and the Eppendorf "DualChip & Silverquant". One strength of the single-dye system lies in the fact that an aberrant sample cannot affect the raw data derived from other samples, because each array chip is exposed to only one sample (as opposed to a two-color system in which a single low-quality sample may drastically impinge on overall data precision even if the other sample was of high quality). Another benefit is that data are more easily compared to arrays from different experiments as long as batch effects have been accounted for.
One channel microarray may be the only choice in some situations. Suppose samples need to be compared: then the number of experiments required using the two channel arrays quickly becomes unfeasible, unless a sample is used as a reference.
A typical protocol
This is an example of a DNA microarray experiment which includes details for a particular case to better explain DNA microarray experiments, while listing modifications for RNA or other alternative experiments.
The two samples to be compared (pairwise comparison) are grown/acquired. In this example treated sample (case) and untreated sample (control).
The nucleic acid of interest is purified: this can be RNA for expression profiling, DNA for comparative hybridization, or DNA/RNA bound to a particular protein which is immunoprecipitated (ChIP-on-chip) for epigenetic or regulation studies. In this example total RNA is isolated (both nuclear and cytoplasmic) by Guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction (e.g. Trizol) which isolates most RNA (whereas column methods have a cut off of 200 nucleotides) and if done correctly has a better purity.
The purified RNA is analysed for quality (by capillary electrophoresis) and quantity (for example, by using a NanoDrop or NanoPhotometer spectrometer). If the material is of acceptable quality and sufficient quantity is present (e.g., >1μg, although the required amount varies by microarray platform), the experiment can proceed.
The labeled product is generated via reverse transcription and followed by an optional PCR amplification. The RNA is reverse transcribed with either polyT primers (which amplify only mRNA) or random primers (which amplify all RNA, most of which is rRNA). miRNA microarrays ligate an oligonucleotide to the purified small RNA (isolated with a fractionator), which is then reverse transcribed and amplified.
The label is added either during the reverse transcription step, or following amplification if it is performed. The sense labeling is dependent on the microarray; e.g. if the label is added with the RT mix, the cDNA is antisense and the microarray probe is sense, except in the case of negative controls.
The label is typically fluorescent; only one machine uses radiolabels.
The labeling can be direct (not used) or indirect (requires a coupling stage). For two-channel arrays, the coupling stage occurs before hybridization, using aminoallyl uridine triphosphate (aminoallyl-UTP, or aaUTP) and NHS amino-reactive dyes (such as cyanine dyes); for single-channel arrays, the coupling stage occurs after hybridization, using biotin and labeled streptavidin. The modified nucleotides (usually in a ratio of 1 aaUTP: 4 TTP (thymidine triphosphate)) are added enzymatically in a low ratio to normal nucleotides, typically resulting in 1 every 60 bases. The aaDNA is then purified with a column (using a phosphate buffer solution, as Tris contains amine groups). The aminoallyl group is an amine group on a long linker attached to the nucleobase, which reacts with a reactive dye.
A form of replicate known as a dye flip can be performed to control for dye artifacts in two-channel experiments; for a dye flip, a second slide is used, with the labels swapped (the sample that was labeled with Cy3 in the first slide is labeled with Cy5, and vice versa). In this example, aminoallyl-UTP is present in the reverse-transcribed mixture.
The labeled samples are then mixed with a proprietary hybridization solution which can consist of SDS, SSC, dextran sulfate, a blocking agent (such as Cot-1 DNA, salmon sperm DNA, calf thymus DNA, PolyA, or PolyT), Denhardt's solution, or formamine.
The mixture is denatured and added to the pinholes of the microarray. The holes are sealed and the microarray hybridized, either in a hyb oven, where the microarray is mixed by rotation, or in a mixer, where the microarray is mixed by alternating pressure at the pinholes.
After an overnight hybridization, all nonspecific binding is washed off (SDS and SSC).
The microarray is dried and scanned by a machine that uses a laser to excite the dye and measures the emission levels with a detector.
The image is gridded with a template and the intensities of each feature (composed of several pixels) is quantified.
The raw data is normalized; the simplest normalization method is to subtract background intensity and scale so that the total intensities of the features of the two channels are equal, or to use the intensity of a reference gene to calculate the t-value for all of the intensities. More sophisticated methods include z-ratio, loess and lowess regression and RMA (robust multichip analysis) for Affymetrix chips (single-channel, silicon chip, in situ synthesized short oligonucleotides).
Microarrays and bioinformatics
The advent of inexpensive microarray experiments created several specific bioinformatics challenges: the multiple levels of replication in experimental design (Experimental design); the number of platforms and independent groups and data format (Standardization); the statistical treatment of the data (Data analysis); mapping each probe to the mRNA transcript that it measures (Annotation); the sheer volume of data and the ability to share it (Data warehousing).
Experimental design
Due to the biological complexity of gene expression, the considerations of experimental design that are discussed in the expression profiling article are of critical importance if statistically and biologically valid conclusions are to be drawn from the data.
There are three main elements to consider when designing a microarray experiment. First, replication of the biological samples is essential for drawing conclusions from the experiment. Second, technical replicates (e.g. two RNA samples obtained from each experimental unit) may help to quantitate precision. The biological replicates include independent RNA extractions. Technical replicates may be two aliquots of the same extraction. Third, spots of each cDNA clone or oligonucleotide are present as replicates (at least duplicates) on the microarray slide, to provide a measure of technical precision in each hybridization. It is critical that information about the sample preparation and handling is discussed, in order to help identify the independent units in the experiment and to avoid inflated estimates of statistical significance.
Standardization
Microarray data is difficult to exchange due to the lack of standardization in platform fabrication, assay protocols, and analysis methods. This presents an interoperability problem in bioinformatics. Various grass-roots open-source projects are trying to ease the exchange and analysis of data produced with non-proprietary chips:
For example, the "Minimum Information About a Microarray Experiment" (MIAME) checklist helps define the level of detail that should exist and is being adopted by many journals as a requirement for the submission of papers incorporating microarray results. But MIAME does not describe the format for the information, so while many formats can support the MIAME requirements, no format permits verification of complete semantic compliance. The "MicroArray Quality Control (MAQC) Project" is being conducted by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to develop standards and quality control metrics which will eventually allow the use of MicroArray data in drug discovery, clinical practice and regulatory decision-making. The MGED Society has developed standards for the representation of gene expression experiment results and relevant annotations.
Data analysis
Microarray data sets are commonly very large, and analytical precision is influenced by a number of variables. Statistical challenges include taking into account effects of background noise and appropriate normalization of the data. Normalization methods may be suited to specific platforms and, in the case of commercial platforms, the analysis may be proprietary. Algorithms that affect statistical analysis include:
Image analysis: gridding, spot recognition of the scanned image (segmentation algorithm), removal or marking of poor-quality and low-intensity features (called flagging).
Data processing: background subtraction (based on global or local background), determination of spot intensities and intensity ratios, visualisation of data (e.g. see MA plot), and log-transformation of ratios, global or local normalization of intensity ratios, and segmentation into different copy number regions using step detection algorithms.
Class discovery analysis: This analytic approach, sometimes called unsupervised classification or knowledge discovery, tries to identify whether microarrays (objects, patients, mice, etc.) or genes cluster together in groups. Identifying naturally existing groups of objects (microarrays or genes) which cluster together can enable the discovery of new groups that otherwise were not previously known to exist. During knowledge discovery analysis, various unsupervised classification techniques can be employed with DNA microarray data to identify novel clusters (classes) of arrays. This type of approach is not hypothesis-driven, but rather is based on iterative pattern recognition or statistical learning methods to find an "optimal" number of clusters in the data. Examples of unsupervised analyses methods include self-organizing maps, neural gas, k-means cluster analyses, hierarchical cluster analysis, Genomic Signal Processing based clustering and model-based cluster analysis. For some of these methods the user also has to define a distance measure between pairs of objects. Although the Pearson correlation coefficient is usually employed, several other measures have been proposed and evaluated in the literature. The input data used in class discovery analyses are commonly based on lists of genes having high informativeness (low noise) based on low values of the coefficient of variation or high values of Shannon entropy, etc. The determination of the most likely or optimal number of clusters obtained from an unsupervised analysis is called cluster validity. Some commonly used metrics for cluster validity are the silhouette index, Davies-Bouldin index, Dunn's index, or Hubert's statistic.
Class prediction analysis: This approach, called supervised classification, establishes the basis for developing a predictive model into which future unknown test objects can be input in order to predict the most likely class membership of the test objects. Supervised analysis for class prediction involves use of techniques such as linear regression, k-nearest neighbor, learning vector quantization, decision tree analysis, random forests, naive Bayes, logistic regression, kernel regression, artificial neural networks, support vector machines, mixture of experts, and supervised neural gas. In addition, various metaheuristic methods are employed, such as genetic algorithms, covariance matrix self-adaptation, particle swarm optimization, and ant colony optimization. Input data for class prediction are usually based on filtered lists of genes which are predictive of class, determined using classical hypothesis tests (next section), Gini diversity index, or information gain (entropy).
Hypothesis-driven statistical analysis: Identification of statistically significant changes in gene expression are commonly identified using the t-test, ANOVA, Bayesian methodMann–Whitney test methods tailored to microarray data sets, which take into account multiple comparisons or cluster analysis. These methods assess statistical power based on the variation present in the data and the number of experimental replicates, and can help minimize Type I and type II errors in the analyses.
Dimensional reduction: Analysts often reduce the number of dimensions (genes) prior to data analysis. This may involve linear approaches such as principal components analysis (PCA), or non-linear manifold learning (distance metric learning) using kernel PCA, diffusion maps, Laplacian eigenmaps, local linear embedding, locally preserving projections, and Sammon's mapping.
Network-based methods: Statistical methods that take the underlying structure of gene networks into account, representing either associative or causative interactions or dependencies among gene products. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis is widely used for identifying co-expression modules and intramodular hub genes. Modules may corresponds to cell types or pathways. Highly connected intramodular hubs best represent their respective modules.
Microarray data may require further processing aimed at reducing the dimensionality of the data to aid comprehension and more focused analysis. Other methods permit analysis of data consisting of a low number of biological or technical replicates; for example, the Local Pooled Error (LPE) test pools standard deviations of genes with similar expression levels in an effort to compensate for insufficient replication.
Annotation
The relation between a probe and the mRNA that it is expected to detect is not trivial. Some mRNAs may cross-hybridize probes in the array that are supposed to detect another mRNA. In addition, mRNAs may experience amplification bias that is sequence or molecule-specific. Thirdly, probes that are designed to detect the mRNA of a particular gene may be relying on genomic EST information that is incorrectly associated with that gene.
Data warehousing
Microarray data was found to be more useful when compared to other similar datasets. The sheer volume of data, specialized formats (such as MIAME), and curation efforts associated with the datasets require specialized databases to store the data. A number of open-source data warehousing solutions, such as InterMine and BioMart, have been created for the specific purpose of integrating diverse biological datasets, and also support analysis.
Alternative technologies
Advances in massively parallel sequencing has led to the development of RNA-Seq technology, that enables a whole transcriptome shotgun approach to characterize and quantify gene expression. Unlike microarrays, which need a reference genome and transcriptome to be available before the microarray itself can be designed, RNA-Seq can also be used for new model organisms whose genome has not been sequenced yet.
Glossary
An array or slide is a collection of features spatially arranged in a two dimensional grid, arranged in columns and rows.
Block or subarray: a group of spots, typically made in one print round; several subarrays/ blocks form an array.
Case/control: an experimental design paradigm especially suited to the two-colour array system, in which a condition chosen as control (such as healthy tissue or state) is compared to an altered condition (such as a diseased tissue or state).
Channel: the fluorescence output recorded in the scanner for an individual fluorophore and can even be ultraviolet.
Dye flip or dye swap or fluor reversal: reciprocal labelling of DNA targets with the two dyes to account for dye bias in experiments.
Scanner: an instrument used to detect and quantify the intensity of fluorescence of spots on a microarray slide, by selectively exciting fluorophores with a laser and measuring the fluorescence with a filter (optics) photomultiplier system.
Spot or feature: a small area on an array slide that contains picomoles of specific DNA samples.
For other relevant terms see:
Glossary of gene expression terms
Protocol (natural sciences)
See also
Transcriptomics technologies
Serial analysis of gene expression
RNA-Seq
MAGIChip
Microarray analysis techniques
Microarray databases
Cyanine dyes, such as Cy3 and Cy5, are commonly used fluorophores with microarrays
Gene chip analysis
Significance analysis of microarrays
Methylation specific oligonucleotide microarray
Microfluidics or lab-on-chip
Pathogenomics
Phenotype microarray
Systems biology
Whole genome sequencing
References
External links
Microarray Animation 1Lec.com
PLoS Biology Primer: Microarray Analysis
Rundown of microarray technology
ArrayMining.neta free web-server for online microarray analysis
Microarray - How does it work?
PNAS Commentary: Discovery of Principles of Nature from Mathematical Modeling of DNA Microarray Data
DNA microarray virtual experiment
Gene expression
Bioinformatics
Genetics techniques
Glass coating and surface modification
DNA
Microtechnology
Articles containing video clips
Molecular biology techniques
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255960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground%20roller | Ground roller | The ground rollers are a small family of non-migratory near-passerine birds restricted to Madagascar.
They are related to the kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers. They most resemble the latter group, and are sometimes considered a sub-family of the true rollers.
Description
Ground rollers share the generally crow-like size and build of the true rollers, ranging from in length, and also hunt reptiles and large insects. They are more terrestrial than Coracidae species, and this is reflected in their longer legs and shorter, more rounded wings.
They lack the highly colourful appearance of the true rollers, and are duller in appearance, with striped or flecked plumage. They are much more elusive and shy than their relatives, and are normally difficult to find in the Malagasy forests. Often the hooting breeding call is all that betrays their presence.
These birds nest as solitary pairs in holes in the ground which they excavate themselves, unlike the true rollers, which rarely nest in ground holes and even then do not dig their own nests.
Systematics
mtDNA analyses confirmed the systematics of this group but indicated that merging Geobiastes into Brachypteracias, as was usually done since the 1960s, should be reversed at least until a more comprehensive review (e.g. supported by fossils) is possible (Kirchman et al., 2001). Also, 2000-year-old subfossil remains of ground rollers are known from the Holocene of Ampoza (Goodman, 2000); Eocene remains from Europe at first tentatively assigned to this family were later recognized as quite distinct (Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré 2000). Presently, there is no indication that ground rollers ever occurred anywhere outside Madagascar (Mayr & Mourer-Chauviré, 2001).
Species
There are six known species in four known genera in the family Brachypteraciidae:
References
Kirchman, Jeremy J.; Hackett, Shannon J.; Goodman, Steven M. & Bates, John M. (2001): Phylogeny and systematics of ground rollers (Brachypteraciidae) of Madagascar, Auk 118(4): 849–863. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2001)118[0849:PASOGR]2.0.CO;2 HTML abstract
Mayr, Gerald & Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2000): Rollers (Aves: Coraciiformes. s.s.) from the Middle Eocene of Messel (Germany) and the Upper Eocene of the Quercy (France). J. Vertebr. Paleontol. 20(3): 533–546. DOI:10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0533:RACSSF]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
Mayr, Gerald & Mourer-Chauviré, Cécile (2003): Phylogeny and fossil record of the Brachypteraciidae: A comment on Kirchman et al. (2001). Auk 120(1): 202–203. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2003)120[0202:PAFROT]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext
Goodman, S.M. (2000). A description of a new species of Brachypteracias (Family Brachypteraciidae) from the Holocene of Madagascar. Ostrich 71 (1 & 2):p 318–322
External links
Ground roller videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Don Roberson's Bird Families of the World
Coraciiformes
Endemic birds of Madagascar
Taxa named by Charles Lucien Bonaparte | [
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255963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus%20Mann | Klaus Mann | Klaus Heinrich Thomas Mann (18 November 1906 – 21 May 1949) was a German writer and dissident. He was the son of Thomas Mann, a nephew of Heinrich Mann and brother of Erika Mann, with whom he maintained a lifelong close relationship, and Golo Mann. He is well known for his 1936 novel, Mephisto.
Background
Born in Munich, Klaus Mann was the son of German writer Thomas Mann and his wife, Katia Pringsheim. His father was baptized as a Lutheran, while his mother was from a family of secular Jews.
Career
Mann began writing short stories in 1924 and the following year became drama critic for a Berlin newspaper. His first literary works were published in 1925.
Mann's early life was troubled. His homosexuality often made him the target of bigotry, and he had a difficult relationship with his father. After only a short time in various schools, he traveled with his sister Erika Mann, a year older than himself, around the world, visiting the U.S. in 1927; they reported on the trip in essays published as a collaborative travelogue entitled Rundherum in 1929.
In 1924 he had become engaged to his childhood friend Pamela Wedekind, the eldest daughter of the playwright Frank Wedekind, who was also a close friend of his sister Erika. The engagement was broken off in January 1928.
He traveled with Erika to North Africa in 1929. Around this time they made the acquaintance of Annemarie Schwarzenbach, a Swiss writer and photographer, who remained close to them for the next few years. Klaus made several trips abroad with Annemarie, the final one to a Soviet writers' congress in Moscow in 1934.
Since young adulthood, Klaus was using drugs, mostly opiates, to which he later became heavily addicted. His diaries document an attempted morphine-injection in 1933 when Hitler took power. Initially, the aspiring writer used opium, Eukodal and later heroin to possibly increase his creative energy, as this was often the case for artists and intellectuals in literary circles at the time. He underwent drug detoxification in Budapest during his frantic travels and at the Kilchberg Sanatorium in Switzerland. After 1936, during his stay in New York his drug use and sexual adventures became unconstrained.
In 1932 Klaus wrote the first part of his autobiography, which was well received until Hitler came to power.
In 1933 Klaus participated with Erika in a political cabaret, called Die Pfeffermühle (The Pepper-Mill), which came to the attention of the Nazi regime. To escape prosecution he left Germany in March 1933 for Paris, later visiting Amsterdam and Switzerland, where his family had a house. Also in 1933, Klaus Mann and Annemarie Schwarzenbach, together with Fritz Landshoff and Dutch publisher Emanuel Querido, founded Die Sammlung, a literary magazine, first published in September 1933 in Amsterdam. It was primarily affiliated with a number of influential German writers who fled from the Hitler regime during the first years of the establishment and consolidation of Nazi rule. The magazine was funded by the wealthy Annemarie Schwarzenbach, and Klaus Mann served as its editor-in-chief from 1933 to 1935, when Die Sammlungs activity ceased.
Klaus Mann not only played an important role in the consolidation of the German Exilliteratur but also communicated with authors who remained in Germany after 1933. In a letter exchange with Gottfried Benn, whose ambivalence towards Nazi rule was well known, Klaus expressed concern about his continued membership in the national German academy of writers, pointing out the moral dilemma it posed, even urging him to leave the country to join the German intellectuals in exile.
In November 1934 Klaus was stripped of German citizenship by the Nazi regime. He became a Czechoslovak citizen. In 1936, he moved to the United States, living in Princeton, New Jersey, and New York. In the summer of 1937, he met his partner for the rest of the year Thomas Quinn Curtiss, who was later a longtime film and theater reviewer for Variety and the International Herald Tribune. In 1940 Klaus Mann founded another literary magazine for German writers living in exile in the United States, Decision. It lasted for only a year. During that time, he also lived at his father's house in Pacific Palisades when he was unable to support himself financially.
Mann became a U.S. citizen in 1943. The process of naturalization was delayed because of an investigation the FBI conducted into Klaus Mann's political and sexual activities; he was openly gay but not an adherent of marxist ideologies. Throughout his life in the U.S., he identified himself as a liberal antifascist and cosmopolitan. In World War II, he served as a Staff Sergeant of the 5th U.S. Army in Italy. In summer 1945, he was sent by the Stars and Stripes to report from Postwar-Germany.
Mann's most famous novel, Mephisto, was written in 1936 and first published in Amsterdam. The novel is a thinly-disguised portrait of his former brother-in-law, the actor Gustaf Gründgens. The literary scandal surrounding it made Mann posthumously famous in West Germany, as Gründgens' adopted son brought a legal case to have the novel banned after its first publication in West Germany in the early 1960s. After seven years of legal hearings, the West German Supreme Court banned it by a vote of three to three, although it continued to be available in East Germany and abroad. The ban was lifted and the novel published in West Germany in 1981.
Mann's novel Der Vulkan is one of the 20th century's most famous novels about German exiles during World War II.
Death
Mann died in Cannes from an overdose of sleeping pills on 21 May 1949, following further drug treatment. He likely committed suicide because of financial problems and social isolation. He was buried in Cannes at the Cimetière du Grand Jas.
Select bibliography
Der fromme Tanz, 1925
Anja und Esther, 1925
Kindernovelle, 1926 [published in the U.S. as The 5th Child, 1927]
Revue zu Vieren, 1927
Alexander, Roman der Utopie, 1929
Auf der Suche nach einem Weg, 1931
Kind dieser Zeit, 1932
Treffpunkt im Unendlichen, 1932
Journey into Freedom, 1934
Symphonie Pathétique, 1935
Mephisto, 1936
Vergittertes Fenster, 1937
Escape to Life, 1939 (with Erika Mann)
Der Vulkan, 1939
The Turning Point, 1942
André Gide and the Crisis of Modern Thought, 1943
The Chaplain, 1945
Film adaptations
Mephisto, directed by István Szabó (1981, based on the novel Mephisto)
Treffpunkt im Unendlichen, directed by Heinrich Breloer and (1984, TV film, based on the novel Treffpunkt im Unendlichen)
Flight North, directed by (1986, based on the novel Journey into Freedom)
Der Vulkan, directed by Ottokar Runze (1999, based on the novel Der Vulkan)
See also
Dohm–Mann family tree
Exilliteratur
References
Further reading
Hauck, Gerald Günter. Reluctant Immigrants: Klaus and Erika Mann In American Exile, 1936-1945. 1997.
Huneke, Samuel Clowes. 'The Reception of Homosexuality in Klaus Mann's Weimar Era Work.' Monatshefte für deutschsprachige Literatur und Kultur. Vol. 105, No. 1, Spring 2013. 86–100. doi: 10.1353/mon.2013.0027
Keller, James Robert. The Role of Political and Sexual Identity in the Works of Klaus Mann. New York: Peter Lang, 2001.
Mann, Klaus. Il cappellano , by Pier Giorgio Ardeni and Alberto Gualandi, Pendragon 2018
Mauthner, Martin. German Writers in French Exile, 1933–1940 London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2006
Schicker, Juliane. 'Decision. A Review of Free Culture' – Eine Zeitschrift zwischen Literatur und Tagespolitik. München: Grin, 2008.
Spotts, Frederic. Cursed Legacy: The Tragic Life of Klaus Mann New Haven: Yale University Press, 2016.
Harpole, Kimberley, and Waltraud Maierhofer. 'Women Performing the American 'Other' in Erika and Klaus Mann's Rundherum (1929). [https://mulpress.mcmaster.ca/sophiejournal/article/download/3155/2722 ''Sophie Journal .] Vol.4, 2017. 1-32.
External links
The Works, Diaries and Letters are in the Munich Literatur-Archiv "Monancensia"
Tagebuch 1931–1949 – Titel – Mann Digital – Monacensia – Digital
1906 births
1949 deaths
1949 suicides
20th-century American Jews
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American essayists
20th-century German dramatists and playwrights
20th-century diarists
20th-century German male writers
20th-century German short story writers
20th-century LGBT people
20th-century American male writers
American male dramatists and playwrights
American male non-fiction writers
American diarists
American male novelists
Burials at the Cimetière du Grand Jas
Drug-related suicides in France
Exilliteratur writers
German autobiographers
German diarists
German gay writers
German literary critics
German male dramatists and playwrights
German male non-fiction writers
German male novelists
German male short story writers
German people of Jewish descent
German short story writers
German war correspondents
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
Jewish American novelists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States
LGBT dramatists and playwrights
Klaus
Klaus
People educated at the Wilhelmsgymnasium (Munich)
People from the Kingdom of Bavaria
Ritchie Boys
War correspondents of World War II
Writers from Munich
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers | [
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255964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahathir%20Mohamad | Mahathir Mohamad | Mahathir bin Mohamad (; ; born as Mahathir a/l Iskandar Kutty; 10 July 1925) is a Malaysian politician, author, and doctor who served as the fourth and seventh prime minister of Malaysia. He held office from July 1981 to October 2003 and later from May 2018 to March 2020 for a cumulative total of 24 years, making him the country's longest-serving prime minister. Before his promotion to the premiership, he served as Deputy Prime Minister and in other Cabinet positions. He has served as a member of parliament for Langkawi since May 2018, Kubang Pasu from August 1974 to March 2004, and Kota Setar Selatan from April 1964 to May 1969. His political career has spanned more than 75 years since he first joined a newly formed United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) in 1946 opposing Malayan Union to forming his own political parties; the Malaysian United Indigenous Party (BERSATU) in September 2016 and the Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG) in August 2020 todate.
Born and raised in Alor Setar, Kedah, Mahathir excelled at school and became a physician. He became active in the United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) before entering the Parliament of Malaysia in 1964. He served one term before losing his seat, subsequently falling out with Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman and being expelled from UMNO. He wrote The Malay Dilemma during this period, which formed the basis of future ethnic Malay affirmative action policies in the country. When Abdul Rahman resigned, Mahathir re-entered UMNO and parliament, and was promoted to the Cabinet, where he served as Minister of Education from 1974 to 1978 and Minister of Trade and Industry from 1978 to 1981. He became Deputy Prime Minister in 1976. In 1981, he was sworn in as prime minister following the resignation of Hussein Onn.
During Mahathir's first tenure as prime minister, Malaysia experienced a period of rapid modernization and economic growth, and his government initiated widespread industry privatisation and a series of bold infrastructure projects. Mahathir was a dominant political figure, winning five consecutive general elections and fending off a series of rivals for UMNO's leadership. However, his power accumulation came at the expense of judicial independence and the Malaysian royalty's traditional powers and privileges. He continued pro-bumiputera affirmative action policies, but in the 1990s introduced the Bangsa Malaysia policy that saw some political liberalisation. He used the controversial Internal Security Act to detain activists, non-mainstream religious figures, and political opponents in 1987 Operation Lalang and later his Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, whom he fired in 1998. Mahathir's record of curbing civil liberties and his antagonism towards Western interests and economic policy made his relationships with Western nations difficult. As prime minister, he was an advocate of third-world development and a prominent international activist.
After leaving office in 2003, Mahathir became a strident critic of his hand-picked successor Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, and later Najib Razak. In 2016, Mahathir quit UMNO in light of its support for Najib's actions despite the 1Malaysia Development Berhad corruption scandal. Later that year, the Malaysian United Indigenous Party was officially registered as a political party, with Mahathir as chairman. He was announced as the Pakatan Harapan coalition candidate for prime minister in the 2018 general election, with a plan to pardon Anwar Ibrahim and hand over the premiership to him after an unspecified interim period if the campaign succeeded. Following a decisive victory for Pakatan Harapan in the election, Mahathir was sworn in as prime minister. He was the first prime minister not to represent the Barisan Nasional (BN) coalition (or its predecessor, the Alliance Party), and the first prime minister to serve non-consecutive terms, or as a member of two different parties.
In 2020, Mahathir's refusal to begin the process of handing over the role of Prime Minister to Anwar contributed to a political crisis, leading to the ousting of the Pakatan Harapan government and prompting Mahathir to resign. At the time of his resignation, he was the world's oldest serving state leader at the age of 94.
Early life and education
Mahathir was born as Mahathir a/l Iskandar Kutty at his parents' home in a poor neighbourhood at Lorong Kilang Ais, Alor Setar, the capital of the Malay sultanate of Kedah, which was then a British protectorate, on 10 July 1925. His mother, Wan Tempawan Wan Hanapi, was a Malay of Kedah. His father, Mohamad Iskandar, was a Penang Malay of Malay and Indian descent. Mahathir's paternal grandfather had come from Kerala, British India (present-day, India) and married a Malay woman. he was not born into the aristocracy or a prominent religious or political family. Mohamad was the principal of an English-medium secondary school, whose lower-middle-class status meant his daughters were unable to enroll in a secondary school; while Wan Tempawan had only distant relations to members of Kedah's royalty. Both had been married previously; Mahathir was born with six half-siblings and two full-siblings. Currently, his house was converted as Mahathir Mohamad birth house complex and opened to the public.
Mahathir was a hard-working school student. Discipline imposed by his father motivated him to study, and he showed little interest in sports. He won a position in a selective English medium secondary school, having become fluent in English well ahead of his primary school peers. With schools closed during the Japanese occupation of Malaya in World War II, he started a small business, first selling coffee and later pisang goreng (banana fritters) and other snacks.
After the war, Mahathir graduated from secondary school with high marks and enrolled to study medicine at the King Edward VII College of Medicine in Singapore. After graduating with an MBBS medical degree, Mahathir worked as a physician in government service before marrying Siti Hasmah in 1956, returning to Alor Setar the following year to set up his own practice. He was the town's first Malay physician and a successful one. He built a large house, invested in various businesses, and employed a Chinese man to chauffeur him in his Pontiac Catalina (most chauffeurs at the time were Malay).
Early political career (1959–1970)
Mahathir had been politically active since the end of Malaya's Japanese occupation when he joined protests against citizenship granting to non-Malays under the short-lived Malayan Union. He later argued for affirmative action for Malays at medical college. While at college, he contributed to The Straits Times under the pseudonym "C.H.E. Det" and a student journal, in which he fiercely promoted Malay rights, such as restoring Malay as an official language. While practising as a physician in Alor Setar, Mahathir became active in UMNO; by the time of the first general election for the independent state of Malaya in 1959, he was the chairman of the party in Kedah. Despite his prominence in UMNO, Mahathir was not a candidate in the 1959 election, ruling himself out following a disagreement with then Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. The relationship between the two Kedahans had been strained since Mahathir had criticised Abdul Rahman's agreement to retain British and Commonwealth forces in Malaya after independence. Now Abdul Rahman opposed Mahathir's plans to introduce minimum educational qualifications for UMNO candidates. For Mahathir, this was a significant enough slight to delay his entry into national politics in protest. The delay did not last for long. In the following general election in 1964, he was elected as the federal parliamentarian for the Alor Setar-based seat of Kota Setar Selatan.
Elected to parliament in a volatile political period, Mahathir, as a government backbencher, launched himself into the main conflict of the day: Singapore's future, with its large and economically powerful ethnic Chinese population, as a state of Malaysia. He vociferously attacked Singapore's dominant People's Action Party for being "pro-Chinese" and "anti-Malay" and called its leader, Lee Kuan Yew, "arrogant". Singapore was expelled from Malaysia in Mahathir's first full year in parliament. However, despite Mahathir's prominence as a backbencher, he lost his seat in the 1969 election, defeated by Yusof Rawa of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS). Mahathir attributed the loss of his seat to ethnic Chinese voters switching support from UMNO to PAS (being a Malay-dominated seat, only the two major Malay parties fielded candidates, leaving Chinese voters to choose between the Malay-centric UMNO and the Islamist PAS).
Large government losses in the election were followed by the race riots of 13 May 1969. Hundreds of people were killed in clashes between Malays and Chinese. The previous year, Mahathir had predicted the outbreak of racial hostility. Now, outside parliament, he openly criticised the government, sending a letter to Abdul Rahman. The prime minister was criticised for failing to uphold Malay interests. The letter, which soon became public, called for Abdul Rahman's resignation. By the end of the year, Mahathir had been fired from UMNO's Supreme Council and expelled from the party; Abdul Rahman had to be persuaded not to have him arrested.
While in the political wilderness, Mahathir wrote his first book, The Malay Dilemma. He set out his vision for the Malay community. The book argued that a balance had to be achieved between enough government support for Malays so that their economic interests would not be dominated by the Chinese and exposing Malays to sufficient competition to ensure that over time, Malays would lose what Mahathir saw as the characteristics of avoiding hard work and failing to "appreciate the real value of money and property". The book continued Mahathir's criticism of Abdul Rahman's government, and it was promptly banned. The ban was only lifted after Mahathir became prime minister in 1981; he thus served as a minister and deputy prime minister while being the author of a banned book. Academics R. S. Milne and Diane K. Mauzy argue that Mahathir's relentless attacks were the principal cause of Tunku Abdul Rahman's downfall and subsequent resignation as prime minister in 1970.
Rise to prominence (1970–1981)
Tunku Abdul Rahman resigned in 1970 and was replaced by Abdul Razak Hussein. Razak encouraged Mahathir back into the party and appointed him as a Senator in 1973. He rose quickly in the Razak government, returning to UMNO's Supreme Council in 1973, and being appointed to Cabinet in 1974 as the Minister for Education. He also returned to the House of Representatives, winning the Kedah-based seat of Kubang Pasu unopposed in the 1974 election. One of his first acts as Minister for Education was to introduce greater government control over Malaysia's universities, despite strong opposition from the academic community. He also moved to limit politics on university campuses, giving his ministry the power to discipline students and academics who were politically active and making scholarships for students conditional on the avoidance of politics.
In 1975, Mahathir ran for one of the three vice-presidencies of UMNO. The contest was considered a battle for the party's leadership succession, with Razak and his deputy, Hussein Onn, declining in health. Each of Razak's preferred candidates was elected: former Chief Minister of Melaka, Ghafar Baba; Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, a wealthy businessman and member of Kelantan's royal family; and Mahathir. When Razak died the following year, Hussein, as his successor, was forced to choose between the three men to be deputy prime minister; he also considered the ambitious minister Ghazali Shafie. Mahathir's rivals had significant political liabilities: Ghazali, having been defeated by the others for a vice-presidency, lacked the support of UMNO members; Ghafar had no higher education and was not fluent in English; and Razaleigh was young, inexperienced and, critically, unmarried. However, Hussein's decision was not easy. Hussein and Mahathir were not close allies, and Hussein knew Mahathir's choice would displease Abdul Rahman, still alive and revered as the father of Malaysia's independence. After six weeks of indecision, Mahathir was, much to his surprise, appointed as Hussein's deputy. The appointment meant that Mahathir was the anointed successor to the prime ministership.
However, Mahathir was not an influential deputy prime minister. Hussein was a cautious leader who rejected many of Mahathir's bold policy proposals. While Hussein and Mahathir's relationship was distant, Ghazali and Razaleigh became Hussein's closest advisers, often bypassing the more senior Mahathir when accessing Hussein. Nonetheless, when Hussein relinquished power due to ill health in 1981, Mahathir succeeded him unopposed and with his blessing.
First term as prime minister (1981–2003)
Early years (1981–1987)
Mahathir was sworn in as prime minister on 16 July 1981, at the age of 56. One of his first acts was to release 21 detainees held under the Internal Security Act, including journalist Samad Ismail and a former deputy minister in Hussein's government, Abdullah Ahmad, who had been suspected of being an underground communist. He appointed his close ally, Musa Hitam, as deputy prime minister.
Mahathir exercised caution in his first two years in power, consolidating UMNO's leadership and, with victory in the 1982 general election, the government. In 1983, Mahathir commenced the first of a number of battles he would have with Malaysia's royalty during his premiership. The position of Yang di-Pertuan Agong, the Malaysian head of state, was due to rotate into either the elderly Idris Shah II of Perak or the controversial Iskandar of Johor, who had only a few years earlier been convicted of manslaughter. Thus Mahathir had grave reservations about the two Sultans, who were both activist rulers of their own states. Mahathir tried to pre-emptively limit the power that the new Agong could wield over his government, introducing to parliament amendments to the Constitution to deem the Agong to assent to any bill that had not been assented within 15 days of passage by Parliament. The proposal would also remove the power to declare a state of emergency from the Agong and place it with the prime minister. The Agong at the time, Ahmad Shah of Pahang, agreed with the proposals in principle but baulked when he realised that the proposal would also deem Sultans to assent to laws passed by state assemblies. Supported by the Sultans, the Agong refused to assent to the constitutional amendments, which had by then passed both houses of Parliament with comfortable majorities. When the public became aware of the impasse, and the Sultans refused to compromise with the government, Mahathir took to the streets to demonstrate public support for his position in mass rallies. The press took the side of the government. However, a large minority of Malays, including conservative UMNO politicians, and an even larger proportion of the Chinese community supported the Sultans. After five months, the crisis resolved, as Mahathir and the Sultans agreed to a compromise. The Agong would retain the power to declare a state of emergency. However, if he refused to assent to a bill, the bill would be returned to Parliament, which could then override Agong's veto.
On the economic front, Mahathir inherited the New Economic Policy from his predecessors, which was designed to improve the economic position of the bumiputera (Malaysia's Malays and indigenous peoples) through targets and affirmative action in areas such as corporate ownership and university admission. Mahathir also actively pursued privatisation of government enterprises from the early 1980s, both for the liberal economic reasons it was being pursued by contemporaries such as Margaret Thatcher, and because he felt that combined with affirmative action for the Bumiputera it could provide economic opportunities for Bumiputera businesses. His government privatised airlines, utilities and telecommunication firms, accelerating to a rate of about 50 privatisations a year by the mid-1990s. While privatisation generally improved the working conditions of Malaysians in privatised industries and raised significant revenue for the government, many privatisations occurred in the absence of open tendering processes and benefited Malays who supported UMNO. One of the most notable infrastructure projects at the time was the construction of the North–South Expressway, a motorway running from the Thai border to Singapore; the contract to construct the expressway was awarded to a business venture of UMNO. Mahathir also oversaw the establishment of the car manufacturer Proton as a joint venture between the Malaysian government and Mitsubishi. By the end of the 1980s, Proton had overcome poor demand and losses to become, with the support of protective tariffs, the largest carmaker in Southeast Asia and a profitable enterprise.
In Mahathir's early years as prime minister, Malaysia was experiencing a resurgence of Islam among Malays. Malays were becoming more religious and more conservative. PAS, which had in the 1970s joined UMNO in government, responded to the resurgence by taking an increasingly strident Islamist stand under the leadership of the man who in 1969 had defeated Mahathir for his parliamentary seat Yusof Rawa. Mahathir tried to appeal to religious voters by establishing Islamic institutions such as the International Islamic University of Malaysia which could promote Islamic education under the government's oversight. He also attracted Anwar Ibrahim, the leader of the Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement (ABIM), to join UMNO. In some cases, Mahathir's government employed repression against more extreme exponents of Islamism. Ibrahim Libya, a popular Islamist leader, was killed in a police shoot-out in 1985; Al-Arqam, a religious sect, was banned, and its leader, Ashaari Mohammad, arrested under the Internal Security Act. Mahathir comprehensively defeated PAS at the polls in 1986, winning 83 seats of the 84 seats it contested, leaving PAS with just one MP.
Exerting power (1987–1990)
Any illusion that the 1986 election may have created about Mahathir's political dominance was short-lived. In 1987, he was challenged for UMNO's presidency, and effectively the prime ministership, by Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah. Razaleigh's career had gone backwards under Mahathir, being demoted from the Ministry of Finance to the Ministry of Trade and Industry. Razaleigh was supported by Musa, who had resigned as deputy prime minister the previous year. While Musa and Mahathir were originally close allies, the two had fallen out during Mahathir's premiership. Musa claimed that Mahathir no longer trusted him. Razaleigh and Musa ran for the UMNO presidency and deputy presidency on a joint ticket against Mahathir and his new choice for deputy Ghafar Baba. The tickets were known as Team B and Team A, respectively. Mahathir's Team A enjoyed the press's support, most party heavyweights, and even Iskandar, now the Agong. However, some significant figures, such as Abdullah Badawi supported Team B. In the election, held on 24 April 1987, Team A prevailed. Mahathir was re-elected by a narrow margin, receiving the votes of 761 party delegates to Razaleigh's 718. Ghafar defeated Musa by a slightly larger margin. Mahathir responded by purging seven Team B supporters from his ministry. At the same time, Team B refused to accept defeat and initiated litigation. In an unexpected decision in February 1988, the High Courts ruled that UMNO was an illegal organisation as some of its branches had not been lawfully registered.
Each faction raced to register a new party under the UMNO name. Mahathir's side successfully registered the name "UMNO Baru" ("new UMNO"), while Team B's application to register "UMNO Malaysia" was rejected. UMNO Malaysia, under Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah's leadership and support of both of Malaysia's surviving former prime ministers, Abdul Rahman and Hussein, registered the party Semangat 46 instead. The Lord President of the Supreme Court, Salleh Abas, sent a letter of protest to the Agong. Mahathir then suspended Salleh for "gross misbehaviour and conduct", ostensibly because the letter was a breach of protocol. A tribunal set up by Mahathir found Salleh guilty and recommended to the Agong that Salleh be dismissed. Five other judges of the court supported Salleh and were suspended by Mahathir. A newly constituted court dismissed Team B's appeal, allowing Mahathir's faction to continue to use the name UMNO. According to Milne and Mauzy, the episode destroyed the independence of Malaysia's judiciary.
At the same time as the political and judicial crises, Mahathir initiated a crackdown on opposition dissidents using the Internal Security Act. Mahathir later declared that it was only used to lock up people accused of riots, unlawful assembly, terrorism and those who have murdered police officers. The appointment of several administrators who did not speak Mandarin to Chinese schools provoked an outcry among Chinese Malaysians to the point where UMNO's coalition partners the Malaysian Chinese Association and Gerakan joined the Democratic Action Party (DAP) in protesting the appointments. UMNO's Youth wing held a provocative protest that triggered a shooting by a lone Malay gunman, and only Mahathir's interference prevented UMNO from staging a larger protest. Instead, Mahathir ordered what Wain calls "the biggest crackdown on political dissent Malaysia had ever seen". Under the police operation codenamed "Operation Lalang", 119 people were arrested and detained without charge under the Internal Security Act. Mahathir argued that the detentions were necessary to prevent a repeat of the 1969 race riots. Most of the detainees were prominent opposition activists, including the DAP leader, Lim Kit Siang, and nine of his fellow MPs. Three newspapers sympathetic to the opposition were shut down. Mahathir suffered a heart attack in early 1989, but recovered to lead Barisan Nasional to victory in the 1990 election. Semangat 46 failed to make any headway outside Razaleigh's home state of Kelantan.
Economic development to financial crisis (1990–1998)
The expiry of the Malaysian New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1990 allowed Mahathir to outline his economic vision for Malaysia. In 1991, he announced Vision 2020, under which Malaysia would aim to become a fully developed country within 30 years. The target would require average economic growth of approximately seven per cent of gross domestic product per annum. One of Vision 2020's features would be to gradually break down ethnic barriers. Vision 2020 was accompanied by the NEP's replacement, the National Development Policy (NDP), under which some government programs designed to benefit the Bumiputera exclusively were opened up to other ethnicities. The NDP achieved success out one of its main aims, poverty reduction. By 1995, less than nine per cent of Malaysians lived in poverty, and income inequality had narrowed. Mahathir's government cut corporate taxes and liberalised financial regulations to attract foreign investment. The economy grew by over nine per cent per annum until 1997, prompting other developing countries to emulate Mahathir's policies. Much of the credit for Malaysia's economic development in the 1990s went to Anwar Ibrahim, appointed by Mahathir as finance minister in 1991. The government rode the economic wave and won the 1995 election with an increased majority.
Mahathir initiated a series of major infrastructure projects in the 1990s. One of the largest was the Multimedia Super Corridor, an area south of Kuala Lumpur, in the mould of Silicon Valley, designed to cater for the information technology industry. However, the project failed to generate the investment anticipated. Other Mahathir projects included the development of Putrajaya as the home of Malaysia's public service and bringing a Formula One Grand Prix to Sepang. One of the most controversial developments was the Bakun Dam in Sarawak. The ambitious hydro-electric project was intended to carry electricity across the South China Sea to satisfy electricity demand in peninsular Malaysia. Work on the dam was eventually suspended due to the Asian financial crisis.
In 1997, the Asian financial crisis, which began in Thailand in mid-1997, threatened to devastate Malaysia. The value of the ringgit plummeted due to currency speculation, foreign investment fled, and the main stock exchange index fell by over 75 per cent. At the urging of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the government cut government spending. It raised interest rates, which only served to exacerbate the economic situation. In 1998, in a controversial approach, Mahathir reversed this policy course in defiance of the IMF and his own deputy, Anwar. He increased government spending and fixed the ringgit to the US dollar. The result confounded his international critics and the IMF. Malaysia recovered from the crisis faster than its Southeast Asian neighbours. In the domestic sphere, it was a political triumph. Amidst the economic events of 1998, Mahathir had dismissed Anwar as finance minister and deputy prime minister. He could now claim to have rescued the economy despite Anwar's policies.
In his second decade in office, Mahathir had again found himself battling Malaysia's royalty. In 1992, Sultan Iskandar's son, a representative field hockey player, was suspended from competition for five years for assaulting an opponent. Iskandar retaliated by pulling all Johor hockey teams out of national competitions. When a local coach criticised his decision, Iskandar ordered him to his palace and beat him. The federal parliament unanimously censured Iskandar, and Mahathir leapt at the opportunity to remove the constitutional immunity of the sultans from civil and criminal suits. The press backed Mahathir and, in an unprecedented development, started airing allegations of misconduct by members of Malaysia's royal families. As the press revealed examples of the rulers' extravagant wealth, Mahathir resolved to cut financial support to royal households. With the press and the government pitted against them, the sultans capitulated to the government's proposals. Their powers to deny assent to bills were limited by further constitutional amendments passed in 1994. With the status and powers of the Malaysian royalty diminished, Wain writes that by the mid-1990s, Mahathir had become the country's "uncrowned king".
The final years and succession (1998–2003)
By the mid-1990s, it became clear that the most serious threat to Mahathir's power was Anwar's leadership ambition. Anwar began to distance himself from Mahathir, overtly promoting his superior religious credentials and appearing to suggest he favoured loosening the restrictions on civil liberties that had become a hallmark of Mahathir's premiership. However, Mahathir continued to back Anwar as his successor until their relationship collapsed dramatically during the Asian financial crisis. Their positions gradually diverged, with Mahathir abandoning the tight monetary and fiscal policies urged by the IMF. At the UMNO General Assembly in 1998, a leading Anwar supporter, Ahmad Zahid Hamidi, criticised the government for not doing enough to combat corruption and cronyism. As Mahathir took the reins of Malaysia's economic policy over the coming months, Anwar was increasingly sidelined. On 2 September, he was dismissed as deputy prime minister and finance minister and promptly expelled from UMNO. No immediate reasons were given for the dismissal. However, the media speculated that it related to lurid allegations of sexual misconduct circulated in a "poison pen letter" at the general assembly. As more allegations surfaced, large public rallies were held in support of Anwar. On 20 September, he was arrested and placed in detention under the Internal Security Act.
Anwar stood trial on four charges of corruption, arising from allegations that Anwar abused his power by ordering police to intimidate persons who had alleged Anwar had sodomised them. Before Anwar's trial, Mahathir told the press that he was convinced of Anwar's guilt. He was found guilty in April 1999 and sentenced to six years in prison. In another trial shortly after, Anwar was sentenced to another nine years in prison on a conviction for sodomy. The sodomy conviction was overturned on appeal after Mahathir left office.
While Mahathir had vanquished his rival, it came at a cost to his international community and domestic politics. US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright defended Anwar as a "highly respectable leader" who was "entitled to due process and a fair trial". In a speech in Kuala Lumpur, which Mahathir attended, US Vice-President Al Gore stated that "we continue to hear calls for democracy", including "among the brave people of Malaysia". At the APEC summit in 1999, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien refused to meet Mahathir, while his foreign minister met with Anwar's wife, Wan Azizah Wan Ismail. Wan Azizah had formed a liberal opposition party, the National Justice Party (Keadilan) to fight the 1999 election. UMNO lost 18 seats and two state governments as large numbers of Malay voters flocked to PAS and Keadilan, many in protest at the treatment of Anwar.
In September 2001 debate was caused by Mahathir's announcement that Malaysia was already an Islamic state. At UMNO's general assembly in 2002, he announced that he would resign as prime minister, only for supporters to rush to the stage and convince him tearfully to remain. He subsequently fixed his retirement for October 2003, giving him time to ensure an orderly and uncontroversial transition to his anointed successor, Abdullah Badawi. In a speech made before the Organization of the Islamic Conference shortly before he left office, Mahathir claimed "the Jews rule the world by proxy: They get others to fight and die for them." His speech was denounced by President George W. Bush. Having spent over 22 years in office, Mahathir was the world's longest-serving elected leader when he retired.
Foreign relations
During Mahathir's term, Malaysia's relationship with the West was generally fine despite being known as an outspoken critic. Early during his tenure, a small disagreement with the United Kingdom over university tuition fees sparked a boycott of all British goods led by Mahathir, in what became known as the "Buy British Last" campaign. It also led to a search for development models in Asia, most notably Japan. This was the beginning of his famous "Look East Policy". Although the dispute was later resolved by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Mahathir continued to emphasise Asian development models over contemporary Western ones. He particularly criticised the double standards of Western nations.
United States
Mahathir has been publicly critical of the Foreign Policy of the United States from time to time, particularly during the George W. Bush presidency. Nevertheless, relations between the two countries were still positive. The United States was the biggest foreign investment source and was Malaysia's biggest customer during Mahathir's rule. Furthermore, Malaysian military officers continued to train in the US under the International Military Education And Training (IMET) program. The BBC reported that relations with the United States took a turn for the worse in 1998 when Al Gore, Vice President of the United States, gave a speech at the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) conference hosted by Malaysia. Gore stated that:
Democracy confers a stamp of legitimacy that reforms must have in order to be effective. And so, among nations suffering economic crises, we continue to hear calls for democracy, calls for reform, in many languages – People Power, doi moi, reformasi. We hear them today – right here, right now – among the brave people of Malaysia.
Gore and the United States were critical of the trial of Mahathir's former deputy Anwar Ibrahim, going so far as to label it as a "show trial". US News and World Report called the trial a "tawdry spectacle." Also, Anwar was the preeminent Malaysian spokesperson for the economic policies preferred by the IMF, which included interest-rate hikes. An article in Malaysia Today commented that "Gore's comments constituted a none-too-subtle attack on Malaysia's Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad and more generally on governments, including Japan, that resist US demands for further market reforms."
During the ASEAN meeting in 1997, Mahathir made a speech condemning the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, suggesting its revision. He said that in Asia, the society's interests are more important than an individual's interests. He added that Asians need economic growth more than civil liberties. These remarks did not endear him to US Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, who was a guest at the meeting and paid a visit to Anwar's wife following his firing and subsequent imprisonment.
The United States government has previously criticised the Malaysian government for implementing the ISA, and Mahathir has not hesitated to point to the United States to justify his own actions. In speaking of arbitrary detention without trial of prisoners of conscience in Malaysia, he said: "Events in the United States have shown that there are instances where certain special powers need to be used in order to protect the public for the general good." In 2003, Mahathir spoke to the Non-Aligned Movement in Kuala Lumpur. He blamed Western nations and Israel for a global rise in terrorism: "If innocent people who died in the attack on Afghanistan and those who have been dying from lack of food and medical care in Iraq are considered collaterals, are the 3,000 who died in New York and the 200 in Bali also just collaterals whose deaths are necessary for operations to succeed?" He also said: "If we think back, there was no systematic campaign of terror outside Europe until the Europeans and the Jews created a Jewish state out of Palestinian land." A 2003 house hearing by the Subcommittee on East Asia and the Pacific of the U.S. House International Relations Committee (now called the House Committee on Foreign Affairs) summarises the relationship between the United States and Malaysia as follows: "Despite sometimes blunt and intemperate public remarks by Prime Minister Mahathir, U.S.-Malaysian cooperation has a solid record in areas as diverse as education, trade, military relations, and counter-terrorism."
Australia
Mahathir's relationship with Australia (the closest country in the Anglosphere to Malaysia and the one whose foreign policy is most concentrated on the region) and his relationship with Australia's political leaders have been particularly rocky. Relationships between Mahathir and Australia's leaders reached a low point in 1993 when Paul Keating described Mahathir as "recalcitrant" for not attending the APEC summit. The Malaysian government threatened trade sanctions as a response, while the Australian government claimed that Keating's description was a linguistic gaffe, and that what he had in mind was "intransigent".
Singapore
Mahathir is an alumnus of the National University of Singapore. He studied at the university's King Edward VII College of Medicine between 1947 and 1953. When the university granted him and his wife honorary degrees in November 2018, he said, "I will always value my stay in Singapore for nearly six years." Singapore's long-time prime minister Lee Kuan Yew was also a student at the National University of Singapore. However, relations with Singapore under Mahathir's tenure were stormy. Many disputed issues raised during his administration have not been resolved.
Issues have included:
disputes about the Malaysia–Singapore Points of Agreement of 1990;
disputes over water prices;
the proposed replacement of the Johor-Singapore Causeway;
the dispute over the island Pedra Branca.
On Lee Kuan Yew's death in March 2015, Mahathir wrote a blog chedet.cc entitled "Kuan Yew and I". He expressed his sorrow and grief at the loss of Lee. He said that he often disagreed with the veteran Singaporean leader but bore him no enmity for the differences of opinion on what was good for the newborn nation to thrive. He wrote that with Lee's death, ASEAN had lost the strong leadership of both Lee as well as President Suharto of Indonesia, who had died earlier in 2008. Many political analysts believe that with Lee's death, Mahathir is the last of the "Old Guard" of Southeast Asia.
In April 2016, the 1st Anniversary of Lee Kuan Yew's death. Mahathir told the media that Singaporeans must value Lee Kuan Yew's contributions because he industrialised Singapore. He said: "That is one achievement that we need to recognise." With Lee, Mahathir "had no problems." He said that he does not view Lee "as an enemy and all that, but as a Singapore leader who had his own stand that was not the same with the stand of Malaysia."
Bosnia and Herzegovina
In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Mahathir has been noted as a particularly significant ally of that nation. He was influential in the establishment of an OIC summit in Karachi in 1993 to discuss the need for weapons for Bosnia during the Bosnian War. Mahathir also opened the bridge of the Malaysian-Bosnian and Herzegovinian friendship in the Bosnian capital Sarajevo. On 11 November 2009, he also chaired closed-door meeting of leading investors at the Malaysia Global Business Forum – Bosnia, which was also attended by then-president Haris Silajdžić.
Developing world
Among developing and Islamic countries, Mahathir is generally respected. This is particularly due to Malaysia's relatively high economic growth as well as Mahathir's support towards liberal Muslim values.
Malaysia has good relations with Indonesia, and has maintained strong relations with Kazakhstan.
Post–first term premiership (2003–2015)
On his retirement, Mahathir was named a Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm, allowing him to adopt the title of "Tun". He pledged to leave politics "completely", rejecting an emeritus role in Abdullah's cabinet. Abdullah immediately made his mark as a quieter and less adversarial premier. With much stronger religious credentials than Mahathir, he could beat back PAS's surge in the 1999 election and lead the Barisan Nasional in the 2004 election to its biggest win ever, taking 199 of 219 parliamentary seats.
Mahathir was the CEO and Chairman, and hence a senior adviser, for many flagship Malaysian companies such as Proton, Perdana Leadership Foundation and Malaysia's government-owned oil and gas company Petronas. Mahathir and Abdullah had a major fallout over Proton in 2005. Proton's chief executive, a Mahathir ally, had been sacked by the company's board. With Abdullah's blessing, Proton then sold one of its prise assets, the motorcycle company MV Agusta, which was bought on Mahathir's advice. Mahathir also criticised the awarding of import permits for foreign cars, which he claimed were causing Proton's domestic sales to suffer, and attacked Abdullah for cancelling the construction of a second causeway between Malaysia and Singapore. Mahathir complained that his views were not getting sufficient airing by the Malaysian press, the freedom of which he had curtailed while prime minister: he had been named one of the "Ten Worst Enemies of the Press" by the Committee to Protect Journalists for his restrictions on newspapers and occasional imprisonment of journalists. He turned to the blogosphere in response, writing a column for Malaysiakini, an online media news website, and starting his own blog. He unsuccessfully sought election from his local party division to be a delegate to UMNO's general assembly in 2006, where he planned to initiate a revolt against Abdullah's leadership of the party. After the 2008 election, in which UMNO lost its two-thirds majority in Parliament, Mahathir resigned from the party. Abdullah was replaced by his deputy, Najib Razak, in 2009, a move that prompted Mahathir to rejoin the party.
Mahathir established the Kuala Lumpur Initiative to Criminalise War Forum in an effort to end war globally, as well as the Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission to investigate the activities of the United States, Israel and its allies in Iraq, Lebanon and the Palestinian territories. He has also suggested that the September 11 attacks of 2001 might have been staged by the United States government.
In March, 2015, Perdana Global Peace Foundation held a conference called "The New World Order: Recipe for War or Peace" where he stated the core concept of New World Order is that an elite would rule the planet and that to achieve one world government they would have to exterminate billions of humans. In the same conference he claimed the USA and its allies fabricated war on terror to achieve global hegemony.
Return to politics (2015–2018)
Mahathir repeatedly called for Prime Minister Najib Razak to resign over the 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) corruption scandal. On 30 August 2015, he and his wife, Siti Hasmah, attended the Bersih 4 rally, which saw tens of thousands demonstrating for Najib's resignation. In 2016, Mahathir ignited several protests that culminated in the Malaysian Citizens' Declaration by himself with the help of Pakatan Harapan and NGOs to oust Najib. Najib's response to the corruption accusations has been to tighten his grip on power by replacing the deputy prime minister, suspending two newspapers and pushing through parliament a controversial National Security Council Bill that provides the prime minister with unprecedented powers.
Mahathir left UMNO in 2016, forming the Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU). The new party was officially registered on 9 September 2016, and Mahathir became its chairman. By 2017, he had officially joined the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan. He was proposed as a possible chairman and prime ministerial candidate of Pakatan Harapan. He assumed the position of chairman on 14 July 2017.
On 14 October 2017, referencing the 1MDB scandal, Mahathir said of Najib; "a prime minister who came from 'Bugis pirates' is now leading Malaysia". He remarked, "go back to Sulawesi", which aroused discontent from the Bugis descendants in Malaysia and Indonesia who protested against him. It also disappointed the Sultan of Johor and the Sultan of Selangor, who are both of Bugis descent. On 8 February 2018, Mahathir's Darjah Kerabat Al-Yunusi (DK Kelantan) was revoked by the Kelantan royal house, alongside two of his Pakatan Harapan colleagues, with no reason given.
On 8 January 2018, Mahathir was announced as the Pakatan Harapan opposition alliance's prime ministerial candidate for the election to be held on 9 May 2018, seeking to oust his former ally Najib. Wan Azizah, wife of his former political enemy Anwar, ran as his deputy. According to the election results disclosed on 10 May 2018, Pakatan Harapan had claimed victory, thus successfully propelling him to the prime ministerial seat once again. He would then seek a pardon for Anwar, in order to allow him to take over the leadership.
Second term as prime minister (2018–2020)
Following the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan's historic victory, Najib was successfully ousted from the incumbent prime ministerial seat. Mahathir hoped to be sworn in as the new prime minister by 5 pm.
Concerns for a smooth power transition emerged as Najib, although admitting the defeat of his party and coalition during a press conference at 11 am, declared that no party has achieved a simple majority win (due to the fact that the opposing coalition were competing as allied individual parties, and was not successfully registered as a single unit by the Electoral Committee, who was believed to be under Najib's heavy influence during his power), thus leaving the appointment of the office to the hands of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Nevertheless, the National Palace of Malaysia had promptly issued a royal statement, confirming Mahathir Mohamad will be sworn in as the prime minister at 9:30 pm, on the same day (10 May 2018), and had strongly refuted any claims of delaying the appointment. At 10 pm, Mahathir was officially sworn in as prime minister.
Mahathir became the oldest currently serving state leader in the world (aged at the time). As proposed in the original plan of Pakatan Harapan, Wan Azizah ran as his deputy, and therefore became the first female deputy prime minister of Malaysia. Following his appointment as prime minister, Mahathir promised to "restore the rule of law", and would make elaborate and transparent investigations on the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal possibly perpetrated by the ex-prime minister, as Mahathir told the press that if Najib has done something wrong, he would face the consequences.
Domestic affairs
Murder of Shaariibuugiin Altantuyaa
On 20 June 2018, Mahathir met the father of murdered Mongolian woman Altantuya Shaariibuu and agreed that the case should be reopened.
On 16 December 2019, convicted killer Azilah Hadri has made an explosive allegation from death row in Kajang Prison - the order to kill Altantuya Shaariibuu came from former Prime Minister Najib Razak and the latter's close associate, Abdul Razak Baginda. On 18 December, the Prime Minister's Office today made it clear that Mahathir had not met Azilah Hadri.
LGBT rights
During an October 2018 lecture to university students in Bangkok, Thailand, Mahathir expressed resistance to Western nations' handling of LGBT issues and suggested they had devalued family and marriage.
"We do not accept LGBT but if they want to accept, that is their business. Don't force it on us. ... The institution of marriage, the institution of the family has now been disregarded in the West. Why should we follow that? Our value system is as good".
2019 World Para Swimming Championships controversy
In 2017, the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) granted hosting rights of the 2019 World Para Swimming Championships to Malaysia, who fought off competition from Great Britain. This was done with the understanding that they would permit all qualified athletes to compete. In 2019, as part of a solidarity move with the Palestinian National Authority, Malaysia announced that they would ban Israeli athletes from the event in a move that was supported by 29 Malaysian non-governmental organizations. The Malaysian Paralympic Council claimed they were following government policy, as Malaysia bans Israeli passport holders from entering the country. Mahathir said that Israel is "a country which does not obey international laws" and that the world always follows what Israel says. On 27 January 2019, Malaysia was stripped of their hosting rights because of the decision, and on 15 April 2019, London was announced as the replacement host.
Extradition policies
Mahathir's refusals to extradite Zakir Naik, an Indian Islamic preacher who has been accused of money laundering and hate speech by Indian authorities, has led to domestic and international criticism. Local critics have been sceptical of Mahathir's motives in his protection of Naik because the preacher will not receive a fair trial in India. Critics of Zakir Naik have accused him of misquoting religious texts and preaching which borders on hate speech and even defending terrorism, which resulted in some Malaysian ministers calling for his expulsion. Naik has also come under fire recently for making comments against both the Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indians, and was questioned for 10 hours by Malaysian police for a speech in August 2019 where he said that Hindus in Malaysia had "100 times more rights" than Muslims in India and that Chinese Malaysians were only guests of the country. Naik who received permanent residence in Malaysia, a multi-racial country, later apologized for his remarks.
Sceptics claim that Mahathir is merely using Naik as a political pawn, given that Mahathir has extradited others from Malaysia in similar situations, including Turkish national Arif Komis and his family in August 2019. The Malaysian government did not halt the return to Turkey of Komis who was holding a UNHCR refugee card, with his family with young children. Amidst protests by human rights groups, Malaysian federal minister, Khalid Samad, informed reporters that police had evidence showing that Komis was involved in "terrorism". Komis was charged by the Turkish government of being a member of an armed terrorist organization, Fetullah Terrorist Organization, of which its US-based leader, Fetullah Gullen, a Turkish cleric, was accused of the failed coup in 2016 which left 251 people dead and nearly 2,200 injured.
Foreign relations
North Korea
Mahathir welcomed the 2018 North Korea–United States summit. He said "the world should not treat North Korean leader Kim Jong-un with skepticism and instead learn from his new attitude towards bringing about peace". In a joint press conference in Tokyo with Japan, Mahathir said: "We hoped for a successful outcome from the historic meeting", adding that "Malaysia will re-open their embassy in North Korea as an end to the diplomatic row over the assassination of Kim Jong-nam last year".
China and Hong Kong
Mahathir said about China's treatment of its Uyghur Muslim minority in Xinjiang, "We can condemn [China] but the fact is that the condemnation alone would not achieve anything."
Mahathir said he is in the opinion that Carrie Lam should resign as the Chief Executive of Hong Kong, fearing a repeat of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. He added that Lam already knew "the consequences of rejecting [the extradition] law" as she was in a dilemma when she has to obey her Mainland masters.
Killings of Jamal Khashoggi and Qasem Soleimani
Mahathir has stated that the killing of a Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi was unacceptable. Malaysia, he said, does not support the killing of government critics. "This is extreme cruelty, and it is not acceptable. We too have people that we do not like, but we don't kill them."
On 3 January 2020, Iranian General Qasem Soleimani was assassinated by the United States, which heightened the existing tensions between the two countries. Mahathir compared the assassination of Soleimani with the killing of Jamal Khashoggi and said it was "illegal" and "immoral".
Resignation and post–second term premiership (2020–present)
On 23 February 2020, political parties such as BERSATU, PAS and UMNO, and Gabungan Parti Sarawak (GPS), as well as a faction from within the People's Justice Party led by Azmin Ali held extraordinary meetings at various locations in the country. The high-level meetings which were held concurrently fueled speculation that there was an ongoing attempt to form a new governing coalition. Once the BERSATU meeting had ended, Mahathir organised a gathering at his house attended by Azmin Ali as well as party leaders from PAS, UMNO, Warisan, and GPS. In the evening, Azmin Ali, together with leaders of the parties that had previously gathered at Mahathir's residence, sought and were granted an Agong audience. Later in the night, some 131 MPs including various opposition party leaders gathered at Sheraton Hotel, Petaling Jaya for a dinner party celebrating a "consensus" among MPs. The same night, Anwar Ibrahim confirmed to party supporters at his residence after a religious event that there was indeed an attempt to create a new governing coalition by BERSATU and a faction of the PKR.
On the morning of the next day, Anwar Ibrahim together with the Deputy Prime Minister Wan Azizah Ismail, Amanah President Mat Sabu, and Finance Minister Lim Guan Eng met Mahathir at his residence to seek clarification regarding the attempted formation of a new governing coalition that involved BERSATU. It was later revealed by Anwar that Mahathir had said he had nothing to do with the attempt to form a new governing coalition. In the afternoon, reports surfaced that Mahathir had submitted his resignation to the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. The Agong accepted Mahathir's resignation, but appointed him as interim prime minister. Anwar later stated that Mahathir had resigned despite his appeals because he refused to work with UMNO, who would be a component party of the new coalition. On 29 February, the Agong appointed Muhyiddin Yassin, the president of the Malaysian United Indigenous Party, as prime minister, determining that he was "most likely to have received the trust of the majority" of MPs. Muhyiddin was sworn in as prime minister the following day. In response to Muhyiddin becoming prime minister, Mahathir formed a new party, Homeland Fighters' Party (PEJUANG), in August 2020. Four other MPs have joined the new party, including Mahathir's son Mukhriz Mahathir. The party is registered as an official party as of 8 July 2021.
Controversies
Allegations of antisemitism
A strident critic of Israel, Mahathir has been accused of antisemitism since at least as far back as in The Malay Dilemma in which he wrote that "Jews are not merely hook-nosed, but understand money instinctively". On August 12, 1983, Mahathir claimed in a speech that Jews control the international media. In March 1994, he banned the screening of Schindler's List on the grounds that it was anti-German, pro-Jewish propaganda. During the collapse of the ringgit and the economic crisis in 1997, he made a series of remarks blaming Jews, a Jewish "agenda," and "an international Jewish conspiracy" attempting to destroy the economies of Muslim countries. During an Organization of Islamic Cooperation summit held in Kuala Lumpur in 2003, he accused Jews of "ruling the world by proxy" and getting "others to fight and die for them". In 2012 he claimed he was "glad to be labeled antisemitic" and in a 2018 BBC interview he repeated similar statements, as well as disputing the number of Jews killed in The Holocaust. In 2019, when asked why he had previously claimed that Jews are "inclined towards money" he responded that he had Jewish friends, and that "they are not like the other Jews, that's why they are my friends." Mahathir has defended his comments about Jews as an exercise of free speech, and by claiming that "the Jews do a lot of wrong things which force us to pass comment."
2020 Nice stabbing and the murder of Samuel Paty
On 29 October 2020, in the aftermath of the 2020 Nice stabbing, Mohamad posted controversial remarks on his blog. Regarding the murder of Samuel Paty, Mahathir said it was against "the teachings of Islam", and "the killing is not an act that as a Muslim I would approve". He also said: "The French in the course of their history has killed millions of people. Many were Muslims. Muslims have a right to be angry and to kill millions of French people for the massacres of the past. But by and large the Muslims have not applied the ‘eye for an eye’ law. Muslims don't. The French shouldn't. Instead the French should teach their people to respect other people's feeling." Mahathir's post was later circulated on his Twitter account. His tweet was later labeled by Twitter for "glorifying violence".
Mahathir was also criticized for stoking tensions and hatred by the former Australian ambassador to France Brendan Berne, Australian prime minister Scott Morrison, and French secretary of state for digital affairs Cédric O; the latter of whom called for the suspension of Mahathir's Twitter account. Berne also demanded context regarding Mahathir's comments and stated that Mahathir comments do not represent Muslims. Malaysian cleric and politician Fathul Bari Mat Jahya condemned Mahathir's remarks, calling them "reprehensible tribalism" and declaring that they contradicted Islamic teachings. He also urged Mahathir to take heart the lesson behind the Christchurch mosque shootings. Former Prime Minister Najib Razak opined that Mahathir's words had been taken out of context but advocated removing Mahathir's social media accounts "before he does more damage."
Mahathir responded that his comments were taken out of context and he was not "promoting massacre of the French." After Facebook and Twitter removed his posts, Mahathir criticised the social media platforms' decision to remove his posts, accusing them of shielding those who had offended Muslims and made fun of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Sarawak Deputy Chief Minister James Jemut Masing, United States Ambassador to Malaysia Kamala Shirin Lakhdhir, and Australian High Commissioner in Malaysia Andrew Goledzinowski also criticised Mahathir's remarks as unrepresentative of Malaysia and for advocating violence.
Personal life
Marriage and family
In college, he met his future wife, Siti Hasmah Mohamad Ali, a fellow medical student. They were married in 1956. He and Siti Hasmah had their first child, Marina, in 1957, before conceiving three others, Mirzan, Mokhzani, and Mukhriz, as well as adopting three more, Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar over the following 28 years.
Health
Mahathir underwent a heart bypass operation in 2007, following two heart attacks over the previous two years. He had undergone the same operation after his heart attack in 1989. After the 2007 operation, he suffered a chest infection. He was hospitalised for treatment of another chest infection in 2010.
In early January 2022, Mahathir underwent an unspecified elective medical procedure at the Malaysian National Heart Institute (IJN) and was discharged six days later. He was readmitted to the IJN in late January 2022 and placed in the coronary care unit. On 26 January, his daughter, Marina Mahathir, said he was still recovering in hospital and had been moved to a regular ward from intensive care. On 5 February, Institut Jantung Negara (IJN) had confirmed that he has discharged and having rehabilitation and continue to follow-up of his medical treatment.
Election results
Honors, awards and recognitions
Books
The Malay Dilemma, (1970) .
The Challenge, (1986) .
Regionalism, Globalism, and Spheres of Influence: ASEAN and the Challenge of Change into the 21st century (1989) .
Mahathir, Great Malaysian Hero (1990) .
The Asia That Can Say No (「NO」と言えるアジア), in collaboration with Shintaro Ishihara, (1994) .
The Pacific Rim in the 21st century, (1995).
The Challenges of Turmoil, (1998) .
The Way Forward, (1998) .
A New Deal for Asia, (1999).
Islam & The Muslim Ummah, (2001) .
Globalisation and the New Realities (2002).
Reflections on Asia, (2002) .
The Malaysian Currency Crisis: How and why it Happened, (2003) .
Achieving True Globalization, (2004) .
Islam, Knowledge, and Other Affairs, (2006) .
Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction, (2007) .
Chedet.com Blog Merentasi Halangan (Bilingual), (2008) .
A Doctor in the House: The Memoirs of Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad, 8 March 2011 .
Doktor Umum: Memoir Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad, 30 April 2012 .
Blogging to Unblock (Book 2): A Citizen's Rights, (2013) .
Dr. M: Apa Habaq Orang Muda?, (2016) .
Capturing Hope: The Struggle Continues for a New Malaysia, (2021) .
Notes
References
Cited texts
James Chin & Joern Dosch. Malaysia Post Mahathir: a decade of change?. Marshall Cavendish. 2016.
External links
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1925 births
Living people
People from Kedah
Malaysian anti-communists
Malaysian people of Malayali descent
Malaysian politicians of Indian descent
Malaysian people of Malay descent
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Leaders of political parties in Malaysia
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United Malays National Organisation politicians
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Members of the Dewan Negara
Members of the Dewan Rakyat
Prime Ministers of Malaysia
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Government ministers of Malaysia
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Recipients of the Nishan-e-Quaid-i-Azam
Foreign recipients of the Nishan-e-Pakistan
Commanders of the National Order of the Cedar
Grand Commanders of the Order of the Defender of the Realm
Recipients of the Order of the Crown of Johor
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Crown of Johor
Knights Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of Sarawak
Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of Hornbill Sarawak
Grand Commanders of the Order of Kinabalu
First Classes of Royal Family Order of Selangor
Grand Crosses of the National Order of Mali
Recipients of the Order of the Liberator General San Martin
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Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star
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Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Recipients of the Order of the Paulownia Flowers
Recipients of the Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay
National University of Singapore alumni
University of Malaya alumni
20th-century Malaysian politicians
21st-century Malaysian politicians
Antisemitism in Asia
First Classes of the Royal Family Order of Johor
Recipients of the Kedah Supreme Order of Merit | [
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255966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bar%20billiards | Bar billiards | Bar billiards is a form of billiards which involves scoring points by potting balls in holes on the playing surface of the table rather than in pockets. Bar billiards developed from the French/Belgian game billiard russe, of Russian origin. The current form started in the UK in the 1930s and now has leagues in Sussex, Berkshire, Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Surrey, Kent, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Suffolk, Yorkshire and Northamptonshire. These counties comprise the All England Bar Billiards Association. There are also leagues in Guernsey and Jersey where the annual world championships take place.
History
The game of bar billiards developed originally from the French billiard, which due to the expensive tables in the fifteenth century was played only by the French monarchy and the very rich. The game was transformed into Billiard Russe during the 16th century for the Russian Tsars and a derivative of Bagatelle played by French royalty.
Bar billiards was first imported into the UK during the early 1930s when David Gill, an Englishman witnessed a game of billiard russe taking place in Belgium. He persuaded the Jelkes company of Holloway Road in London to make a similar but not exact bar billiards table. It is now a traditional bar game played in leagues in the English counties of Berkshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Hampshire, Kent, Norfolk, Northamptonshire, Oxfordshire, Suffolk, Surrey, Sussex and Yorkshire, and also the Channel Islands. The game's governing body is the All England Bar Billiards Association. There are also leagues in Guernsey and Jersey. Tables were also made by Sams, Riley, Burroughs & Watts and Clare. The standard "league" tables have a playing surface approximately 32 inches (81 cm) wide. Sams also made a narrower version with a 28-inch (71 cm) width playing surface.
Gameplay
Bar billiards is played on a unique table with no side or corner pockets but with nine holes in the playing surface which are assigned various point values ranging from 10 to 200. There are eight balls in all, seven white and one red, white balls score points as shown and potting the red ball scores double the points as shown. Three mushroom-shaped pegs are positioned on the playing surface, the two white pegs positioned either side of the 100 hole with one black peg in front of the 200 hole. If a white peg is knocked over then the player's break is ended and all points acquired during that break are discarded. Knocking down the black peg ends the player's break and all points accumulated in total are lost. In the case that a white and a black peg are both knocked over, then the first peg to be knocked over is counted. All shots are played from the front end of the table so access to all sides is not required which is ideal in a smaller bar or pub. At the start of the game or when there are no balls remaining on the table a white ball is placed on the spot on the 'D' and the red ball is placed on the spot in front of that. This 'Break shot' may be done a maximum of three times if both balls are potted before one ball must remain on the table known as the '1-up', failing to leave this one ball up results in a foul and loss of break. The next shot attempted is the 'split shot' where the object ball is usually potted in the 50 hole and the cue ball is potted in the 100 hole. There are variants to this; sometimes it is necessary to pot the balls into the 50 and 10 holes for example. If successful, the break shot can be used again and so on. Players take alternate turns or 'breaks' at the table playing from where their opponent has left off. If the player fails to pot a ball then the break has ended and the second player takes his break by placing another ball on the first spot. If all balls are in play, then the nearest ball to the 'D' is removed and put on the spot. If a player fails to hit a ball, then the break ends and all points earned in that break are lost. The play is time-limited to around 15–20 minutes of play dependent on region, after this time a bar drops inside the table stopping any potted balls from returning, leading to a steady decrease in the number of balls in play. The last ball can only be potted into either the 100 or 200 hole having been played off either side cushion.
The Bar Billiards world championship takes place each November on the island of Jersey.
World Championship results history
The Bar Billiards World Championship (called the British Isles Open up to 1999) is held every year in Jersey.
Multi-time world champions
Kevin Tunstall 6
Jim Millward 4
Trevor Gallienne 3
Mark Trafford 3
Peter Noel 2
Steve Ahier 2
Bernie McCluskey 2
Terry Race 2
Paul Sainsbury 2
References
External links
British Bar Billiards
Bar Billiards entry at Online Guide to Traditional Games – also has information about the French and Italian versions
English inventions
Obstacle billiards
Pub games
Tabletop cue games | [
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255968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-explosive%20anti-tank | High-explosive anti-tank | High-explosive anti-tank (HEAT) is a type of shaped charge explosive that uses the Munroe effect to penetrate heavy armour. The warhead functions by having an explosive charge collapse a metal liner inside the warhead into a high-velocity superplastic jet; this superplastic jet is capable of penetrating armour steel to a depth of seven or more times the diameter of the charge (charge diameters, CD). The jet's effect is purely kinetic in nature; the round has no explosive or incendiary effect on the target.
Because they rely on the chemical energy in the warhead rather than on the kinetic energy of the entire round for their penetration performance, HEAT warheads do not have to be delivered with high velocity, as an armour-piercing round does. Thus they generate less recoil.
The HEAT warhead has become less effective against tanks and other armoured vehicles due to the use of composite armour, explosive-reactive armour, and active-protection systems which destroy the HEAT warhead before it functions. While unitary HEAT warheads may pose little threat to any modern tank, they are still deadly against lighter vehicles and aircraft, and multiple warheads can be combined in a tandem configuration to defeat some advanced armours.
The performance of HEAT weapons has nothing to do with thermal effects, with HEAT being simply an acronym.
History
HEAT warheads were developed during World War II, from extensive research and development into shaped charge warheads. Shaped charge warheads were promoted internationally by the Swiss inventor Henry Mohaupt, who exhibited the weapon before World War II. Before 1939, Mohaupt demonstrated his invention to British and French ordnance authorities. Concurrent development by the German inventors’ group of Cranz, Schardin, and Thomanek led to the first documented use of shaped charges in warfare, during the successful assault on the fortress of Eben Emael on 10 May 1940.
Claims for priority of invention are difficult to resolve due to subsequent historic interpretations, secrecy, espionage, and international commercial interest.
The first British HEAT weapon to be developed and issued was a rifle grenade using a cup launcher on the end of the rifle barrel; the Grenade, Rifle No. 68 /AT which was first issued to the British Armed Forces in the year 1940. This has some claim to have been the first HEAT warhead and launcher in use. The design of the warhead was simple and was capable of penetrating of armour. The fuze of the grenade was armed by removing a pin in the tail which prevented the firing pin from flying forward. Simple fins gave it stability in the air and, provided the grenade hit the target at the proper angle of 90 degrees, the charge would be effective. Detonation occurred on impact, when a striker in the tail of the grenade overcame the resistance of a creep spring and was thrown forward into a stab detonator.
By mid-1940, Germany introduced the first HEAT round to be fired by a gun, the 7.5 cm Gr.38 Hl/A, (later editions B and C) fired by the KwK.37 L/24 of the Panzer IV tank and the Stug III self-propelled gun . In mid-1941, Germany started the production of HEAT rifle-grenades, first issued to paratroopers and, by 1942, to the regular army units (Gewehr-Panzergranate 40, 46 and 61), but, just as did the British, soon turned to integrated warhead-delivery systems: In 1943 the Püppchen, Panzerschreck and Panzerfaust were introduced.
The Panzerfaust and Panzerschreck (tank fist and tank terror, respectively) gave the German infantryman the ability to destroy any tank on the battlefield from 50–150 metres with relative ease of use and training (unlike the British PIAT). The Germans made use of large quantities of HEAT ammunition in converted 7.5 cm Pak 97/38 guns from 1942, also fabricating HEAT warheads for the Mistel weapon. These so-called Schwere Hohlladung (heavy shaped charge) warheads were intended for use against heavily armoured battleships. Operational versions weighed nearly two tons and were perhaps the largest HEAT warheads ever deployed. A five-ton version code-named Beethoven was also developed.
Meanwhile, the British No. 68 AT rifle grenade was proving to be too light to deal significant damage, resulting in it rarely being used in action. Due to these limits, a new infantry anti-tank weapon was needed, and this ultimately came in the form of the "projector, infantry, anti-tank" or PIAT. By 1942, the PIAT had been developed by Major Millis Jefferis. It was a combination of a HEAT warhead with a spigot mortar delivery system. While cumbersome, the weapon allowed British infantry to engage armour at range for the first time. The earlier magnetic hand-mines and grenades required them to approach dangerously near. During World War II the British referred to the Monroe effect as the "cavity effect on explosives".
During the war, the French communicated Mohaupt's technology to the U.S. Ordnance Department, and he was invited to the US, where he worked as a consultant on the Bazooka project.
The need for a large bore made HEAT rounds relatively ineffective in existing small-caliber anti-tank guns of the era. Germany worked around this with the Stielgranate 41, introducing a round that was placed over the end on the outside of otherwise obsolete anti-tank guns to produce a medium-range low-velocity weapon.
Adaptations to existing tank guns were somewhat more difficult, although all major forces had done so by the end of the war. Since velocity has little effect on the armour-piercing ability of the round, which is defined by explosive power, HEAT rounds were particularly useful in long-range combat where slower terminal velocity was not an issue. The Germans were again the ones to produce the most capable gun-fired HEAT rounds, using a driving band on bearings to allow it to fly unspun from their existing rifled tank guns. The HEAT round was particularly useful to them because it allowed the low-velocity large-bore guns used on their many assault guns to also become useful anti-tank weapons.
Likewise, the Germans, Italians, and Japanese had in service many obsolescent infantry guns, short-barreled, low-velocity artillery pieces capable of direct and indirect fire and intended for infantry support, similar in tactical role to mortars; generally an infantry battalion had a battery of four or six. High-explosive anti-tank rounds for these old infantry guns made them semi-useful anti-tank guns, particularly the German guns (the Japanese 70 mm Type 92 battalion gun and Italian 65 mm mountain gun also had HEAT rounds available for them by 1944 but they were not very effective).
High-explosive anti-tank rounds caused a revolution in anti-tank warfare when they were first introduced in the later stages of World War II. One infantryman could effectively destroy any existing tank with a handheld weapon, thereby dramatically altering the nature of mobile operations. During World War II, weapons using HEAT warheads were termed hollow charge or shape charge warheads.
Post World War II
The general public remained in the dark about shape charge warheads, even believing that it was a new secret explosive, until early 1945 when the US Army cooperated with the US monthly publication Popular Science on a large and detailed article on the subject titled "It makes steel flow like mud". It was this article that revealed to the American public how the fabled Bazooka actually worked against tanks and that the velocity of the rocket was irrelevant.
After the war, HEAT rounds became almost universal as the primary anti-tank weapon. Variants of varying effectiveness were produced for almost all weapons from infantry weapons like rifle grenades and the M203 grenade launcher, to larger dedicated anti-tank systems like the Carl Gustav recoilless rifle. When combined with the wire-guided missile, infantry weapons were able to operate at long-ranges also. Anti-tank missiles altered the nature of tank warfare from the 1960s to the 1990s, and remain effective to this day.
Design
Penetration performance and effects
The jet moves at hypersonic speeds in solid material and therefore erodes exclusively in the local area where it interacts with armour material. The correct detonation point of the warhead and spacing is critical for optimum penetration, for two reasons:
If the HEAT warhead is detonated too near a target's surface, there is not enough time for the jet to fully form. That is why most modern HEAT warheads have what is called a standoff, in the form of an extended nose cap or probe in front of the warhead.
As the jet travels, it stretches, breaks apart, and disperses, usually well within two metres, rendering it relatively ineffective.
An important factor in the penetration performance of a HEAT round is the diameter of the warhead. As the penetration continues through the armour, the width of the hole decreases leading to a characteristic fist to finger penetration, where the size of the eventual finger is based on the size of the original fist. In general, very early HEAT rounds could expect to penetrate armour of 150% to 250% of their diameters, and these numbers were typical of early weapons used during World War II. Since then, the penetration of HEAT rounds relative to projectile diameters has steadily increased as a result of improved liner material and metal jet performance. Some modern examples claim numbers as high as 700%.
As for any antiarmour weapon, a HEAT round achieves its effectiveness through three primary mechanisms. Most obviously, when it perforates the armour, the jet's residual can cause great damage to any interior components it strikes. And as the jet interacts with the armour, even if it does not perforate into the interior, it typically causes a cloud of irregular fragments of armour material to spall from the inside surface. This cloud of behind-armour debris too will typically damage anything that the fragments strike. Another damage mechanism is the mechanical shock that results from the jet's impact and penetration. Shock is particularly important for such sensitive components as electronics.
Stabilization and accuracy
HEAT warheads are less effective if spinning, and grow ever less effective with faster spin. This became a challenge for weapon designers: for a long time, spinning a shell was the most standard method to obtain good accuracy, as with any rifled gun. The centrifugal force of a spinning shell disperses the charged jet. Most hollow charge projectiles are fin-stabilized and not spin-stabilized.
In recent years, it has become possible to use shaped charges in spin-stabilized projectiles by imparting an opposite spin on the jet so that the two spins cancel out and result in a non-spinning jet. This is done either using fluted copper liners, which have raised ridges, or by forming the liner in such a way that it has a crystalline structure which imparts spin to the jet.
Besides spin-stabilization, another problem with any barreled weapon (that is, a gun) is that a large-diameter shell has worse accuracy than a small-diameter shell of the same weight. The lessening of accuracy increases dramatically with range. Paradoxically, this leads to situations when a kinetic armour-piercing projectile is more usable at long ranges than a HEAT projectile, despite the latter having a higher armour penetration. To illustrate this: a stationary Soviet T-62 tank, firing a (smoothbore) cannon at a range of 1000 meters against a target moving 19 km/h was rated to have a first-round hit probability of 70% when firing a kinetic projectile. Under the same conditions, it could expect 25% when firing a HEAT round. This affects combat on the open battlefield with long lines of sight; the same T-62 could expect a 70% first-round hit probability using HEAT rounds on target at 500 metres.
A further problem is that, if the warhead is contained inside the barrel, its diameter becomes overly restricted by the caliber of that barrel. In non-gun applications, when HEAT warheads are delivered with missiles, rockets, bombs, grenades, or spigot mortars, the warhead size is no longer a limiting factor. In these cases, HEAT warheads often seem oversized in relation to the round's body. Classic examples of this include the German Panzerfaust and Soviet RPG-7.
Variants
Many HEAT-armed missiles today have two (or more) separate warheads (termed a tandem charge) to be more effective against reactive or multi-layered armour. The first, smaller warhead initiates the reactive armour, while the second (or other), larger warhead penetrates the armour below. This approach requires highly sophisticated fuzing electronics to set off the two warheads the correct time apart, and also special barriers between the warheads to stop unwanted interactions; this makes them cost more to produce.
The latest HEAT warheads, such as 3BK-31, feature triple charges: the first penetrates the spaced armour, the second the reactive or first layers of armour, and the third one finishes the penetration. The total penetration value may reach up to .
Some anti-armour weapons incorporate a variant on the shaped charge concept that, depending on the source, can be called an explosively formed penetrator (EFP), self-forging fragment (SFF), self-forging projectile (SEFOP), plate charge, or Misznay Schardin (MS) charge. This warhead type uses the interaction of the detonation waves, and to a lesser extent the propulsive effect of the detonation products, to deform a dish or plate of metal (iron, tantalum, etc.) into a slug-shaped projectile of low length-to-diameter ratio and project this towards the target at around two kilometres per second.
The SFF is relatively unaffected by first-generation reactive armour, it can also travel more than 1,000 cone diameters (CDs) before its velocity becomes ineffective at penetrating armour due to aerodynamic drag, or hitting the target becomes a problem. The impact of an SFF normally causes a large diameter, but relatively shallow hole (relative to a shaped charge) or, at best, a few CDs. If the SFF perforates the armour, extensive behind-armour damage (BAD, also called behind-armour effect (BAE)) occurs. The BAD is mainly caused by the high temperature and velocity armour and slug fragments being injected into the interior space and also overpressure (blast) caused by the impact.
More modern SFF warhead versions, through the use of advanced initiation modes, can also produce rods (stretched slugs), multi-slugs and finned projectiles, and this in addition to the standard short L to D ratio projectile. The stretched slugs are able to penetrate a much greater depth of armour, at some loss to BAD. Multi-slugs are better at defeating light or area targets and the finned projectiles have greatly enhanced accuracy. The use of this warhead type is mainly restricted to lightly armoured areas of MBTs—the top, belly and rear armoured areas, for example. It is well suited for use in the attack of other less heavily armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) and for breaching material targets (buildings, bunkers, bridge supports, etc.). The newer rod projectiles may be effective against the more heavily armoured areas of MBTs.
Weapons using the SEFOP principle have already been used in combat; the smart submunitions in the CBU-97 cluster bomb used by the US Air Force and US Navy in the 2003 Iraq war used this principle, and the US Army is reportedly experimenting with precision-guided artillery shells under Project SADARM (Seek And Destroy Armor). There are also various other projectiles (BONUS, DM 642) and rocket submunitions (Motiv-3M, DM 642) and mines (MIFF, TMRP-6) that use the SFF principle.
With the effectiveness of gun-fired single charge HEAT rounds being lessened, or even negated by increasingly sophisticated armouring techniques, a class of HEAT rounds termed high-explosive anti-tank multi-purpose, or HEAT-MP, has become more popular. These are HEAT rounds that are effective against older tanks and light armoured vehicles but have improved fragmentation, blast and fuzing. This gives the projectiles an overall reasonable light armour and anti-personnel and material effect so that they can be used in place of conventional high-explosive rounds against infantry and other battlefield targets. This reduces the total number of rounds that need to be carried for different roles, which is particularly important for modern tanks like the M1 Abrams, due to the size of their rounds. The M1A1/M1A2 tank can carry only 40 rounds for its 120 mm M256 gun—the M60A3 Patton tank (the Abrams' predecessor), carried 63 rounds for its M68 gun. This effect is reduced by the higher first round hit rate of the Abrams with its improved fire control system compared to that of the M60.
High-explosive dual-purpose
Another variant of HEAT warheads has the warhead surrounded with a conventional fragmentation casing, to allow the warhead to be more effectively used for blast and fragmentation attacks on unarmoured targets, whilst remaining effective in the anti-armour role. These are sometimes referred to as high-explosive dual-purpose (HEDP) warheads. In some cases, this is merely a side effect of the armour-piercing design. In other cases, this dual role ability is specifically added to the design.
Defense
Improvements to the armour of main battle tanks have reduced the usefulness of HEAT warheads by making effective man portable HEAT missiles heavier, although many of the world's armies continue to carry man-portable HEAT rocket launchers for use against vehicles and bunkers. In unusual cases, shoulder-launched HEAT rockets are believed to have shot down U.S. helicopters in Iraq.
The reason for the ineffectiveness of HEAT munitions against modern main battle tanks can be attributed in part to the use of new types of armour. The jet created by the explosion of the HEAT round must be a certain distance from the target and must not be deflected. Reactive armour attempts to defeat this with an outward directed explosion under the impact point, causing the jet to deform and so greatly reducing penetrating power. Alternatively, composite armour featuring ceramics erode the liner jet faster than rolled homogeneous armour steel, the preferred material in constructing older armoured fighting vehicles.
Spaced armour and slat armour are also designed to defend against HEAT rounds, protecting vehicles by causing premature detonation of the explosive at a relatively safe distance away from the main armour of the vehicle. Some cage defenses work by destroying the mechanism of the HEAT round.
Deployment
Helicopters have carried anti-tank guided missiles (ATGM) tipped with HEAT warheads since 1956. The first example of this was the use of the Nord SS.11 ATGM on the Aérospatiale Alouette II helicopter by the French Armed Forces. After then, such weapon systems were widely adopted by other nations.
On 13 April 1972—during the Vietnam War—Americans Major Larry McKay, Captain Bill Causey, First Lieutenant Steve Shields, and Chief Warrant Officer Barry McIntyre became the first helicopter crew to destroy enemy armour in combat. A flight of two AH-1 Cobra helicopters, dispatched from Battery F, 79th Artillery, 1st Cavalry Division, were armed with the newly developed M247 70 millimetre (2.8 in) HEAT rockets, which were yet untested in the theatre of war. The helicopters destroyed three T-54 tanks that were about to overrun a U.S. command post. McIntyre and McKay engaged first, destroying the lead tank.
See also
Electric armour
High-explosive squash head
Kinetic energy penetrator
MAHEM
Reactive armour
Tandem-charge
Notes
References
Anti-tank rounds
Artillery ammunition
British inventions
History of the tank | [
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255971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death%20in%20Venice | Death in Venice | Death in Venice (German: Der Tod in Venedig) is a novella by German author Thomas Mann, published in 1912. It presents an ennobled writer who visits Venice and is liberated, uplifted and then increasingly obsessed, by the sight of a beautiful Polish boy, Tadzio, so nicknamed for Tadeusz, based on a real boy Mann had observed during his 1911 visit to the city, but the story is fictional.
Plot
The main character is Gustav von Aschenbach, a famous author in his early 50s who recently has been ennobled in honor of his artistic achievement (thus acquiring the aristocratic "von" in his name). He is a man dedicated to his art, disciplined and ascetic to the point of severity, who was widowed at a young age.
As the story opens, he is strolling outside a cemetery and sees a coarse-looking, red-haired foreigner who stares back at him belligerently. Aschenbach walks away, embarrassed but curiously stimulated. He has a vision of a primordial swamp-wilderness, fertile, exotic and full of lurking danger. Soon afterward, he resolves to take a holiday.
After a false start in traveling to Pula on the Austro-Hungarian coast (now in Croatia), Aschenbach realizes he was "meant" to go to Venice and takes a suite in the Grand Hôtel des Bains on the Lido island. While shipbound and en route to the island, he sees an elderly man in company with a group of high-spirited youths, who has tried hard to create the illusion of his own youth with a wig, false teeth, make-up, and foppish attire. Aschenbach turns away in disgust. Later, he has a disturbing encounter with an unlicensed gondolier—another red-haired, skull-faced foreigner—who repeats "I can row you well" when Aschenbach orders him to return to the wharf.
Aschenbach checks into his hotel, where at dinner he sees an aristocratic Polish family at a nearby table. Among them is an adolescent boy of about 14 in a sailor suit. Aschenbach, startled, realizes that the boy is supremely beautiful, like a Greek sculpture. His elder sisters, by contrast, are so severely dressed that they look like nuns.
Later, after spying the boy and his family at a beach, Aschenbach overhears Tadzio, the boy's name, and conceives what he first interprets as an uplifting, artistic interest.
Soon the hot, humid weather begins to affect Aschenbach's health, and he decides to leave early and move to a cooler location. On the morning of his planned departure, he sees Tadzio again, and a powerful feeling of regret sweeps over him. When he reaches the railway station and discovers his trunk has been misplaced, he pretends to be angry, but is really overjoyed; he decides to remain in Venice and wait for his lost luggage. He happily returns to the hotel and thinks no more of leaving.
Over the next days and weeks, Aschenbach's interest in the beautiful boy develops into an obsession. He watches him constantly and secretly follows him around Venice. One evening, the boy directs a charming smile at him, looking, Aschenbach thinks, like Narcissus smiling at his own reflection. Disconcerted, Aschenbach rushes outside, and in the empty garden whispers aloud "I love you!"
Aschenbach next takes a trip into the city of Venice, where he sees a few discreetly worded notices from the Health Department warning of an unspecified contagion and advising people to avoid eating shellfish. He smells an unfamiliar strong odor everywhere, later realising it is disinfectant. However, the authorities adamantly deny that the contagion is serious, and tourists continue to wander obliviously round the city.
Aschenbach at first ignores the danger because it somehow pleases him to think that the city's disease is akin to his own hidden, corrupting passion for the boy. During this period, a third red-haired and disreputable-looking man crosses Aschenbach's path; this one belongs to a troupe of street singers who entertain at the hotel one night. Aschenbach listens entranced to songs that, in his former life, he would have despised – all the while stealing glances at Tadzio, who is leaning on a nearby parapet in a classically beautiful pose. The boy eventually returns Aschenbach's glances, and although the moment is brief, it instills in the writer a sense that the attraction may be mutual.
Next, Aschenbach rallies his self-respect and decides to discover the reason for the health notices posted in the city. After being repeatedly assured that the sirocco is the only health risk, he finds a British travel agent who reluctantly admits that there is a serious cholera epidemic in Venice.
Aschenbach considers warning Tadzio's mother of the danger; however, he decides not to, knowing that if he does, Tadzio will leave the hotel and be lost to him.
One night, a dream filled with orgiastic Dionysian imagery reveals to him the sexual nature of his feelings for Tadzio. Afterward, he begins staring at the boy so openly and following him so persistently that Aschenbach feels the boy's guardians have finally noticed, and they take to warning Tadzio whenever he approaches too near the strange, solitary man. However, Aschenbach's feelings, although passionately intense, remain unvoiced; he never touches Tadzio or speaks to him, and while there is some indication that Tadzio is aware of his admiration, the two exchange nothing more than occasionally surreptitious glances.
Aschenbach begins to fret about his aging face and body. In an attempt to look more attractive, he visits the hotel's barber shop almost daily, where the barber persuades him to have his hair dyed and his face painted to look more youthful. The result is a fairly close approximation to the old man on the ship who had so appalled Aschenbach.
Freshly dyed and rouged, he again shadows Tadzio through Venice in the oppressive heat. He loses sight of the boy in the heart of the city; then, exhausted and thirsty, he buys and eats some over-ripe strawberries and rests in an abandoned square, contemplating the Platonic ideal of beauty amid the ruins of his own once-formidable dignity.
A few days later, Aschenbach goes to the lobby in his hotel, feeling ill and weak, and discovers that the Polish family plan to leave after lunch. He goes to the beach to his usual deck chair. Tadzio is there, unsupervised for once, and accompanied by Jasiu, an older boy. A fight starts between the two boys, and Tadzio is quickly bested; afterward, he angrily leaves his companion and wades over to Aschenbach's part of the beach, where he stands for a moment looking out to sea, then turns halfway around to look at his admirer. To Aschenbach, it is as if the boy is beckoning to him: He tries to rise and follow, only to collapse sideways into his chair.
His body is discovered minutes later.
Origins
Mann's original intention was to write about "passion as confusion and degradation” after having been fascinated by the true story of Goethe's love for 18-year-old Baroness Ulrike von Levetzow, which had led Goethe to write his "Marienbad Elegy." The May 1911 death of composer Gustav Mahler in Vienna and Mann's interest in the boy Władzio during summer 1911 vacation in Venice were additional experiences occupying his thoughts. He used the story to illuminate certain convictions about the relationship between life and mind, with Aschenbach representing the intellect. Mann also was influenced by Sigmund Freud and his views on dreams as well as by philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche who had visited Venice several times.
Allusions
The novella is rife with allusions from antiquity forward, especially to Greek antiquity and to German works (literary, art-historical, musical, visual) from the 18th century.
The novella is intertextual, with the chief sources being first the connection of erotic love to philosophical wisdom traced in Plato's Symposium and Phaedrus, and second the Nietzschean contrast between Apollo, the god of restraint and shaping form, and Dionysus, the god of excess and passion. The trope of placing classical deities in contemporary settings was popular at the time when Mann was writing Death in Venice.
Aschenbach's name and character may be inspired by the homosexual German poet August von Platen-Hallermünde. There are allusions to his poems about Venice in the novella, and like Aschenbach, he died of cholera on an Italian island. Aschenbach's first name is almost an anagram of August, and the character's last name may be derived from Ansbach, Platen's birthplace. However, the name has another clear significance: Aschenbach literally means "ash brook." The novella's physical description of Aschenbach was based on a photograph of the composer Gustav Mahler. Mahler had made a strong personal impression on Mann when they met in Munich, and Mann was shocked by the news of Mahler's death in Vienna. Mann gave Mahler's first name and facial appearance to Aschenbach, but did not talk about it in public. (The soundtrack of the 1971 film based on the novella made use of Mahler's compositions, particularly the "Adagietto" 4th movement from the Symphony No. 5). Alternately, Aschenbach's name may be an allusion to Wolfram von Eschenbach, the author of the Middle High German medieval romance Parzival, whose reimagining and continuation of the Grail Quest romance of Chrétien de Troyes contained themes similar to those found in Mann's novella, such as the author's fascination with and idealization of the purity of youthful innocence and beauty, as well as the eponymous protagonist's quest to restore healing and youthfulness to Anfortas, the wounded, old Fisher King. Given Mann's obsession with the works of Richard Wagner, who famously adapted and transformed von Eschenbach's epic into his opera Parsifal, it is possible that Mann was crediting Wagner's opera by referencing the author of the work that had inspired the composer.
Modris Eksteins notes the similarities between Aschenbach and the Russian choreographer Sergei Diaghilev, writing that, although the two never met, "Diaghilev knew Mann's story well. He gave copies of it to his intimates." Diaghilev often stayed at the same hotel as Aschenbach, the Grand Hotel des Bains, and took his young male lovers there. Eventually, like Aschenbach, Diaghilev died in Venice.
The real Tadzio
Mann's wife Katia (in a 1974 book) recalls that the idea for the story came during an actual vacation in Venice (staying at the Grand Hôtel des Bains on the Lido), which she and Thomas took in the summer of 1911:
The boy who inspired "Tadzio" was Baron Władysław Moes, whose first name was usually shortened as Władzio or just Adzio. This story was uncovered by Andrzej Dołęgowski, Thomas Mann's translator, around 1964, and was published in the German press in 1965. Some sources report that Moes did not learn of the connection until he saw the 1971 film of the novel.
Moes was born on 17 November 1900 in Wierbka, the second son and fourth child of Baron Aleksander Juliusz Moes. He was aged 10 when he was in Venice, significantly younger than Tadzio in the novella. Baron Moes died on 17 December 1986 in Warsaw and is interred at the graveyard of Pilica, Silesian Voivodeship. He was the subject of the biography The Real Tadzio (Short Books, 2001) by Gilbert Adair.
Translations
An English translation by Kenneth Burke was published in periodical form in The Dial in 1924 over three issues (vol. LXXVI, March to May, issues # 3–5, Camden, NJ, USA). This translation was published in book form the following year as Death in Venice and Other Stories. W.H. Auden called it the definitive translation.
H.T. Lowe-Porter's authorized translation, which appeared in 1928, has been less well received by critics due to her reducing Mann's treatment of sexuality and homoeroticism.
A translation published in 2005 by Michael Henry Heim won the Helen and Kurt Wolff Translator's Prize.
Other translations include those by David Luke (1988), Clayton Koelb (1994), Joachim Neugroschel (1998), and Martin C. Doege (2010).
Adaptations
A film of Death in Venice starring Dirk Bogarde was made by Luchino Visconti in 1971.
Benjamin Britten transformed Death in Venice into an opera, his last, in 1973.
The novella was dramatised by Peter Wolf for BBC Radio 3 in 1997.
John Neumeier adapted it for a ballet for his Hamburg Ballet company in December 2003.
A stage production in 2013, directed by Thomas Ostermeier at the Schaubühne theatre in Berlin, titled Death in Venice/Kindertotenlieder, took elements from Gustav Mahler's song cycle Kindertotenlieder.
See also
Love and Death on Long Island (novel), 1990 novella by Gilbert Adair and a pastiche/homage to Mann's Death in Venice
Love and Death on Long Island (1997) starring John Hurt as a middle-aged writer who becomes obsessed with a young actor portrayed by Jason Priestley, based on Gilbert Adair's book
"Grey Gardens," song on Rufus Wainwright's 2001 album Poses
"I Just Want to See the Boy Happy," on Morrissey's 2006 album Ringleader of the Tormentors
"Ganymede," a short story by Daphne Du Maurier, about an Englishman's longing for a young boy in Venice, with tragic consequences, published in 1959 as one of a collection of eight short stories in The Breaking Point (anthology)
References
Frank Donald Hirschbach, The Arrow and the Lyre: A Study of the Role of Love in the Works of Thomas Mann (The Hague, M. Nijhoff, 1955), passim (but especially the section "The Loves of Two Artists: Tonio Kröger and Death in Venice," op. cit., pp. 14ff.).
T.J. Reed, Death in Venice: Making and Unmaking a Master. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994.
Lee Slochower, "The Name of Tadzio in Der Tod in Venedig," German Quarterly, vol. 35, No. 1 (January 1962).
David Luke: "Thomas Mann's Iridescent Interweaving (1988)," in: Death in Venice: Thomas Mann. A New Translation, Backgrounds and Contexts Criticism. Translated and edited by Clayton Koelb, New York, London 1994.
Seong Joo Lee: "The Reception of the Odyssey in Thomas Mann's Death in Venice," in: Germanic Notes and Reviews, Vol. 42, No. 2, Greenville SC, GNR 2011.
Ehrhard Bahr: "Der Tod in Venedig, Erläuterungen und Dokumente." Reclam, Stuttgart 1991.
Philip Kitcher, Deaths in Venice: The Cases of Gustav von Aschenbach. New York: Columbia University Press, 2013.
Gilbert Adair, The Real Tadzio: Thomas Mann's Death in Venice and the Boy Who Inspired It. New York: Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2001.
Notes
External links
— German language version.
Kenneth Burke's English translation of Death in Venice in The Dial. Part 1, Part 2, and Part 3.
Michael Chanan, Mahler in Venice?
"Oh Boy. Tadzio, Adzio, and the secret history of Death in Venice" by Allen Barra. December 3–9, 2003
1912 German-language novels
1910s LGBT novels
German novels adapted into films
Novels adapted into ballets
German novels adapted into plays
Novels adapted into operas
Gustav Mahler
Novellas by Thomas Mann
Modernist novels
Novels about ephebophilia
Novels about writers
Novels set in Venice
Novels with gay themes
German philosophical novels
Roman à clef novels
Death in Italy
20th-century German novels
German LGBT novels | [
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255974 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellfield | Fellfield | A fellfield or fell field comprises the environment of a slope, usually alpine or tundra, where the dynamics of frost (freeze and thaw cycles) and of wind give rise to characteristic plant forms in scree interstices.
Soil dynamics
The freeze-thaw cycles tend to push plants out of the soil. In addition, the high porosity of the soil makes a fellfield a difficult place for plants to grow. Fellfields often have typical patterns of rocks: lines of rocks that have been pushed out of the soil, and slid into a low region.
Botany
In botany the term "fellfield" describes an ecoregion, ecosystem, habitat, or plant community. The term frequently used is alpine fellfield. Fellfield is usually applied to an alpine tundra region of high altitude mountains, or high latitude islands, and the alpine plants there.
Flora
Fellfields are typically populated by cushion plants: perennials that grow close to the ground. Cushion plants are well-adapted to the dryness and short growing season of a fellfield. Cushion plants often have hairy foliage and long taproots, to gather and retain moisture. Examples of cushion plants include the lupines and buckwheats.
Fellfield species
Alpine flora list
Azorella selago
Oenothera xylocarpa
Calyptridium umbellatum
Some geologists find it is controversial to share the term for biology and geomorphology applications.
See also
Feldmark
References
F
Habitats
Landforms
Montane ecology
Rock formations | [
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255977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratov | Saratov | Saratov (, ; ) is the largest city and administrative center of Saratov Oblast, Russia, and a major port on the Volga River upstream (north) of Volgograd. As of the 2010 Census, Saratov had a population of 837,900, making it the 17th-largest city in Russia by population. Saratov is 389 km from Volgograd, 442 km from Samara, and 858 km southeast of Moscow.
The city stands near the site of Uvek, a city of the Golden Horde. Tsar Feodor I of Russia likely developed Saratov as a fortress to secure Russia's southeastern border. Saratov developed as a shipping port along the Volga and was historically important to the Volga Germans, who settled in large numbers in the city before they were expelled after World War II.
Saratov is home to a number of cultural and educational institutions, including the Saratov Drama Theater, Saratov Conservatory, Radishchev Art Museum, Saratov State Technical University, and Saratov State University.
Etymology
The name Saratov may be derived from Sary Tau (Сары Тау), meaning "Yellow Mountain" in the Tatar language. Another version of the name origin derives it from the words Sar Atau, which means the "Boggy Island"..
History
Uvek, a city of the Golden Horde, stood near the site of the modern city of Saratov from the mid-13th century until its destruction by Tamerlane in 1395. While the exact date of the foundation of modern Saratov is unknown, plausible theories date it to ca. 1590, during the reign (1584–1598) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who constructed several settlements along the Volga River in order to secure the southeastern boundary of his state. Town status was granted to it in 1708.
By the 1800s, Saratov had grown to become an important shipping port on the Volga. The Ryazan-Ural Railroad reached Saratov in 1870. In 1896, the line crossed the Volga and continued its eastward expansion. A unique train-ferry, owned by the Ryazan-Ural railroad, provided the connection across the river between the two ends of the railroad for 39 years, before the construction of a railway bridge in 1935.
During January 1915, with World War I dominating the Russian national agenda, Saratov became the destination for deportation convoys of ethnic Germans, Jews, Hungarians, Austrians and Slavs whose presence closer to the western front was perceived as a potential security risk to the state.
During World War II, Saratov was a station on the north–south Volzhskaya Rokada, a specially designated military railroad supplying troops, ammunition and supplies to Stalingrad. In 1942-1943 the city was bombed by German aircraft. The main target was the Kirov oil refinery, which was heavily bombarded, seriously damaging the installation and destroying 80% of its plant and temporarily interrupting its work. The Luftwaffe was able to destroy all the fuel stock at bases in Saratov and eliminate the oil plant in the city.
Until the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet authorities designated Saratov a "closed city"; off-limits to all foreigners due to its military importance as the site of a vital facility manufacturing military aircraft.
German community
The city of Saratov played an important role in the history of the Volga Germans. Until 1941, the town of Pokrovsk (present-day Engels), located just across the Volga from Saratov, served as the capital of the Volga German Republic. The ethnic German population of the region numbered 800,000 in the early 20th century, with some people whose families had been there for generations. Beginning with Catherine the Great's 1763 Manifesto promising land, freedom from military conscription and religious freedom, the Russian Emperors invited German immigration in the 18th and 19th centuries to encourage agricultural development.
The Volga German community came to include industrialists, scientists, musicians and architects, including those who built Saratov's universities and conservatories. After the beginning of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Soviet government forcibly expelled the Volga Germans to Uzbekistan, Siberia and Kazakhstan (September 1941). Few ever returned to the Volga region, even after rehabilitation. Others were expelled to western Europe after World War II ended in 1945.
Beginning in the 1980s, a large portion of the surviving members of the ethnic Germans emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany.
Reminders of the once prominent place of Germans in the city remain, with the Roman Catholic St. Klemens Cathedral (seat of the historic Diocese of Tiraspol) on Nemetskaya Ulitsa ("German Street") the most notable. The building was designed by Mikhail N. Grudistov (b. 1839 – d. 19 February 1914, who also designed the State Bank Building in Saratov, converted into the children's cinema "Pioneer" during the Soviet period. A new cathedral was built in 2000 elsewhere in the city: the .
Administrative and municipal status
Saratov is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Saratovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Saratov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Saratov is incorporated as Saratov Urban Okrug.
Geography
Climate
Saratov has a moderately continental climate with warm and dry summers and an abundance of sunny days. The warmest month is July with daily mean temperature near ; the coldest is February, at .
Summers are hot and dry in Saratov. Daytime temperatures of or higher are commonplace, up to during a heat wave in 2010.
Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. Days well above freezing and nights below both occur in the winter.
Economy and infrastructure
Saratov Oblast is highly industrialized, due in part to the richness in natural and industrial resources of the area. The oblast is also one of the more important and largest cultural and scientific centers in Russia. Saratov possesses six institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, twenty-one research institutes, nineteen project institutes, as well as the Saratov State University, the Saratov State Socio-Economic University, the Saratov State Technical University, and many scientific and technological laboratories attached to some of the city's large industrial enterprises.
Transportation
Saratov is served by the Saratov Gagarin Airport (opened in 20 August 2019 replacing Saratov Tsentralny Airport). The airport serves flights to both international and domestic destinations. Saratov West is a general aviation airfield. The aerospace manufacturing industry is served by the Saratov South airport. Nearby Engels-2 (air base) is the main base for Russian strategic Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers. Motorways link Saratov directly to Volgograd, Samara, and Voronezh. The railways also play an important role. The Privolzhskaya Railway is headquartered in Saratov. The Volga itself is an important inland waterway. Buses and trolleybuses form the backbone of public transport in the city.
Saratov has a tram network, which opened in 1908. Currently, there are two depots, while a third was closed in 2001. The rolling stock currently consists of 71-605, 71-619, 71-608 and a number of refurbished Tatra T3, renamed to MTTE and MTTCh.
A trolleybus network is also present in the city. On July 2, 2021, an intercity route over the Volga was opened, linking to the trolleybus network of Engels.
City budget
Information about revenues and expenditures of the city budget for the period 2007–2017.
Education
Saratov is host to a number of colleges and universities. These include the Saratov State University (1909), Saratov State Technical University, Saratov State Medical University, Saratov State Academy of Law and Saratov State Agrarian University. In 2014 a newly renovated campus for the Saratov Regional College of Art was opened.
Culture
One of the city's most prominent landmarks is the 19th century neo-Gothic Conservatory. When it was built in 1912, the Conservatory was Russia's third such institution (after Moscow and St. Petersburg). At the time, Saratov, with a population of 240,000, was the third-largest city in Russia. The main building of the conservatory had been built in 1902 by architect Alexander Yulyevich Yagn, and originally it housed a music school. Before the opening of the conservatory in 1912, the building was reconstructed by the architect Semyon Akimovich Kallistratov. When Saratov Conservatory opened in September 1912, it immediately had 1,000 students ready to begin their studies.
The Saratov Drama Theater was founded in 1802, making it one of Russia's oldest. It is ranked as one of Russia's National Theaters. In Soviet times, the theater was renamed in honor of Karl Marx, but now carries the name of Ivan Slonov (1882–1945), an actor, theatrical director and educator, born in the city. The full name in Russian is The I. A. Slonov Saratov State Academic Theater ().
Saratov is noted for several art museums, including the Radishchev Art Museum, named for Alexander Radishchev, Fedin Art Museum, named after Russian novelist Konstantin Fedin, Saratov Local History Museum, Chernyshevsky Estate Museum, named for Nikolay Chernyshevsky, and some others. The Radishchev Art Museum contains more than 20,000 exhibits, including ancient Russian icons, works by Camille Corot, Auguste Rodin, as well as works by some of the finest Russian painters (e.g. Ivan Kramskoy, Vasily Polenov, Ilya Repin, Ivan Shishkin, Aleksandra Ekster, Pavel Kuznetsov, Aristarkh Lentulov, Robert Falk, Pyotr Konchalovsky, Martiros Saryan, Fyodor Rokotov).
Demographics
More than 90% of the city's population are ethnic Russians. Among the remainder are Tatars, Ukrainians, Armenians, Kazakhs and others.
Sports
Several sports clubs are active in the city:
Twin towns – sister cities
Saratov is twinned with:
Chapel Hill, United States
Carrboro, United States
Dallas, United States
Dobrich, Bulgaria
Wuhan, China
Notable people
Roman Abramovich, businessman
Boris Andreyev, actor
Oleg Antonov, aircraft designer
Boris Babochkin, actor, director
Denis Bakurskiy, former Russian professional football player
Rachel Bluwstein, poet
Alexey Bogolyubov, painter
Viktor Borisov-Musatov, painter
Nikolay Chernyshevsky, philosopher
Gavrila Derzhavin, poet
Irina Dryagina, World War II pilot and scientist
Konstantin Fedin, writer
Nikolai Grandkovsky, painter
Joseph Hakobyan, engineer
Lev Igorev, painter
Anastasia Karpova, pop singer
Lev Kassil, writer
Kombinaciya, pop band
Pavel Kuznetsov, painter
Eduard Limonov, writer and politician
Konstantin Paustovsky, writer
Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, painter
Lev Pitaevskii, physicist
Natalia Pogonina, chess player
Jean-Victor Poncelet, French engineer and mathematician (POW)
Alexander Radishchev, writer
Lidiya Ruslanova, Russian folk singer
Sweeney Schriner, ice hockey player
Nikolay Semyonov, Nobel Prize-winning chemist
Fyodor Shekhtel, architect
Leonid Sobinov, operatic tenor
Pyotr Stolypin, statesman
Vladimir Stoupel, pianist and conductor
Oleg Tabakov, actor
Evgeny Tomashevsky, chess Grandmaster and former World number 15
Valeriya, pop singer
Nikolai Vavilov, biologist and geneticist, died in a Saratov jail
Mikhail Vrubel, painter
Oleg Yankovsky, actor
Nikolay Zinin, chemist
Zedd, music producer and DJ, born in Saratov and moved to Germany.
Elvira T, singer
Katia Elizarova, model
Nikolai Bondarenko, politician
References
Sources
External links
Official website of Saratov
The Saratov Room (local news, events and places)
Saratov.Ru
Old photos of Saratov
Saratov Regional Museum of Local Lore
Radischev Art Gallery
Catalog of the Radishchev Gallery
Cultural guide to Saratov
Google Earth view of Saratov
Saratovsky Uyezd
Populated places on the Volga
Cities and towns in Saratov Oblast
Volga German people | [
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255979 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lianjiang%20County | Lianjiang County | Lianjiang (; BUC: Lièng-gŏng) is a county on the eastern coast in Fuzhou prefecture-level city, the provincial capital of Fujian Province, China. Most of the county is administered by the People's Republic of China (PRC), while a number of outlying islands, collectively referred to as the Matsu Islands, are administered as Lienchiang County (same Chinese character name in traditional Chinese characters and referred to using Wade–Giles romanization) by the Republic of China (ROC) (now based in Taiwan) ever since their return to ROC control after Japanese occupation in World War II.
History
Lianjiang, in 282, during the Jin Dynasty, was Wenma, named after a shipyard there, Wensha Ship-hamlet (溫麻船屯). It was incorporated into Min Prefecture (閩縣) in 607, during the Sui Dynasty.
Wenma was changed to the present name and made its own county in 623, during the Tang Dynasty, when Baisha (白沙) or Fusha (伏沙) of Aojiang was the capital of Lianjiang County. The capital was changed to Fengcheng as today in 742.
After the Republic of China was established, Lianjiang switched back and forth numerous times between two special regions:
Minhou Special Region (閩侯專區): 18 years in total
Fu'an (Ningde) Special Region (福安（寧德）專區): 16 years in total
In 1949, the county was split in two due to the Chinese Civil War, as it remains today.
On March 4, 1964, a Chinese Nationalist commando raid on the Communist Party of China headquarters of the county captured and returned a commune file to Taipei.
Beginning on 1 July 1983, the PRC side reverted control to Fuzhou Municipality. In the late 1980s, people living in Lianjiang County began a massive emigration wave to western countries like the United Kingdom and the United States.
Geography
Gaodeng Island in Lienchiang County (the Matsu Islands), ROC (Taiwan), is located away from the Beijiao Peninsula () in Lianjiang County, China (PRC).
Geographic coordinates: 26°03'-26°27' N, 119°17'-120°31' E
Coastline length:
Administrative divisions
The PRC (China) administers 16 towns and 6 townships:
Towns (镇, zhen):
Fengcheng () ("Phoenix City Town")
Mabi (Ma-pi; ) ("Horse Snout Town")
Danyang ()
Dongdai (Tungtai; )
Donghu () ("East Lake Town")
Guanban () (Traditional: 官阪镇)
Tailu (T’ai-lu; )
Aojiang () ("Ao River Township")
Pukou (P’u-k’ou; ) ("River Mouth Township")
Toubao (T’ou-pao; )
Huangqi (Huang-ch’i, Huangchi; )
Xiao'ao (Hsiao-ao; )
Guantou (Kwantow, Kuan-t’ou; – Guàntóu)
Xiaocheng (Hsiao-ch’eng; – Xiǎochéng)
Changlong (, formerly ) ("Long Dragon")
Kengyuan (K’eng-yüan; , formerly )
Townships (乡, xiang):
Xiagong (Hsia-kung; )
Xiaocang She Ethnic Township (; Traditional: 小滄畲族鄉)
Ankai ()
Liaoyan ()
Pandu ()
Jiangnan ()
These townships are divided into 266 villages.
Culture
Residents of Lianjiang – both on the Mainland and Matsu – speak the Lianjiang dialect, a subdialect of the Fuzhou dialect, a branch of Eastern Min. The dialect is also known as Bàng-uâ (平話).
Language
The Lianjiang dialect is a subdialect of Fuzhou dialect (the most prestigious dialect of Min Dong or Eastern Min). The Lianjiang dialect is mutually intelligible with Fuzhou dialect. It differs from Fuzhou dialect in its tonal sandhi pattern and vowel sandhi system. Small lexical differences also exist on object names, e.g. waxmelon is called "卷瓜" in Fuzhou but "冬瓜" in Lianjiang.
Generally speaking, the tonal sandhi system of Lianjiang is more conservative than that of Fuzhou, in that the Lianjiang tonal sandhi is still largely controlled by the Middle Chinese tonal registers, while the Fuzhou tonal sandhi shows more deviation and irregularity.
Lianjiang vowel sandhi is more complicated than that of Fuzhou. Both Lianjiang and Fuzhou have systematic vowel variations between citation forms and non-final forms of the same morpheme, e.g. "地" /tei/ "land" – "地主" /ti-tsuo/ "landlord". However, not all morphemes have such variations. Only the morphemes with low-starting tones show such variation. The morphemes with high-starting tones instead only have the more close variant, e.g. "迟" /ti/ "late"- "迟早" /ti tsia/ "early or late". However, some cognates are produced with different vowels in Lianjiang and Fuzhou, e.g. "江 river" is produced as /kyeŋ/ in Lianjiang, but /kouŋ/ in Fuzhou. Also, the rimes in Lianjiang are generally more close and front than that in Fuzhou, which is especially salient in the open vowels, e.g. "下 down" is [ɑ] in Fuzhou, but [a] in Lianjiang.
Surrounded by mountains, Lianjiang used to be a relatively isolated from the inland part of China for centuries. This explains why the Lianjiang phonological system is relatively more conservative. However, with the construction of the high-speed railway system and the improvement of tunnel system, northern migrants are flooding into Lianjiang in the past decade, which may bring language contact into perspective. Just like in Fuzhou, most young or middle-aged Lianjiang speakers speak Mandarin Chinese fluently, but usually with a local accent influenced by the local dialect. However, due to the misleading language policy (Not speaking Mandarin Chinese is taken as "immoral".) and disadvantageous status of the dialect, both Fuzhou and Lianjiang dialects are losing speakers in the youngest generation. More and more young people and children are only receptive bilinguals in Lianjiang.
Economy
Food products:
Farm: loquats, rice, sweet potato, bean, cotton, sugar cane, tea plant, jasmine, watermelon, mushroom, grapes, dragon fruit, rhubarb.
Sea: hairtail, shad, pomfret, cuttlefish, garoupa, prawn, crab, clam, mudskippers.
Other: Yuanhong wine ("元紅")
Transportation
Luochang Expressway runs through the county's section of National Highway 104 in . navigable river length.
Guantou and Kemen (可門) are the largest seaports in Lianjiang with national access.
Tourism
There are hot springs in Gui'an (貴安) and Tanghui (湯尾) of Pandu. There is a Dragon King Palace-Temple (龍宮廟) in the Xiaocang She Ethnic Township.
Climate
Notable persons
Chen Di, Ming philologist, strategist, and traveler
Huang Rulun
Zheng Sixiao (Cheng Suu-hsiao; )
Notes
References
External links
Tourism website
Food culture – mudskippers
County-level divisions of Fujian
Divided regions | [
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255987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcassonne%20%28disambiguation%29 | Carcassonne (disambiguation) | Carcassonne is a medieval fortified city in France.
Carcassonne may also refer to:
Cité de Carcassonne
Carcassonne (board game), a board game by Klaus-Jürgen Wrede
Carcassonne (video game), a video game adaptation
Carcassonne Castle, a residence in the United States
See also
Carcassonne Salvaza Airport, an airport in the town of Carcassonne
Carcassonne Cathedral, a cathedral in Carcassonne, the seat of the Roman Catholic Bishop of Carcassonne | [
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255988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrakhan | Astrakhan | Astrakhan (; ) is the largest city and administrative centre of Astrakhan Oblast in Southern Russia. The city lies on two banks of the Volga, in the upper part of the Volga Delta, on eleven islands of the Caspian Depression, 60 miles (100 km) from the Caspian Sea, with a population of over 529,739 residents. At an elevation of below sea level, it is the lowest city in Russia.
Astrakhan was formerly the capital of the Khanate of Astrakhan (a remnant of the Golden Horde), and was located on the higher right bank of the Volga, 7 miles (11 km) from the present-day city. Situated on caravan and water routes, it developed from a village into a large trading centre, before being conquered by Timur in 1395 and captured by Ivan the Terrible (who believed it to be the site of the Fountain of Youth) in 1556. In 1558 it was moved to its present site.
The oldest economic and cultural center of the Lower Volga, it is often called the southernmost outpost of Russia, and the Caspian capital. The city is a member of the Eurasian Regional Office of the World Organization "United Cities and Local Governments". The great ethnic diversity of its population gives a varied character to Astrakhan.
Etymology
The name is a corruption of Hashtarkhan, itself a corruption of Haji Tarkhan ()—a name amply evidenced in the medieval writings. Tarkhan is possibly a Turco-Mongolian title standing for "great khan," or "king", while haji or hajji is a title given to one who has made the Islamic requisite of pilgrimage to Mecca. Together, they denoted "the king who has visited Mecca."
The city has given its name to the particular pelts from young karakul sheep, and in particular to the hats traditionally made from the pelts.
Colloquially, the city is known by the short form Astra. Another popular nickname is The Caspian Capital.
History
Medieval history
Astrakhan is in the Volga Delta, which is rich in sturgeon and exotic plants. The fertile area formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan was first mentioned by travelers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. Tamerlane burnt it to the ground in 1395 during his war with the Golden Horde. From 1459 to 1556, Xacitarxan was the capital of Astrakhan Khanate. The ruins of this medieval settlement were found by archaeologists 12 km upstream from the modern-day city.
Starting in A.D. 1324, Ibn Battuta, the famous Berber Muslim traveler, began his pilgrimage from his native city of Tangier, present-day Morocco to Mecca. Along the trek, which took nearly 29 years, Ibn Battuta came in contact with many new cultures which he writes about in his diaries. One specific country that he passed through on his journey was the Golden Horde ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan, located on the Volga River in southern Russia; which Battuta refers to as the river Athal. He then claims the Athal is, “one of the greatest rivers in the world.” ( Battuta, 79). In the winter, when the weather is very cold, the Muslim ruler, or Sultan, stays in Astrakhan. Due to this cold water, the King [Sultan Mohammed Öz Beg] orders the people of Astrakhan to lay many bundles of hay down on the frozen river. He does this to allow the people to travel over the ice. When Battuta and the King spoke about Battuta visiting Constantinople, which the King granted him permission to do, the King then gifted Battuta with fifteen hundred dinars, many horses and a dress of honor.
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress, or kremlin, built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga in 1558. This year is traditionally considered to be the foundation of the modern city.
In 1569, during the Russo-Turkish War (1568–1570), Astrakhan was besieged by the Ottoman army, which had to retreat in disarray. A year later, the Ottoman sultan renounced his claims to Astrakhan, thus opening the entire Volga River to Russian traffic. The Ottoman Empire, though militarily defeated, insisted on safe passage for Muslim pilgrims and traders from Central Asia as well as the destruction of the Russian's fort on the Terek river. In the 17th century, the city was developed as a Russian gate to the Orient. Many merchants from Armenia, Safavid Persia, Mughal India and Khiva khanate settled in the town, giving it a cosmopolitan character.
Modern history
For seventeen months in 1670–1671, Astrakhan was held by Stenka Razin and his Cossacks. Early in the following century, Peter the Great constructed a shipyard here and made Astrakhan the base for his hostilities against Persia, and later in the same century Catherine the Great accorded the city important industrial privileges.
The city rebelled against the Tsar once again in 1705, when it was held by the Cossacks under Kondraty Bulavin. A Kalmuck khan laid an abortive siege to the kremlin several years before that.
In 1711, it became the seat of a governorate, whose first governors included Artemy Petrovich Volynsky and Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev. Six years later, Astrakhan served as a base for the first Russian venture into Central Asia. It was granted town status in 1717. In 1702, 1718 and 1767, it suffered severely from fires; in 1719 it was plundered by the Safavid Persians; and in 1830, cholera killed much of the populace.
Astrakhan's kremlin was built from the 1580s to the 1620s from bricks taken from the site of Sarai Berke. Its two impressive cathedrals were consecrated in 1700 and 1710, respectively. Built by masters from Yaroslavl, they retain many traditional features of Russian church architecture, while their exterior decoration is definitely baroque.
In March 1919 after a failed workers' revolt against Bolshevik rule, 3,000 to 5,000 people were executed in less than a week by the Cheka under orders from Sergey Kirov. Some victims had stones tied around their necks and were thrown into the Volga.
During Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the A-A line running from Astrakhan to Arkhangelsk was to be the eastern limit of German military operation and occupation. The plan was never carried out, as Germany captured neither the two cities nor Moscow. In the autumn of 1942, the region to the west of Astrakhan became one of the easternmost points in the Soviet Union reached by the invading German Wehrmacht, during Case Blue, the offensive which led to the Battle of Stalingrad. Light armored forces of German Army Group A made brief scouting missions as close as 100 km to Astrakhan before withdrawing. In the same period, elements of both the Luftwaffe's KG 4 and KG 100 bomber wings attacked Astrakhan, flying several air raids and bombing the city's oil terminals and harbor installations.
In 1943, Astrakhan was made the seat of a Soviet oblast with the RSFSR, which was maintained as a national province of the independent Russian Federation in the 1991 administrative reshuffle after the dismemberment of the Soviet Union.
In the present day, Astrakhan is a large industrial centre of the Volga country, Russia, with a population of 100,000. Starting nearly 400 years ago and continuing to the present day, Astrakhan has been Russia's main center of fish processing. The market for fish is a large component of the economy in this city.
Mayoral election of 2012
After fraud was alleged in the mayoral election of 2012 and the United Russia candidate was declared the winner, organizers of the 2011–2012 Russian protests supported the defeated candidate, Oleg V. Shein of Just Russia, in a hunger strike. Protestors, buoyed by celebrities who support the reform movement, attracted 5,000 people to a rally on April 14.
Administrative and municipal status
Astrakhan is the administrative center of the oblast. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Astrakhan—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Astrakhan is incorporated as Astrakhan Urban Okrug.
The city of Astrakhan is further subdivided into four administrative districts: Kirovsky, Leninsky, Sovetsky and Truskovsky. Their names and borders were introduced arbitrarily during the Soviet era and do not reflect the organization of Astrakhan's traditional quarters and historic districts.
Demographics
Religion
Astrakhan is the archiepiscopal see of one of the metropolitanates and (as Astrakhan and Yenotayevka) eparchies of the Russian Orthodox Church, its only other suffragan being Akhtubinsk. There is also a Catholic community, served by the Church of the Assumption of Mary (Astrakhan). The Muslim Bulgar population is now gone/assimilated.
Population
According to the results of the 2010 Census, the population of Astrakhan was 520,339.
At the time of the official 2010 Census, the ethnic makeup of the city's population was:
Climate
Astrakhan features a temperate continental "Aralian" semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSk) with cold winters and hot summers. Astrakhan is one of the driest cities in Europe. Rainfall is scarce but relatively evenly distributed throughout the course of the year with, however, more precipitation (58%) in the hot season (six hottest months of the year), which determines the "Aralian" type (as opposed to the "Turkmenon" type, with the wet season during the cold months). The below sea-level elevation of Astrakhan influences the climate. Partially a result of this and also being far from the oceans means that summers are much hotter than found further west on similar latitude in Europe and worldwide for 46°N with the notable exception of the interior Pacific Northwest of the United States.
It is this even distribution of rainfall and the relatively low annual temperature that causes the city to fall under this climate category as opposed to an arid climate.
Winters tend to be cold in the city, though by Russian standards, Astrakhan features relatively balmy winters. Summers in the city can be hot, with high temperatures in excess of . The mean annual temperature amplitude (difference between the mean monthly temperatures of the hottest and coldest months) is thus equal to ( in July and in January), so the climate is truly continental (amplitudes superior or equal to determines continental climates, while in semi-continental climates amplitudes vary between and ). Spring and fall are basically transitional seasons between summer and winter.
Education
Astrakhan has five institutions of higher education. Most prominent among these are Astrakhan State Technical University and Astrakhan State University.
Transportation
The city is served by Narimanovo Airport named after Soviet Azerbaijani politician Nariman Narimanov. It is managed by OAO Aeroport Astrakhan. After its reconstruction and the building of the international sector, opened in February 2011, Narimanovo Airport is one of the most modern regional airports in Russia. There are direct flights between Astrakhan and Aktau, Istanbul, St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Astrakhan is linked by rail to the north (Volgograd and Moscow), the east (Atyrau and Kazakhstan) and the south (Makhachkala and Baku). There are direct trains to Moscow, Volgograd, Saint Petersburg, Baku, Kyiv, Brest and other towns. Intercity and international buses are available as well. Public local transport is mainly provided by buses and minibuses called marshrutkas. Until 2007 there were also trams, and until 2017 trolleybuses.
Symbol of "Azerbaijani-Russian Friendship"
Due to shared Caspian borders, Astrakhan recently has been playing a significant role in the relations of both countries. As the Azerbaijani government has been heavily investing into the wellbeing of the city, Astrakhan has recently begun to symbolize the friendship between both countries. In 2010 a bridge was constructed with donations from Azerbaijan, which was named "Bridge of Friendship". Moreover, Azerbaijani government sponsored secondary school number 11, which carries the name of the national leader Heydar Aliyev, as well as a children's entertainment center named "Dream". Apart from that, a park has been built in the center of Astrakhan which is dedicated to friendship between the two countries. In the last 5 years Astrakhan has been visited by top Azerbaijani delegations on several occasions.
Notable people
Boris Kustodiev, painter
Joseph Deniker, naturalist and anthropologist
Ilya Ulyanov, father of Aleksandr Ulyanov and Vladimir Lenin.
Rinat Dasayev, association football player
Marziyya Davudova, actress
Velimir Khlebnikov, poet
Emiliya Turey, handball player
Andrei Belyanin, science fiction writer
Dmitri Dyuzhev, actor
Vasily Trediakovsky, academic, poet, translator
Tamara Milashkina, soprano
Valeria Barsova, soprano
Maria Maksakova, Sr., mezzo-soprano
Elena Nikitina, skeleton racer
Yelena Shalamova, rhythmic gymnast
Natalia Sokolovskaya, pianist and composer
Twin towns and sister cities
Astrakhan is twinned with:
Sari, Mazandaran Province, Iran
Rasht, Gilan Province, Iran
Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India
Fort Lauderdale, United States
Atyrau, Kazakhstan
Brest, Belarus
Grand-Popo, Benin
Pembroke Pines, United States
Ljubljana, Slovenia
Islamabad, Pakistan
See also
Astrakhan Jews
Astrakhan Tatars
References
Sources
External links
Official website of Astrakhan
Directory of organizations in Astrakhan
Old photos of Astrakhan
Astrakhan Governorate
Populated places on the Volga
Russian and Soviet Navy bases
Populated places established in 1558 | [
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255989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honne%20and%20tatemae | Honne and tatemae | In Japan, refers to a person's , and refers contrastingly to . This distinction began to be made in the post-war era.
A person's may be contrary to what is expected by society or what is required according to one's position and circumstances, and they are often kept hidden, except with one's closest friends. is what is expected by society and required according to one's position and circumstances, and these may or may not match one's . In many cases, leads to outright telling of lies in order to avoid exposing the true inward feelings.
The divide is considered by some to be of paramount importance in Japanese culture.
Causes
In Japanese culture, public failure and the disapproval of others are seen as particular sources of shame and reduced social standing, so it is common to avoid direct confrontation or disagreement in most social contexts. Traditionally, social norms dictate that one should attempt to minimize discord; failure to do so might be seen as insulting or aggressive. For this reason, the Japanese tend to go to great lengths to avoid conflict, especially within the context of large groups. By upholding this social norm, one is socially protected from such transgressions by others.
The conflict between and (social obligations) is one of the main topics of Japanese drama throughout the ages. For example, the protagonist would have to choose between carrying out his obligations to his family/feudal lord or pursuing a clandestine love affair.
The same concept in Chinese culture is called "inside face" and "outside face", and these two aspects also frequently come into conflict.
Effects
Contemporary phenomena such as seclusion and parasite singles are seen as examples of late Japanese culture's growing problem of the new generation growing up unable to deal with the complexities of and pressure of an increasingly consumerist society.
Though and are not a uniquely Japanese phenomenon, some Japanese feel that it is unique to Japan; especially among those Japanese who feel their culture is unique in having the concepts of "private mind" and "public mind". Although there might not be direct single word translations for and in some languages, they do have two-word descriptions; for example in English, "private mind" and "public mind".
Some researchers suggest that the need for explicit words for and in Japanese culture is evidence that the concept is relatively new to Japan, whereas the unspoken understanding in many other cultures indicates a deeper internalization of the concepts. In any case, all cultures have conventions that help to determine appropriate communication and behavior in various social contexts which are implicitly understood without an explicit name for the social mores on which the conventions are based.
A similar discord of Japanese true own feeling and the pretension before public is observed in , a phrase whose meaning literally translates as "starving to [one's] skeleton", referring to being content or pretending to be so. Nowadays, the phrase is used for two different meanings, expressing the samurai virtue of self-discipline, silent moral heroism, or ridiculing stubbornness, face-savingness.
See also
Japanese values
Smile mask syndrome, Japan
Tadanobu Tsunoda
The Anatomy of Dependence, Japanese book
Uchi-soto
Ambivalence
Egosyntonic and egodystonic
Emotional conflict
Preference falsification
Self-discrepancy theory
Splitting (psychology)
True self and false self
References
Japanese society
Japanese values
Japanese culture
Japanese words and phrases
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255990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Churchill | Peter Churchill | Peter Morland Churchill, (14 January 1909 – 1 May 1972) was a British Special Operations Executive (SOE) officer in France during the Second World War. His wartime operations, which resulted in his capture and imprisonment in German concentration camps, and his subsequent marriage to fellow SOE officer, Odette Sansom, received considerable attention during the war and after, including a 1950 film.
Early life and career
Churchill's father was William Algernon Churchill (1865–1947), a British Consul who served in Mozambique, Amsterdam, Pará in Brazil, Stockholm, Milan, Palermo, and Algiers. His father was also an art connoisseur, and author of what is still the standard reference work on early European paper and papermaking, Watermarks in Paper,. His mother was Violet (née Myers). He was a brother of Walter Churchill, a Royal Air Force pilot during the war, and Oliver Churchill, who was also an SOE officer.
Churchill was born in Amsterdam, Netherlands, on 14 January 1909. He was educated at Malvern School from 1923–27, then spent 18 months at Chillon Castle, then went on to Geneva University. From 1929–32, he read Modern Languages at Caius College, University of Cambridge. In addition to his native English, he was bilingual in French and fluent in Spanish and Italian. He also excelled in sports – he had the reputation of being one of the finest ice-hockey blues the university had produced. Churchill was Captain of the Cambridge University Ice Hockey Club in 1932 and won 15 international caps. He was proficient at exhibition diving, was a first-class skier, and played golf off a six handicap.
He moved into the British diplomatic service and served as British Vice-Consul in the Netherlands from 1934–5, and Pro-Consul in Oran, Algeria from 1935–6. From September 1939 to August 1940, he was Under Secretary to Sir Norman Birkett in the Home Office Advisory Committee, and later became President of the Committee.
Wartime activities
After the outbreak of the Second World War, Churchill and three colleagues embarked aboard HMS Unbroken on 11 April 1941, and were dropped off by folboats in the Bay of Antibes on 20 April. That same night he returned to the submarine with François d'Astier de La Vigerie (Baron d′Astier de la Vigerie), who went by the name of Bernard.
He continued his work as an Intelligence Officer and joined the Special Operations Executive in June 1941, assigned to the French Section. His code names were "Michel", "Raoul" and "Pierre Olivier". He was infiltrated into France four times, twice by submarine and twice by aircraft.
Part of Churchill’s first mission in France in January and February 1942 was to deliver 300,000 francs to Georges Duboudin, organizer of the SPRUCE network in Lyon, and Virginia Hall introduced Churchill to him. Churchill returned to England via Spain when the mission was complete, and Hall accompanied him by train to Perpignan, since couples aroused less suspicion. He then crossed the Pyrenees on foot, and she returned to Lyon. In his second mission in April 1942, Churchill dropped off four SOE agents on the Cote d'Azur by submarine, including Edward Zeff, wireless operator for the SPRUCE network; Hall introduced him to the network.
On 27 August 1942, he was parachuted into the south of France and went to Cannes to organise and coordinate the SOE F Section "Spindle" Network. He developed a close relationship with his courier, Odette Sansom. The Spindle Network directed the delivery of supplies to support Carte. After Churchill's unsuccessful attempts to arrange for an aircraft to pick up himself and members of the Carte network, he relocated the Spindle network to Annecy. They were joined there by several other members of the Carte network and SOE, a gathering which attracted the attention of the Italian fascist police and the Gestapo. SOE agent Francis Cammaerts visited Annecy briefly in March or early April 1943 and assessed the security of Churchill's network as deficient and likely to be penetrated by the Germans. Churchill later described his French friends as “brilliant” but “too talkative for safety.”
Eventually the Abwehr infiltrated Spindle. Churchill went to England for consultations on 23–24 March 1943 and on 15 April parachuted back into the mountains above Saint-Jorioz on the banks of Lake Annecy. On April 16, he and Sansom were arrested at a hotel in St. Jorioz by Hugo Bleicher of the Abwehr.
Churchill and Sansom claimed they were a married couple and related to Winston Churchill to make themselves seem more valuable as prisoners and less likely to be executed as spies. In fact, Peter Churchill was not related to the British prime minister. They were sent to different concentration camps, where they were tortured and sentenced to death. Sansom was imprisoned at Ravensbrück.
Churchill was first taken to the German barracks in Annecy, then to Fresnes, where he remained until 13 February 1944, when he was transferred to Berlin for questioning. At some point, he was tortured on the fifth floor of number 84 in Paris. On 2 May, he was sent to Sonderlager “A” Sachsenhausen, where he was held in solitary confinement for 318 days out of 11 months. On 1 April 1945, he was moved by train to Flossenbürg, 50 miles south-east of Bayreuth, where he was held for 3–4 days before being taken by truck and Black Maria on a 30-hour trip to Dachau where he was lodged in the former official (now empty) brothel at the Dachau concentration camp along with other officers of various nationalities, including the Italian General Garibaldi and his Chief of Staff, Colonel Ferraro. The next day, as the Americans were approaching Dachau, Churchill and 30 other officers were taken by bus to Innsbruck, where he was held in the Straflager. They were joined by 140 other notable prisoners (the Prominenten), including former Austrian Chancellor, Dr. Kurt Schuschnigg. On 24 April 1945, Churchill was taken from Dachau over the Brenner Pass to Villabassa (Niederdorf in the Tyrol), together with many other prominent concentration camp inmates from different countries, where the SS left the prisoners behind as American forces were approaching.
On 27 April, he was taken 15 miles to the south to Wildsee, where on 4 May he was liberated by the Fifth United States Army. He was taken to Naples for debriefing by officers from the Crimes Investigations Departments and testified against his former captors. On 12 May 1945, Churchill was flown back to England in the personal aircraft of Air Marshal Garrow.
Post-war and controversy
In the 1950 film Odette, which recounted their wartime exploits, Churchill was played by Trevor Howard and Anna Neagle played the title role. The fame that the movie brought to Odette Sansom and Peter Churchill also brought criticism from his former associates in SOE and the French Resistance. A document signed by about 20 of his associates accused Churchill of being in France only to collect material for a book about his experiences and asked what acts of sabotage he and Odette had carried out. The official historian of SOE, M.R.D. Foot offered a mild defence of Churchill, saying he was in France to liaise between the Carte network and the London headquarters of SOE and not to carry out sabotage. One of the signers of the document, Baron Henri Ravel of Malval, accused Churchill of causing his arrest by "stupidity."
Peter Churchill and Odette Sansom were married in London in 1947, but divorced in 1955. Churchill continued to live in France after the war, settling in Le Rouret near Cannes, where he worked in real estate. He lived there until his death from cancer at age 63.
Books by Peter Churchill
Of Their Own Choice (1952)
Duel of Wits (1953)
The Spirit in the Cage (1954)
By Moonlight (1958)
All About the French Riviera (1960)
Other books
Churchill, Peter, Duel of Wits, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, U.S. edition (combining British editions of Duel of Wits and Of Their Own Choice), 1955.
Churchill, Peter, Spirit in the Cage, New York, G.P. Putnam's Sons, U.S. edition, 1955
References
External links
Biography of Peter Churchill at Nigel Perrin's site
Newsreel footage of marriage to Odette Sansom, 1947
Five images of Peter Churchill and Odette at Getty Images
Portrait of Peter Churchill by Mark Gerson at National Portrait Gallery, London
1909 births
1972 deaths
People educated at Malvern College
French Resistance members
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Sachsenhausen concentration camp survivors
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
British Special Operations Executive personnel
World War II prisoners of war held by Germany
British Army personnel of World War II
Intelligence Corps officers | [
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255991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrative | Narrative | A narrative, story or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether nonfictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller, novel, etc.). Narratives can be presented through a sequence of written or spoken words, still or moving images, or any combination of these. The word derives from the Latin verb narrare (to tell), which is derived from the adjective gnarus (knowing or skilled). Along with argumentation, description, and exposition, narration, broadly defined, is one of four rhetorical modes of discourse. More narrowly defined, it is the fiction-writing mode in which the narrator communicates directly to the reader. The school of literary criticism known as Russian formalism has applied methods used to analyse narrative fiction to non-fictional texts such as political speeches.
Oral storytelling is the earliest method for sharing narratives. During most people's childhoods, narratives are used to guide them on proper behavior, cultural history, formation of a communal identity and values, as especially studied in anthropology today among traditional indigenous peoples.
Narrative is found in all forms of human creativity, art, and entertainment, including speech, literature, theater, music and song, comics, journalism, film, television and video, video games, radio, game-play, unstructured recreation and performance in general, as well as some painting, sculpture, drawing, photography and other visual arts, as long as a sequence of events is presented. Several art movements, such as modern art, refuse the narrative in favor of the abstract and conceptual.
Narrative can be organized into a number of thematic or formal categories: nonfiction (such as creative non-fiction, biography, journalism, transcript poetry and historiography); fictionalization of historical events (such as anecdote, myth, legend and historical fiction) and fiction proper (such as literature in the form of prose and sometimes poetry, short stories, novels, narrative poems and songs, and imaginary narratives as portrayed in other textual forms, games or live or recorded performances). Narratives may also be nested within other narratives, such as narratives told by an unreliable narrator (a character) typically found in the genre of noir fiction. An important part of narration is the narrative mode, the set of methods used to communicate the narrative through a process of narration (see also "Aesthetics approach" below).
Overview
A narrative is a telling of some true or fictitious event or connected sequence of events, recounted by a narrator to a narratee (although there may be more than one of each). A personal narrative is a prose narrative relating personal experience. Narratives are to be distinguished from descriptions of qualities, states, or situations, and also from dramatic enactments of events (although a dramatic work may also include narrative speeches). A narrative consists of a set of events (the story) recounted in a process of narration (or discourse), in which the events are selected and arranged in a particular order (the plot, which can also mean "story synopsis"). The term "emplotment" describes how, when making sense of personal experience, people structure and order personal narratives. The category of narratives includes both the shortest accounts of events (for example, the cat sat on the mat, or a brief news item) and the longest historical or biographical works, diaries, travelogues, and so forth, as well as novels, ballads, epics, short stories, and other fictional forms. In the study of fiction, it is usual to divide novels and shorter stories into first-person narratives and third-person narratives. As an adjective, "narrative" means "characterized by or relating to storytelling": thus narrative technique is the method of telling stories, and narrative poetry is the class of poems (including ballads, epics, and verse romances) that tell stories, as distinct from dramatic and lyric poetry. Some theorists of narratology have attempted to isolate the quality or set of properties that distinguishes narrative from non-narrative writings: this is called narrativity.
History
In India, archaeological evidence of the presence of stories is found at the Indus valley civilization site, Lothal. On one large vessel, the artist depicts birds with fish in their beaks resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of The Fox and the Crow in the Panchatantra. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted, of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones into the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful.
Human nature
Owen Flanagan of Duke University, a leading consciousness researcher, writes, "Evidence strongly suggests that humans in all cultures come to cast their own identity in some sort of narrative form. We are inveterate storytellers." Stories are an important aspect of culture. Many works of art and most works of literature tell stories; indeed, most of the humanities involve stories.
Stories are of ancient origin, existing in ancient Egyptian, ancient Greek, Chinese and Indian cultures and their myths. Stories are also a ubiquitous component of human communication, used as parables and examples to illustrate points. Storytelling was probably one of the earliest forms of entertainment. As noted by Owen Flanagan, narrative may also refer to psychological processes in self-identity, memory and meaning-making.
Semiotics begins with the individual building blocks of meaning called signs; semantics is the way in which signs are combined into codes to transmit messages. This is part of a general communication system using both verbal and non-verbal elements, and creating a discourse with different
modalities and forms.
In On Realism in Art, Roman Jakobson attests that literature exists as a separate entity. He and many other semioticians prefer the view that all texts, whether spoken or written, are the same, except that some authors encode their texts with distinctive literary qualities that distinguish them from other forms of discourse. Nevertheless, there is a clear trend to address literary narrative forms as separable from other forms. This is first seen in Russian Formalism through Victor Shklovsky's analysis of the relationship between composition and style, and in the work of Vladimir Propp, who analyzed the plots used in traditional folk-tales and identified 31 distinct functional components. This trend (or these trends) continued in the work of the Prague School and of French scholars such as Claude Lévi-Strauss and Roland Barthes. It leads to a structural analysis of narrative and an increasingly influential body of modern work that raises important theoretical questions:
What is text?
What is its role (culture)?
How is it manifested as art, cinema, theater, or literature?
Why is narrative divided into different genres, such as poetry, short stories, and novels?
Literary theory
In literary theoretic approach, narrative is being narrowly defined as fiction-writing mode in which the narrator is communicating directly to the reader. Until the late 19th century, literary criticism as an academic exercise dealt solely with poetry (including epic poems like the Iliad and Paradise Lost, and poetic drama like Shakespeare). Most poems did not have a narrator distinct from the author.
But novels, lending a number of voices to several characters in addition to narrator's, created a possibility of narrator's views differing significantly from the author's views. With the rise of the novel in the 18th century, the concept of the narrator (as opposed to "author") made the question of narrator a prominent one for literary theory. It has been proposed that perspective and interpretive knowledge are the essential characteristics, while focalization and structure are lateral characteristics of the narrator.
The role of literary theory in narrative has been disputed; with some interpretations like Todorov's narrative model that views all narratives in a cyclical manner, and that each narrative is characterized by a three part structure that allows the narrative to progress. The beginning stage being an establishment of equilibrium—a state of non conflict, followed by a disruption to this state, caused by an external event, and lastly a restoration or a return to equilibrium—a conclusion that brings the narrative back to a similar space before the events of the narrative unfolded.
Other critiques of literary theory in narrative challenge the very role of literariness in narrative, as well as the role of narrative in literature. Meaning, narratives and their associated aesthetics, emotions, and values have the ability to operate without the presence of literature and vice versa. According to Didier Costa, the structural model used by Todorov and others is unfairly biased towards a Western interpretation of narrative, and that a more comprehensive and transformative model must be created in order to properly analyze narrative discourse in literature. Framing also plays a pivotal role in narrative structure; an analysis of the historical and cultural contexts present during the development of a narrative is needed in order to more accurately represent the role of narratology in societies that relied heavily on oral narratives.
Types of narrators and their modes
A writer's choice in the narrator is crucial for the way a work of fiction is perceived by the reader. There is a distinction between first-person and third-person narrative, which Gérard Genette refers to as intradiegetic and extradiegetic narrative, respectively. Intradiegetic narrators are of two types: a homodiegetic narrator participates as a character in the story. Such a narrator cannot know more about other characters than what their actions reveal. A heterodiegetic narrator, in contrast, describes the experiences of the characters that appear in the story in which he or she does not participate.
Most narrators present their story from one of the following perspectives (called narrative modes): first-person, or third-person limited or omniscient. Generally, a first-person narrator brings greater focus on the feelings, opinions, and perceptions of a particular character in a story, and on how the character views the world and the views of other characters. If the writer's intention is to get inside the world of a character, then it is a good choice, although a third-person limited narrator is an alternative that does not require the writer to reveal all that a first-person character would know. By contrast, a third-person omniscient narrator gives a panoramic view of the world of the story, looking into many characters and into the broader background of a story. A third-person omniscient narrator can be an animal or an object, or it can be a more abstract instance that does not refer to itself. For stories in which the context and the views of many characters are important, a third-person narrator is a better choice. However, a third-person narrator does not need to be an omnipresent guide, but instead may merely be the protagonist referring to himself in the third person (also known as third person limited narrator).
Multiple narrators
A writer may choose to let several narrators tell the story from different points of view. Then it is up to the reader to decide which narrator seems most reliable for each part of the story. It may refer to the style of the writer in which he/she expresses the paragraph written. See for instance the works of Louise Erdrich. William Faulkner's As I Lay Dying is a prime example of the use of multiple narrators. Faulkner employs stream of consciousness to narrate the story from various perspectives.
In Indigenous American communities, narratives and storytelling are often told by a number of elders in the community. In this way, the stories are never static because they are shaped by the relationship between narrator and audience. Thus, each individual story may have countless variations. Narrators often incorporate minor changes in the story in order to tailor the story to different audiences.
The use of multiple narratives in a story is not simply a stylistic choice, but rather an interpretive one that offers insight into the development of a larger social identity and the impact that has on the overarching narrative, as explained by Lee Haring. Haring analyzes the use of framing in oral narratives, and how the usage of multiple perspectives provides the audience with a greater historical and cultural background of the narrative. She also argues that narratives (particularly myths and folktales) that implement multiple narrators deserves to be categorized as its own narrative genre, rather than simply a narrative device that is used solely to explain phenomena from different points of view.
Haring provides an example from the Arabic folktales of A Thousand and One Nights to illustrate how framing was used to loosely connect each story to the next, where each story was enclosed within the larger narrative. Additionally, Haring draws comparisons between Thousand and One Nights and the oral storytelling observed in parts of rural Ireland, islands of the Southwest Indian Ocean, and African cultures such as Madagascar."I'll tell you what I'll do," said the smith. "I'll fix your sword for you tomorrow, if you tell me a story while I'm doing it." The speaker was an Irish storyteller in 1935, framing one story in another (O'Sullivan 75, 264). The moment recalls the Thousand and One Nights , where the story of "The Envier and the Envied" is enclosed in the larger story told by the Second Kalandar (Burton 1 : 113-39), and many stories are enclosed in others."
Aesthetics approach
Narrative is a highly aesthetic art. Thoughtfully composed stories have a number of aesthetic elements. Such elements include the idea of narrative structure, with identifiable beginnings, middles and ends, or exposition-development-climax-denouement, with coherent plot lines; a strong focus on temporality including retention of the past, attention to present action and protention/future anticipation; a substantial focus on character and characterization, "arguably the most important single component of the novel" (David Lodge The Art of Fiction 67); different voices interacting, "the sound of the human voice, or many voices, speaking in a variety of accents, rhythms and registers" (Lodge The Art of Fiction 97; see also the theory of Mikhail Bakhtin for expansion of this idea); a narrator or narrator-like voice, which "addresses" and "interacts with" reading audiences (see Reader Response theory); communicates with a Wayne Booth-esque rhetorical thrust, a dialectic process of interpretation, which is at times beneath the surface, forming a plotted narrative, and at other times much more visible, "arguing" for and against various positions; relies substantially on the use of literary tropes (see Hayden White, Metahistory for expansion of this idea); is often intertextual with other literatures; and commonly demonstrates an effort toward bildungsroman, a description of identity development with an effort to evince becoming in character and community.
Psychological approach
Within philosophy of mind, the social sciences and various clinical fields including medicine, narrative can refer to aspects of human psychology. A personal narrative process is involved in a person's sense of personal or cultural identity, and in the creation and construction of memories; it is thought by some to be the fundamental nature of the self. The breakdown of a coherent or positive narrative has been implicated in the development of psychosis and mental disorders, and its repair said to play an important role in journeys of recovery. Narrative therapy is a form of psychotherapy.
Illness narratives are a way for a person affected by an illness to make sense of his or her experiences. They typically follow one of several set patterns: restitution, chaos, or quest narratives. In the restitution narrative, the person sees the illness as a temporary detour. The primary goal is to return permanently to normal life and normal health. These may also be called cure narratives. In the chaos narrative, the person sees the illness as a permanent state that will inexorably get worse, with no redeeming virtues. This is typical of diseases like Alzheimer's disease: the patient gets worse and worse, and there is no hope of returning to normal life. The third major type, the quest narrative, positions the illness experience as an opportunity to transform oneself into a better person through overcoming adversity and re-learning what is most important in life; the physical outcome of the illness is less important than the spiritual and psychological transformation. This is typical of the triumphant view of cancer survivorship in the breast cancer culture.
Personality traits, more specifically the Big Five personality traits, appear to be associated with the type of language or patterns of word use found in an individual's self-narrative. In other words, language use in self-narratives accurately reflects human personality. The linguistic correlates of each Big Five trait are as follows:
Extraversion - positively correlated with words referring to humans, social processes and family;
Agreeableness - positively correlated with family, inclusiveness and certainty; negatively correlated with anger and body (that is, few negative comments about health/body);
Conscientiousness - positively correlated with achievement and work; negatively related to body, death, anger and exclusiveness;
Neuroticism - positively correlated with sadness, negative emotion, body, anger, home and anxiety; negatively correlated with work;
Openness - positively correlated with perceptual processes, hearing and exclusiveness
Social-sciences approaches
Human beings often claim to understand events when they manage to formulate a coherent story or narrative explaining how they believe the event was generated. Narratives thus lie at the foundations of our cognitive procedures and also provide an explanatory framework for the social sciences, particularly when it is difficult to assemble enough cases to permit statistical analysis. Narrative is often used in case study research in the social sciences. Here it has been found that the dense, contextual, and interpenetrating nature of social forces uncovered by detailed narratives is often more interesting and useful for both social theory and social policy than other forms of social inquiry. Research using narrative methods in the social sciences has been described as still being in its infancy but this perspective has several advantages such as access to an existing, rich vocabulary of analytical terms: plot, genre, subtext, epic, hero/heroine, story arc (e.g. beginning-middle-end), and so on. Another benefit is it emphasizes that even apparently non-fictional documents (speeches, policies, legislation) are still fictions, in the sense they are authored and usually have an intended audience in mind.
Sociologists Jaber F. Gubrium and James A. Holstein have contributed to the formation of a constructionist approach to narrative in sociology. From their book The Self We Live By: Narrative Identity in a Postmodern World (2000), to more recent texts such as Analyzing Narrative Reality (2009) and Varieties of Narrative Analysis (2012), they have developed an analytic framework for researching stories and storytelling that is centered on the interplay of institutional discourses (big stories) on the one hand, and everyday accounts (little stories) on the other. The goal is the sociological understanding of formal and lived texts of experience, featuring the production, practices, and communication of accounts.
Inquiry approach
In order to avoid "hardened stories," or "narratives that become context-free, portable and ready to be used anywhere and anytime for illustrative purposes" and are being used as conceptual metaphors as defined by linguist George Lakoff, an approach called narrative inquiry was proposed, resting on the epistemological assumption that human beings make sense of random or complex multicausal experience by the imposition of story structures. Human propensity to simplify data through a predilection for narratives over complex data sets can lead to the narrative fallacy. It is easier for the human mind to remember and make decisions on the basis of stories with meaning, than to remember strings of data. This is one reason why narratives are so powerful and why many of the classics in the humanities and social sciences are written in the narrative format. But humans can read meaning into data and compose stories, even where this is unwarranted. Some scholars suggest that the narrative fallacy and other biases can be avoided by applying standard methodical checks for validity (statistics) and reliability (statistics) in terms of how data (narratives) are collected, analyzed, and presented. More typically, scholars working with narrative prefer to use other evaluative criteria (such as believability or perhaps interpretive validity) since they do not see statistical validity as meaningfully applicable to qualitative data: "the concepts of validity and reliability, as understood from the positivist perspective, are somehow inappropriate and inadequate when applied to interpretive research". Several criteria for assessing the validity of narrative research was proposed, including the objective aspect, the emotional aspect, the social/moral aspect, and the clarity of the story.
Mathematical-sociology approach
In mathematical sociology, the theory of comparative narratives was devised in order to describe and compare the structures (expressed as "and" in a directed graph where multiple causal links incident into a node are conjoined) of action-driven sequential events.
Narratives so conceived comprise the following ingredients:
A finite set of state descriptions of the world S, the components of which are weakly ordered in time;
A finite set of actors/agents (individual or collective), P;
A finite set of actions A;
A mapping of P onto A;
The structure (directed graph) is generated by letting the nodes stand for the states and the directed edges represent how the states are changed by specified actions. The action skeleton can then be abstracted, comprising a further digraph where the actions are depicted as nodes and edges take the form "action a co-determined (in context of other actions) action b".
Narratives can be both abstracted and generalised by imposing an algebra upon their structures and thence defining homomorphism between the algebras. The insertion of action-driven causal links in a narrative can be achieved using the method of Bayesian narratives.
Bayesian narratives
Developed by Peter Abell, the theory of Bayesian Narratives conceives a narrative as a directed graph comprising multiple causal links (social interactions) of the general form: "action a causes action b in a specified context". In the absence of sufficient comparative cases to enable statistical treatment of the causal links, items of evidence in support and against a particular causal link are assembled and used to compute the Bayesian likelihood ratio of the link. Subjective causal statements of the form "I did b because of a" and subjective counterfactuals "if it had not been for a I would not have done b" are notable items of evidence.
In music
Linearity is one of several narrative qualities that can be found in a musical composition. As noted by American musicologist, Edward Cone, narrative terms are also present in the analytical language about music. The different components of a fugue — subject, answer, exposition, discussion and summary — can be cited as an example. However, there are several views on the concept of narrative in music and the role it plays.
One theory is that of Theodore Adorno, who has suggested that "music recites itself, is its own context, narrates without narrative". Another, is that of Carolyn Abbate, who has suggested that "certain gestures experienced in music constitute a narrating voice". Still others have argued that narrative is a semiotic enterprise that can enrich musical analysis.
The French musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez contends that "the narrative, strictly speaking, is not in the music, but in the plot imagined and constructed by the listeners". He argues that discussing music in terms of narrativity is simply metaphorical and that the "imagined plot" may be influenced by the work's title or other programmatic information provided by the composer. However, Abbate has revealed numerous examples of musical devices that function as narrative voices, by limiting music's ability to narrate to rare "moments that can be identified by their bizarre and disruptive effect". Various theorists share this view of narrative appearing in disruptive rather than normative moments in music.
The final word is yet to be said, regarding narratives in music, as there is still much to be determined.
In film
Unlike most forms of narratives that are inherently language based (whether that be narratives presented in literature or orally), film narratives face additional challenges in creating a cohesive narrative. Whereas the general assumption in literary theory is that a narrator must be present in order to develop a narrative, as Schmid proposes; the act of an author writing his or her words in text is what communicates to the audience (in this case readers) the narrative of the text, and the author represents an act of narrative communication between the textual narrator and the narratee. This is in line with Fludernik's perspective on what's called cognitive narratology—which states that a literary text has the ability to manifest itself into an imagined, representational illusion that the reader will create for themselves, and can vary greatly from reader to reader. In other words, the scenarios of a literary text (referring to settings, frames, schemes, etc.) are going to be represented differently for each individual reader based on a multiplicity of factors, including the reader's own personal life experiences that allow them to comprehend the literary text in a distinct manner from anyone else.
Film narrative does not have the luxury of having a textual narrator that guides its audience towards a formative narrative; nor does it have the ability to allow its audience to visually manifest the contents of its narrative in a unique fashion like literature does. Instead, film narratives utilize visual and auditory devices in substitution for a narrative subject; these devices include cinematography, editing, sound design (both diegetic and non-diegetic sound), as well as the arrangement and decisions on how and where the subjects are located onscreen—known as mise-en-scène. These cinematic devices, among others, contribute to the unique blend of visual and auditory storytelling that culminates to what Jose Landa refers to as a "visual narrative instance". And unlike narratives found in other performance arts such as plays and musicals, film narratives are not bound to a specific place and time, and are not limited by scene transitions in plays, which are restricted by set design and allotted time.
In mythology
The nature or existence of a formative narrative in many of the world's myths, folktales, and legends has been a topic of debate for many modern scholars; but the most common consensus among academics is that throughout most cultures, traditional mythologies and folklore tales are constructed and retold with a specific narrative purpose that serves to offer a society an understandable explanation of natural phenomena—oftentimes absent of a verifiable author. These explanatory tales manifest themselves in various forms and serve different societal functions, including life lessons for individuals to learn from (for example, the Ancient Greek tale of Icarus refusing to listen to his elders and flying too close to the sun), explaining forces of nature or other natural phenomena (for example, the flood myth that spans cultures all over the world), and providing an understanding of human nature, as exemplified by the myth of Cupid and Psyche.
Considering how mythologies have historically been transmitted and passed down through oral retellings, there is no qualitative or reliable method to precisely trace exactly where and when a tale originated; and since myths are rooted in a remote past, and are viewed as a factual account of happenings within the culture it originated from, the worldview present in many oral mythologies is from a cosmological perspective—one that is told from a voice that has no physical embodiment, and is passed down and modified from generation to generation. This cosmological worldview in myth is what provides all mythological narratives credence, and since they are easily communicated and modified through oral tradition amongst various cultures, they help solidify the cultural identity of a civilization and contribute to the notion of a collective human consciousness that continues to help shape one's own understanding of the world.
Myth is often used in an overarching sense to describe a multitude of folklore genres, but there is a significance in distinguishing the various forms of folklore in order to properly determine what narratives constitute as mythological, as anthropologist Sir James Frazer suggests. Frazer contends that there are three primary categories of mythology (now more broadly considered categories of folklore): Myths, legends, and folktales, and that by definition, each genre pulls its narrative from a different ontological source, and therefore has different implications within a civilization. Frazer states:
"If these definitions be accepted, we may say that myth has its source in reason, legend in memory, and folk-tale in imagination; and that the three riper products of the human mind which correspond to these its crude creations are science, history, and romance."
Janet Bacon expanded upon Frazer's categorization in her 1921 publication—The Voyage of The Argonauts.
Myth – According to Janet Bacon's 1921 publication, "Myth has an explanatory intention. It explains some natural phenomenon whose causes are not obvious, or some ritual practice whose origin has been forgotten." Bacon views myths as narratives that serve a practical societal function of providing a satisfactory explanation for many of humanity's greatest questions. Those questions address topics such as astronomical events, historical circumstances, environmental phenomena, and a range of human experiences including love, anger, greed, and isolation.
Legend – According to Bacon, "Legend, on the other hand, is true tradition founded on the fortunes of real people or on adventures at real places. Agamemnon, Lycurgus, Coriolanus, King Arthur, Saladin, are real people whose fame and the legends which spread it have become world-wide." Legends are mythical figures whose accomplishments and accolades live beyond their own mortality and transcend to the realm of myth by way of verbal communication through the ages. Like myth, they are rooted in the past, but unlike the sacred ephemeral space in which myths occur, legends are often individuals of human flesh that lived here on earth long ago, and are believed as fact. In American folklore, the tale of Davy Crocket or debatably Paul Bunyan can be considered legends—they were real people who lived in the world, but through the years of regional folktales have assumed a mythological quality.
Folktale – Bacon classifies folktale as such, "Folk-tale, however, calls for no belief, being wholly the product of the imagination. In far distant ages some inventive story-teller was pleased to pass an idle hour with stories told of many-a-feat." Bacon's definition assumes that folktales do not possess the same underlying factualness that myths and legends tend to have. While folktales still hold a considerable cultural value, they are simply not regarded as true within a civilization. Bacon says, like myths, folktales are imagined and created by someone at some point, but differ in that folktales' primary purpose is to entertain; and that like legends, folktales may possess some element of truth in their original conception, but lack any form of credibility found in legends.
Structure
In the absence of a known author or original narrator, myth narratives are oftentimes referred to as prose narratives. Prose narratives tend to be relatively linear regarding the time period they occur in, and are traditionally marked by its natural flow of speech as opposed to the rhythmic structure found in various forms of literature such as poetry and Haikus. The structure of prose narratives allows it to be easily understood by many—as the narrative generally starts at the beginning of the story, and ends when the protagonist has resolved the conflict. These kinds of narratives are generally accepted as true within society, and are told from a place of great reverence and sacredness. Myths are believed to occur in a remote past—one that is before the creation or establishment of the civilization they derive from, and are intended to provide an account for things such as humanity's origins, natural phenomenon, and human nature. Thematically, myths seek to provide information about oneself, and many are viewed as among some of the oldest forms of prose narratives, which grants traditional myths their life-defining characteristics that continue to be communicated today.
Another theory regarding the purpose and function of mythological narratives derives from 20th Century philologist Georges Dumézil and his formative theory of the "trifunctionalism" found in Indo-European mythologies. Dumèzil refers only to the myths found in Indo-European societies, but the primary assertion made by his theory is that Indo-European life was structured around the notion of three distinct and necessary societal functions, and as a result, the various gods and goddesses in Indo-European mythology assumed these functions as well. The three functions were organized by cultural significance, with the first function being the most grand and sacred. For Dumèzil, these functions were so vital, they manifested themselves in every aspect of life and were at the center of everyday life.
These "functions", as Dumèzil puts it, were an array of esoteric knowledge and wisdom that was reflected by the mythology. The first function was sovereignty—and was divided into two additional categories: magical and juridical. As each function in Dumèzil's theory corresponded to a designated social class in the human realm; the first function was the highest, and was reserved for the status of kings and other royalty. In an interview with Alain Benoist, Dumèzil described magical sovereignty as such,"[Magical Sovereignty] consists of the mysterious administration, the 'magic' of the universe, the general ordering of the cosmos. This is a 'disquieting' aspect, terrifying from certain perspectives. The other aspect is more reassuring, more oriented to the human world. It is the 'juridical' part of the sovereign function."This implies that gods of the first function are responsible for the overall structure and order of the universe, and those gods who possess juridical sovereignty are more closely connected to the realm of humans and are responsible for the concept of justice and order. Dumèzil uses the pantheon of Norse gods as examples of these functions in his 1981 essay—he finds that the Norse gods Odin and Tyr reflect the different brands of sovereignty. Odin is the author of the cosmos, and possessor of infinite esoteric knowledge—going so far as to sacrifice his eye for the accumulation of more knowledge. While Tyr—seen as the "just god"—is more concerned with upholding justice, as illustrated by the epic myth of Tyr losing his hand in exchange for the monster Fenrir to cease his terrorization of the gods. Dumèzil's theory suggests that through these myths, concepts of universal wisdom and justice were able to be communicated to the Nordic people in the form of a mythological narrative.
The second function as described by Dumèzil is that of the proverbial hero, or champion. These myths functioned to convey the themes of heroism, strength, and bravery and were most often represented in both the human world and the mythological world by valiant warriors. While the gods of the second function were still revered in society, they did not possess the same infinite knowledge found in the first category. A Norse god that would fall under the second function would be Thor—god of thunder. Thor possessed great strength, and was often first into battle, as ordered by his father Odin. This second function reflects Indo-European cultures' high regard for the warrior class, and explains the belief in an afterlife that rewards a valiant death on the battlefield; for the Norse mythology, this is represented by Valhalla.
Lastly, Dumèzil's third function is composed of gods that reflect the nature and values of the most common people in Indo-European life. These gods often presided over the realms of healing, prosperity, fertility, wealth, luxury, and youth—any kind of function that was easily related to by the common peasant farmer in a society. Just as a farmer would live and sustain themselves off their land, the gods of the third function were responsible for the prosperity of their crops, and were also in charge of other forms of everyday life that would never be observed by the status of kings and warriors, such as mischievousness and promiscuity. An example found in Norse mythology could be seen through the god Freyr—a god who was closely connected to acts of debauchery and overindulging.
Dumèzil viewed his theory of trifunctionalism as distinct from other mythological theories because of the way the narratives of Indo-European mythology permeated into every aspect of life within these societies, to the point that the societal view of death shifted away from a primal perception that tells one to fear death, and instead death became seen as the penultimate act of heroism—by solidifying a person's position in the hall of the gods when they pass from this realm to the next. Additionally, Dumèzil proposed that his theory stood at the foundation of the modern understanding of the Christian Trinity, citing that the three key deities of Odin, Thor, and Freyr were often depicted together in a trio—seen by many as an overarching representation of what would be known today as "divinity".
In cultural storytelling
A narrative can take on the shape of a story, which gives listeners an entertaining and collaborative avenue for acquiring knowledge. Many cultures use storytelling as a way to record histories, myths, and values. These stories can be seen as living entities of narrative among cultural communities, as they carry the shared experience and history of the culture within them. Stories are often used within indigenous cultures in order to share knowledge to the younger generation. Due to indigenous narratives leaving room for open-ended interpretation, native stories often engage children in the storytelling process so that they can make their own meaning and explanations within the story. This promotes holistic thinking among native children, which works towards merging an individual and world identity. Such an identity upholds native epistemology and gives children a sense of belonging as their cultural identity develops through the sharing and passing on of stories.
For example, a number of indigenous stories are used to illustrate a value or lesson. In the Western Apache tribe, stories can be used to warn of the misfortune that befalls people when they do not follow acceptable behavior. One story speaks to the offense of a mother's meddling in her married son's life. In the story, the Western Apache tribe is under attack from a neighboring tribe, the Pimas. The Apache mother hears a scream. Thinking it is her son's wife screaming, she tries to intervene by yelling at him. This alerts the Pima tribe to her location, and she is promptly killed due to intervening in her son's life.
Indigenous American cultures use storytelling to teach children the values and lessons of life.
Although storytelling provides entertainment, its primary purpose is to educate. Alaskan Indigenous Natives state that narratives teach children where they fit in, what their society expects of them, how to create a peaceful living environment, and to be responsible, worthy members of their communities. In the Mexican culture, many adult figures tell their children stories in order to teach children values such as individuality, obedience, honesty, trust, and compassion. For example, one of the versions of La Llorona is used to teach children to make safe decisions at night and to maintain the morals of the community.
Narratives are considered by the Canadian Métis community, to help children understand that the world around them is interconnected to their lives and communities. For example, the Métis community share the "Humorous Horse Story" to children, which portrays that horses stumble throughout life just like humans do. Navajo stories also use dead animals as metaphors by showing that all things have purpose. Lastly, elders from Alaskan Native communities claim that the use of animals as metaphors allow children to form their own perspectives while at the same time self-reflecting on their own lives.
American Indian elders also state that storytelling invites the listeners, especially children, to draw their own conclusions and perspectives while self-reflecting upon their lives. Furthermore, they insist that narratives help children grasp and obtain a wide range of perspectives that help them interpret their lives in the context of the story. American Indian community members emphasize to children that the method of obtaining knowledge can be found in stories passed down through each generation. Moreover, community members also let the children interpret and build a different perspective of each story.
In the military field
An emerging field of information warfare is the "battle of the narratives". The battle of the narratives is a full-blown battle in the cognitive dimension of the information environment, just as traditional warfare is fought in the physical domains (air, land, sea, space, and cyberspace). One of the foundational struggles in warfare in the physical domains is to shape the environment such that the contest of arms will be fought on terms that are to one's advantage. Likewise, a key component of the battle of the narratives is to succeed in establishing the reasons for and potential outcomes of the conflict, on terms favorable to one's efforts.
Historiography
In historiography, according to Lawrence Stone, narrative has traditionally been the main rhetorical device used by historians. In 1979, at a time when the new social history was demanding a social-science model of analysis, Stone detected a move back toward the narrative. Stone defined narrative as organized chronologically; focused on a single coherent story; descriptive rather than analytical; concerned with people not abstract circumstances; and dealing with the particular and specific rather than the collective and statistical. He reported that, "More and more of the 'new historians' are now trying to discover what was going on inside people's heads in the past, and what it was like to live in the past, questions which inevitably lead back to the use of narrative."
Some philosophers identify narratives with a type of explanation. Mark Bevir argues, for example, that narratives explain actions by appealing to the beliefs and desires of actors and by locating webs of beliefs in the context of historical traditions. Narrative is an alternative form of explanation to that associated with natural science.
Historians committed to a social science approach, however, have criticized the narrowness of narrative and its preference for anecdote over analysis, and clever examples rather than statistical regularities.
Storytelling rights
Storytelling rights may be broadly defined as the ethics of sharing narratives (including—but not limited to—firsthand, secondhand and imagined stories). In Storytelling Rights: The uses of oral and written texts by urban adolescents, author Amy Shuman offers the following definition of storytelling rights: “the important and precarious relationship between narrative and event and, specifically, between the participants in an event and the reporters who claim the right to talk about what happened."
The ethics of retelling other people's stories may be explored through a number of questions: whose story is being told and how, what is the story's purpose or aim, what does the story promise (for instance: empathy, redemption, authenticity, clarification)--and at whose benefit? Storytelling rights also implicates questions of consent, empathy, and accurate representation. While storytelling—and retelling—can function as a powerful tool for agency and advocacy, it can also lead to misunderstanding and exploitation.
Storytelling rights is notably important in the genre of personal experience narrative. Academic disciplines such as performance, folklore, literature, anthropology, Cultural Studies and other social sciences may involve the study of storytelling rights, often hinging on ethics.
Other specific applications
Narrative environment is a contested term that has been used for techniques of architectural or exhibition design in which 'stories are told in space' and also for the virtual environments in which computer games are played and which are invented by the computer game authors.
Narrative film usually uses images and sounds on film (or, more recently, on analogue or digital video media) to convey a story. Narrative film is usually thought of in terms of fiction but it may also assemble stories from filmed reality, as in some documentary film, but narrative film may also use animation.
Narrative history is a genre of factual historical writing that uses chronology as its framework (as opposed to a thematic treatment of a historical subject).
Narrative poetry is poetry that tells a story.
Metanarrative, sometimes also known as master- or grand narrative, is a higher-level cultural narrative schema which orders and explains knowledge and experience you've had in life. Similar to metanarrative are masterplots or “recurrent skeletal stories, belonging to cultures and individuals that play a powerful role in questions of identity, values, and the understanding of life.”
Narrative photography is photography used to tell stories or in conjunction with stories.
See also
Monogatari
Narrative designer
Narrative thread
Narreme as the basic unit of narrative structure
Organizational storytelling
Notes
References
Further reading
Abbott, H. Porter (2009) The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bal, Mieke. (1985). Narratology. Introduction to the Theory of Narrative. Toronto: Toronto University Press.
Clandinin, D. J. & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. Jossey-Bass.
Genette, Gérard. (1980 [1972]). Narrative Discourse. An Essay in Method. (Translated by Jane E. Lewin). Oxford: Blackwell.
Goosseff, Kyrill A. (2014). Only narratives can reflect the experience of objectivity: effective persuasion Journal of Organizational Change Management, Vol. 27 Iss: 5, pp. 703 – 709
Gubrium, Jaber F. & James A. Holstein. (2009). Analyzing Narrative Reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Holstein, James A. & Jaber F. Gubrium. (2000). The Self We Live By: Narrative Identity in a Postmodern World. New York: Oxford University Press.
Holstein, James A. & Jaber F. Gubrium, eds. (2012). Varieties of Narrative Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hunter, Kathryn Montgomery (1991). Doctors' Stories: The Narrative Structure of Medical Knowledge. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Jakobson, Roman. (1921). "On Realism in Art" in Readings in Russian Poetics: Formalist and Structuralist. (Edited by Ladislav Matejka & Krystyna Pomorska). The MIT Press.
Labov, William. (1972). Chapter 9: The Transformation of Experience in Narrative Syntax. In: "Language in the Inner City." Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. (1958 [1963]). Anthropologie Structurale/Structural Anthropology. (Translated by Claire Jacobson & Brooke Grundfest Schoepf). New York: Basic Books.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. (1962 [1966]). La Pensée Sauvage/The Savage Mind (Nature of Human Society). London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Lévi-Strauss, Claude. Mythologiques I-IV (Translated by John Weightman & Doreen Weightman)
Linde, Charlotte (2001). Chapter 26: Narrative in Institutions. In: Deborah Schiffrin, Deborah Tannen & Heidi E. Hamilton (ed.s) "The Handbook of Discourse Analysis." Oxford & Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
Norrick, Neal R. (2000). "Conversational Narrative: Storytelling in Everyday Talk." Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Ranjbar Vahid. (2011) The Narrator, Iran: Baqney
Polanyi, Livia. (1985). "Telling the American Story: A Structural and Cultural Analysis of Conversational Storytelling." Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishers Corporation.
Salmon, Christian. (2010). "Storytelling, bewitching the modern mind." London, Verso.
Shklovsky, Viktor. (1925 [1990]). Theory of Prose. (Translated by Benjamin Sher). Normal, IL: Dalkey Archive Press.
Todorov, Tzvetan. (1969). Grammaire du Décameron''. The Hague: Mouton.
Toolan, Michael (2001). "Narrative: a Critical Linguistic Introduction"
Turner, Mark (1996). "The Literary Mind"
Ranjbar Vahid. The Narrator, Iran: Baqney 2011 (summary in english)
White, Hayden (2010). The Fiction of Narrative: Essays on History, Literature, and Theory, 1957–2007. Ed. Robert Doran. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
External links
International Society for the Study of Narrative
Manfred Jahn. Narratology: A Guide to the Theory of Narrative
Narrative and Referential Activity
Some Ideas about Narrative – notes on narrative from an academic perspective
Fiction
Style (fiction)
Fiction-writing mode
Semiotics
Composition (language) | [
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255992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Brossolette | Pierre Brossolette | Pierre Brossolette (25 June 1903 – 22 March 1944) was a French journalist, left-wing politician and major hero of the French Resistance in World War II. He ran an intelligence hub of Parisian resistance at the Rue de la Pompe, before serving as a liaison officer in London, where he also was a radio anchor for the BBC. Arrested in Brittany as he was trying to reach the UK on a mission back from France alongside Émile Bollaert, Brossolette was taken into custody by the Sicherheitsdienst. He tried to commit suicide by jumping out of a window at their headquarters on 84 Avenue Foch in Paris as he feared he would reveal the lengths of French Resistance networks under torture. He died of his wounds at Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital later that day. In 2015, his ashes were transferred to the Panthéon with national honours at the request of President François Hollande, alongside politician Jean Zay and fellow Resistance members Germaine Tillion and Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz.
Biography
Education and journalism
Pierre Brossolette was born in the 16th arrondissement of Paris to a family deeply involved in the fights for laic schools in early 20th century France. His father was Léon Brossolette, General Inspector for Primary Education; he was the nephew of Francisque Vial, Director of Secondary Education, responsible for making secondary education free in France.
Brossolette ranked first at the entrance examination to the prestigious École Normale Supérieure; throughout his education held the title of "cacique" which was internally attributed to the most brilliant student, ahead of intellectuals such as philosopher Vladimir Jankélévitch and two years before Jean-Paul Sartre and Raymond Aron. In 1925 he graduated second to Georges Bidault after a small scandal on the dissertation themes for the final examination. His passion for history had led him to choose this "agrégation" instead of the more usual and prestigious philosophy one. During this time and whilst he was in his military service, he married Gilberte Bruel and had two children, Anne and Claude.
Instead of pursuing an academic career like most normaliens, he longed for action and decided to enter journalism and politics. He joined the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (SFIO), the main socialist party, in 1929, adhered to the LDH and LICA league and entered freemasonry. He worked as a journalist for Notre Temps, L'Europe Nouvelle, the party newspaper Le Populaire and the state-owned Radio PTT but was fired when he violently opposed the Munich Agreement on air in 1939. In his newspaper columns, Brossolette had evolved from a resolute pacifist and europeanist, after Aristide Briand's ideals, to a denunciator of both fascism and communism.
Resistance activities
When World War II broke out, he joined the army as a lieutenant of the 5th régiment d'infanterie; before the fall of France, he reached the rank of captain receiving two citations for the French War Cross for having retreated his battalion in an orderly way. After the Armistice, when the Vichy regime forbade him to teach, Brossolette and his wife took over a bookstore specialised in Russian literature at the Rue de la Pompe near Lycée Janson-de-Sailly, where he had attended high school. The bookstore became an intelligence hub of Parisian resistance where documents, such as Renault factory plans used for its bombing, were exchanged unnoticed, thanks to the extensive library available underground.
He was a popular voice on the radio before the war and his chronicles on Hitler's rise led to being blacklisted early in the 1930s by the Nazis. It did not take long before he was approached by his friend Agnès Humbert and introduced to Jean Cassou and the Groupe du musée de l'Homme, the very first resistance network. He just had time to produce the last issue of the newsletter Résistance before narrowly escaping its dismantlement.
By then assuming a pivotal role in the ZO (Zone Occupée) Resistance, Brossolette coordinated contacts between groups such as Libération-Nord from Christian Pineau, the Organisation Civile et Militaire (OCM) and Comité d'Action Socialiste (CAS). He finally obtained a liaison with London and General Charles de Gaulle when he was hired by conservative Gilbert Renault also known as Colonel Rémy as press and propaganda manager of Confrérie Notre-Dame (CND), by then the most important network in Northern France.
In April 1942, Brossolette met De Gaulle in London as representative of the ZO Resistance and was hired to work on bringing political credibility to De Gaulle to back his recognition as the only Free French Forces leader by the Allies in his feud against Henri Giraud in Algiers. At the same time, he was promoted to major (commandant) and awarded Compagnon de la Libération.
Brossolette created the civilian arm of the BCRAM intelligence service, which became the Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action (BCRA), in liaison with the RF section of the British side, Special Operations Executive (SOE). Strong ties of camaraderie were forged between Brossolette (codenamed Brumaire, also known as Commandant Bourgat), BCRA's chief André Dewavrin (codenamed Arquebuse, also known as Colonel Passy) and SOE's Forest Frederick Edward Yeo-Thomas (codenamed Shelley, also known as The White Rabbit). De Gaulle set up his Free French intelligence system to combine both military and political roles, including covert operations. The policy was reversed in 1943 by Emmanuel d'Astier de La Vigerie (1900–1969), the Interior Minister, who insisted on civilian control of political intelligence.
The three friends were sent on a mission to France and united, under the CCZN (Comité de Coordination de Zone Nord), the various ZO Resistance groups which had been thoroughly divided by political views, including the communist-led Front National (mission Arquebuse-Brumaire); they were thus instrumental in the merging with the ZL (Zone Libre) Resistance similarly united by Jean Moulin under the MUR. This led to the creation of the Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR) by Moulin through the addition of the political parties and unions and ultimately to De Gaulle's unequivocal recognition as Free France's political representative to the Allies.
During this time, Pierre Brossolette resumed his radio chronicles on BBC with high-profile speeches to the "army of shadows", replacing Maurice Schumann as anchor (38 times). In a speech at the Albert Hall on 18 June 1943, he famously praised the soutiers de la gloire (or "stokers of glory") in a reference to the fallen anonymous soldiers and resistants. Brossolette also resumed his newspaper work through a series of articles on France's situation, including one in La Marseillaise considered by many to be the doctrinal founding of the Gaullisme de guerre movement.
Politics
In addition to journalism, Pierre Brossolette was also a politician. He was a protégé of Léon Blum and was considered an up-and-coming star of the SFIO party, running elections on his Troyes (Champagne) base. He assumed cabinet functions during the Popular Front government and as a political pundit on official Radio PTT he was considered the de facto foreign policy spokesman of the socialist government. Already calling for deep rejuvenation of the political class before the war, he attributed French defeat in 1940 to the corrupt political system of the Third Republic.
As he politically structured the Parisian resistance, Brossolette succeeded in convincing the network leaders to create a temporary Resistance Party under De Gaulle's leadership after the war, focused on promoting ambitious social transformations while avoiding the predictable enmity and chaos of post-Liberation times. This political and social plan, including nationalisations and price controls, inspired the March 1944 Conseil national de la Résistance programme and was implemented after war.
Brossolette's criticism of the old parliamentarian system, together with the role of communist networks inside the CNR, became the main point of disagreement with his southern counterpart Jean Moulin. His desire to disband all the old parties through a complete reshuffle of ideological lines logically brought him into conflict with the party leaders. As a result, he was excluded from the newly reconstituted SFIO party by Daniel Mayer and Gaston Defferre a few days before being arrested, although the decision to remove him from the party was never enforced and was actually forgotten.
Despite this, most of his ideas were implemented in 1958 when De Gaulle established the Fifth Republic and established a presidentialist system based around his Rally of the French People (RPF) party. However, De Gaulle was pushed in the short term to decide in favour of Jean Moulin's proposal as he still struggled to show the Allies (Americans in particular) that he was not a dictator. Brossolette's ideas of a Resistance party raised many opponents' fears of a "bonapartian" drift, especially among fellow socialists in London including Pierre Cot and Raymond Aron. This seemed to be confirmed to his detractors' eyes when Brossolette succeeded a bold blow against the Vichy regime by exfiltrating from France Charles Vallin, deputy leader of conservative French Social Party (PSF) that had surged as the main French party with over 30% at pre-war elections, but deemed proto-fascist by the left. Hence the French Fourth Republic eventually reverted to the Third Republic's pre-war parliamentarist system.
During his last missions, Brossolette worked on creating a new party that could be the major force of the left. He was inspired by the British Labour Party, utilising a non-Marxist or, at least, reformist approach (thus effectively challenging the French Socialist Party). For that, he spent his last days writing an ambitious critique of Marx's political philosophy as a by-product of 18th-century rationalism that would provide the theoretical framework for this party. Unfortunately, at the time of his arrest the manuscripts were thrown overboard at sea over Brittany shores.
Arrest
Brossolette returned to Paris for a third mission to reorganise the Parisian resistance which was in disarray after successive Gestapo raids, especially by CND's dismantling.
By then, his role and importance was already well known to the SS Intelligence Services after Moulin's death and despite De Gaulle's clear reluctance to appoint him as substitute CNR chief. He escaped arrest many times and was summoned to return to Britain by late 1943 to introduce the newly appointed CNR chief, Émile Bollaert, to De Gaulle. The bad winter weather cancelled many Lysander exfiltration attempts (conducted only under moonlight) or Lysanders would be shot down as in a December attempt near Laon, so in February 1944, they decided to return by boat from Brittany. However, the vessel, hit by a storm, shipwrecked at Pointe du Raz. They managed to reach the coast and to be hidden by local Resistance, but were betrayed by a local woman at a checkpoint.
Bollaert and Brossolette were not identified and were kept imprisoned in Rennes for weeks. F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas, when informed of Brossolette's capture, decided to be immediately parachuted onto the continent and organise his escape. Nevertheless, they were recognised before the planned action and taken to the Intelligence Services (Sicherheitsdienst) headquarters on Avenue Foch by senior SD officer Ernst Misselwitz in person on 19 March. It was recently confirmed that he was identified by a semi-coded report to London from CNR's Claude Bouchinet-Serreules and Jacques Bingen written by the services of Daniel Cordier intercepted at the Pyrenees, tragically self-fulfilling the severe criticism of Brossolette and Yeo-Thomas about the lack of prudence inside the Parisian Délégation générale. Yeo-Thomas himself would be captured as he prepared a bold escape from Rennes Prison wearing German uniforms with the help of Brigitte Friang. Both Yeo-Thomas and Friang were captured before planned action as many Parisian networks were dismantled following the so-called "Rue de la Pompe affair" (after the location of the Delegation générale) and Pierre Manuel's avows.
Torture and death
Brossolette was tortured at 84 Avenue Foch in Paris, enduring severe beatings and waterboardings over a two-and-a-half-day period. On 22 March, whilst he was left alone and recovered some consciousness, he threw himself through the window of the garret room of the building's sixth floor. Since he had not swallowed his cyanide capsule when captured in Rennes, he was afraid of implicating others and probably chose to silence himself. There was a widespread belief among resistants that it was difficult, if not impossible, not to speak under torture.
He died later in the evening at Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital. On 24 March, he was cremated at Père Lachaise Cemetery. His ashes were kept at Père Lachaise Cemetery's columbarium, urn 3913 according to official cemetery records. Brossolette's reportedly last words were enigmatic: "all will be fine Tuesday".
Posterity
From after the war until the late 1950s, Brossolette was considered the main leader of the French Resistance, though many were claimed heroes by their political family (such as Honoré d'Estienne d'Orves by royalists and Gabriel Péri by communists). Brossolette's fame was helped by his media notoriety before the war on Radio-PTT and on wartime BBC emissions, his networking role that made his name or codename known and remembered over almost every Resistance member in northern France and by flattering early accounts of BCRA's chief Passy in his memoirs although he had also created, through his independent position and sarcastic wit, many enemies among party leaders, Gaullists, communists and even socialists that survived him.
De Gaulle himself thought otherwise and as he started writing his memoirs on 1954 and later assumed power, he attributed the main leading role to his by-then relatively unknown representative Jean Moulin rather than field leaders as De Gaulle emphasized the top-down unification work that objectively allowed him to be recognized by the Allies. This was formalized in 1964 by the transfer of Moulin's ashes to the Panthéon, and backed by an emotional speech by André Malraux.
With time, Brossolette was relegated to a second place and became the hero of his party SFIO while Moulin came to symbolize the myth of the French Resistance unity while the country struggled with the Algerian war and as De Gaulle tried to avoid civil war calling for union while noticing the growing popular clout of the Resistance legend on the postwar imagination.
Later, Brossolette's memory suffered another blow when the 1981-elected socialist president François Mitterrand chose to honour Moulin at a Panthéon investiture ceremony instead of rehabilitating Brossolette's role. This further enhanced his relegation - even inside the socialist political family, as evidenced by the modest celebrations of his birth centenary in 2003 and the SFIO/PS centenary. At the time, a senior party official Harlem Désir (currently secretary-general of the PS) anecdotally told that the most important figure of the party's century was Jean Moulin - who actually never was a party member and deemed instead close to the Radical Party.
Since then, he has been fairly better remembered than heroes such as Bingen, Jean Cavaillès or Berty Albrecht or important leaders such as Henri Frenay, but overall eclipsed by Moulin's popularity.
More recently in 2013, a support committee presided by historian Mona Ozouf was set up in order to bid for the transfer of Pierre Brossolette's ashes to the Panthéon, backed by an internet petition at the committee's site. On 21 February 2014, France's President François Hollande announced the transfer of Pierre Brossolette's ashes to the Panthéon with 3 other resistants Geneviève de Gaulle-Anthonioz and Germaine Tillion, as well as a former pre-war Minister Jean Zay. Brossolette's ashes were kept at the columbarium of Père Lachaise Cemetery (urns 3902 or 3913) until his entrance to the Panthéon, which was celebrated on 27 May 2015.
Homages
In France today, Brossolette's name is better known than the man himself or his life achievements, thanks to the great number of streets - nearly 500 out of which 127 in Greater Paris, schools and public facilities bearing it (see below). His widow Gilberte was prominent in relaying his political ideas. In the 1950s, she was the first woman to enter – and, as vice-president, occasionally preside over – the French Senate.
In Paris, a small street in the Quartier Latin between Rue Érasme and Rue Calvin, near École Normale Supérieure, was christened Rue Pierre-Brossolette in 1944 as among the very few celebrating a 20th-century person, together with Pierre and Marie Curie. A notable exception is Lyon, probably illustrating the rivalries between the two Zones as conversely no street in Paris had been christened after Jean Moulin until 1965.
Buildings in Paris such as the former bookstore and nearby Lycée Janson de Sailly's court at Rue de la Pompe, the residence at Rue de Grenelle, his birthplace at rue Michel-Ange, the Maison de Radio France and the Ministry of the Interior's court at Rue des Saussaies all feature commemorative plaques and his name is mentioned on a floor plaque at the Panthéon.
In Narbonne plage, a unique aeolian memorial attests to his popularity in the early postwar years and marks the place of his exfiltration by felucca Seadog. In Saint-Saëns, a stele commemorates the first Lysander exfiltration to London and nearby Plogoff another marks the failed Brittany exfiltration attempt.
Brossolette was also featured in the first series of Heroes of the Resistance by French PTT in 1957. The Saint-Cyr Military Academy ROTC Class of 2004 was christened after Brossolette, and a class song was created for the occasion. The masonic Grande Loge de France named its cultural circle after Condorcet-Brossolette.
Military honours
First Croix de Guerre 1939-1945 with bronze star (1940).
Compagnon de la Libération, by decree of October 17, 1942, and named member of Ordre de la Libération Council.
Croix de guerre 1939-1945 with silver-gilt palm (1943)
Médaille de la Résistance with rosette.
Knight of Légion d'honneur.
Operations and missions
27 April 1942, Saint-Saëns (near Rouen), first exfiltration
3 June 1942, Chalon-sur-Saône, blind dropping (single)
Operation Leda, 5 September 1942, Narbonne, second exfiltration, felucca Seadog
Operation Atala, 26 January 1943, Le Grand-Malleray (near Bourges), dropping (single)
Mission Arquebuse-Brumaire, Jan–April 1943
Operation Liberté/Juliette, 15 April 1943, third exfiltration, Lysander (with André Dewavrin and F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas)
Trip to Algiers, 13 August – 3 September 1943
Operation Bomb, 18 September 1943, Angoulême, Lysander (with F. F. E. Yeo-Thomas)
Mission Marie-Claire, Sept–Feb 1944
Operation Sten, 10 December 1944, near Laon, cancelled (Lysander shot down)
See also
List of places named after Pierre Brossolette
Notes
References
René Ozouf, Pierre Brossolette, héros de la résistance, librairie Gedalge, 1946.
Colonel Passy, Souvenirs - Tome 1 : 2e bureau, Londres (1940-1941), Raoul Solar, 1947 - Tome 2 : 10, Duke Street, Londres (le B.C.R.A), Raoul Solar, 1951 - Tome 3 : Missions secrètes en France (novembre 1942-juin 1943), Plon, 1951; republished Mémoires du chef des services secrets de la France libre, Odile Jacob, 2000
Bruce Marshall, The White Rabbit, Evans Bros., 1952 ; Greenwood Press, 1987; Cassel Military Paperbacks, 2000.
Agnès Humbert, Notre guerre: souvenirs de résistance, éd. Émile Paul, 1946; republished éd. Tallandier, 2004; Memoirs of Occupied France (tr. Barbara Mellor), London, Bloomsbury Publishing PLC, 2008
Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de guerre, éd. Plon, Paris, 1954 ; republished éd.Pocket, 1999, 2007
Gilberte Brossolette, Il s'appelait Pierre Brossolette, éd. Albin Michel, 1976
Guy Perrier, Pierre Brossolette, le visionnaire de la Résistance, éd. Hachette littératures, 1997
Mark Seaman, Bravest of the Brave, Isis LP Books, 1997
Guillaume Piketty, Pierre Brossolette, un héros de la Résistance, éd. Odile Jacob, 1998
Pierre Brossolette, Résistance (1927-1943), éd. Odile Jacob, 1998 (assembled by Guillaume Piketty)
Guillaume Piketty, Daniel Cordier, Alain Finkielkraut, Pierre Brossolette ou le destin d'un héros, éd. du Tricorne, 2000
Julian Jackson - France - The dark years, 1940-1944, Oxford University Press, 2001
Guillaume Piketty, Pierre Brossolette, le rude parcours d'une mémoire, Les Chemins de la Mémoire, n° 128, mai 2003
Laurent Douzou, La résistance française, une histoire périlleuse. éd. du Seuil, 2005
Éric Roussel, Pierre Brossolette, éd. Fayard, 2011
Sébastien Albertelli, Les Services secrets du général de Gaulle, le BCRA 1940-1944, Perrin, 2009
External links
Pierre Brossolette's biography on the Ordre de la Libération site
Pierre Brossolette site with his speeches and articles
1903 births
1944 deaths
Journalists from Paris
French Section of the Workers' International politicians
Human Rights League (France) members
French Army personnel of World War II
École Normale Supérieure alumni
French Resistance members
French torture victims
Companions of the Liberation
Recipients of the Croix de Guerre 1939–1945 (France)
Chevaliers of the Légion d'honneur
Recipients of the Resistance Medal
French Freemasons
Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany
Burials at the Panthéon, Paris
French Army officers
Politicians from Paris
Military personnel from Paris
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255995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold%20Trepper | Leopold Trepper | Leopold Zakharovitch Trepper (23 February 1904 – 10 January 1982) was a Polish Communist and career Soviet agent of the Red Army Intelligence. With the code name Otto, Trepper had worked with the Red Army since 1930. He was also a resistance fighter and journalist.
Trepper and Richard Sorge, a Soviet military intelligence officer, were the two main Soviet agents in Europe and were employed as roving agents to set up espionage networks throughout Europe and in Japan. While Sorge was a penetration agent, Trepper ran a series of clandestine cells for organising agents in Europe. Trepper used the latest technology at the time—small wireless radios—to communicate with Soviet intelligence. Although the Funkabwehr's monitoring of the radios transmission eventually led to the destruction of Treppers organisation, this sophisticated use of the technology-enabled the espionage organisation to behave as a network with the ability to achieve tactical surprise and deliver high-quality intelligence, such as the warning of Operation Barbarossa.
In 1936, Trepper became the technical director of a Soviet Red Army Intelligence unit in western Europe. He was responsible for recruiting agents and creating espionage networks. Trepper was an experienced intelligence officer, and an extremely resourceful and capable man completely at home in the west. He was a man who could not be drawn in conversation, who lived a reclusive life, and had a talent of judging people that enabled him to easily penetrate significant groups. By the start of World War II, Trepper controlled a large espionage network in Belgium, that had links with Dutch, German and Swiss agents and operated seven separate espionage networks in France. His operation was known as the Red Orchestra to the Abwehr.
Life
On 23 February 1904, Leopold Trepper was born to a large Jewish family of 10 children in Nowy Targ, Poland, which was part of Austria-Hungary at the time. Trepper's father was a travelling farm machinery and seed merchant who died when Trepper was almost twelve. His parents sent him to school in Lviv, Ukraine, to escape the strong militant and anti-Semitic tradition in Poland. Trepper met Luba Trepper in Lviv, who worked in a chocolate factory and took evening classes to train as a teacher. She was Trepper's wife and also a Jewish communist who travelled under the alias's Sarah Orschitzer or Luba Brekson. After school, Trepper moved to Kraków to study history and literature at the Jagiellonian University. His lack of money led him to left-wing student groups. After the October Revolution, he joined the Bolsheviks and became a communist.
After the war with the Soviet Union, Poland suffered an economic crisis and Trepper had to leave university due to a lack of funds. He found work first as a workshop locksmith, mason, and later worked in the mines in Katowice. Due to extreme poverty and lack of food, he agitated the workers to strike. As one of the ringleaders, he was caught and imprisoned for eight months.
Trepper applied for a visa to France when he found it impossible to obtain work after the uprising, but was refused. In 1916, his father died leaving the family in financial straits. In the same year, Trepper joined the Zionist, socialist movement Hashomer Hatzair. In April 1924 its members helped him to emigrate to Haifa, Palestine, via Brindisi to work on the roads. Later in a kibbutz, Orschitzer followed Trepper to Palestine. She was involved in an illegal communist demonstration, and was arrested and jailed; she would have been deported had she not married a Palestinian citizen.
After moving to Tel Aviv in 1929, Trepper became a member of the central committee of the Palestine Communist Party. Between 1928 and 1930, Trepper was the organiser of the Eḥud or Unity faction, a Jewish-Arab communist labour organisation within the Histadrut trade union body; most of its members came from the Kerem HaTeimanim area and worked against the British forces in Palestine. In 1929, he attended a meeting of the International Red Aid, where he was identified as an agitator and militant communist by the British, who subsequently arrested and interned him for 15 days at the citadel's prison in Acre, Israel. Trepper organised a hunger strike after learning that the communist prisoners were to be deported. He was released after news of the hunger strike reached London and the British newspapers, and he and the hunger strikers were placed on stretchers outside the prison, as they were too weak to walk due to lack of food.
In March 1930, after he was given the choice of leaving Palestine or being forcefully deported to Cyprus, Trepper travelled via Syria to Marseille, France, and worked as a dishwasher. He then travelled to Paris where he found work as a decorator living a poor existence. He came into contact with numerous left wing intellectuals and communist workers that eventually led him to become a member of the Rabkor, an illegal political organisation that was dominated by communists who sent both men and intelligence to Moscow. He continued to work for the organisation until French intelligence dismantled it in 1932. Trepper left Paris on a Polish passport and escaped to Berlin by train, where he contacted the Soviet embassy. After several days, he was ordered to report to Moscow in the spring of 1932.
Between 1932 and 1935, Trepper worked to become a GRU agent by learning his trade. After attending KUNMZ University, where he obtained a diploma, he studied history at the Institute of Red Professors and was awarded a degree, allowing him to work as a history teacher in Moscow. Trepper was in constant touch with the Russian intelligence instructors who taught him the practical skills of an espionage agent. At the same time, Orschitzer also attended KUNMZ University for a year. In 1935, Trepper submitted a newspaper column covering art to the newspaper for Russian Jews called Truth. In the winter of the same year his training was completed.
Espionage career
In 1935 or 1936, Trepper was given the post of technical director of Soviet intelligence in Western Europe and was known as the Big Chief. He returned to Paris, France, on a passport under the name Sommer, and spent five months investigating the extensive network and accidentally exposed a double agent: a Dutch Jew who was the former head of the Soviet espionage network in the United States and was turned by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. He returned to the Soviet Union under the name Majeris to inform Soviet intelligence of his findings and went back to Paris five months later. In 1936 Trepper visited Scandinavia for a short-term technical mission, before returning to Paris—which remained his base until the end of 1938—in December. For most of 1937, Trepper was concerned with extensive planning and re-organisation of Soviet intelligence operations in Western Europe; in that year he visited Switzerland, the British Isles, and Scandinavia.
Foreign Excellent Raincoat Company
In the autumn of 1938, Trepper made contact with the Jewish businessman Léon Grossvogel, whom he knew in Palestine. Grossvogel ran a small business called Le Roi du Caoutchouc or The Raincoat King on behalf of its owners. Trepper used provided money to create the export division of The Raincoat King called the Foreign Excellent Raincoat Company, which dealt in raincoat exports and was considered by Trepper to be the ideal cover for the group's espionage network. As the business had to operate with the full knowledge of the state, shares had to be issued. Among the shareholders was former official of the Belgian Foreign Office, Jules Jaspar. Jaspar's brother, Henri Jaspar, was the former prime minister of Belgium, so Jaspar was seen as the ideal person to direct the company and provide it with a veneer of respectability. The company was created in December 1938.
On 6 March 1939, Trepper used the alias Adam Mikler and identified as a wealthy Canadian businessman, traveled from Quebec while being accompanied by Orschitzer, who traveled as Anna Mikler. They moved to Brussels from Paris, making it their new base and settled in their apartment located at 198 Avenue Richard Neybergh, Brussels. After the company was created, Trepper used the circulation of gossip and rumours by his group to spread the word that a wealthy Canadian had funded the business to establish his cover in the Belgian business community. On 25 March 1939, Trepper met the GRU intelligence agent Mikhail Makarov in a café. Makarov, a wireless telegraphy (WT) operator, forger, and expert on secret inks, had been sent from Moscow via Stockholm and Copenhagen to Paris whilst travelling on a Uruguayan passport, under the alias Carlos Alamo. Makarov's original duty was to provide Trepper with forged documentation, but since Grossvogel had introduced Abraham Rajchmann, who became the group's forger, he became a WT operator for the group instead and was posted to Ostend to work at a branch of the Raincoat Company, which was sold to him to strengthen his cover. Makarov immediately started to train other operators in WT procedure. In July 1939 Anatoly Gurevich, posing as the wealthy Vincente Sierra, arrived in Brussels on a Uruguayan passport, and contacted Trepper in Ghent on 17 July. It was arranged that Trepper would teach the operation of the Raincoat Company to Gurevich, who would then move to Denmark to establish a new firm. To make contacts across different social strata, Gurevich familiarised himself with Belgian society and studied the country to learn about its economy. Gurevich took part in ballroom dancing and riding lessons, and as he travelled between luxury hotels, mail bearing the stamps of Uruguay awaited his arrival. In the months leading up to the war, Trepper's plans changed, and Gurevich ended up working as an assistant to Trepper. Gurevich performed the normal bureaucratic operations in an espionage network including being a cipher clerk, deciphering instructions from Soviet intelligence, and preparing reports with information forwarded from a contact in the Soviet Trade Representation of Belgium. In 1939, Trepper met the American classical dancer, Georgie De Winter in Brussels. De Winter became Trepper's mistress and had a child, Patrick De Winter; historians are unsure if the child was Trepper's.
World War II
France
In July 1940, Trepper fled Belgium with Grossvogel and moved to Paris, where Grossvogel and Polish Jew Hillel Katz were Trepper's main assistants. Trepper changed his alias to Jean Gilbert and got in touch with General Ivan Susloparov, who was the Soviet military attaché in the Vichy government. On their first meeting, Trepper informed Susloparov of Adolf Hitler's plan to invade the Soviet Union, which the latter believed to be true. Trepper also arranged to have his wife and child returned to Moscow, and they left in August 1940. However, his main goal was to find and make use of a radio transmitter and a radio operator. Susloparov supplied the names of a couple who were Polish militant communists—Hersch and Miriam Sokol—as possible radio operators—but both the Sokols had to be trained in radio procedures by Grossvogel. At the same time, Trepper recruited civil engineer and Russian aristocrat Basil Maximovitch.
Simexco and Simex
In March 1941, Simexco was established in Paris as a replacement cover company. The firm's profits were channelled to provide funding to the group, via its Department III. The firm made a considerable profit over the year that was used by both Trepper and Gurevich as a personal expense account. Additional funding came from Soviet intelligence, and was received in monthly sums of $8,000 to $10,000 through the Russian military attaché in Paris. When the war started, the funds were sent via Switzerland in dollar amounts that were agreed in advance with Soviet intelligence via radio and delivered to Trepper. The money was used to maintain the operations of the Trepper group and to cover the necessary expenses to carry out special assignments. Trepper spent lavishly on bribes, the upkeep of the Château de Billeron, sundries, and large daily expenses to maintain his cover as a successful businessman.
Robinson network
In September 1941, Trepper met with Comintern agent Henry Robinson, who was one of the most important sources of intelligence in Paris. He ran his own large espionage network, which had revealed to the Soviets that Hitler was inclined to call off Operation Sea Lion, the plan to invade the British Isles. The Comintern organisation had lost prestige with Stalin, who suspected it of deviating from Communist norms. Robinson was also suspected of being an agent of the Deuxième Bureau and was subsequently in ideological conflict with Soviet intelligence. It was unusual for two senior agents to meet, but an exception was made as it was felt by Soviet intelligence that Robinson's extensive contacts could help Trepper build his French network. Trepper learned of a radio transmitter that was being run by the French Communist Party in Paris from Robinson, and was ordered to take charge of Robinson's network.
Around that time, Trepper was introduced to Anna Maximovitch by her brother Basil Maximovitch. Both Anna and Basil became very important to Trepper: Basil had an affair with Margarete Hoffman-Scholz, secretary to Wehrmacht colonel Hans Kuprian, who was on a committee that processed prisoners from the Vichy government for slave labour, and a niece to General Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, military commander of Paris; Anna was a psychiatric neurologist who opened a clinic in Choisy-le-Roi in the late 1940s. It was a moneyed area of Paris which enabled her to pick up gossip and recruit from her patients, some of whom were high ranking French nobility and administrative people including Rohan-Chabot's husband, Alain Louis Auguste Marie de Rohan-Chabot, who was a French officer and resistance fighter. One of those patients was Helene Claire Marie de Liencourt, Countess de Rohan-Chabot, who rented out the empty 18th-century Château Billeron located in Lugny-Champagne to Maximovitch as a meeting place for the group.
Rue des Atrébates
On 30 November 1941, the house at 101 Rue des Atrébates in Brussels, run by Rita Block and Zofia Poznańska and used to transmit intelligence, was discovered by the Funkabwehr. On 12 December 1941, the residence was raided by the Abwehr.
By February 1942, Trepper re-established communication with Soviet intelligence and was able to give a full report on the situation. The Soviets instructed Trepper to contact Soviet Army Captain Konstantin Jeffremov, who had been living in Belgium. In May 1942, a meeting was arranged between the two men in Brussels, where Trepper instructed Jeffremov to take over Gurevich's Belgian and low-countries espionage network. He also instructed him to maintain radio silence for six months, and gave Jeffremov 100,000 Belgian francs for expenses. Radio communications for the espionage group in Brussels was to be operated by GRU agent Johann Wenzel. In January 1942, Trepper ordered Gurevich to travel to Marseilles with Jules Jaspar and Alfred Corbin to establish a new branch office of Simex to enable the recruitment of a new espionage network.
In May 1942, Wenzel began transmitting important traffic to the Soviet Union. On 29–30 June 1942, the house that Wenzel was transmitting from, 12 Rue de Namur in Brussels, was raided by the local police under the command of Abwehr officer Harry Piepe. Wenzel was interrogated and tortured by the Gestapo for six to eight weeks and confessed to everything, including the cypher keys he used and his code name, which allowed the Funkabwehr to decipher a large amount of back traffic belonging to the group. After Wenzel's arrest, Jeffremov tried to hide, but was arrested on 22 July 1942 while trying to obtain false identity papers. One of the names that Wenzel surrendered was Rajchmann, who was placed under surveillance and arrested on 2 September 1942. Almost immediately, Rajchmann agreed to cooperate with the Abwehr. On 12 October 1942, Malvina Gruber, Rajchmann's mistress was arrested by the Abwehr in Brussels, and she immediately decided to cooperate with the Abwehr. She spoke of Gurevich and exposed the Trepper espionage network in France. Jeffremov (sources vary) also exposed the Simexco company name and the Trepper espionage network in France to the Abwehr.
Reorganisation
When the Sokols and Johann Wenzel were arrested, Trepper lost his radio link with Soviet intelligence. Trepper asked Robinson to arrange a radio link to Soviet intelligence, but the latter refused. Trepper turned to Gurevich in Marseille and visited him several times to establish contact with the Soviets, but Gurevich refused to use his transmitter and was effectively lost to the network. Trepper was forced to turn to Pierre and Suzanne Giraud, who were established to have a transmitter either at Saint-Leu-la-Forêt or Le Pecq (sources vary) by Grossvogel and ordered to master the equipment. Suzanne had originally worked as a cutout for Trepper, and the couple were unprepared for the work; they failed and were arrested by the Gestapo.
Arrest
On 19 November 1942, the premises of Simexco were searched by the Abwehr, and all known associates of the company were arrested. However, no espionage material was found and the interrogation of prisoners failed to determine the whereabouts of Monsieur Gilbert, the alias that Trepper was using in his dealings with the firm. After being tortured, the French commercial director of the firm Alfred Corbin informed the Gestapo of the address of Trepper's dentist, where Trepper was arrested on 25 November 1942 by Karl Giering. Trepper was imprisoned on a third floor room at Rue des Sausasaies in Paris. He offered to collaborate with the Abwehr, who subsequently treated Trepper leniently in the expectation that he would serve as a double agent in Paris. He was allowed to take daily walks and go into town to buy necessities, but always accompanied by two Sonderkommando guards. According to Piepe, when Trepper talked, it was not out of fear of torture or death, unlike Wenzel, but out of duty. While he gave up the names and addresses of most of the members of his own network, he sacrificed his associates to protect the various members of the French Communist Party, whom he had an absolute belief in. The first people to be betrayed were his assistants Katz and Grossvogel. In 2002, author Patrick Marnham suggested Trepper not only exposed the Soviet agent Henri Robinson, but may have been the source that betrayed French resistance leader Jean Moulin. When Gurevich was arrested on 9 November 1942 in Marseille, he was moved to Paris and kept in the next room to Trepper. There was a mutual animosity between the two men.
Funkspiel
On 25 December 1942, Trepper was informed that he would be running a Funkspiel operation with Gurevich. On 13 February, Trepper was moved to a house belonging to Karl Bömelburg at 40 boulevard Victor Hugo, Neuilly-sur-Seine. Over the next month, the Gestapo conducted a battle of wits with Trepper and Gurevich in the hope of exposing more members of the espionage network.
Escape
On 13 September 1943, Trepper escaped Gestapo custody under watch while visiting a pharmacy, Pharmacie Baillie, near the railway station at St. Lazare and avoided recapture. He contacted Georgie De Winter, and they both agreed to hide out in Le Vésinet, where he wrote to Heinz Pannwitz to explain his disappearance was not an escape, but merely an attempt to ensure he stayed alive as a move that designed to provide the maximum advantage for Soviet intelligence. On 18 September 1943, the couple moved to a house in Suresnes that belonged to Mrs. Queyrie; De Winter worked as a courier to arrange the move. Trepper wrote to Pannwitz a second time, deploring the fact that in spite of his request, a search was being made for him, and that he was placed in a very uncomfortable position. At the time, Trepper was the subject of an Identification Order in France, German and Belgium as a "wanted dangerous spy".
Trepper contacted Suzanne Spaak and Jean Claude Spaak through De Winter, using the alias Jean Gilbert, in the hope that he could send a message to the Soviet military attaché in London and make contact with the French Communist Party who could also possibly send a message. Jean Claude Spaak was a brother to Belgian prime minister Paul-Henri Spaak. Suzanne had a wide range of contacts and it was through her influence that Trepper hoped to contact Moscow. While they were waiting, De Winter organised another location where they could hide on Rue Du Chabanais, and they moved in on the 24 September. Jean Claude had not heard from Trepper since 1942, when the Sokols had left a large sum of money, their identity, and ration cards with Spaak for safekeeping. Trepper asked Jean Claude to send a message: "I will be at the church every Sunday morning between 10 and 11am. Signed Martik." Trepper hoped to make contact with an agent at a church in Auteuil. Trepper sent De Winter several Sundays in a row, but no contact was made. The couple then moved to a guest-house at Bourg-la-Reine. Trepper, who wanted to restart his clandestine activities, was wary of De Winter being identified by the Gestapo due to her constant visits to the Spaak household. He asked Jean Claude for 100,000 francs, which he gave to De Winter for expenses and sent her to a hideout in a village near Chartres in the hope that she could be smuggled into the non-occupied zone. De Winter was provided with a letter of introduction by Antonia Lyon-Smith, a friend of the Spaaks, to a local doctor in Saint-Pierre-de-Chartreuse. En route, De Winter was arrested on 17 October 1943 by Pannwitz. At the same time, Trepper went to the church in Auteuil and noticed a black Citroën car—the signature car of the Gestapo—and fled. Trepper learned that the Gestapo had visited all his previous addresses and were close to capturing him. He warned Jean Claude, who sent both his wife and children to Belgium, before travelling to Paris, where he hid out with friends until the end of the war. Trepper last saw Jean Claude before the liberation of 23 October 1943.
Postwar period
The Soviets arrested Trepper in 1945 and took him to Russia; since 1938, he had been under suspicion, as he was recruited by General Yan Karlovich Berzin, who had fallen out of favour and was dismissed in 1935. Trepper was personally interrogated by SMERSH Chief Viktor Abakumov, and was interned in Lubyanka, Lefortovo, and Butyrka prison. He vigorously defended his position and managed to avoid execution, but remained in prison until 1955 for unknown reasons. After his release, he submitted a detailed plan to revive both Jewish cultural life and institutions in the Soviet Union, but the plan was rejected in 1956 after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union meeting. Afterwards, he returned to Warsaw to his wife and three sons. Trepper was elected to run the Yidisher Kultur-Gezelshaftlekher Farband and also ran its Jewish publishing house, Yiddish Bukh.
Immigration to Israel
After the Six-Day War in June 1967 and the subsequent antisemitic campaign that developed in Poland in 1968, Trepper planned to emigrate to Israel. However, while the Polish communist government promoted and encouraged the emigration of thousands of Jews at that time, Trepper was continually refused a visa. Permission was refused until international pressure from worldwide publicity that the campaign was receiving, including his sons' protests and hunger strikes, forced the authorities to allow him and a few Jewish people who were in a similar situation to leave. He settled in Jerusalem in 1974.
Death
Trepper died in Jerusalem in 1982 and was buried there. According to a contemporary report from the news agency, Jewish Telegraphic Agency, "no government representatives or officials attended his funeral", though the Israeli Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, later the 11th Prime Minister of Israel, subsequently awarded Trepper the Emblem of Israel in a ceremony "attended by dozens of former members of anti-Nazi partisans and fighting groups".
Bibliography
in English: The Great Game - memoirs of the spy Hitler couldn't silence. Michael Joseph, London 1977.
In 1977 he published his autobiography, The Great Game. A few years before, a book about the Red Orchestra containing interviews with both Soviets and Nazis had appeared, written by Gilles Perrault.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Coppi, Hans (1996), Die "Rote Kapelle" im Spannungsfeld von Widerstand und nachrichtendienstlicher Tätigkeit. Der Trepper-Report vom Juni 1943, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte 3/1996, 431-548
External links
Online biography
1904 births
1982 deaths
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Jewish socialists
Polish emigrants to Mandatory Palestine
Red Orchestra (espionage)
French Resistance members
German resistance members
Jews in the French resistance
Jews in the German resistance
GRU officers
Polish spies for the Soviet Union
World War II spies for the Soviet Union
Hashomer Hatzair members
Communists in the German Resistance | [
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255997 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo%20S%C3%A1nchez%20de%20Lozada | Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada | Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada Sánchez Bustamante (born 1 July 1930), often referred to as Goni, is a Bolivian businessman and politician who served as the 61st president of Bolivia from 1993 to 1997 and from 2002 to 2003. A member of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, he previously served as minister of planning and coordination under Víctor Paz Estenssoro and succeeded him as the MNR's national chief in 1990.
As minister of planning, Sánchez de Lozada employed "shock therapy" in 1985 to cut hyperinflation from an estimated 25,000% to a single digit within a period of less than six weeks. Sánchez de Lozada was twice elected president of Bolivia, both times on the MNR ticket. During his first term (1993–1997), he initiated a series of landmark social, economic and constitutional reforms. Elected to a second term in 2002, he struggled with protests and events in October 2003 related to the Bolivian gas conflict. According to official reports, 59 protestors, ten soldiers and sixteen policemen died in confrontations. As a result of the violent clashes, Sánchez de Lozada resigned and went into exile in the United States. In March 2006, he resigned the leadership of the MNR.
The governments of Evo Morales and Luis Arce have unsuccessfully sought his extradition from the U.S. to stand trial for the events of 2003. Victims' representatives have pursued compensatory damages for extrajudicial killings in a suit against him in the United States under the Alien Tort Statute (ATS). In 2014, the U.S. District Court in Florida ruled the case could proceed under the Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA). The trial, which began on 5 March 2018 and concluded on 30 May 2018, found Sánchez de Lozada and his former defense minister Carlos Sanchez Berzaín not liable for the civilian deaths after the judge declared that there was "insufficient evidence". Nevertheless, on 3 August 2020, the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals vacated this ruling.
Political life
The son of a political exile, university professor, and diplomat, Sánchez de Lozada spent his early years in the United States. He grew up in Iowa, and he attended boarding school at Scattergood Friends School in rural Iowa. He studied literature and philosophy at the University of Chicago. As a result of this experience, he speaks Spanish with a midwestern American accent.
At the age of 21, he returned to Bolivia in 1951, on the eve of the 1952 revolution led by the MNR political party. This transformed Bolivia from a semi-feudal oligarchy to a multi-party democracy by introducing universal suffrage, nationalizing the mines of the three Tin Barons, and carrying out sweeping agrarian reform. Sánchez de Lozada pursued filmmaking and participated in several cinematic projects in the 1950s, including filming Bolivia's 1952 Revolution. In 1954, he founded Telecine. His film Voces de la Tierra (Voices from the Earth) won First Prize for documentaries at the 1957 Edinburgh Film Festival.
In 1957, Sánchez de Lozada turned to resource businesses, founding Andean Geoservices. In 1966, he founded the mining company COMSUR, later becoming one of the most successful mining entrepreneurs in the country.
Bolivia was ruled for nearly two decades by military dictatorships. In 1979 and again in 1980, on the return to democracy, Sánchez de Lozada was elected to congress as deputy for Cochabamba. In 1985, he was elected senator from Cochabamba and then as President of the Senate of Bolivia. Soon after, President Víctor Paz Estenssoro appointed him as Planning Minister. Sánchez de Lozada oversaw a series of economic structural reforms that steered the country away from state capitalism, towards a mixed economy. He is particularly known for having sharply reduced the hyperinflation of the period, using economic shock therapy along with then Finance Minister Juan L. Cariaga Osorio, as championed by United States economist Jeffrey Sachs, then of Harvard University.
Sánchez de Lozada ran for president in 1989 as the MNR candidate. While he won the plurality with 25.6% of the popular vote, in the congressional runoff among the top three candidates, Jaime Paz Zamora of the MIR, who had polled 21.8% of the popular vote and formerly been in third place, won the presidency. Paz Zamora was backed in the runoff by the second-placed, former military dictator Hugo Banzer of the ADN, who had won 25.2% of the popular vote. Sánchez de Lozada describes himself as a fiscal conservative and social progressive.
First presidency (1993–1997)
In 1993, Sánchez de Lozada again ran for president, this time in alliance with the Tupac Katari Revolutionary Liberation Movement (Movimiento Revolucionario Tupac Katari de Liberación, MRTKL), an indigenous party formed in 1985 whose leader Víctor Hugo Cárdenas was the candidate for vice-president. The MNR-MRTKL ticket won the first plurality with 36.5% of the popular vote, and Sánchez de Lozada was confirmed as president by Congress. A coalition government that included the center-left Free Bolivia Movement (MBL) and populist Civic Solidarity Union (UCS) was formed. With the 1993 electoral victory, Cárdenas became the first elected indigenous vice president in South America.
The 1993–1997 MNR-led government initiated a series of constitutional, social, economic and political reforms. The Constitution was rewritten to define Bolivia as a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural nation; the first articles enshrined indigenous rights. Other legislation included the Popular Participation Act, which decentralized the country by creating 311 (since expanded to 321) municipal governments, empowering them for local governance. The law introduced direct municipal elections for the indigenous population, and authorized local decision making on municipal spending, for which 20 percent of federal spending was guaranteed to the municipalities on a per capita basis. Other programs included educational reform, which introduced classroom teaching in the local indigenous languages, universal maternity coverage and milk and medical coverage for children up to the age of five years, and a universal old-age annual benefit. Political reforms included opening elections to independent candidates for congressional seats; and capitalization, a program which enabled the formation of joint ventures by private capital and the Bolivian people (not the Bolivian state), and requiring the private capital be invested directly in the new company.
Capitalization program
The capitalization program aimed to sell public enterprises to private companies in exchange for money. The program was meant to occur in four phases, which would include the privatization of electricity and hydrocarbon. Between 1995-1996, the five largest state enterprises were privatized: the national oil company, phone company, electric company, national airline, and train system. By 1996, the program included the privatization of water. The capitalization program was controversial: it was perceived as a privatization of five major state-owned companies that ceded management of these industries to foreign interests. Supporters believed that the requirement for private capital to be directly invested in the new joint ventures significantly reduced room for corruption. The program was intended to provide for development of these "strategic" resources, as the Bolivian government could not afford to do so. The revenues of the new companies were expected to yield funds for human and social, as well as infrastructure development. The dividend payouts for the Bolivian people were the foundation of a universal, annual old-age benefit, the BONOSOL. Although small on a per capita basis, it was expected to benefit primarily the rural elderly, the most marginalized sector of Bolivia's indigenous population.
Finally, the reforms also included changes to the country's electoral laws. A new electoral system was introduced. The change opened elections for 70 congressional seats to independent candidates who were elected by plurality, with the remaining 60 seats to be filled proportionally by members of parties reflecting the votes cast for the presidential tickets. If no presidential candidate won an absolute majority, the president would be elected in a run-off of the top two contenders. The presidential term of office was set at five years.
Critics of the program have cited loss of national funds, skyrocketing prices for locals, and social unrest associated with such changes. The sale of the national oil company resulted in millions of dollars in lost profits, compared to the price of the sale. The privatization of electricity resulted in price increases for electricity, as well. As written by Jim Shultz for the North American Congress on Latin America, "The great sums promised from these sales of public assets seemed to barely trickle down into the pockets of the poor and flow freely into the coffers of the wealthy Bolivians who cut the deals—with major corruption scandals a regular fixture." Perhaps the most controversial impact was the privatization of water, which began under the government of Sánchez de Lozada and was followed by President Hugo Banzer, resulting in the Cochabamba Water War.
Second presidency (2002–2003)
In 2002, Sánchez de Lozada again ran for president. He chose Carlos Mesa as his running mate, an independent historian and journalist who had MNR sympathies. Sánchez de Lozada hired U.S. political consultants James Carville, Tad Devine , Stan Greenberg and Bob Shrum to advise his campaign.
After running a sophisticated campaign, de Lozada seemed positioned to win a strong enough plurality to form a strong government. However, three days before the elections, the U.S. ambassador publicly warned the Bolivian people against electing "those who want Bolivia to again be an exporter of cocaine," as it would threaten U.S. aid to Bolivia. The people reacted in resentment, swelling the anti-U.S. vote for Evo Morales in the last three days of the campaign by 9 percent and helping him finish second after de Lozada. Evo Morales of the Movement Toward Socialism (MAS) received 20.94% of the popular vote. The center-right neo-populist candidate, Manfred Reyes of NFR placed a close third with 20.91% of the popular vote. After a difficult coalition-building process, Sánchez de Lozada was elected in a coalition formed by the MNR-MBL, MIR and UCS, the last two former members of the preceding coalition headed by the rightist, former dictator General Hugo Banzer.
When Sánchez de Lozada took office, he was faced with an economic and social crisis inherited from the preceding administration. Economic growth had plunged from the 4.8% at the end of Sánchez de Lozada's first presidency to 0.6% in 1999 and had recovered to only 2% for 2002. The fiscal deficit was running at 8%.
Gas War and resignation
From his inauguration in August 2002 until the end of the year, there were fewer public tensions. In January 2003 and under the leadership of Evo Morales, a group of union leaders (Evo Morales for the "cocaleros"—coca growers, Jaime Solares and Roberto de la Cruz for urban workers and miners, Felipe Quispe for the indigenous farmers in the Aymara region surrounding La Paz) joined together to found the "People's High Command" (Estado Mayor del pueblo). A new wave of heightened protests began; main roads were blocked, and towns and cities were brought to a standstill. Some groups aired long-standing grievances against the government; others were targeted entirely locally, protesting against decisions of the now self-governing municipalities. In February, a standoff between police demanding higher pay and army units called to protect the presidential palace suddenly ended in violence and deaths in the streets of La Paz, without articulated demands.
The acute economic crisis affected above all the urban workers and the farming/indigenous populations; their struggles gave widespread support for protests. Protests and demands became more focused: the cocaleros continued protesting against eradication of a millenary plant (coca) used to produce cocaine, although Banzer's "Coca 0" policy had been replaced by the earlier subsidized crop substitution policy, in order to achieve gradual coca reduction but not total eradication. The indigenous farmers of the La Paz Aymara region pressed for political reform, to include recognition and inclusion of Bolivia's indigenous ethnic groups as legitimate political blocs. They wanted economic de-centralization based on recognition of indigenous groups as legitimate political actors. Other demands included autonomy for their territories. By contrast, urban workers, primarily in La Paz, and miners protested against the possible proceeds of increasing natural gas production going to foreigners.
Demands rose for the government to return to the corporatist state and nationalize Bolivia's hydrocarbon resources. Protesters demanded Sánchez de Lozada's resignation. In late September, a convoy of buses and trucks under a police escort was bringing back to La Paz over 700 persons, including foreign tourists, after a 10-day blockade of a valley resort town. In Warisata, confrontations between protesters blocking the road and the army led to six dead, among them two soldiers and a child aged 8, shot in her own house.
A few days later, in early October, The Pacific LNG, British Petroleum and Repsol YPF had forecast an investment of three billion dollars in Chilean territory, the sale price of the gas was less than a dollar per thousand BTU and the approximate profits were one billion dollars of which the Bolivian state only received 18%, totaling 180 million dollars per year.
A few days later, in early October, it was reported that President Sánchez de Lozada had decided to export Bolivia's gas to Mexico and the United States through a Chilean port. Rancor continues to be high against Chile since Bolivia lost its coastal territory to them in the late-19th-century war of the Pacific. Protesters blockaded the main highway from the city of El Alto, Bolivia down to neighboring La Paz. A massive demonstration and virtual siege of La Paz ensued.
After three days, fuel and other essential supplies were dangerously low in La Paz. On 11 October, President Sánchez de Lozada promulgated Supreme Decree 27209, ordering the militarization of the gas plants and the transport of hydrocarbons. This decree was intended to protect private and public property, noting in the third article: "whatever harm to property or persons that might be produced as an effect of fulfilling the objective of this supreme decree shall be compensated and guaranteed by the State". As a result, fully armed military troops were sent as a security force to open the way for diesel and gasoline cisterns to be transported through densely populated poor neighborhoods into La Paz.
Protesters tried to block the convoys at several points along their route. Alteño residents reported that government troops started shooting indiscriminately, killing a five-year-old child and a pregnant mother. Sánchez de Lozada and some government ministers attributed the violence to an armed 'coup', but Evo Morales and some civil groups described it as a 'massacre' by government forces.
Vice-President Mesa publicly broke with Sánchez de Lozada, saying, "Neither as a citizen nor as a man of principles can I accept that, faced with popular pressure, the response should be death." The Minister for Economic Development also resigned. 20,000 Bolivians began to march on La Paz, demanding the President's resignation. Evo Morales' supporters from Cochabamba tried to march into Santa Cruz, the largest city of the eastern lowlands where support still remained for the president. They were turned back. While blaming the violence on 'narco-syndicalist', Sánchez de Lozada proposed a National Dialogue. He promised to put export plans to a national referendum, but demands for his resignation continued to rise. According to official figures, a total of 65 civilian deaths resulted from the Gas War, with around 400 persons wounded.
Faced with rising anger at the deaths, and with coalition partner Manfred Reyes Villa withdrawing political support, Sánchez de Lozada offered his resignation on 17 October in a letter to be read at an emergency session of Congress. He left on a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.
Exile (2003–present)
Trial of responsibility
In 2004, after a concerted campaign by the families of the victims, the government and human rights groups, who gathered over 700,000 signatures on petitions, two-thirds of Bolivia's Congress voted to authorize a "Trial of Responsibility" of the exiled president. It was intended to determine whether Sánchez de Lozada and his cabinet ministers should be held legally responsible for the violence of the Gas War. Supporters included many from the president's party, reflecting a broad consensus for an impartial investigation. to understand the responsibilities for the violence and deaths.
The Attorney-General's office took testimony from twelve ministers, and carried out detailed preliminary investigations. Their work included forensic studies, crime scene investigations, and eyewitness testimony. Evo Morales, one of the key protest leaders, voluntarily offered evidence. In August 2011 the Bolivian Supreme Court sentenced five members of the military and two politicians to between three and fifteen years in prison for their role in the events of September and October 2003.
Attempts at extradition
On 11 November 2008, Bolivia formally served the U.S. government with a request to extradite Sánchez de Lozada to Bolivia. The request was rejected by the U.S. State Department in 2012, based on the argument that Sánchez de Lozada's actions are not a crime in the U.S., and that no dual criminality condition existed. It said that no U.S. President could be charged for crimes done by military and police forces.
Civil trial in the United States
On 10 November 2009, the U.S. District Court in the Southern District of Florida ruled that the claims for charges of crimes against humanity against de Lozada had no case. The court ruled that charges of extrajudicial killings could be pursued in order to allow two related U.S. cases to progress against former president Gonzalo Daniel Sánchez de Lozada de Bustamante and former Bolivian Defense Minister Jose Carlos Sánchez Berzaín.
Eight families of Bolivians killed during the 2003 protests are plaintiffs in the case. They include Etelvina Ramos Mamani and Eloy Ramos Mamani, the parents of eight-year-old Marlene, who was killed by a gunshot through her window during the military action on Warisata on 25 September 2003.
The plaintiffs in the cases, Mamani, et al. v. Sánchez de Lozada, and Mamani, et al. v. Sánchez Berzaín, seek compensatory and punitive damages under the Alien Tort Statute (ATS). On 20 May 2014, Judge James Cohn ordered that Plaintiffs' claims under the Torture Victim Protection Act (TVPA) could proceed because they sufficiently alleged facts that "plausibly suggest that these killings were deliberate," and because they adequately alleged that Defendants were responsible for the killings. The case was stayed on 19 August 2014 pending defendants' appeal of the district court's decision. Appellants-defendants filed their brief to the Eleventh Circuit Court of Appeals on 14 January 2015. Plaintiffs-appellees filed their brief on 6 March 2015. The 11th Circuit Court of Appeals issued their decision on 17 June 2016. On 17 April 2017, the US Supreme Court denied certiorari for the plaintiff's appeal, clearing the way for the case to be tried.
The jury trial for the combined cases against Sánchez de Lozada and Sánchez Berzaín began on 5 March 2018 in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. They were both found liable for the civilian deaths by the jury on 3 April 2018 under the TVPA claim that the deaths were extrajudicial killings. The plaintiffs were awarded $10 million in damages. On 30 May 2018, federal judge overturned the verdict of a jury by determining that a reasonable jury could not find them liable as a matter of law.
Lawyers for the plaintiffs appealed the judge's decision, making oral arguments before the 11th Circuit Court of Appeals in Miami in November 2019. On 3 August 2020, a three judge panel vacated the District Court's move to set aside the verdict, and ordered it to reconsider the matter on a new standard. It also ruled that plaintiffs were entitled to a new trial on the question of wrongful death, a matter the jury had decided in favor of the defendants.
See also
Sánchez de Lozada is a member of Club of Madrid.
Sánchez de Lozada reforms.
Our Brand Is Crisis (2005), a documentary about Sánchez de Lozada's second presidential campaign and influence of American political consultants
President of Bolivia
History of Bolivia
Politics of Bolivia
References
External links
"Biography of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada", Presidency of the Republic of Bolivia official website
Social and Economics Reforms of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada, personal website
Commanding Heights: The Battle for the World Economy, PBS-WGBH
Interview with President Sanchez de Lozada, from Commanding Heights, PBS documentary
October 2003: A complete analysis
"Black October Memorial: A decade of impunity", Democracy Center
"A case for extradition: Gonzalo Sanchez de Lozada and Carlos Sanchez Berzain", Council of Hemispheric Affairs
"Gallery of portraits and biographies of presidents of Bolivia", Presidencia de Bolivia website
1930 births
Living people
20th-century Bolivian politicians
21st-century Bolivian politicians
20th-century Bolivian businesspeople
Bolivian exiles
Bolivian expatriates in the United States
Candidates in the 1989 Bolivian presidential election
Candidates in the 1993 Bolivian presidential election
Candidates in the 2002 Bolivian presidential election
Grand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of Peru
Members of the Inter-American Dialogue
People from La Paz
Presidents of Bolivia
Presidents of the Senate of Bolivia
Revolutionary Nationalist Movement politicians
University of Chicago alumni | [
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255999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stairway%20to%20Heaven | Stairway to Heaven | "Stairway to Heaven" is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, released in late 1971. It was composed by the band's guitarist Jimmy Page and vocalist Robert Plant for their untitled fourth studio album (usually called Led Zeppelin IV). The song is often regarded as one of the greatest and most iconic rock songs of all time.
The song has three sections, each one progressively increasing in tempo and volume. The song begins in a slow tempo with acoustic instruments (guitar and recorders) before introducing electric instruments. The final section is an uptempo hard rock arrangement highlighted by Page's guitar solo (considered by many to be one of the greatest ever) accompanying Plant's vocals that end with the plaintive a cappella line: "And she's buying a stairway to heaven."
"Stairway to Heaven" was voted number three in 2000 by VH1 on its list of the 100 Greatest Rock Songs, and was placed at number 31 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It was the most requested song on FM radio stations in the United States in the 1970s, despite never having been commercially released as a single there. In November 2007, through download sales promoting Led Zeppelin's Mothership release, "Stairway to Heaven" reached number 37 on the UK Singles Chart.
Writing and recording
Led Zeppelin began recording "Stairway to Heaven" in December 1970 at Island Records' new Basing Street Studios in London. The song was completed by the addition of lyrics by Plant during the sessions for Led Zeppelin IV at Headley Grange, Hampshire, in 1971. Page then returned to Island Studios to record his guitar solo.
The song originated in 1970 when Jimmy Page and Robert Plant were spending time at Bron-Yr-Aur, a remote cottage in Wales, following Led Zeppelin's fifth American concert tour. According to Page, he wrote the music "over a long period, the first part coming at Bron-Yr-Aur one night". Page always kept a cassette recorder around, and the idea for "Stairway to Heaven" came together from bits of taped music. The first attempts at lyrics, written by Robert Plant next to an evening log fire at Headley Grange, were partly spontaneously improvised and Page claimed, "a huge percentage of the lyrics were written there and then". Jimmy Page was strumming the chords, and Robert Plant had a pencil and paper.
The complete studio recording was released on Led Zeppelin IV in November 1971. The band's record label, Atlantic Records, wanted to issue it as a single, but the band's manager Peter Grant refused requests to do so in both 1972 and 1973. This led many people to buy the fourth album as if it were the single.
Composition
"Stairway to Heaven" is described as progressive rock, folk rock and hard rock. The song consists of several distinct sections, beginning with a quiet introduction on a finger-picked six-string guitar and four recorders in a Renaissance music style (ending at 2:15) and gradually moving into a slow electric middle section (2:16–5:33), then a long guitar solo (5:34–6:44), before the faster hard rock final section (6:45–7:45), ending with a short vocals-only epilogue. Plant sings the opening, middle and epilogue sections in his mid vocal range, but sings the hard rock section in his higher range which borders on falsetto.
Written in the key of A minor, the song opens with an arpeggiated, finger-picked guitar chord progression with a chromatic descending bassline A-G♯-G-F♯-F. John Paul Jones contributed overdubbed wooden bass recorders in the opening section (he used a Mellotron and, later, a Yamaha CP70B Grand Piano and Yamaha GX1 to synthesise this arrangement in live performances) and a Hohner Electra-Piano electric piano in the middle section.
The sections build with more guitar layers, each complementary to the intro, with the drums entering at 4:18. The extended Jimmy Page guitar solo in the song's final section was played for the recording on a 1959 Fender Telecaster given to him by Jeff Beck (an instrument he used extensively with the Yardbirds) plugged into a Supro amplifier, although in an interview he gave to Guitar World magazine, Page also claimed, "It could have been a Marshall, but I can't remember". Three different improvised solos were recorded, with Page agonising about which to keep. Page later revealed, "I did have the first phrase worked out, and then there was the link phrase. I did check them out beforehand before the tape ran." He has likened the song to an orgasm.
Live performances
The inaugural public performance of the song took place at Belfast's Ulster Hall on 5 March 1971. Bassist John Paul Jones recalls that the crowd was unimpressed: "They were all bored to tears waiting to hear something they knew."
The world radio premiere of "Stairway to Heaven" was recorded at the Paris Cinema on 1 April 1971, in front of a live studio audience, and broadcast three days later on the BBC. The song was performed at almost every subsequent Led Zeppelin concert, only being omitted on rare occasions when shows were cut short for curfews or technical issues. The band's final performance of the song was in Berlin on 7 July 1980, which was also their last full-length concert until 10 December 2007 at London's O2 Arena; the version was the longest, lasting almost 15 minutes, including a seven-minute guitar solo.
When playing the song live, the band would often extend it to over 10 minutes, with Page playing an extended guitar solo and Plant adding a number of lyrical ad-libs, such as "Does anybody remember laughter?", "And I think you can see that", "wait a minute!" and "I hope so". For performing this song live, Page used a Gibson EDS-1275 double neck guitar so he would not have to pause when switching from a six to a 12-string guitar, while John Paul Jones utilized a mellotron to replicate the recorders used on the studio recording.
By 1975, the song had a regular place as the finale of every Led Zeppelin concert. However, after their concert tour of the United States in 1977, Plant began to tire of "Stairway to Heaven": "There's only so many times you can sing it and mean it... It just became sanctimonious."
The song was played again by the surviving members of Led Zeppelin at the Live Aid concert in 1985; at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert in 1988, with Jason Bonham on drums; and by Jimmy Page as an instrumental version on his solo tours.
The first few bars were played alone during Page and Plant tours in lieu of the final notes of "Babe I'm Gonna Leave You", and in November 1994 Page and Plant performed an acoustic version of the song at a Tokyo news station for Japanese television. "Stairway to Heaven" was also performed at Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena, London on 10 December 2007.
Plant cites the most unusual performance of the song ever as being that performed at Live Aid: "with two drummers (Phil Collins and Tony Thompson) while Duran Duran cried at the side of the stage – there was something quite surreal about that."
Success and legacy
"Stairway to Heaven" is often rated among the greatest rock songs of all time. According to music journalist Stephen Davis, although the song was released in 1971, it took until 1973 before the song's popularity ascended to truly "anthemic" status. As Page recalled, "I knew it was good, but I didn't know it was going to be almost like an anthem... But I knew it was the gem of the album, sure."
"Stairway to Heaven" continues to top radio lists of the greatest rock songs, including a 2006 Guitar World readers poll of greatest guitar solos. On the 20th anniversary of the original release of the song, it was announced via US radio sources that the song had logged up an estimated 2,874,000 radio plays. As of 2000, the song had been broadcast on radio over three million times. In 1990, a St. Petersburg, Florida station kicked off its all-Led Zeppelin format by playing "Stairway to Heaven" for 24 hours straight. It is also the biggest-selling single piece of sheet music in rock history, clocking up an average of 15,000 copies yearly. In total, over one million copies have been sold.
Despite pressure from Atlantic Records, the band would not authorise the editing of the song for single release. Page told Rolling Stone in 1975, "We were careful to never release it as a single," which forced buyers to buy the entire album.
In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine put it at number 31 on their list of "The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time", and was re-ranked at number 61 in 2021. An article from 29 January 2009 Guitar World magazine rated Jimmy Page's guitar solo at number one in the publication's 100 Greatest Guitar Solos in Rock and Roll History.
In 2001, the New York City-based classic rock radio station WAXQ conducted a listener survey to create a countdown of 1,043 rock songs (the number corresponding with the station’s position on the dial at 104.3 FM). “Stairway To Heaven” garnered the most votes from listeners. WAXQ has conducted the survey annually since then; in each subsequent countdown that has followed, including the most recent in November 2021, “Stairway To Heaven” has been the top-ranked song.
Plant once gave $10,000 to listener-supported radio station KBOO in Portland, Oregon during a pledge drive after the disc jockey solicited donations by promising the station would never play "Stairway to Heaven". Plant was station-surfing in a rental car he was driving to the Oregon Coast after a solo performance in Portland and was impressed with the non-mainstream music the station presented. Later asked "why?", Plant replied that it wasn't that he didn't like the song, but he'd heard it before.
Spirit copyright infringement lawsuit
Page's opening acoustic guitar arpeggios bear a resemblance to the 1968 instrumental "Taurus" by the Los Angeles-based rock band Spirit, written by Spirit guitarist Randy California. In the liner notes to the 1996 reissue of Spirit's self-titled debut album, California wrote: "People always ask me why 'Stairway to Heaven' sounds exactly like 'Taurus,' which was released two years earlier. I know Led Zeppelin also played 'Fresh Garbage' in their live set. They opened up for us on their first American tour."
In May 2014, Spirit bassist Mark Andes and a trust acting on behalf of California filed a copyright infringement suit against Led Zeppelin and injunction against the "release of the album containing the song" in an attempt to obtain a writing credit for California, who died in 1997. A lack of resources was cited as one of the reasons that Spirit did not file the suit earlier; according to a friend of California's mother, "Nobody had any money, and they thought the statute of limitations was done... It will be nice if Randy got the credit." If the Spirit lawsuit had been successful, past earnings due to the song—estimated at more than US$550 million—would not have been part of the settlement, but the publisher and composers may have been entitled to a share of future profits.
On 11 April 2016, Los Angeles district judge Gary Klausner ruled that there were enough similarities between the song and the instrumental for a jury to decide the claim, and a trial was scheduled for 10 May. The copyright infringement action was brought by Michael Skidmore, a trustee for the late guitarist, whose legal name was Randy Wolfe. On 23 June, the jury ruled that the similarities between the songs did not amount to copyright infringement. In July, Skidmore's attorney filed a notice of appeal against the court's decision. In March 2017, the verdict was appealed, with a main argument being that the jury should have been able to hear a recorded version of "Taurus". On 28 September 2018, a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit allowed the appeal, vacating in part and remanding to the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California for a new trial on several evidentiary and procedural issues. On 10 June 2019, the Ninth Circuit granted rehearing en banc, meaning the case would be reheard by a larger panel of eleven judges.
A Bloomberg Businessweek article shortly after that decision noted that a Ninth Circuit judge's interpretation of the laws implied that key elements of many classic rock songs, including "Stairway to Heaven", that were recorded prior to 1978 were not protected by copyright to begin with. The panel declared that the scope of copyright for those songs is limited to what was included in the deposit copy of the song's sheet music provided to the Copyright Office; at trial Page had testified that the deposit copy included neither the intro that was under dispute nor his guitar solo. Bloomberg reporter Vernon Silver found that the deposit copies of other classic rock songs from that era, such as "Hotel California", "Born to Run" and "Free Bird", include only the song's basic chords, lyrics and melody, without any solos or other distinctive musical touches. Copyright law experts could not say whether those elements are copyrighted or not; Led Zeppelin's lawyers have argued they are even if not included in the deposit copy. Silver made an electronic mashup of several of these elements from different songs and included it with the article.
On 9 March 2020, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit in San Francisco, California, ruled in favor of Led Zeppelin, in that "Stairway to Heaven" does not infringe on the copyright of "Taurus". The full Ninth Circuit used their decision to overturn the controversial "inverse ratio rule" which it had relied over the past several decades in past copyright rulings, stating "Because the inverse ratio rule, which is not part of the copyright statute, defies logic, and creates uncertainty for the courts and the parties, we take this opportunity to abrogate the rule in the Ninth Circuit and overrule our prior cases to the contrary." This verdict immediately applied to pending cases within the Ninth: a long battle over Katy Perry's "Dark Horse" in which a jury had found against her for was overturned a week after the Ninth's verdict in "Stairway to Heaven", in part of the Ninth's new finding and that in the case of "Dark Horse", the similarity argument weighed heavily on the inverse ratio rule. On 5 October, the Supreme Court of the United States denied to grant certiorari to Andes and the trust, leaving the Ninth's circuit ruling in place in favour of Led Zeppelin. The court's decision precludes further appeals, thus ending the copyright dispute.
Claims of backmasking
In a January 1982 broadcast of the Trinity Broadcasting Network television program Praise the Lord hosted by Paul Crouch, it was claimed that hidden messages were contained in many popular rock songs through a technique called backmasking. One example of such hidden messages that was prominently cited was in "Stairway to Heaven". The alleged message, which occurs during the middle section of the song ("If there's a bustle in your hedgerow, don't be alarmed now...") when played backward, was purported to contain the Satanic references: "Here's to my sweet Satan / The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan, / He'll give you, he'll give you 666 / There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan."
Following the claims made in the television program, California assemblyman Phil Wyman proposed a state law that would require warning labels on records containing backward masking. In April 1982, the Consumer Protection and Toxic Materials Committee of the California State Assembly held a hearing on backward masking in popular music, during which "Stairway to Heaven" was played backward and self-described "neuroscientific researcher" William Yarroll claimed that the human brain could decipher backward messages.
The band itself has mostly ignored such claims. Swan Song Records responded to the allegations by stating: "Our turntables only play in one direction—forwards." Led Zeppelin audio engineer Eddie Kramer called the allegations "totally and utterly ridiculous. Why would they want to spend so much studio time doing something so dumb?" Robert Plant expressed frustration with the accusations in a 1983 interview in Musician magazine: "To me it's very sad, because 'Stairway to Heaven' was written with every best intention, and as far as reversing tapes and putting messages on the end, that's not my idea of making music."
Accolades
(*) designates unordered lists.
Charts
Digital download
Note: The official UK Singles Chart incorporated legal downloads as of 17 April 2005.
Certifications and sales
Personnel
Robert Plant – vocals
Jimmy Page – electric and acoustic guitars, production, mastering, digital remastering
John Paul Jones – bass guitar, electric piano, recorders
John Bonham – drums
Other versions
A different version of this song by Led Zeppelin is featured on the remastered deluxe 2CD version of Led Zeppelin IV. Titled "Stairway to Heaven ", it was recorded on 5 December 1970, at Island Studio, No. 1, in London with engineer Andy Johns and assistant engineer Diggs. This version runs 8:04, while the original version runs 8:02.
See also
List of cover versions of Led Zeppelin songs"Stairway to Heaven" entries
List of Led Zeppelin songs written or inspired by others
References
Further reading
Led Zeppelin: Dazed and Confused: The Stories Behind Every Song, by Chris Welch,
The Complete Guide to the Music of Led Zeppelin, by Dave Lewis,
External links
NPR Fresh Air audio interview with Robert Plant (2004), who comments on various covers of the song, the lyrics and writing it.
Jimmy Page: How we wrote Stairway to Heaven (2014) at BBC
Sold on Song, "Stairway to Heaven" at BBC Radio 2
Singlechart usages for Ireland2
Singlechart called without artist
1971 songs
1970s ballads
Atlantic Records singles
Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients
Led Zeppelin songs
British progressive rock songs
Folk ballads
Hard rock ballads
Signature songs
Heart (band) songs
Song recordings produced by Jimmy Page
Songs written by Jimmy Page
Songs written by Robert Plant
Songs involved in plagiarism controversies
Songs composed in A minor
Obscenity controversies in music | [
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256003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebus%20the%20Aardvark | Cerebus the Aardvark | Cerebus (; also Cerebus the Aardvark) is a comic book series created by Canadian cartoonist Dave Sim, which ran from December 1977 until March 2004. The title character of the 300-issue series is an anthropomorphic aardvark who takes on a number of roles throughout the series—barbarian, prime minister and Pope among them. The series stands out for its experimentation in form and content, and for the dexterity of its artwork, especially after background artist Gerhard joined with the 65th issue. As the series progressed, it increasingly became a platform for Sim's controversial beliefs.
The comic began as a parody of sword and sorcery comics, primarily Marvel's version of Conan the Barbarian. However, it evolved to explore a variety of other topics, including politics, religion, and gender issues. At a total of 6,000 pages, it progressively became more serious and ambitious than its parodic roots. Sim announced early on that the series would end with the death of the title character. The story has a large cast of characters, many of which began as parodies of characters from comic books and popular culture.
Starting with the "High Society" storyline, the series became divided into self-contained "novels", which form parts of the overall story. The ten "novels" of the series have been collected in 16 books, known as "Cerebus phonebooks" for their resemblance, by way of their thickness, to telephone directories. At a time when the series was about 70% completed, celebrated comic book writer Alan Moore wrote: "Cerebus, as if I need to say so, is still to comic books what Hydrogen is to the Periodic Table".
Publication history
Cerebus was self-published by Dave Sim under his Aardvark-Vanaheim, Inc. publishing banner. For the first few years the company's publisher was Deni Loubert, Sim's girlfriend (the two married and divorced during the comic's run). Sim's position as a pioneering self-publisher in comics inspired numerous writer/artists after him, most notably Jeff Smith (Bone), Terry Moore (Strangers in Paradise), and Martin Wagner (Hepcats).
In 1979, Sim, who was at the time a frequent marijuana user, began using LSD, taking the drug with such frequency that he was eventually hospitalized. It was this incident that Sim claims led to the inspiration to produce Cerebus for 300 monthly issues.
When Sim published the first Cerebus "phone book", a paperback collection of the High Society graphic novel (issues #26–50), he angered distributors—who felt that their support had been instrumental in his series' success in an industry generally indifferent to small publishers—by offering the first printing via mail order only. The decision was a financial windfall for Sim, however, grossing over $150,000 in sales (). Sim became known for picking up hotel tabs for self-publishers and helping other self-publishers by paying for meals and limo service between stops. Negotiations regarding DC buying Cerebus took place over the course of 1985 to 1988, offering $100,000 ($ today) and 10% of all licensing and merchandising, which Sim rejected.
The series hit a personal sales record with issue #100 which, despite being a normal issue in the middle of a story arc, had a print run of 36,000 copies. Sales took a substantial drop over the next 50 issues, however, and Sim commented that the fact that readers could not simply "jump in" to Cerebus, and had to read the entire series in order to be able to understand the current issue, was a major reason for the sales drop.
In July 1984, Cerebus publisher Aardvark-Vanaheim was threatened with possible legal action by Marvel Comics over a parody of Wolverine in Cerebus.
When Sim guest-wrote the 10th issue of Todd McFarlane's comics series Spawn, he donated his entire fee—over $100,000—to the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund.
"Jaka's Story," a tragic character study dealing with gender roles and the political suppression of art, is generally cited as the series' pinnacle of narrative achievement. Later issues of the series became highly personal, and began to alienate many long-time fans, female readers especially. Issue #186 (collected in Reads) contained a lengthy prose section that was attacked by some readers and critics for what they perceived as overt misogyny, and which Sim describes as "anti-feminism". During this part of the story, the storyline consisted of a textual treatise written by Viktor Davis, a fictional "Reads" author, interspersed with the main Cerebus storyline. In Davis's material, he refers to the "creative male light" and the "emotional female void," a reversal of the gender-based view of creation espoused by the Judge at the end of Church and State (in which the "female light" is raped by the "male void" and shatters into the physical universe). As Sim himself says in an interview with The Comics Journal, "Cerebus #1–200 [is] the completion of the story. The yin and yang. The ultra-female reading. The ultra-male reading. I'm attaching an allegory to the Big Bang. You make up your mind which one's the pit and which one's the top of the mountain." By the end of the series, the Void is again male and identified as God, and the Light is female, now identified with YHWH. Issue #186 was followed by another essay in the back of issue #265 called "Tangent," in which Sim identified a "feminist/homosexualist axis" that opposed traditional and rational societal values. This material appeared as Sim was retreating from public life and becoming more marginalized by his peers in the industry.
Sim himself appeared as a character in Cerebus, as when he berated the title character in the "Minds" story arc.
Sim's religious beliefs heavily influenced the last third of Cerebus storyline. Once an atheist, Sim became a believer in God while gathering research material for "Rick's Story". However, rather than following an established religion, Sim follows his own personal belief system cobbled together from elements of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, although he described himself in issue #8 of Following Cerebus as "mostly Muslim." A 2003 magazine interview describes Sim as reciting a prayer of his own devising five times a day (which was published in the back of issue #300), and as having sold much of his furniture to donate the money to charity as an act of religious asceticism. In an editorial contained in issue #297, Sim stated that he regards the production of Cerebus as of secondary importance to his religious practice. Sim's religious beliefs tie into his views on gender, and the bulk of the Cerebus storyline after "Guys" deals with this, especially "Rick's Story," "Latter Days," and "The Last Day."
A quarterly publication, Following Cerebus, followed in August 2004, featuring correspondence, essays, and previously unpublished artwork from Sim, as well as interviews with other comic writers and artists.
Sim was rumored to have said that had he died or otherwise chosen not to complete Cerebus prior to issue 300, the remaining issues were to either consist of blank pages or Gerhard was to have drawn his backgrounds only, leaving Sim's contribution blank. It is not known if this plan was ever serious, since it was never put into effect. At the completion of the series, Sim directed that upon his and Gerhard's death, Cerebus would enter into the public domain. Effective 31 December 2006, Sim purchased Gerhard's share of the company. Sim has already granted a general license for other creators to use his characters in their own works, stating that he is trying to be consistent with his own appropriation of others' works.
In early 2009, Sim launched the bimonthly series Cerebus Archive. It was translated into Italian; and in 2011, Church and State Vol. I was published in Spanish.
Storylines
"Cerebus"
This first story arc, uniquely in this series, consists of one to three-issue storylines with only occasional back-references. Cerebus is introduced as an amoral barbarian mercenary, fighting (and betraying) for money and drinking it away. During his adventures, he encounters the warrior Pigts (whose religion reveres aardvarks) and the insane wizard Necross, who turns himself into a giant stone Thrunk (visually similar to Marvel Comics' The Thing). Most of the series' prominent characters are introduced (or at least mentioned) in these issues, including Elrod of Melvinbone (a parodic representation of Michael Moorcock's Elric of Melniboné), Lord Julius, a character based upon Groucho Marx, Artemis Roach (a.k.a. The Roach) and Jaka. The series takes a sharp change in direction with issue #20 which is the first of the "Mind Games" issues that are a feature of the comic and introduces the philosophical Suenteus Po and the ultra-matriarchial Cirinists.
"High Society"
Cerebus comes to the wealthy city-state of Iest as the representative of Lord Julius's city-state of Palnu. He quickly finds himself enmeshed in the fast-paced world of high finance and politics, and comic tension is built through his ignorance of the "high society" machinations going on around him. Cerebus is befriended by the legendary Regency Elf as he adjusts to his new circumstances. He meets and soon finds himself maneuvered into a political campaign by the mysterious Astoria, who is also manipulating Artemis into pseudo-super hero identities that are parodies of Moon Knight and later Sergeant Preston of the Mounties. Cerebus recognizes that he is a pawn in a political game between Lord Julius and Astoria, but he struggles to assert himself and ultimately confounds the expectations of everyone attempting to use him. Cerebus is eventually elected Prime Minister of Iest, but launches an unnecessary war of conquest that causes him to lose everything.
"Church & State I"
After some travels, Cerebus returns to Iest and is manipulated by Weisshaupt, who wants to use Cerebus's popularity with the masses, into again becoming Prime Minister of Iest. Weisshaupt has maneuvered himself into the tenuous presidency of a federation of states (including Iest, Palnu and New Sepra) as a bulwark against the Cirinists. Weisshaupt lures Cerebus into a drunken marriage to Red Sophia, but ultimately loses his influence over Cerebus when Weisshaupt's rival, Bishop Powers, appoints Cerebus Pope of the Eastern Church of Tarim. Finally out from under anyone else's control, Cerebus lets absolute power go to his head and demands that all the citizens must give him all their gold or face the end of the world. Sophia walks out on Cerebus, and then he discovers that Jaka is married and pregnant. Cerebus is threatened by Weisshaupt's secret invention of cannons, but Weisshaupt suffers a heart attack and Cerebus continues his papal reign of terror. He is finally ejected from the Upper City by the sudden invasion of the giant stone Thrunk, who claims to be the God Tarim.
"Church & State II"
Cerebus returns to Iest's Upper City and uses Weisshaupt's cannons to destroy Thrunk and reclaim the papacy. Astoria has mysteriously killed the Western pope ("the Lion of Serrea"), and Cerebus must execute her for the crime in order to retain his papacy. Cerebus confronts her in a dungeon, and after being taunted by Astoria, he grants himself a divorce from Red Sophia, marries himself to Astoria, rapes her, and then divorces himself from her. Astoria's trial, which echoes with similarities to a repeating pattern of historical executions of reformers, is interrupted when Cerebus makes the predicted Ascension to the Moon that is the culmination of the land's religious prophecy. There, Cerebus meets the Judge, a timeless, godlike being who has watched over history from the very beginning. (Sim had based the personality of this character on cartoonist and playwright Jules Feiffer.) The Judge explains his version of the creation myth of Cerebus's universe, before warning Cerebus that he will live only a few more years before dying "alone, unmourned and unloved." The Judge tells Cerebus that if the Aardvark ever questions his suffering, he should remember his "second marriage" to Astoria. Cerebus then falls back to earth, where he discovers that the Cirinists have invaded, and his empire has collapsed.
"Jaka's Story"
Cerebus returns to Iest, now under a brutal Cirinist dictatorship, and runs into Jaka again. She is illegally working as a dancer in her landlord's tavern. The landlord/barman, Pud, treats Jaka kindly but secretly spends his days lusting after her. Cerebus agrees to live with Jaka and her husband Rick as their houseguest. That story is interwoven with unreliable tales of Jaka's childhood told by a writer, representing Oscar Wilde, using notes and stories provided by Rick. In the end Cerebus disguises himself and travels to the Lower City to buy a jar of paint. While he is gone, the Cirinists find the tavern, kill Pud and arrest Jaka, Rick, and Oscar. Jaka is made to sign a confession of immoral behavior, and is reunited with Rick; however, the Cirinists reveal to Rick that Jaka aborted the son that Rick always wanted. He lashes out at Jaka and is allowed to divorce her (although he is maimed for striking her). Jaka returns to Palnu, and Cerebus returns to the inn to find it in ruins.
"Melmoth"
This story arc concentrates on the last days and death of Oscar Wilde (who is attended to by his trusted companion Robbie Ross) rather than on Cerebus himself, who appears in only a few pages. (The title refers to the gothic novel Melmoth the Wanderer by Charles Robert Maturin, a relative of Wilde's. Wilde adopted this alias during this period of his life.) Meanwhile, a catatonic Cerebus, believing Jaka to be dead, spends his days mourning on the patio of a café. In the last few pages of the story, after the main action had concluded, Cerebus overhears a conversation by two Cirinist jailers insulting Jaka. Enraged, Cerebus murders one of the guards and then springs into action.
"Flight"
First part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. Cerebus's return to Iest and slaughter of Cirinsts leads to a very brief failed revolution. Cerebus descends into darkness and speaks with Suenteus Po. Meanwhile, Cirin works to manage her sect and arrange her own Ascension. Artemis, with Elrod as his sidekick, also stages his own impromptu revolution under his new persona "PunisherRoach", a parody of the Marvel comics character the Punisher.
"Women"
Second part of the story-arc "Mothers and Daughters". Cerebus crashes back to earth. He is assisted by a mysterious old woman who is being openly spied upon by the Cirinists; she sends him to a bar to hide. This story arc includes a parody of Neil Gaiman's The Sandman in which the Roach plays "Swoon" (a parody of Dream) and Elrod plays "Snuff" (a trans person parody of Death). Astoria and Cirin symbolically duel in a dream realm. The book includes excerpts from books written by Astoria and Cirin that describe their differing beliefs. Cerebus flies across the city to slay Astoria, but is interrupted by the arrival of Suenteus Po.
"Reads"
Third part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. This book primarily consists of two long text pieces. The first revolves around an author of Reads, heavily illustrated books in Cerebus's world. In this story, there is a strong thread about the dangers of commercial success and "selling out". The series moves from this storyline to a long essay attributed to Viktor Davis, a fictional Reads author. This essay puts forth a theory on the nature of the sexes, describing the "Female Void" focused on feeling, and the "Male Light" focused on reason. These two stories are accompanied by a long discussion between Cirin, Astoria, Cerebus, and Suenteus Po. Po gives information about aardvarks, including that all aardvarks have Cerebus's "magnifier" quality, and attempts to convince each of the others to abandon their pursuits of power and return to what they enjoy doing most, then leaves them to their fates. Astoria is convinced and also leaves, but not before giving Cerebus information about her history with Cirin and also informing him of his hermaphrodite nature. Cerebus and Cirin then engage in a long and brutal fight, which leads to the beginning of another ascension.
"Minds"
Fourth and concluding part of the "Mothers and Daughters" story arc. Cerebus and Cirin ascend, then are separated by a mysterious force. As Cerebus flies through the solar system, he is shown images from his past and is forced to reconsider his actions and his faith. He then encounters a disembodied voice calling itself "Dave" that acknowledges itself as Cerebus's creator. "Dave" shows Cerebus the history of the Cirinist movement, revealing that Cirin is actually named Serna and was the best friend of the real Cirin (the old woman Cerebus encountered in Women), but usurped Cirin's leadership and effectively exchanged identities with her. "Dave" then gives Cerebus information about his past, showing that Cerebus unwittingly ruined his original destiny, causing chaotic repercussions which have influenced most of his adventures. Cerebus demands that "Dave" make Jaka love him; in response, "Dave" shows Cerebus visions of possible futures between himself and Jaka, all of which are disastrously flawed for both of them due to Cerebus's nature. After a period of penance and self-reflection on Pluto, Cerebus asks "Dave" to place him in a bar he remembers from his mercenary days.
"Guys"
Cerebus spends time, and eventually becomes bartender, in one of the Cirinists' bars where "degenerate" men are essentially quarantined from the female citizens. Described in the trade paperback's introduction as based on a bar that Sim frequented during a near-alcoholic stint between relationships, the series features various parodic characters who come and go while Cerebus remains stationary. Cerebus begins a somewhat reluctant relationship with a woman named Joanne, who was first introduced in one of the possible futures with Jaka that "Dave" showed Cerebus in Minds.
"Rick's Story"
Eventually Jaka's ex-husband Rick arrives at the bar. He has significantly aged, become a heavy drinker (having barely been able to tolerate alcohol in "Jaka's Story"), and it is gradually revealed that the mental and emotional scars from the events at the end of "Jaka's Story" have left him mildly insane. Rick is working on a book about his life, which gradually becomes a religious work in which Cerebus is a holy figure and Rick his follower. Joanne returns and taunts Cerebus by courting Rick. At the end of the book, Rick departs, for reasons not entirely clear, and tells Cerebus that he will see Rick only once more in his life. After Rick has left, Jaka shows up at the bar, and she and Cerebus depart together, heading for Cerebus's childhood home of Sand Hills Creek.
"Going Home"
First part of the "Going Home" story arc. Cerebus and Jaka travel across land, then on a river boat. Cerebus is eager to make as much time as possible, as he fears being trapped in the mountains near Sand Hills Creek by winter, but instead he indulges Jaka's desire for shopping and public appearances. Along the way, they encounter veiled hostility from the Cirinists. Cerebus and Jaka's relationship begins to show signs of deterioration, and Jaka is almost tempted away by F. Stop Kennedy (a fictional version of F. Scott Fitzgerald), a writer who has accompanied them on their river boat.
"Form and Void"
Second and concluding part of the story arc "Going Home". Cerebus and Jaka continue their journey towards Sand Hills Creek, in the company of Ham and Mary Ernestway, analogues to Ernest Hemingway and his fourth wife, Mary. On the trip, Mary tells them about some of her and Ham's journeys. This material is based on Mary Hemingway's journals about Ernest's last African safaris prior to his death. Ham dies in what appears to be suicide, but Cerebus becomes convinced Mary murdered him and flees in panic, taking Jaka with him. They discover that they have been traveling in circles without making any significant progress toward Sand Hills Creek, and nearly die in a blizzard. They finally arrive in Sand Hills Creek only to find that Cerebus's parents are dead and the rest of the community has shunned Cerebus for his perceived abandonment of his family. Cerebus drives Jaka away, blaming her for keeping him away too long.
"Latter Days"
First part of the story arc "Latter Days". After a prodigious leap in time over two issues, Cerebus returns from the north intent on provoking the Cirinists into killing him. Instead, he is captured by a trio of characters based on the Three Stooges, who await a religious revelation from him. While Cerebus was in the north, a religious movement developed out of the teachings of Rick and his writings about Cerebus. Once Cerebus supplies the required revelation, he inspires a successful anti-Cirinist rebellion and a subsequent reordering of society. Much of the second half of this chapter consists of Cerebus giving a highly idiosyncratic analysis of the Torah. Published over the course of nearly a year, this section, called "Chasing YHWH", was presented almost entirely in text format, with minimal art. This story arc is unusual in that disembodied thought balloons give the impression that Cerebus is speaking directly to the reader at times. It is revealed in the last issue of the arc that Cerebus has been talking to a woman reporter who bears a striking resemblance to Jaka. He eventually falls in love with the woman and marries her.
"The Last Day"
The second and concluding part of "Latter Days", and the conclusion of the series as a whole. In the first 40 pages Cerebus has a dream or vision in which cosmology is seen as a reflection of theology, complete with explanatory footnotes by Sim. Upon waking Cerebus—now incredibly aged, decrepit, pain-wracked, and mildly senile—makes the laborious trek to his writing desk to write down his new revelation. He then hides the manuscript, and it is implied that nobody will find it for two thousand years.
Cerebus spends most of the rest of the book trying to persuade his chief of security, Walter O'Reilly (named after Corporal Walter (Radar) O'Reilly from M*A*S*H), to admit his son, Shep-Shep, with whom he remembers sharing an idyllic father–son relationship. However, the Sanctuary is under lockdown due to opposition from a new and even more rabidly "feminist-homosexualist" group led by Shep-Shep's mother, whom Cerebus refers to as "New Joanne", which favors such "rights" as pedophilia, zoophilia, juvenile recreational drug use and lesbian motherhood. As a result, social values have undergone a complete breakdown.
Cerebus finally goes to bed despairing of seeing his son again, but Shep-Shep manages to sneak into Cerebus's room late that night. Their subsequent conversation shatters Cerebus's last illusions about his son. Shep-Shep has aligned himself with his mother, who has been conducting genetic engineering experiments, partly with knowledge gained from Cirin's earlier experimentation. Cerebus is disgusted and horrified when Shep-Shep shows him the results of one of the experiments, a lion cub with a human baby's head, and explains his mother's plans.
As Shep-Shep leaves, Cerebus grabs a knife, intending to kill him, but falls out of bed and breaks his neck, alone, unmourned, and unloved, just as the Judge had predicted. His life flashes before his eyes in a series of flashback panels and his ghost sees many of his old friends and enemies waiting for him in "the Light." Jaka, Bear, and Ham beckon to him, and he eagerly rushes to join them, thinking they are in Heaven, but then he notices the absence of Rick and realizes that the Light may in fact be Hell. He calls out to God for help, but is dragged into the Light nonetheless.
Other appearances
Comics Buyer's Guide
"Silverspoon", Prince Valiant comic strip parody, 11 pages published weekly in Comics Buyer's Guide, reprinted in Swords of Cerebus Vol 4 and in the Cerebus "phone book" from 11th printing on
Swords of Cerebus
Each of the six issues includes one or two Cerebus stories not all of which are included in the "phone books".
Swords of Cerebus Vol. 1, January 1981
"The Name of the Game is Diamondback", 7 pages, layouts by Marshall Rogers, story and art by Sim, January 1981
Swords of Cerebus Vol. 2, June 1981
"Demonhorn" (first appeared in Nucleus #1), 5 pages, story and art by Sim
"The Morning After", 6 pages, inks by Joe Rubenstein
Swords of Cerebus Vol. 3, Fall 1981
"What Happened Between Issues 20 and 21", 8 pages
Swords of Cerebus Vol. 4, Fall 1982
"Magiking", 10 pages
"Silverspoon", (first appeared in Comics Buyer's Guide), 11 pages,
Swords of Cerebus Vol 5, Summer 1983
"Cerebus Dreams", written and drawn by Barry Windsor Smith
Swords of Cerebus Vol 6, Fall 1984
"A Night on the Town"
All of the stories above except "Demonhorn" were reprinted in "Cerebus World Tour Book 1995"
Epic Illustrated
"His First Fifth", 9 color pages, October 1984
"A Friendly Reminder", 3 color pages, February 1985
"Selling Insurance", 2 color pages, June 1985
"The Girl Next Door", 3 color pages, June 1985
AV in 3D
"Cerebus Dreams II", 4 3D pages, December 1984
Cerebus Jam #1, April 1986
"The Defense of Fort Columbia", by Sim, Gerhard, Scott and Bo Hampton, 6 pages
"The First Invention of Armour, 1404" by Sim, Gerhard, and Murphy Anderson, 6 pages
"Squinteye the Sailor" by Sim, Gerhard, and Terry Austin, 5 pages
"Cerebus versus the Spirit", Sim, Gerhard, and Will Eisner, 4 pages
Anything Goes!
"Breaking Up is Hard to Do", 3 color pages plus cover, March 1986
Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles #8
"Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Cerebus the Aardvark", by Eastman, Laird, Sim and Gerhard, 43 pages plus cover, 1986
Spawn
Spawn #10, May 1993
"Crossing Over", 22 color pages plus cover, story by Sim, art by Todd McFarlane
Glamourpuss
The March 2011 (incorrectly dated March 2010 on the reverse cover) issue of Glamourpuss #18, written and drawn by Sim
"What if Cerebus had lived in the age of Mad Men", 10 pages.
Cerebus in Hell
In 2017, Sim started publishing a new series, Cerebus in Hell, with issues #0 and #1 through #4. Cerebus, having died in Cerebus #300, is now in Hell, wandering—and, as usual, badmouthing—his way, with art by Gustave Doré swiped from that artist's famous illustrations for Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy. Small pictures of Cerebus, copied from the Cerebus comic book, with only a few poses repeated throughout, are added to the art.
Cerebus #1s
Starting in August 2017, Dave Sim began to write and publish a series of monthly comic books, all numbered "#1", and all satires of various classic comic books. The first, Batvark #1, is a satire of Batman #1, the second, Aardvark Comics #1, a satire of Action Comics #1. As with Cerebus in Hell, the artwork is by Gustave Doré with small pictures of Cerebus added.
Characters
Cerebus
Cerebus is a misanthropic anthropomorphic bipedal gray aardvark, although like other anthropomorphic characters in the series, he was born to ordinary human parents.
Supporting characters
Jaka Tavers The love of Cerebus's life. A dancer by profession, she is the niece of Lord Julius and (ex-)wife of Rick Nash.
Lord Julius Grandlord of the city-state of Palnu, who exercises control by making the bureaucracy incredibly dense and incomprehensible. Julius is crafty and intelligent, but often plays the fool to confuse and baffle opponents. His character design and behavior is based on Groucho Marx, including snappy insults, a constant cigar, the chicken walk, and a painted-on mustache.
Astoria A beautiful political manipulator, Lord Julius' ex-wife, and the main driving force behind Cerebus's campaign to become Prime Minister in High Society. She is the leader of the Kevillists, a feminist sect which opposes Cirin. The Kevillists mirror the Cirinists' philosophy, but would prefer power in the hands of daughters instead of mothers. She is named for actress Mary Astor, and may be inspired in some ways by Sim's ex-wife Deni Loubert, though Sim himself denies this in issue 298.
Cirin Leader of the Cirinists, a matriarchal fascist sect which conquers Estarcion at the conclusion of the Church and State storyline. Originally named Serna, she took the name and effectively exchanged identities with the real Cirin, whose views were much less militaristic. The sect honors mothers primarily, also giving high honors to daughters (potential mothers) and children. Men are tolerated. Like Cerebus, she is an aardvark.
Elrod the Albino (Elrod of Melvinbone)Essentially Michael Moorcock's Elric of Melnibone with the voice and personality of Senator Claghorn (or Foghorn Leghorn), Elrod is an almost purely comic character whose main purpose is to frustrate and enrage Cerebus. In Reads it is revealed that he was created by Cerebus's proximity to a magic gem, and after learning this he vanishes from existence. However, Joanne tells Cerebus she and her husband used to live next door to Elrod, who was married at the time to Red Sophia.
Roach (Artemis)An incompetent superhero character. Sim used the Roach to satirize popular mainstream comic characters or industry publishing trends, beginning with Batman. His other guises have included Captain Cockroach (Captain America), Moonroach (Moon Knight), Wolveroach (Wolverine), the Secret Sacred Wars Roach (Marvel Super Heroes Secret Wars series and Frank Miller's Batman from The Dark Knight Returns), normalroach (Valentino's normalman), Punisherroach (the Punisher), Swoon (The Sandman), and Sergeant Preston of the Royal Mounted Iestan police (the main character of the radio series Challenge of the Yukon).
Adam Weisshaupt Introduced in Cerebus, he is a ruthless political opponent of Cerebus throughout the Church & State storyline. His manipulations of both Cerebus and the Roach lead to his pawns eventually growing more powerful than he ever hoped to be. Weisshaupt is named after the historical Adam Weishaupt but drawn to look like George Washington (a connection well known to Illuminati conspiracy theorists).
Bear Cerebus's best friend from his mercenary days and main drinking buddy. In "Guys" there are hints Cerebus is suppressing an attraction to him.
Joanne Introduced in a possible future for Cerebus and Jaka by "Dave" in "Minds", Joanne is a bored housewife who has an affair with Cerebus, prompting Jaka's suicide. After Cerebus returns to Estarcion, Joanne reappears and becomes Cerebus's lover, only to be spurned by Cerebus. She later seduces Rick as a way to taunt Cerebus. Joanne is in many ways an opposite of Jaka, and Cerebus bases much of his post-Guys views on how to deal with women on his experience with her. After Shep-shep's mother leaves Cerebus, he labels her "New Joanne."
Bran Mac MufinOriginally a barbarian warlord whose people worshiped an idol who looked remarkably like Cerebus (and which the aardvark destroyed). He later turns up quite unexpectedly, in civilized clothing, to act as an adviser to Cerebus in two separate occasions, first in Cerebus's campaign and first reign as Prime Minister of Iest and then arriving after Cerebus is Pope to observe the miracles and give Cerebus advice, though he seems to have a hidden agenda. During the Iest campaign Cerebus states that he trusts Mac Mufin's military advice more than anyone else's. When Thrunk deposes Cerebus, Mac Mufin commits suicide by stabbing himself in the chest with a sword. Mac Mufin is a parody of Robert E. Howard's Celtic barbarian Bran Mak Morn. In his first appearance in issue 5 his name was spelled Bran Mak Mufin, but in subsequent appearances he goes by Bran Mac Mufin.
Rick Nash First introduced as Jaka's husband in Jaka's Story, Rick is a friendly, gentle ne'er-do-well, whom Sim described in the introduction to the "phonebook" of Jaka's Story as "the nearest I will ever come to the portrayal of a good and thoroughly decent human being; completely without guile or malice". After his marriage to Jaka is dissolved, he becomes mildly insane. He eventually goes on to become the prophet of a religion centered on Cerebus.
Suenteus PoEstarcion's third aardvark, who has lived several lifetimes and has shaped the history of Estarcion. It is also a very common name and several people named "Suenteus Po" appear in the story in various roles—one as an enigmatic illusionist and another as a historian who narrates a sizable portion of Cerebus's first reign as Prime Minister of Iest (though it is very strongly implied that both these Pos are the aardvark). It is mentioned in High Society that some of the followers of the original Suenteus Po named their children after him. The name may be a playful misspelling of the name of Roman historian Suetonius. There was a rock band on San Francisco label Solana Records named Suenteus Po that released an album in 2000.
The Regency Elf A childlike, playful spirit who inhabits Cerebus's rooms at the Regency Hotel in High Society; at first, only Cerebus can see her. She helps Cerebus with some of his political scheming, though, as innocent as she seems, it's all just a game to her. It is discovered later that the Regency Elf who appears to Cerebus is a fake created by Cerebus's subconscious. The Regency Elf is inspired in part by Elfquest and its creator Wendy Pini. Visually, the Regency Elf is inspired by Debbie Harry.
Various other characters in the series were designed to resemble famous actors, politicians, and other personalities and comic in-jokes, including British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, Professor X (with a bit of Chris Claremont thrown in), Canadian Member of Parliament Sheila Copps, director Woody Allen, Alan Moore, Rick Veitch, Oscar Wilde, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Norman Mailer, Rodney Dangerfield, Mick Jagger, Keith Richards, and Chico Marx.
Collections
The first 22 Cerebus stories were collected in six issues of Swords of Cerebus, plus one supplement to volume six, and these stories were then collected in "Cerebus" #1. Swords of Cerebus also published several new short Cerebus stories, listed under "Other appearances" above, which were not reprinted in the "phone books"
All of the story arcs from the Cerebus comic book have been reprinted in collected omnibus editions of 240–630 pages each, all of which are presently still in print. They are generally referred to by fans and retailers as Cerebus "phone books" due to their size; also, they use the same newsprint paper as the original comics.
Sim has released two collections of his responses to readers' letters (the original letters are not included) after the publication of Cerebus #300. Collected Letters 2004 () was released in 2005, and Collected Letters vol. 2 was released in 2007.
Miscellaneous stories not appearing in the above collections have been reprinted in the short collections Cerebus World Tour Book and in Cerebus Number Zero, which reprints issues #51, 112/113 and parts of issues #137–138. A few standalone, uncollected stories have appeared in various collections and magazines over the years, and Cerebus has made cameo appearances on the covers of magazines such as Comics Revue. Sim also marketed a set of "Diamondback" cards (based upon a game seen in early issues) in the 1980s. All of the material in the Cerebus arc was reprinted in smaller collections called Swords of Cerebus before Sim decided on the "phonebook" format.
The phonebooks themselves tie into ideas presented in the series. Although grammatically incorrect, the titles of books 8 through 11 could be read as a sentence ("women read minds, guys"—the concept of women reading minds is a key plot point). Also, beginning with Going Home (the first storyline begun after Sim's religious conversion), the covers of each "phone book" are printed in full color, with Going Home and Form and Void using Gerhard's scenic nature photography as covers, rather than the drawings used on past books.
Reception and legacy
Cerebus has been rated to be one of the greatest characters in comics history. Wizard rated him as the 63rd-greatest comic book character, while Empire rated him as the 38th-greatest comic book character, describing him as a character born of bizarre brilliance. IGN placed Cerebus as the 91st-greatest comic book hero of all time, stating that "few names hold as much sway in the independent comics scene as Cerebus" and "Cerebus' mark on the industry will be everlasting".
The term "Cerebus Syndrome" has come to commonly describe developments where initially comedic or superficial works in any medium gradually become more serious, complex and dramatic.
See also
Aardvark
Graphic novel
References
External links
A Moment of Cerebus
Cerebus TV
"The Aardvark Hero: Dave Sim's Cerebus" from Emma Tinker's thesis, Identity and Form in Alternative Comics, 1967–2007, University College London, 2008,
Free Cerebus
1977 comics debuts
2004 comics endings
Canadian comics
Canadian comics characters
Canadian graphic novels
Eisner Award winners
Fantasy comics
Religious comics
Satirical comics
Aardvark-Vanaheim titles
Mass media franchises
Cultural depictions of the Marx Brothers
Comics about mammals
Fictional aardvarks
Fictional bartenders
Fictional popes
Fictional prime ministers
Fictional swordfighters
LGBT characters in comics
Comics critical of religion
Comics by Dave Sim
Comics characters introduced in 1977 | [
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256004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle%20Trachtenberg | Michelle Trachtenberg | Michelle Trachtenberg (; born October 11, 1985) is an American actress and model. Starting her career at a young age, she has played in a number of commercials, films, and television series. She is best known for her regular role as Dawn Summers in Buffy the Vampire Slayer (2000–2003) and recurring roles as Georgina Sparks in Gossip Girl (2007–2012), and Nona Mecklenberg in The Adventures of Pete & Pete (1994–1996), and for her role as Harriet M. Welsch in Harriet the Spy (1996).
Early life
Trachtenberg was born in New York City, the younger of two daughters of Lana, a bank manager, and Michael Trachtenberg, a fiber-optics engineer, Jewish immigrants from Russia and Germany, respectively. Trachtenberg's grandparents reside in Israel, but she celebrates Christmas and "all" religions, having gone to a Catholic high school because, she said, tuition was cheaper than the Jewish one. She was raised with her older sister, Irene, in Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn, where she attended junior high school at The Bay Academy for the Arts and Sciences. She later attended Notre Dame High School in Sherman Oaks, California. She is fluent in Russian.
Career
Beginnings (1988–2003)
Trachtenberg made her first television appearance at the age of three, in a commercial for Wisk detergent. She went on to feature in over 100 more commercials. Her first television role was in the second season of Law & Order; her first credited role was as Nona F. Mecklenberg on the Nickelodeon series The Adventures of Pete & Pete from 1994 until 1996. During the same period she played Lily Montgomery on the soap opera All My Children.
Trachtenberg's film career began in 1996 with the title role in Harriet the Spy, for which she had to leave The Adventures of Pete & Pete while its third season was running. She then starred in the short-lived television series Meego, which garnered her a Young Artist Award. She returned to film in 1999 for Inspector Gadget. She also starred in the film Can't Be Heaven. In the summer of 2000, she took on the role of Dawn Summers in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, remaining in the role until the show ended in 2003. She also hosted the Discovery Kids series Truth or Scare from 2001 to 2003.
Rise to fame (2004–2007)
After Buffy and Truth or Scare, Trachtenberg appeared in the comedy film EuroTrip. She also had a recurring role in the HBO series Six Feet Under, as Celeste, a spoiled pop star for whom Keith Charles served as a bodyguard. In March 2005, she starred in Walt Disney Pictures' comedy sports drama film Ice Princess as Casey Carlyle, a science whiz, who is torn between a future in academia and her newfound dream of being a professional figure skater.
In 2004, Trachtenberg played Wendy in Gregg Araki's film adaptation of Scott Heim's novel, Mysterious Skin. Wendy is the best friend of Neil (Joseph Gordon Levitt), a teenage hustler in small-town Kansas. The film debuted at the 2004 Venice Film Festival.
In April 2006, Trachtenberg guest-starred in the episode of House, "Safe". She revealed on the December 22, 2006, episode of Late Night with Conan O'Brien that House was her favorite show, and that she was friends with one of the producers and had asked to be a guest star.
In November 2006, Trachtenberg guest starred in season six of the crime drama Law & Order: Criminal Intent. In the episode "Weeping Willow", she played the role of Willow, a kidnapped video blogger, likely based on lonelygirl15. Trachtenberg also appeared in the Fall Out Boy music video for "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race", the Joaquin Phoenix-directed music video for "Tired of Being Sorry" by Ringside, and the video for the Trapt song "Echo".
In 2006, Trachtenberg starred in Black Christmas, the remake of the 1974 slasher of the same name. In 2007, she was cast as the female lead in an ABC comedy pilot called The Hill, based on the newspaper of the same name in Washington, D.C.
2008–2010
Trachtenberg provided the voice of Tika Waylan for Dragonlance: Dragons of Autumn Twilight, a direct-to-video animated film based on the novel of the same name. She appeared on The CW hit show Gossip Girl, as Georgina Sparks, who recently left rehab and brings back the dark past Serena van der Woodsen desperately wants to leave behind. She returned to the show for a multiple-episode story arc towards the end of season two. Trachtenberg appeared in the season-three finale and in season four. She also appeared several times in season five, and in almost every episode of season six, the show's final season. In 2009, Trachtenberg was a cast member on the NBC drama Mercy; the series lasted one season. She returned to film with the 2009 film 17 Again. She also had a small role in the comedy film Cop Out.
2011–present
On June 9, 2011, Trachtenberg guest starred on Love Bites, as Jodie, who, after being unceremoniously dumped, decides – with a vengeance – to accept her ex's offer to "be friends". She reprised the role on June 16, 2011, and in the series finale on July 21, 2011. In the same year, Trachtenberg was a guest star on Weeds during its seventh season, portraying Emma, a rival pot dealer who causes problems for Silas Botwin. In June 2012, Trachtenberg was cast in the film The Scribbler, produced by Gabriel Cowan.
In the Criminal Minds episode "Zugzwang", Trachtenberg played Diane Turner, the criminal stalker to Spencer Reid's girlfriend, Maeve Donovan. In March 2011, she was the featured cover girl in Maxim.
In late 2015, Trachtenberg starred in the online series Guidance as Anna, the high school guidance counselor.
Personal Life
Filmography
Film
Television
Web series
Music videos
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1985 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American child actresses
American film actresses
American soap opera actresses
American television actresses
American voice actresses
American people of German-Jewish descent
American people of Russian-Jewish descent
Jewish American actresses
Living people
Notre Dame High School (Sherman Oaks, California) alumni
People from Sheepshead Bay, Brooklyn
21st-century American Jews | [
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256006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard%20%28cartoonist%29 | Gerhard (cartoonist) | Gerhard is the professional name of a Canadian artist known for the elaborately detailed background illustrations in the comics series Cerebus the Aardvark.
Biography
Gerhard was born on April 14, 1959, in Edmonton. His association with Dave Sim's Cerebus began with issue #65 (August 1984), and continued through its conclusion in issue #300, in March, 2004. The series was written by Dave Sim, who also drew the foreground figures, and had worked on the self-published series largely solo for the first 64 issues. Gerhard jokingly described his job saying that he "draws tables and chairs behind an aardvark". He is also fond of photography, later issues of the comic book have covers based on his scenic photos, and sailing.
Three years after finishing his work on Cerebus, Gerhard ended his professional and personal relationship with Dave Sim. Subsequently, Sim has been in the process of purchasing Gerhard's share of Aardvark-Vanaheim.
Although most associated with Cerebus, Gerhard has produced works for other publications, although mostly with Sim. In September 1994, however, he worked with Stephen R. Bissette on the cover to Bissette's Tyrant #1, and coloured Sim's back cover for Oni Press' Free Speeches #1 (August 1998).
References
External links
Art of Gerhard, a gallery of both Cerebus and non-Cerebus related artwork by Gerhard
Gerhard's work on Cerebus at the Grand Comics Database
1959 births
Living people
Artists from Edmonton
Canadian comics artists | [
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256010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musk%20duck | Musk duck | The musk duck (Biziura lobata) is a highly aquatic, stiff-tailed duck native to southern Australia. It is the only living member of the genus Biziura. An extinct relative, the New Zealand musk duck or de Lautour's duck (B. delautouri), once occurred on New Zealand, but is only known from prehistoric subfossil bones. It was about 8% longer than the living species, with a particularly large head.
This animal derives its common name from the peculiar musky odour it emanates during the breeding season. Musk ducks are moderately common through the Murray-Darling and Cooper Creek basins, and in the wetter, fertile areas in the south of the continent: the southwest corner of Western Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania.
Description
Adult males are long and have a distinctive large, leathery lobe underneath the bill; females are long and unadorned. Their drab dark grey-brown, slightly pin-striped plumage is inconspicuous and does not differ between the sexes. This species weighs an average of in males and in females, with the smallest females weighing only and the largest males weighing up to . On average, they are the second-heaviest diving duck in the world after the common eider, with male musk ducks actually being slightly heavier than male common eiders, but female eiders being rather larger than female musk ducks due to that species' lesser size sexual dimorphism. Musk ducks float very low in the water, almost like a cormorant, and the large, webbed feet are well back on the body. The ducklings are covered in dark brown down.
In its native range, the fanned tail is distinctive, allowing to distinguish this species from the freckled duck (Stictonetta naevosa) which has similar size, colouration, and habits. The blue-billed duck (Oxyura australis) has a similarly shaped tail, but the main colour of its males in breeding plumage is a much richer chestnut brown. Females and males in nonbreeding plumage are very similar, however, and if one is not intimately familiar with the slight differences in behaviour, they cannot be told apart from female musk ducks at a distance. Male musk ducks in the breeding season are usually unmistakable due to the large bill lobe.
Systematics
The relationships of this peculiar species are quite enigmatic. It is traditionally included with the stiff-tailed duck subfamily Oxyurinae, but appears to be only distantly related to the genus Oxyura, and its peculiar apomorphies make it difficult to place. Its relationship with the equally strange pink-eared ducks (Malacorhynchus) is unresolved, but seems to be quite close, and it seems to be part of an ancient Gondwanan radiation of Anatidae. As such, it is fairly closely related to the stiff-tailed ducks proper, but it seems not quite as closely related as formerly believed, with many similarities due to convergent evolution.
Ecology and status
This species prefers deep, still lakes and wetlands with areas of both open water and reed beds. They seldom emerge from the water and are awkward on dry land. They rarely fly: take off is made with difficulty, and landing is a clumsy, low-angled affair with no attempt to lower the feet. However, at need musk ducks fly swiftly and for long distances, with rapid, shallow wing beats.
In the water, musk ducks display an effortless agility, twisting and turning on the surface with both feet and tail. In general, musk ducks remain in the water all day long, alternately loafing and feeding energetically, though they sometimes emerge to sit on a log or on dry land for a while. They stay on the water at night, sleeping well out from land with the head tucked into the body or under a wing.
Musk ducks are very much at home below the surface, slipping under head-first with barely a ripple, and staying submerged for as long as a minute at a time, often resurfacing only for a few moments before diving again. They dive to escape predators or unwanted company, and to search for food, typically in fairly deep water. They can descend to at least 6 m (about 20 ft). The primary diet items are water beetles, yabbies, freshwater snails and shellfish, and the like, supplemented with a variety of aquatic plants and a few fish.
When not breeding, adults are generally solitary. Adult males hold and defend territories, excluding other males and quite often females, too. Younger birds – juveniles and unmated adults – form flocks on larger bodies of water at some times of year. It is not known at what age they reach sexual maturity in the wild, but it may take several years. They are a long-lived species and are still capable of breeding when 20 years old or more.
Reproduction
The musk duck breeding season varies with rainfall and water levels, but is typically between July and January, with the greatest number of clutches laid in September or October, the austral spring. Despite a number of more general studies, little is known about musk duck breeding. During breeding season, they give off the musky odour from which the species derives its common name. Also, in the season males advertise themselves loudly with a repetitive sequence of sounds: first, a ker-plonk splash made with the feet on the surface of the water; then two soft, sharp cuc cuc calls; then a loud whistle and a deep grunt. This sequence can be started at any time of day or night, with or without an associated visual display, and repeated every 4 or 5 seconds for as long as half an hour at a time. Although male musk ducks have a large leathery lobe below the bill and this swells during the breeding season, it is not connected to the vocal cavities and appears to be purely for visual purposes.
Mating is thought to be promiscuous, quite possibly on a lek system like that of the kakapo (a very large, flightless parrot found only in New Zealand), but this remains uncertain. The male plays no part in building the nest or raising the young.
Females select a secluded location for nesting, usually in tall reeds well away from land and protected by deep water, or under the cover of overhanging shrubbery, but sometimes in a range of innovative places, such as on a stump, in a hollow log, or even under an upturned boat. The nest is a simple platform of trampled plant material with a slight cup, lined with fine plant matter and, after the eggs are laid, plenty of down. She seems to be unable to carry nest material and must rely on whatever is within reach. With the nest complete, she pulls reeds down from overhead to make a canopy, hiding it from view. When leaving the nest to feed, she slips quietly into the water and submerges, not surfacing until she is well away from it.
Clutch size is unknown: as many as 10 eggs have been counted in a nest, but it seems likely that this is the result of dump nesting: three or four eggs are considered more likely. In most cases, only one duckling survives, sometimes two. They are able to swim and dive within a few days, after which they probably leave the nest. Young stay close to the mother for several months at least, sometimes riding on her back to begin with. They can peck at food items on the surface and dive a little while still quite small, but the mother continues to provide the bulk of their food until they are almost full-grown.
Conservation status
Musk ducks are sometimes shot by hunters, but are little prized, not being considered good eating. Wholesale clearing and draining of wetlands has impacted on their numbers, as has the widespread rise in Australian water salinity levels, but the species is not presently considered to be in danger.
1987 speech mimicry tape rediscovered
In September 2021, reports circulated about a rediscovered tape that originally was recorded in 1987 of a musk duck named Ripper at Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve in the Australian Capital Territory, who appeared to be the first duck recorded to mimic human speech. Reportedly, the recording demonstrates the duck saying "you bloody fool", possibly repeating a catchphrase from one of the caretakers of the reserve. Although other bird species are capable of mimicking human speech, no other duck species is reported to have that capability.
References
External links
Anatidae
musk duck
Birds of New South Wales
Birds of South Australia
Birds of Tasmania
Birds of Victoria (Australia)
Birds of Western Australia
musk duck
Oxyurinae
Articles containing video clips
Taxa named by George Shaw | [
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256015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stairs | Stairs | Stairs are a structure designed to bridge a large vertical distance by dividing it into smaller vertical distances, called steps. Stairs may be straight, round, or may consist of two or more straight pieces connected at angles.
Types of stairs include staircases (also called stairways), ladders, and escalators. Some alternatives to stairs are elevators (also called lifts), stairlifts, inclined moving walkways, and ramps. A stairwell is a vertical shaft or opening that contains a staircase. A flight (of stairs) is an inclined part of a staircase consisting of steps (and their lateral supports if supports are separate from steps).
Components and terms
A stair, or a stairstep, is one step in a flight of stairs. In buildings, stairs is a term applied to a complete flight of steps between two floors. A stair flight is a run of stairs or steps between landings. A staircase or stairway is one or more flights of stairs leading from one floor to another, and includes landings, newel posts, handrails, balustrades and additional parts. A stairwell is a compartment extending vertically through a building in which stairs are placed. A stair hall is the stairs, landings, hallways, or other portions of the public hall through which it is necessary to pass when going from the entrance floor to the other floors of a building. Box stairs are stairs built between walls, usually with no support except the wall strings.
Stairs may be in a "straight run", leading from one floor to another without a turn or change in direction. Stairs may change direction, commonly by two straight flights connected at a 90 degree angle landing. Stairs may also return onto themselves with 180 degree angle landings at each end of straight flights forming a vertical stairway commonly used in multistory and highrise buildings. Many variations of geometrical stairs may be formed of circular, elliptical and irregular constructions.
Stairs may be a required component of egress from structures and buildings. Stairs are also provided for convenience to access floors, roofs, levels and walking surfaces not accessible by other means. Stairs may also be a fanciful physical construct such as the "stairs that go nowhere" located at the Winchester Mystery House. Stairs are also a subject used in art to represent real or imaginary places built around impossible objects using geometric distortion, as in the work of artist M. C. Escher.
"Stairway" is also a common metaphor for achievement or loss of a position in the society; or as a metaphor of hierarchy (e.g. Jacob's Ladder, Battleship Potemkin).
Step
Each step is composed of a tread and a riser. Some include nosing.
Tread: The part of the stairway that is stepped on. It is constructed to the same specifications (thickness) as any other flooring. The tread "depth" is measured from the back of one tread to the back of the next. The "width" is measured from one side to the other.
Riser: The vertical portion between each tread on the stair. This may be missing for an "open" stair effect.
Nosing: An edge part of the tread that protrudes over the riser beneath. If it is present, this means that, measured horizontally, the total "run" length of the stairs is not simply the sum of the tread lengths, as the treads overlap each other. Many building codes require stair nosings for commercial, industrial, or municipal stairs. They provide additional length to the tread without changing the pitch of the stairs.
Starting or feature tread: Where stairs are open on one or both sides, the first step above the lower floor or landing may be wider than the other steps and rounded. When the starting step is rounded, the balusters typically form a spiral around the circumference of the rounded portion, and the handrail has a spiral called a "volute" that supports the top of the balusters. Besides the cosmetic appeal, starting steps allow the balusters to form a wider, more stable base for the end of the handrail. Handrails that simply end at a post at the foot of the stairs can be less sturdy, even with a thick post. A double ended feature tread can be used when both sides of the stairs are open. There are a number of different styles and uses of feature tread.
Stringer board, stringer, or sometimes just string::The structural member that supports the treads and risers in standard staircases. There are typically three stringers, one on either side and one in the centre, with more added as necessary for wider spans. Side stringers are sometimes dadoed to receive risers and treads for increased support. Stringers on open-sided stairs are called "cut stringers".
Tread rise: The distance from the top of one tread to the top of the next tread.
Total rise: The distance the flight of stairs raises vertically between two finished floor levels.
Winders::Winders are steps that are narrower on one side than the other. They are used to change the direction of the stairs without landings. A series of winders form a circular or spiral stairway. When three steps are used to turn a 90° corner, the middle step is called a kite winder as a kite-shaped quadrilateral.
Trim::Various moldings are used to decorate and in some instances support stairway elements. Scotia or quarter-round are typically placed beneath the nosing to support its overhang.
Curtail step
A decorative step at the bottom of the staircase which usually houses the volute and volute newel turning for a continuous handrail. The curtail tread will follow the flow of the volute.
The railing system
The balustrade is the system of railings and balusters that prevents people from falling over the edge.
Banister, railing, or handrail: The angled member for handholding, as distinguished from the vertical balusters which hold it up for stairs that are open on one side. Railings are often present on both sides of stairs, but can sometimes be only on one side or absent altogether. On wide staircases, there can be one or more railings in between the two sides. The term "banister" is sometimes used to mean just the handrail, sometimes the handrail and the balusters, or sometimes just the balusters.
Volute: A handrail end element for the bullnose step that curves inward like a spiral. A volute is said to be right or left-handed depending on which side of the stairs the handrail is as one faces up the stairs.
Turnout: Instead of a complete spiral volute, a turnout deviates from the normal handrail centre line away from the flight to give a wider opening as one enters the staircase, The turnout is usually set over a newel post to give added stability to the handrail.
Gooseneck: The vertical handrail that joins a sloped handrail to a higher handrail on the balcony or landing is a gooseneck.
Rosette: Where the handrail ends in the wall and a half-newel is not used, it may be trimmed by a rosette.
Easings: Wall handrails are mounted directly onto the wall with wall brackets. At the bottom of the stairs such railings flare to a horizontal railing and this horizontal portion is called a "starting easing". At the top of the stairs, the horizontal portion of the railing is called an "over easing".
Core rail: Wood handrails often have a metal core to provide extra strength and stiffness, especially when the rail has to curve against the grain of the wood. The archaic term for the metal core is "core rail".
Baluster: A term for the vertical posts that hold up the handrail. Sometimes simply called guards or spindles. Treads often require two balusters. The second baluster is closer to the riser and is taller than the first. The extra height in the second baluster is typically in the middle between decorative elements on the baluster. That way the bottom decorative elements are aligned with the tread and the top elements are aligned with the railing angle.
Newel: A large baluster or post used to anchor the handrail. Since it is a structural element, it extends below the floor and subfloor to the bottom of the floor joists and is bolted right to the floor joist. A half-newel may be used where a railing ends in the wall. Visually, it looks like half the newel is embedded in the wall. For open landings, a newel may extend below the landing for a decorative newel drop.
Finial: A decorative cap to the top of a newel post, particularly at the end of the balustrade.
Baserail, or shoerail: For systems where the baluster does not start at the treads, they go to a baserail. This allows for identical balusters, avoiding the second baluster problem.
Fillet: A decorative filler piece on the floor between balusters on a balcony railing.
Handrails may be continuous (sometimes called over-the-post) or post-to-post (or more accurately newel-to-newel). For continuous handrails on long balconies, there may be multiple newels and tandem caps to cover the newels. At corners, there are quarter-turn caps. For post-to-post systems, the newels project above the handrails.
Another, more classical, form of handrailing which is still in use is the tangent method. A variant of the Cylindric method of layout, it allows for continuous climbing and twisting rails and easings. It was defined from principles set down by architect Peter Nicholson in the 18th century.
The earliest spiral staircases appear in Temple A in the Greek colony Selinunte, Sicily, to both sides of the cella. The temple was constructed around 480–470 BC.
Other terms
Apron This is a wooden fascia board used to cover up trimmers and joists exposed by stairwell openings. The apron may be moulded or plain, and is intended to give the staircase a cleaner look by cloaking the side view.
Balcony: For stairs with an open concept upper floor or landing, the upper floor is functionally a balcony. For a straight flight of stairs, the balcony may be long enough to require multiple newels to support the length of railing.
Flight: A flight is an uninterrupted series of steps.
Floating stairs: A flight of stairs is said to be "floating" if there is nothing underneath. The risers are typically missing as well to emphasize the open effect, and create a functional feature suspended in midair. There may be only one stringer or the stringers otherwise minimized. Where building codes allow, there may not even be handrails.
Landing, or platform: A landing is the area of a floor near the top or bottom step of a stair. An intermediate landing is a small platform that is built as part of the stair between main floor levels and is typically used to allow stairs to change directions, or to allow the user a rest. A half landing, or half-pace, is where a 180° change in direction is made, and a quarter landing is where a 90° change in direction is made (on an intermediate landing). As intermediate landings consume floor space, they can be expensive to build. However, changing the direction of the stairs allows stairs to fit where they would not otherwise, or provides privacy to the upper level as visitors downstairs cannot simply look up the stairs to the upper level due to the change in direction. The word 'landing' is also commonly used for a general corridor in any of the floors above the ground floor of a building, even if that corridor is located well away from a staircase.
Mobile safety steps: Can be used as temporary, safe replacements for many types of stairs
Runner: Carpeting that runs down the middle of the stairs. Runners may be directly stapled or nailed to the stairs, or may be secured by a specialized bar, known as a stair rod, that holds the carpet in place where the tread meets the riser.
Spandrel: If there is not another flight of stairs immediately underneath, the triangular space underneath the stairs is called a "spandrel". It is frequently used as a closet.
Staircase: This term is often reserved for the stairs themselves: the steps, railings and landings; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "stairway". In the UK, however, the term "staircase" denotes what in the U.S. is called "stairway", but usually includes the casing – the walls, bannisters and underside of the stairs or roof above.
Stairway: This primarily American term is often reserved for the entire stairwell and staircase in combination; though often it is used interchangeably with "stairs" and "staircase".
Stairwell: The spatial opening, usually a vertical shaft, containing an indoor stairway; by extension it is often used as including the stairs it contains.
Staircase tower: A tower attached to, or incorporated into, a building that contains stairs linking the various floors.
Measurements
The measurements of a stair, in particular the rise height and going of the steps, should remain the same along the stairs.
The following stair measurements are important:
The rise height or rise of each step is measured from the top of one tread to the next. It is not the physical height of the riser; the latter excludes the thickness of the tread. A person using the stairs would move this distance vertically for each step taken.
The tread depth of a step is measured from the edge of the nosing to the vertical riser; if the steps have no nosing, it is the same as the going; otherwise it is the going plus the extent of one nosing.
The going of a step is measured from the edge of the nosing to the edge of nosing in plan view. A person using the stairs would move this distance forward with each step they take.
To avoid confusion, the number of steps in a set of stairs is always the number of risers, not the number of treads.
The total run or total going of the stairs is the horizontal distance from the first riser to the last riser. It is often not simply the sum of the individual tread lengths due to the nosing overlapping between treads. If there are N steps, the total run equals N-1 times the going: the tread of the first step is part of a landing.
The total rise of the stairs is the height between floors (or landings) that the flight of stairs is spanning. If there are N steps, the total rise equals N times the rise of each step.
The slope or pitch of the stairs is the ratio between the rise and the going (not the tread depth, due to the nosing). It is sometimes called the rake of the stairs. The pitch line is the imaginary line along the tip of the nosing of the treads. In the UK, stair pitch is the angle the pitch line makes with the horizontal, measured in degrees. The value of the slope, as a ratio, is then the tangent of the pitch angle.
Headroom is the height above the nosing of a tread to the ceiling above it.
Walkline – for curved stairs, the inner radius of the curve may result in very narrow treads. The "walkline" is the imaginary line some distance away from the inner edge on which people are expected to walk. Building code will specify the distance. Building codes will then specify the minimum tread size at the walkline.
Forms
Stairs can take a large number of forms, combining winders and landings.
The simplest form is the straight flight of stairs, with neither winders nor landings. These types of stairs were commonly used in traditional homes as they are relatively easy to build and only need to be connected at the top and bottom; however, many modern properties may not choose straight flights of stairs because:
the upstairs is directly visible from the bottom of a straight flight of stairs.
it is potentially more dangerous in that a fall is not interrupted until the bottom of the stairs.
a straight flight requires enough space for the entire run of the stairs.
Another form of straight staircase is the space saver staircase, also known as paddle stairs or alternating tread staircases, that can be used for a steeper rise, but these can only be used in certain circumstances and must comply with regulations.
However, a basic straight flight of stairs is easier to design and construct than one with landings or winders. Although the rhythm of stepping is not interrupted in a straight run, which may offset the increased fall risk by helping to prevent a misstep in the first place, many stairs will require landings or winders to comply with safety standards in the Building Regulations.
Straight stairs can have a mid-landing incorporated, but it is probably more common to see stairs that use a landing or winder to produce a bend in the stairs as a straight flight with a mid-landing will require a lot of linear space and is more commonly found in commercial buildings. "L" shaped stairways have one landing and usually change in direction by 90 degrees. "U" shaped stairs may employ a single wider landing for a change in direction of 180 degrees, or two landings for two changes in direction of 90 degrees each. A Z-shaped staircase incorporates two parallel 90° turns, creating a shape similar to that of the letter ‘Z’ if seen from above. Use of landings and a possible change of direction have the following effects:
The upstairs is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, which can provide more privacy for the upper floor.
A fall can be halted at the landing point, reducing the distance someone would fall to reduce risks.
Though the landings consume total floor space, there is no requirement for a large single dimension, allowing more flexible floorplan designs.
For larger stairs, particularly in exterior applications, a landing can provide a place to rest the legs.
Other forms include stairs with winders that curve or bend at an acute angle, three flight stairs that join at a landing to form a T-shape, and stairs with balconies and complex designs can be produced to suit individual properties.
A mono string staircase is a term used for a steel spine staircase with treads.
A double string staircase has two steel beams on either side and treads in the center.
Spiral and helical stairs
Spiral stairs, sometimes referred to in architectural descriptions as vice, wind around a newel (also the central pole). In Scottish architecture, they are commonly known as a turnpike stair. They typically have a handrail on the outer side only, and on the inner side just the central pole. A squared spiral stair assumes a square stairwell and expands the steps and railing to a square, resulting in unequal steps (larger where they extend into a corner of the square). A pure spiral assumes a circular stairwell and the steps and handrail are equal and positioned screw-symmetrically. A tight spiral stair with a central pole is very space efficient in the use of floor area.
The earliest spiral stairs architectural image was shown on a white terra cotta pot discovered in Hunan China, 7400 years ago.
Spiral stairs have the disadvantage of being very steep if they are tight or are otherwise not supported by a centre column, for two reasons:
The wider the spiral, the more steps can be accommodated per spiral. Therefore, if the spiral is large in diameter, via having a central support column that is strong (invariably large in diameter) and a special handrail that helps to distribute the load, each step may be longer and therefore the rise between each step may be smaller (equal to that of regular steps). Otherwise, the circumference of the circle at the walk line will be so small that it will be impossible to maintain a normal tread depth and a normal rise height without compromising headroom before reaching the upper floor.
To maintain headroom, some spiral stairs have very high rises to support a very short diameter. These are typically cases where the stairwell must be a small diameter by design or must not have any center support by design or may not have any perimeter support.
An example of perimeter support is the Vatican stairwell shown in the next section or the gothic stairwell shown to the left. That stairwell is only tight because of its design in which the diameter must be small. Many spirals, however, have sufficient width for normal size treads (8 inches) by being supported by any combination of a center pole, perimeter supports attaching to or beneath the treads, and a helical handrail. In this manner, the treads may be wide enough to accommodate low rises. In self-supporting stairs the spiral needs to be steep to allow the weight to distribute safely down the spiral in the most vertical manner possible. Spiral steps with centre columns or perimeter support do not have this limitation. Building codes may limit the use of spiral stairs to small areas or secondary usage if their treads are not sufficiently wide or have risers above nine and a half inches.
The term "spiral" has a more narrow definition in a mathematical context, as a mathematical spiral lies in a single plane and moves towards or away from a central point. The mathematical term for motion where the locus remains at a fixed distance from a fixed line whilst moving in a circular motion about it is "helical". The presence or otherwise of a central pole does not affect the terminology applied to the design of the structure.
When used in Roman architecture spiral stairs were generally restricted to elite structures. They were then adopted into Christian ecclesiastic architecture. There is a common misconception that spiral staircases in castles rose in a clockwise direction to hinder right-handed attackers. While clockwise spiral staircases are more common in castles than anti-clockwise, they were even more common in medieval structures without a military role such as religious buildings. Studies of spiral stairs in castle have concluded that "the role and position of spirals in castles ... had a much stronger domestic and status role than a military function" and that "there are sufficient examples of anticlockwise stairs in Britain and France in [the 11th and 12th centuries] to indicate that the choice must have depended both on physical convenience and architectural practicalities and there was no military ideology that demanded clockwise staircases in the cause of fighting efficiency or advantage".
Developments in manufacturing and design have led to the introduction of kit form spiral stairs. Steps and handrails can be bolted together to form a complete unit. These stairs can be made out of steel, timber, concrete or a combination of materials.
Helical or circular stairs do not have a central pole and there is a handrail on both sides. These have the advantage of a more uniform tread width when compared to the spiral staircase. Such stairs may also be built around an elliptical or oval planform.
Both double spiral and double helix staircases are possible, with two independent helical stairs in the same vertical space, allowing one person to ascend and another to descend, without ever meeting if they choose different helices. For examples, the Pozzo di S. Patrizio allows one-way traffic so that laden and unladen mules can ascend and descend without obstruction, while Château de Chambord, Château de Blois, and the Crédit Lyonnais headquarters ensure separation for social purposes. Fire escapes, though built with landings and straight runs of stairs, are often functionally double helices, with two separate stairs intertwined and occupying the same floor space. This is often in support of legal requirements to have two separate fire escapes.
Both spiral and helical stairs can be characterized by the number of turns that are made. A "quarter-turn" stair deposits the person facing 90 degrees from the starting orientation. Likewise, there are half-turn, three-quarters-turn and full-turn stairs. A continuous spiral may make many turns depending on the height. Very tall multi-turn spiral staircases are usually found in old stone towers within fortifications, churches and in lighthouses.
Winders may be used in combination with straight stairs to turn the direction of the stairs. This allows for a large number of permutations.
Alternating tread stairs or 'Witches stairs'
Where there is insufficient space for the full run length of normal stairs, alternating tread stairs may be used. Alternating tread stairs allow for a safe forward-facing descent of very steep stairs. The treads are designed such that they alternate between treads for each foot: one step is wide on the left side; the next step is wide on the right side. There is insufficient space on the narrow portion of the step for the other foot to stand, hence the person must always use the correct foot on the correct step. The slope of alternating tread stairs can be as high as 65 degrees as opposed to standard stairs, which are almost always less than 45 degrees. The advantage of alternating tread stairs is that people can descend face forward. The only other alternative in such short spaces would be a ladder which requires backward-facing descent. Alternating tread stairs may not be safe for small children, the elderly or the physically challenged. Building codes typically classify them as ladders and will only allow them where ladders are allowed, usually basement or attic utility or storage areas not frequently accessed.
These stairs are nowadays commonly referred to as 'Witches stairs', in the belief that they were created during an earlier era in an attempt to repel witches who were thought to be unable to climb such stairs. Such an origin of the term has since been disproved however, with experts finding no mention in any historical literature of stairs that were believed to prevent access by witches.
Alternating tread stairs have been in use since at least 1888.
The image on the right illustrates the space efficiency gained by an alternating tread stair. The alternating tread stair appears in the image's center, with green-colored treads. The alternating stair requires one unit of space per step: the same as the half-width step on its left, and half as much as the full-width stair on its right. Thus, the horizontal distance between steps is in this case reduced by a factor of two, reducing the size of each step.
The horizontal distance between steps is reduced by a factor less than two if for construction reasons there are narrow "unused" steps.
There is often (here also) glide plane symmetry: the mirror image with respect to the vertical center plane corresponds to a shift by one step.
Ergonomics and building code requirements
Ergonomically and for safety reasons, stairs must have certain measurements so that people can comfortably use them. Building codes typically specify certain measurements so that the stairs are not too steep or narrow.
Nicolas-François Blondel in the last volume of his Cours d'architecture (1675–1683) was the first known person to establish the ergonomic relationship of tread and riser dimensions. He specified that 2 x riser + tread = step length.
It is estimated that a noticeable mis-step occurs once in 7,398 uses and a minor accident on a flight of stairs occurs once in 63,000 uses. Stairs can be a hazardous obstacle for some, so some people choose to live in residences without stairs so that they are protected from injury.
Stairs are not suitable for wheelchairs and other vehicles. A stairlift is a mechanical device for lifting wheelchairs up and down stairs. For sufficiently wide stairs, a rail is mounted to the treads of the stairs, or attached to the wall. A chair is attached to the rail and the person on the chair is lifted as the chair moves along the rail.
UK requirements
(overview of Approved document K – Stairs, Ladders and Ramps)
The 2013 edition "approved document K" categorises stairs as private, utility and general access
When considering stairs for private dwellings all the specified measurements are in millimetres.
Building regulations are required for stairs used where the difference of level is greater than 600
Steepness of stairs – rise and going
Any rise between 150 and 220 used with any going between 220 and 300
Maximum rise 220 and minimum going 220 remembering that the maximum pitch of private stairs is 42°. The normal relationship between dimensions of the rise and going is that twice the rise plus the going (2R + G) should be between 550 and 700
Construction of steps
Steps should have level treads, they may have open risers but if so treads should overlap at least 16mm. Domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 years old so the handrail ballister spacing should be constructed so that a 100mm diameter sphere cannot pass through the opening in the risers in order to prevent children from sticking their heads through them and potentially getting stuck.
Headroom
A headroom of 2000mm is adequate. Special considerations can be made for loft conversions.
Width of flights
No recommendations are given for stair widths.
Length of flights
The approved document refers to 16 risers (steps) for utility stairs and 12 for general access. There is no requirement for private stairs. In practice there will be fewer than 16 steps as 16 x 220 gives over 3500 total rise (storey height) which is way above that in a domestic situation.
Landings
Level, unobstructed landings should be provided at the top and bottom of every flight. The width and length being at least that of the width of the stairs and can include part of the floor. A door may swing across the landing at the bottom of the flight but must leave a clear space of at least 400 across the whole landing
Tapered steps
There are special rules for stairs with tapered steps as shown in the image Example of Winder Stairs above
Alternate tread stairs can be provide in space saving situations
Guarding
Flights and landings must be guarded at the sides where the drop is more than 600mm. As domestic private stairs are likely to be used by children under 5 the guarding must be constructed so that a 100mm diameter sphere cannot pass through any opening or constructed so that children will not be able to climb the guarding. The height for internal private stairs should be at least and be able to withstand a horizontal force of 0.36|kN/m|.
US requirements
American building codes, while varying from State to State and County to County, generally specify the following parameters:
Minimum tread length, typically excluding the nosing for private residences. Some building codes also specify a minimum riser height, often .
Riser-Tread formula: Sometimes the stair parameters will be something like riser plus tread equals ; another formula is 2 times riser + tread equals , the length of a stride. Thus a rise and a tread exactly meets this code. If only a rise is used then a tread is required. This is based on the principle that a low rise is more like walking up a gentle incline and so the natural swing of the leg will be longer.
Low rise stairs are very expensive in terms of the space consumed. Such low rise stairs were built into the Winchester Mystery House to accommodate the infirmities of the owner, Sarah Winchester, before the invention of the elevator. These stairways, called "Easy Risers" consist of five flights wrapped into a multi-turn arrangement with a total width equal to more than four times the individual flight width and a depth roughly equal to one flight's run plus this width. The flights have varying numbers of steps.
Slope: A value for the rise-to-tread ratio of 17/29 ˜ 0.59 is considered optimal; this corresponds to a pitch angle of about 30°.
Variance on riser height and tread depth between steps on the same flight should be very low. Building codes require variances no larger than between depth of adjacent treads or the height of adjacent risers; within a flight, the tolerance between the largest and smallest riser or between the largest and smallest tread can not exceed . The reason is that on a continuous flight of stairs, people get used to a regular step and may trip if there is a step that is different, especially at night. The general rule is that all steps on the same flight must be identical. Hence, stairs are typically custom made to fit the particular floor to floor height and horizontal space available. Special care must be taken on the first and last risers. Stairs must be supported directly by the subfloor. If thick flooring (e.g. thick hardwood planks) are added on top of the subfloor, it will cover part of the first riser, reducing the effective height of the first step. Likewise at the top step, if the top riser simply reaches the subfloor and thick flooring is added, the last rise at the top may be higher than the last riser. The first and last riser heights of the rough stairs are modified to adjust for the addition of the finished floor.
Maximum nosing protrusion, typically to prevent people from tripping on the nosing.
Height of the handrail. This is typically between , measured to the nose of the tread. The minimum height of the handrail for landings may be different and is typically .
Handrail diameter. The size has to be comfortable for grasping and is typically between .
Maximum space between the balusters of the handrail. This is typically .
Openings (if they exist) between the bottom rail and treads are typically no bigger than .
Headroom: At least .
Maximum vertical height between floors or landings. This allows people to rest and limits the height of a fall.
Mandate handrails if there is more than a certain number of steps (typically 2 risers)
Minimum width of the stairway, with and without handrails
Not allow doors to swing over steps; the arc of doors must be completely on the landing/floor.
A stairwell may be designated as an area of refuge as well as a fire escape route, due to its fire-resistance rated design and fresh air supply.
The American Disabilities Act and other accessibility standards by state, such as Architectural Barriers Texas Accessibility Standards (TAS), do not allow open risers on accessible or egress stairs.
Stairs and art
As much as stairs are very functional, stairs can be very decorative and an impressive part of a building. Especially at the entrance of a large building stairs play an important role in the first impression of a building. In large buildings such as banks this is very popular. Modern companies and construction utilize the opportunities of functional stairs to actually upgrade buildings. Large utilities such as banks as well as residential buildings such as penthouses (e.g. in St George Wharf Tower) have modern and luxurious installations.
Notable sets of stairs
The longest stairway is listed by Guinness Book of Records as the service stairway for the Niesenbahn funicular railway near Spiez, Switzerland, with 11,674 steps and a height of . The stairs are usually employee-only, but there is a public run called "Niesenlauf" once a year.
Mount Girnar, one of the holiest of sacred places for Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist followers, and also for some Muslims, is located in Junagadh district in the Indian state of Gujarat in Saurashtrian peninsula. At a height of 1100 metres, with five summits, each adorned with several sacred places, it is accessed on foot by soaring close to 10,000 steps along a rugged terrain and deciduous forest that is also the last home for Asiatic lions. It is the longest completely stone-made stairway in the world.
A flight of 7,200 steps (including inner temple Steps), with 6,293 Official Mountain Walkway Steps, leads up the East Peak of Mount Tai in China.
The Gemonian stairs were infamous as a place of execution during the early Roman Empire, especially during the period postdating Tiberius.
The Haiku Stairs, on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, are approximately 4,000 steps which climb nearly . Originally used to access longwire radio radio antennas which were strung high above the Haiku Valley, between Honolulu and Kaneohe, they are closed to hikers.
The Flørli stairs, in Lysefjorden, Norway, have 4,444 wooden steps which climb from sea level to . It is a maintenance stairway for the water pipeline to the old Flørli hydro plant. The hydro plant is now closed down, and the stairs are open to the public. The stairway is claimed to be the longest wooden stairway in the world.
The longest stone stairs in Japan are the 3,333-step stairs of the Shakain temple in Yatsushiro, Kumamoto. The second ones, Mount Haguro stone stairs, have 2,446 steps in Tsuruoka, Yamagata.
The CN Tower's staircase reaches the main deck level after 1,776 steps and the Sky Pod above after 2,579 steps; it is the tallest metal staircase on Earth.
The Penrose stairs, devised by Lionel and Roger Penrose, are a famous impossible object. The image distorts perspective in such a manner that the stairs appear to be never-ending, a physical impossibility. The image was adopted by M. C. Escher in his iconic lithograph Ascending and Descending.
The World Trade Center Survivors' Staircase is the last visible structure above ground level at the World Trade Center site. It was originally two outdoor flights of granite-clad stairs and an escalator that connected Vesey Street to the World Trade Center's Austin J. Tobin Plaza. During the September 11, 2001, attacks, the stairs served as an escape route for hundreds of evacuees from 5 World Trade Center, a 9-floor building adjacent to the 110-story towers.
Stairwell A was the lone stairway left intact after the second plane hit the South Tower of the World Trade Center during the September 11 attacks. It was believed to have remained intact until the South Tower collapsed at 9:59 am. 14 people were able to escape the floors located at the impact zone (including one man who saw the plane coming at him), and 4 people from the floors above the impact zone. Numerous 911 operators who received calls from individuals inside the South Tower were not well informed of the situation as it rapidly unfolded in the South Tower. Many operators told callers not to descend the tower on their own, even though it is now believed that Stairwell A was most likely passable at and above the point of impact.
In London, England, a notable staircase is that to The Monument to the Great Fire of London, more commonly known simply as "the Monument". This is a column in the City of London, near the northern end of London Bridge, which commemorates the Great Fire of London. The top of the Monument is reached by a narrow winding staircase of 311 steps. Constructed between 1671 and 1677, it is the tallest isolated stone column in the world.
The Spanish Steps in Rome are a monument of late Italian Baroque architecture connecting the Piazza di Spagna with the Trinità dei Monti up the side of the Pincian Hill. Designed by Francesco De Sanctis and constructed 1723–1725, the 135 steps form a wide vista looking down toward the Tiber. The steps are adorned with garden terraces blooming with azaleas and have been widely celebrated in cultural work.
The Loretto Chapel in Santa Fe, New Mexico is well known for its helix-shaped spiral staircase, which has been nicknamed "Miraculous Stair". It has been the subject of legend and rumor, and the circumstances surrounding its construction and its builder are considered miraculous by the Sisters of Loretto and many visitors.
El Toro, in Lake Forest, California is known among skateboarders, BMXers, and inline skaters for being one of, if not the most popular gap in the listed sports. The first to do an ollie down it was Don Nguyen, who did it first try.
The Grand Staircase of the Titanic is one of the most recognizable features of the British transatlantic ocean liner that sank on her maiden voyage in 1912 after a collision with an iceberg.
Gallery
See also
Alley
Mule ramp
Watermen's stairs
Cable railings
Combination stair
Equestrian staircase
Fire escape
Fish ladder
Stair climbing
Staircase tower
Steel square (for use in stair framing)
Stoop (architecture)
Inclined plane
Penrose stairs
Steps of Cincinnati
Steps of Pittsburgh
Rocky Steps
References
External links
Stair maps (public stairways mainly in North America)
.
Architectural elements
Building engineering
Floors
Garden features
Pedestrian infrastructure
Safety codes
Transport buildings and structures
Vertical transport devices | [
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256017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hepcats | Hepcats | Hepcats is a comic book series self-published in the 1990s by cartoonist Martin Wagner. It deals with the lives of four college students, rendered as anthropomorphic animals (humanoid bodies, but animal heads), and is inspired by Wagner's own college experiences.
Publication history
The series began as a comic strip in The Daily Texan, the student newspaper of the University of Texas at Austin, in 1987. Each installment was typically four panels (but with frequent variation), usually with a comedic gag at the end, but with ongoing storylines.
In 1989, inspired by cartoonists such as Dave Sim who were successfully self-publishing their comics, Wagner began publishing Hepcats as a black-and-white comic book series, under his own Double Diamond Press imprint. In this format, the series took on the highly detailed pen-and-ink artwork that would become one of its distinguishing features. Wagner immediately began experimenting with page layouts, including turning the pages sideways, using a double-page spread for each layout for issue #2. Issue #3 began what was intended to be an 18-part graphic novel entitled Snowblind. Critics have frequently cited Sim's Cerebus the Aardvark as an artistic influence on this material.
Though critically acclaimed, with a cult following, the series was not a financial success, and this led to an erratic publishing schedule that frustrated readers. In comments written later, in the summer of 1996, Wagner cited poor sales, his weak business skills, and his 1991 divorce as the causes of a financial "hole" he was struggling to get out of. Despite Wagner's increasing prominence as one of several acclaimed self-publishers of the period – along with Jeff Smith (Bone), Colleen Doran (A Distant Soil), James A. Owen (Starchild), and Sim (Cerebus) — the series stalled after issue #12 in 1994. Collections of the Daily Texan strips and of the first volume of Snowblind were released, but Wagner said those sales were not enough to make continuation of the series financially viable.
In 1996 Wagner signed a deal with Antarctic Press to republish the series to date, along with new issues. Antarctic republished the original 12 issues from 1996 to 1998; A color "#0" issue was released to launch this reprint series, but it was the last new material published. Wagner claimed to have finished issue #13, but in a 1999 interview in Beau Yarbrough's "Comics Wire" at Comic Book Resources, he stated that the "pitiful" advance orders for that issue had led him to look for another way to make a living. Shortly after the cancellation of these orders, however, Antarctic employee Matthew High stated that these orders were in line with the publisher's expectations and that Wagner had never turned in any art for #13. Wagner left the comics industry in 1998.
In 2006, Wagner announced that he would be finishing the Snowblind storyline as a webcomic. By the end of 2010 he admitted to regretting that announcement, as he was busy with paying work and the series was not high on his leisure-time priorities list. In 2008, to tide fans over while waiting for Snowblind to appear, he began work on an 8-page mini-comic unrelated to the Snowblind storyline. The minicomic was also not completed, updates ceasing after page 5, also because of work commitments.
Collected volumes
Yo: The First Hepcats Book (1988; collection of Daily Texan strips—cover spoofs sleeve of Peter Gabriel's album So)
The Collegiate Hepcats (1993; complete collection of all Daily Texan strips, plus Hepcats #1 and some pre-Hepcats work from the University of Houston paper)
Snowblind, Part One (1995; collecting Hepcats #3–10, first half of unfinished Snowblind graphic novel)
Not reprinted in any of these collections are #2 (the sideways issue, reprinted in a "Special Edition" in 1994), and issues #11 (a 42-page story with a black on dark-gray cover, a dramatic turning point in the story) and #12 (the final issue to see print).
References
External links
Official site
(Double Diamond)
(Antarctic Press)
Fan site by Stephanie Krus posting entire original series run
Review on flowerfire.com
Antarctic Press titles
University of Texas at Austin | [
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] |
256020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biziura | Biziura | Biziura is a genus of stiff-tailed ducks endemic to Australasia and containing one living and one subfossil species.
Species
†B. delautouri Forbes, 1892 – New Zealand musk duck – previously endemic to New Zealand, and occurring on both North and South Islands, but now extinct.
References
Bird genera
Bird genera with one living species
Oxyurinae | [
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256024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion%20in%20the%20United%20States | Abortion in the United States | Abortion is legal throughout the United States and its territories, although restrictions and accessibility vary from state to state. Abortion is a controversial and divisive issue in the society, culture and politics of the U.S., and various anti-abortion laws have been in force in each state since at least 1900. Since 1976, the Republican Party has generally sought to restrict abortion access or criminalize abortion, whereas the Democratic Party has generally defended access to abortion and has made contraception easier to obtain.
Before the Supreme Court of the United States decisions of Roe v. Wade and Doe v. Bolton decriminalized abortion nationwide in 1973, abortion was already legal in several states, but the decision in the former case imposed a uniform framework for state legislation on the subject. It established a minimal period during which abortion is legal (with more or fewer restrictions throughout the pregnancy). That basic framework, modified in Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), remains nominally in place, although the effective availability of abortion varies significantly from state to state, as many counties have no abortion providers. Planned Parenthood v. Casey held that a law cannot place legal restrictions imposing an undue burden for "the purpose or effect of placing a substantial obstacle in the path of a woman seeking an abortion of a nonviable fetus."
The abortion rate has continuously fallen from a peak in 1980 of 30 per 1,000 women of childbearing age (15–44), to 11.3 abortions per 1,000 women by 2018. In 2018, 77.7% of abortions were performed at 9 weeks or less gestation, and 92.2% of abortions were performed at 13 weeks or less gestation. Increased access to birth control has been statistically linked to reductions in the abortion rate.
The main actors in the abortion debate are often framed as "pro-choice", believing that a woman is entitled to choose whether to continue her pregnancy, versus "pro-life", believing that the fetus has a right to live, though most Americans are found to agree with some positions of each side. A 2018 Gallup survey found the percentages of "pro-choice" or "pro-life" respondents were equal (at 48%), but more considered abortion morally wrong (48%) than morally acceptable (43%). The poll results also indicated that Americans harbor diverse and shifting opinions on the legal right to abortion. The survey found that 29% of respondents believed that abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 50% that it should be legal under some circumstances, and 20% that it should be illegal in all circumstances. , polling results found that 34% of Americans were satisfied with abortion laws.
Terminology
The abortion debate most commonly relates to the "induced abortion" of an embryo or fetus at some point in a pregnancy, which is also how the term is used in a legal sense. Some also use the term "elective abortion", which is used in relation to a claim to an unrestricted right of a woman to an abortion, whether or not she chooses to have one. The term elective abortion or voluntary abortion describes the interruption of pregnancy before viability at the request of the woman, but not for medical reasons.
In medical parlance, "abortion" can refer to either miscarriage or abortion until the fetus is viable. After viability, doctors call an abortion a "termination of pregnancy".
History
Rise of anti-abortion legislation
When the United States became independent, most states applied English common law to abortion. This meant it was not permitted after quickening, or the start of fetal movements, usually felt 15–20 weeks after conception.
Abortion has existed in America since European colonization. The earliest settlers would often encourage abortions before the "quickening" stage in the pregnancy. There were many reasons given for this, including not having resources to bear children. By the late 1800s states began to make abortions illegal. One reason given for the legislation was that abortions had been performed with dangerous methods and were often surgical. Because of this, many states decided to forbid abortions. As technology advanced and abortion methods improved, abortions still remained illegal. Women would resort to illegal unsafe methods, also known as "back alley" abortions.
Abortions became illegal by statute in Britain in 1803 with Lord Ellenborough's Act. Various anti-abortion statutes that codified or expanded common law began to appear in the United States in the 1820s. Some historians argue a Connecticut law targeted apothecaries who sold "poisons" to women for purposes of inducing an abortion. However, additional research into the Connecticut law reveals the state legislation enacted the law based on the case of State of Connecticut v. Ammi Rogers. New York made post-quickening abortions a felony and pre-quickening abortions a misdemeanor in 1829. Other legal scholars have pointed out that some of the early laws punished not only the doctor or abortionist, but also the woman who hired them.
A number of other factors likely played a role in the rise of anti-abortion laws. Physicians, who were the leading advocates of abortion criminalization laws, appear to have been motivated at least in part by advances in medical knowledge. Science had discovered that conception inaugurated a more or less continuous process of development, which produced a new human being. Quickening was found to be neither more nor less crucial in the process of gestation than any other step. Many physicians concluded that if society considered it unjustifiable to terminate pregnancy after the fetus had quickened, and if quickening was a relatively unimportant step in the gestation process, then it was just as wrong to terminate a pregnancy before quickening as after quickening. Ideologically, the Hippocratic Oath and the medical mentality of that age to defend the value of human life as an absolute played a significant role in molding opinions about abortion. Doctors were also influenced by practical reasons to advocate anti-abortion laws. For one, abortion providers tended to be untrained and not members of medical societies. In an age where the leading doctors in the nation were attempting to standardize the medical profession, these "irregulars" were considered a nuisance to public health. The more formalized medical profession disliked the "irregulars" because they were competition, often at a cheaper cost.
Despite campaigns to end the practice of abortion, abortifacient advertising was highly effective and abortion was commonly practiced in the mid-19th century. While the precise abortion rate was not known, James Mohr's 1978 book Abortion in America documented multiple recorded estimates by 19th century physicians which suggested that between around 15% and 35% of all pregnancies ended in abortion during that period. This era also saw a marked shift in the people who were obtaining abortions. Before the start of the 19th century, most abortions were sought by unmarried women who had become pregnant out of wedlock. Out of 54 abortion cases published in American medical journals between 1839 and 1880, over half were sought by married women, and well over 60% of the married women already had at least one child. The sense that married women were now frequently obtaining abortions worried many conservative physicians, who were almost exclusively men. In the post-Civil War era, much of the blame was placed on the burgeoning women's rights movement.
Though the medical profession expressed hostility toward feminism, many feminists of the era were also opposed to abortion. In the newspaper The Revolution, operated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, an opinion piece was published arguing that instead of merely attempting to pass a law against abortion, the root cause must also be addressed. Simply passing an anti-abortion law would, the writer stated, "be only mowing off the top of the noxious weed, while the root remains. [...] No matter what the motive, love of ease, or a desire to save from suffering the unborn innocent, the woman is awfully guilty who commits the deed. It will burden her conscience in life, it will burden her soul in death; But oh! thrice guilty is he who drove her to the desperation which impelled her to the crime." To many feminists of this era, abortion was regarded as an undesirable necessity forced upon women by thoughtless men. Even the "free love" wing of the feminist movement refused to advocate for abortion and treated the practice as an example of the hideous extremes to which modern marriage was driving women. Marital rape and the seduction of unmarried women were societal ills which feminists believed caused the need to abort, as men did not respect women's right to abstinence.
However, physicians remained the loudest voice in the anti-abortion debate, and they carried their agenda to state legislatures around the country, advocating not only anti-abortion laws, but also laws against birth control. This movement presaged the modern debate over women's body rights. A campaign was launched against the movement and the use and availability of contraceptives.
Criminalization of abortion accelerated from the late 1860s, through the efforts of concerned legislators, doctors, and the American Medical Association. In 1873, Anthony Comstock created the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice, an institution dedicated to supervising the morality of the public. Later that year, Comstock successfully influenced the United States Congress to pass the Comstock Law, which made it illegal to deliver through the U.S. mail any "obscene, lewd, or lascivious" material. It also prohibited producing or publishing information pertaining to the procurement of abortion or the prevention of conception or venereal disease, even to medical students. The production, publication, importation, and distribution of such materials was suppressed under the Comstock Law as being obscene, and similar prohibitions were passed by 24 of the 37 states.
In 1900, abortion was normally a felony in every state. Some states included provisions allowing for abortion in limited circumstances, generally to protect the woman's life or to terminate pregnancies arising from rape or incest. Abortions continued to occur, however, and became increasingly available. The American Birth Control League was founded by Margaret Sanger in 1921; it would become Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1942.
By the 1930s, licensed physicians performed an estimated 800,000 abortions a year.
Sherri Finkbine
In the early 1960s, a controversy centered around children's television host Sherri Finkbine that helped bring abortion and abortion law more directly into the American public eye. Living in the area of Phoenix, Arizona, Finkbine had had four healthy children, but during her pregnancy with her fifth child, she discovered the child might have severe deformities when born. This was likely because Finkbine had been taking sleeping pills that she was unaware contained thalidomide, a drug which increases the risk of fetal deformities during pregnancy. Finkbine wanted an abortion, but the abortion laws of Arizona only allowed abortions if a pregnancy posed a threat to the woman's life. The situation gained public attention after Finkbine shared the story with a reporter from The Arizona Republic, who disclosed her identity in spite of her requests for anonymity. On August 18, 1962, Finkbine traveled to Sweden to obtain a legal abortion, where it was confirmed that the fetus had severe deformities. Finkbine's story marked a turning point for women's reproductive rights and abortion law in the United States. Still, Finkbine was only able to get an abortion because she could afford to travel overseas for it, highlighting an inequality in abortion rights persisting to this day whereby many women cannot afford or otherwise don't have the resources to obtain a legal abortion. In such cases, women may turn to illegal forms of abortion.
Pre-Roe precedents
In 1964, Gerri Santoro of Connecticut died trying to obtain an illegal abortion, and her photo became the symbol of an abortion-rights movement. Some women's rights activist groups developed their own skills to provide abortions to women who could not obtain them elsewhere. As an example, in Chicago, a group known as "Jane" operated a floating abortion clinic throughout much of the 1960s. Women seeking the procedure would call a designated number and be given instructions on how to find "Jane".
In 1965, the U.S. Supreme Court case Griswold v. Connecticut struck down one of the remaining contraception Comstock laws in Connecticut and Massachusetts. However, Griswold only applied to marital relationships, allowing married couples to buy and use contraceptives without government restriction. It took until 1972, with Eisenstadt v. Baird, to extend the precedent of Griswold to unmarried persons as well. Following the Griswold case, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) issued a medical bulletin accepting a recommendation from six years earlier that clarified that "conception is the implantation of a fertilized ovum", and consequently birth control methods that prevented implantation became classified as contraceptives, not abortifacients.
In 1967, Colorado became the first state to decriminalize abortion in cases of rape, incest, or in which pregnancy would lead to permanent physical disability of the woman. Similar laws were passed in California, Oregon, and North Carolina. In 1970, Hawaii became the first state to legalize abortions on the request of the woman, and New York repealed its 1830 law and allowed abortions up to the 24th week of pregnancy. Similar laws were soon passed in Alaska and Washington. In 1970, Washington held a referendum on legalizing early pregnancy abortions, becoming the first state to legalize abortion through a vote of the people. A law in Washington, D.C., which allowed abortion to protect the life or health of the woman, was challenged in the Supreme Court in 1971 in United States v. Vuitch. The court upheld the law, deeming that "health" meant "psychological and physical well-being", essentially allowing abortion in Washington, D.C. By the end of 1972, 13 states had a law similar to that of Colorado, while Mississippi allowed abortion in cases of rape or incest only and Alabama and Massachusetts allowed abortions only in cases where the woman's physical health was endangered. In order to obtain abortions during this period, women would often travel from a state where abortion was illegal to one where it was legal. The legal position prior to Roe v. Wade was that abortion was illegal in 30 states and legal under certain circumstances in 20 states.
In the late 1960s, a number of organizations were formed to mobilize opinion both against and for the legalization of abortion. In 1966, the National Conference of Catholic Bishops assigned Monsignor James T. McHugh to document efforts to reform abortion laws, and anti-abortion groups began forming in various states in 1967. In 1968, McHugh led an advisory group which became the National Right to Life Committee. The forerunner of the NARAL Pro-Choice America was formed in 1969 to oppose restrictions on abortion and expand access to abortion. Following Roe v. Wade, in late 1973, NARAL became the National Abortion Rights Action League.
Roe v. Wade
Prior to Roe v. Wade, 30 states prohibited abortion without exception, 16 states banned abortion except in certain special circumstances (e.g., rape, incest, health threat to mother), 3 states allowed residents to obtain abortions, and New York allowed abortions generally. Early that year, on January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court in Roe v. Wade invalidated all of these laws, and set guidelines for the availability of abortion. Roe established that the right of privacy of a woman to obtain an abortion "must be considered against important state interests in regulation". Roe established the end of the first "trimester" (i.e., 12 week) as the threshold for state interest, such that states were prohibited from banning abortion in the first trimester but allowed to impose increasing restrictions or outright bans later in pregnancy.
In deciding Roe v. Wade, the Supreme Court ruled that a Texas statute forbidding abortion except when necessary to save the life of the mother was unconstitutional. The Court arrived at its decision by concluding that the issue of abortion and abortion rights falls under the right to privacy (in the sense of the right of a person not to be encroached by the state). In its opinion, it listed several landmark cases where the court had previously found a right to privacy implied by the Constitution. The Court did not recognize a right to abortion in all cases:State regulation protective of fetal life after viability thus has both logical and biological justifications. If the State is interested in protecting fetal life after viability, it may go so far as to proscribe abortion during that period, except when it is necessary to preserve the life or health of the mother.
The Court held that a right to privacy existed and included the right to have an abortion. The court found that a mother had a right to abortion until viability, a point to be determined by the abortion doctor. After viability a woman can obtain an abortion for health reasons, which the Court defined broadly to include psychological well-being.
A central issue in the Roe case (and in the wider abortion debate in general) is whether human life or personhood begins at conception, birth, or at some point in between. The Court declined to make an attempt at resolving this issue, noting: "We need not resolve the difficult question of when life begins. When those trained in the respective disciplines of medicine, philosophy, and theology are unable to arrive at any consensus, the judiciary, at this point in the development of man's knowledge, is not in a position to speculate as to the answer." Instead, it chose to point out that historically, under English and American common law and statutes, "the unborn have never been recognized ... as persons in the whole sense", and thus, the fetuses are not legally entitled to the protection afforded by the right to life specifically enumerated in the Fourteenth Amendment. So, rather than asserting that human life begins at any specific point, the court simply declared that the State has a "compelling interest" in protecting "potential life" at the point of viability.
Doe v. Bolton
Under Roe v. Wade, state governments may not prohibit late terminations of pregnancy when "necessary to preserve the life or health of the mother", even if it would cause the demise of a viable fetus. This rule was clarified by the 1973 judicial decision Doe v. Bolton, which specifies "that the medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors — physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age — relevant to the well-being of the patient". It is by this provision for the mother's mental health that women in the US legally choose abortion after viability when screenings reveal abnormalities that do not cause a baby to die shortly after birth.
Later judicial decisions
In the 1992 case of Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the Court abandoned Roe's strict trimester framework but maintained its central holding that women have a right to choose to have an abortion before viability. Roe had held that statutes regulating abortion must be subject to "strict scrutiny"—the traditional Supreme Court test for impositions upon fundamental Constitutional rights. Casey instead adopted the lower, undue burden standard for evaluating state abortion restrictions, but re-emphasized the right to abortion as grounded in the general sense of liberty and privacy protected under the constitution: "Constitutional protection of the woman's decision to terminate her pregnancy derives from the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It declares that no State shall 'deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.' The controlling word in the cases before us is 'liberty'."
The Supreme Court continues to grapple with cases on the subject. On April 18, 2007, it issued a ruling in the case of Gonzales v. Carhart, involving a federal law entitled the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2003 which President George W. Bush had signed into law. The law banned intact dilation and extraction, which opponents of abortion rights referred to as "partial-birth abortion", and stipulated that anyone breaking the law would get a prison sentence up to 2.5 years. The United States Supreme Court upheld the 2003 ban by a narrow majority of 5–4, marking the first time the Court has allowed a ban on any type of abortion since 1973. The opinion, which came from justice Anthony Kennedy, was joined by Justices Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and the two recent appointees, Samuel Alito and Chief Justice John Roberts.
In the case of Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt, the Supreme Court in a 5–3 decision on June 27, 2016, swept away forms of state restrictions on the way abortion clinics can function. The Texas legislature enacted in 2013 restrictions on the delivery of abortions services that created an undue burden for women seeking an abortion by requiring abortion doctors to have difficult-to-obtain "admitting privileges" at a local hospital and by requiring clinics to have costly hospital-grade facilities. The Court struck down these two provisions "facially" from the law at issue—that is, the very words of the provisions were invalid, no matter how they might be applied in any practical situation. According to the Supreme Court, the task of judging whether a law puts an unconstitutional burden on a woman's right to abortion belongs with the courts, and not the legislatures.
The Supreme Court ruled similarly in June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo on June 29, 2020, in a 5–4 decision that a Louisiana state law, modeled after the Texas law at the center of Whole Woman's Health, was unconstitutional. Like Texas' law, the Louisiana law required certain measures for abortion clinics that, if having gone into effect, would have closed five of the six clinics in the state. The case in Louisiana was put on hold pending the result of Whole Woman's Health, and was retried based on the Supreme Court's decision. While the District Court ruled the law unconstitutional, the Fifth Circuit found that unlike the Texas law, the burden of the Louisiana law passed the tests outlined in Whole Woman's Health, and thus the law was constitutional. The Supreme Court issued an order to suspend enforcement of the law pending further review, and agreed to hear the case in full in October 2019. It was the first abortion-related case to be heard by President Donald Trump's appointees to the Court, Neil Gorsuch and Brett Kavanaugh. The Supreme Court found the Louisiana law unconstitutional for the same reasons as the Texas one, reversing the Fifth Circuit. The judgment was supported by Chief Justice John Roberts who had dissented on Whole Woman's Health but joined in judgment as to upholding the court's respect for the past judgment in that case.
The Supreme Court granted certiorari to Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization in May 2021, a case that challenges the impact of Roe v. Wade in blocking enforcement of a 2018 Mississippi law that had banned any abortions after the first 15 weeks. Oral arguments to Dobbs were held in December 2021, and a decision is expected by the end of the 2021-22 Supreme Court term. On September 1, 2021, the state of Texas passed one of the most restrictive abortion laws in the nation, banning most procedures after six weeks.
Current legal status
Federal legislation
Since 1995, led by congressional Republicans, the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate have moved several times to pass measures banning the procedure of intact dilation and extraction, commonly known as partial birth abortion. Such measures passed twice by wide margins, but President Bill Clinton vetoed those bills in April 1996 and October 1997 on the grounds that they did not include health exceptions. Congressional supporters of the bill argue that a health exception would render the bill unenforceable, since the Doe v. Bolton decision defined "health" in vague terms, justifying any motive for obtaining an abortion. Congress was unsuccessful with subsequent attempts to override the vetoes.
The Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2002 ("BAIPA") was enacted August 5, 2002 by an Act of Congress and signed into law by George W. Bush. It asserts the human rights of infants born after a failed attempt to induce abortion. A "born-alive infant" is specified as a "person, human being, child, individual". "Born alive" is defined as the complete expulsion of an infant at any stage of development that has a heartbeat, pulsation of the umbilical cord, breath, or voluntary muscle movement, no matter if the umbilical cord has been cut or if the expulsion of the infant was natural, induced labor, cesarean section, or induced abortion.
On October 2, 2003, with a vote of 281–142, the House approved the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act to ban partial-birth abortion, with an exemption in cases of fatal threats to the woman. Through this legislation, a doctor could face up to two years in prison and civil lawsuits for performing such a procedure. A woman undergoing the procedure could not be prosecuted under the measure. On October 21, 2003, the United States Senate passed the bill by a vote of 64–34, with a number of Democrats joining in support. The bill was signed by President George W. Bush on November 5, 2003, but a federal judge blocked its enforcement in several states just a few hours after it became public law. The Supreme Court upheld the nationwide ban on the procedure in the case Gonzales v. Carhart on April 18, 2007, signaling a substantial change in the Court's approach to abortion law. The 5–4 ruling said the Partial Birth Abortion Ban Act does not conflict with previous decisions regarding abortion.
The current judicial interpretation of the U.S. Constitution regarding abortion, following the Supreme Court of the United States's 1973 landmark decision in Roe v. Wade, and subsequent companion decisions, is that abortion is legal but may be restricted by the states to varying degrees. States have passed laws to restrict late-term abortions, require parental notification for minors, and mandate the disclosure of abortion risk information to patients prior to the procedure.
The official report of the U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, issued in 1983 after extensive hearings on the Human Life Amendment (proposed by Senators Orrin Hatch and Thomas Eagleton), stated:
One aspect of the legal abortion regime now in place has been determining when the fetus is "viable" outside the womb as a measure of when the "life" of the fetus is its own (and therefore subject to being protected by the state). In the majority opinion delivered by the court in Roe v. Wade, viability was defined as "potentially able to live outside the mother's womb, albeit with artificial aid. Viability is usually placed at about seven months (28 weeks) but may occur earlier, even at 24 weeks". When the court ruled in 1973, the then-current medical technology suggested that viability could occur as early as 24 weeks. Advances over the past three decades allow survival of some babies born at 22 weeks.
, the youngest child to survive a premature birth in the United States was a girl born at Kapiolani Medical Center in Honolulu, Hawaii, at 21 weeks and 3 days gestation. Because of the split between federal and state law, legal access to abortion continues to vary by state. Geographic availability varies dramatically, with 87 percent of U.S. counties having no abortion provider. Moreover, due to the Hyde Amendment, many state health programs do not cover abortions; currently 17 states (including California, Illinois and New York) offer or require such coverage.
The legality of abortion is frequently a major issue in nomination battles for the U.S. Supreme Court. Nominees typically remain silent on the issue during their hearings, as the issue may come before them as judges.
The Unborn Victims of Violence Act, commonly known as "Laci and Conner's Law" was passed by Congress and signed into law by President Bush on April 1, 2004, allowing two charges to be filed against someone who kills a pregnant mother (one for the mother and one for the fetus). It specifically bans charges against the mother and/or doctor relating to abortion procedures. Nevertheless, it has generated much controversy among pro-abortion rights advocates who view it as a potential step in the direction of banning abortion.
The Pain-Capable Unborn Child Protection Act is a United States Congress bill to ban late-term abortions nationwide after 20 weeks post-fertilization on the basis that the fetus is capable of feeling pain during an abortion at and after that point of pregnancy. The bill was first introduced in Congress in 2013. It successfully passed the House of Representatives in 2013, 2015, and 2017, but has yet to pass the Senate. Opponents of the bill reject the claims made by the bill's supporters regarding fetal development, and argue that such a restriction would endanger women's health.
State-by-state legal status
Abortion is legal in all U.S. states, and every state has at least one abortion clinic. Abortion is a controversial political issue, and regular attempts to restrict it occur in most states. Two such cases, originating in Texas and Louisiana, led to the Supreme Court cases of Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt (2016) and June Medical Services, LLC v. Russo (2020) in which several Texas and Louisiana restrictions were struck down.
The issue of minors and abortion is regulated at the state level, and 37 states require some parental involvement, either in the form of parental consent or in the form of parental notification. In certain situations, the parental restrictions can be overridden by a court.
Mandatory waiting periods, mandatory ultrasounds and scripted counseling are common abortion regulations. Abortion laws are generally stricter in conservative Southern states than they are in other parts of the country.
In 2019, New York passed the Reproductive Health Act (RHA), which repealed a pre-Roe provision that banned third-trimester abortions except in cases where the continuation of the pregnancy endangered a pregnant woman's life.
Abortion in the Northern Mariana Islands, a United States Commonwealth territory, is illegal.
Alabama House Republicans passed a law on April 30, 2019, that will criminalize abortion if it goes into effect. Dubbed the "Human Life Protection Act", it offers only two exceptions: serious health risk to the mother or a lethal fetal anomaly. It will also make the procedure a Class A felony. Twenty-five male Alabama senators voted to pass the law on May 13. The next day, Alabama governor Kay Ivey signed the bill into law, primarily as a symbolic gesture in hopes of challenging Roe v. Wade in the Supreme Court.
Since Alabama introduced the first modern anti-abortion legislation in April 2019, five other states have also adopted abortion laws including Mississippi, Kentucky, Ohio, Georgia and most recently Louisiana on May 30, 2019.
In May 2019, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld an Indiana state law that requires fetuses which were aborted be buried or cremated. In a December 2019 case, the court declined to review a lower court decision which upheld a Kentucky law requiring doctors to perform ultrasounds and show fetal images to patients before abortions.
On June 29, 2020, previous Supreme Court rulings banning abortion restrictions appeared to be upheld when the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the Louisiana anti-abortion law Following the ruling, the legality of laws restricting abortion in states such as Ohio was then called into question. It was also noted that Supreme Court Chief Justice John Roberts, who agreed that the Louisiana anti-abortion law was unconstitutional, had previously voted to uphold a similar law in Texas which was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court in 2016.
In May 2021, Texas lawmakers passed the Texas Heartbeat Act, banning abortions as soon as cardiac activity can be detected, typically as early as six weeks into pregnancy and often before women know they are pregnant. In order to avoid traditional constitutional challenges based on Roe v. Wade, the law provides that any person, with or without any vested interest, may sue anyone that performs or induces an abortion in violation of the statute, as well as anyone who "aids or abets the performance or inducement of an abortion, including paying for or reimbursing the costs of an abortion through insurance or otherwise." The law was challenged in courts, though had yet to have a full formal hearing as its September 1, 2021, enactment date came due. Plaintiffs sought an order from the U.S. Supreme Court to stop the law from coming into effect, but the Court issued a denial of the order late on September 1, 2021, allowing the law to remain in effect. While unsigned, Chief Justice John Roberts and Justice Stephen Breyer wrote dissenting opinions joined by Justices Elena Kagan and Sonia Sotomayor that they would have granted an injunction on the law until a proper judicial review.
On September 9, 2021, Attorney General Merrick Garland, the head of the United States Department of Justice sued the State of Texas over the Texas Act on the basis that "the law is invalid under the Supremacy Clause and the Fourteenth Amendment, is preempted by federal law, and violates the doctrine of intergovernmental immunity". Garland further noted that the United States government has “an obligation to ensure that no state can deprive individuals of their constitutional rights.” The Complaint avers that Texas enacted the law "in open defiance of the Constitution". The relief requested from the U.S. District Court in Austin, Texas includes a declaration that the Texas Act is unconstitutional, and an injunction against state actors as well as any and all private individuals who may bring a SB 8 action. The idea of asking a federal court to impose an injunction upon the entire civilian population of a state is unprecedented and has drawn eyebrows.
In response to the coronavirus pandemic
Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, anti-abortion government officials in several American states enacted or attempted to enact restrictions on abortion, characterizing it as a non-essential procedure that can be suspended during the medical emergency. The orders have led to several legal challenges and criticism by human rights groups and several national medical organizations, including the American Medical Association. Legal challenges on behalf of abortion providers, many of which are represented by the American Civil Liberties Union and Planned Parenthood, have successfully stopped most of the orders on a temporary basis.
One challenge was made against the FDA's rule on the distribution of mifepristone (RU-486), one of the two-part drug regimen to induce abortions. Since 2000, it is only available through health providers under the FDA's ruling. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, access to mifepristone was a concern, and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists along with other groups sued to have the rule relaxed to allow women to be able to access mifepristone at home through mail-order or retail pharmacies. While the Fourth Circuit issued a preliminary injunction against the FDA's ruling that would have allowed wider distribution, the Supreme Court ordered in a 6–3 decision in January 2021 to put a stay on the injunction, maintaining the FDA's rule.
Sanctuary city for the unborn
Since 2019, the anti-abortion movement in the United States has been pushing for anti-abortion rules such as declarations of "sanctuary city for the unborn".
In June 2019, the city council of Waskom, Texas, voted to outlaw abortion in the city, declaring Waskom a "sanctuary city for the unborn" (the first such city to designate itself as such), as state governments elsewhere in the United States also were drafting abortion bans. There is currently no abortion clinic in the city. The Waskom ordinance has led other small cities in Texas (and, as of April 2021, in Nebraska) to vote in favor of becoming "sanctuary cities for the unborn."
On April 6, 2021, Hayes Center, Nebraska, became the first city in Nebraska to outlaw abortion by local ordinance, declaring itself a "sanctuary city for the unborn."
The city of Blue Hill, Nebraska, followed suit and enacted a similar ordinance outlawing abortion on April 13, 2021.
On May 2021, Lubbock, Texas, voted to become the largest city in the U.S. to ban abortion with the "sanctuary city for the unborn ordinance". (The population of Lubbock in 2021 was less than 270,000.)
Qualifying requirements for abortion providers
Qualifying requirements for performing abortions vary from state to state, and are currently being changed in several states by lawmakers who anticipate the possibility that Roe v. Wade may soon be overturned. Currently, New York, Illinois, and Maine allow non-physician health professionals, such as physician assistants, nurse practitioners, and certified nurse midwives, acting within their scope of practice, to perform abortion procedures; their laws do not explicitly specify which types of abortions these non-physicians may do. California, Oregon, Montana, Vermont, and New Hampshire allow qualified non-physician health professionals to do first-trimester aspiration abortions and to prescribe drugs for medical abortions. Washington State, New Mexico, Alaska, Maryland, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey allow qualified non-physicians to prescribe drugs for medical abortions only. In all other states, only licensed physicians may perform abortions. In 2016, the FDA issued new guidelines recommending that qualified non-physician health-care professionals be allowed to prescribe mifepristone in all states; however, these guidelines are not binding, and states are free to determine their own policies regarding mifepristone.
Statistics
Because reporting of abortions is not mandatory, statistics are of varying reliability. Both the Centers For Disease Control (CDC) and the Guttmacher Institute regularly compile these statistics.
Number of abortions
The annual number of legal induced abortions in the US doubled between 1973 and 1979, and peaked in 1990. There was a slow but steady decline throughout the 1990s. Overall, the number of annual abortions decreased by 6% between 2000 and 2009, with temporary spikes in 2002 and 2006.
By 2011, abortion rate in the nation dropped to its lowest point since the Supreme Court legalized the procedure. According to a study performed by Guttmacher Institute, long-acting contraceptive methods had a significant impact in reducing unwanted pregnancies. There were fewer than 17 abortions for every 1,000 women of child-bearing age. That was a 13%-decrease from 2008's numbers and slightly higher than the rate in 1973, when the Supreme Court's Roe v. Wade decision legalized abortion. The study indicated a long-term decline in the abortion rate.
In 2016, the CDC reported 623,471 abortions, a 2% decrease from 636,902 in 2015.
Medical abortions
A Guttmacher Institute survey of abortion providers estimated that early medical abortions accounted for 17% of all non-hospital abortions and slightly over one-quarter of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in the United States in 2008. Medical abortions voluntarily reported to the CDC by 34 reporting areas (excluding Alabama, California, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Vermont, Wisconsin, and Wyoming) and published in its annual abortion surveillance reports have increased every year since the September 28, 2000 FDA approval of mifepristone (RU-486): 1.0% in 2000, 2.9% in 2001, 5.2% in 2002, 7.9% in 2003, 9.3% in 2004, 9.9% in 2005, 10.6% in 2006, 13.1% in 2007, 15.8% in 2008, 17.1% in 2009 (25.2% of those at less than 9 weeks gestation). Medical abortions accounted for 32% of first-trimester abortions at Planned Parenthood clinics in 2008.
Abortion and religion
A majority of abortions are obtained by religiously identified women. According to the Guttmacher Institute, "more than 7 in 10 U.S. women obtaining an abortion report a religious affiliation (37% protestant, 28% Catholic, and 7% other), and 25% attend religious services at least once a month. The abortion rate for protestant women is 15 per 1,000 women, while Catholic women have a slightly higher rate, 20 per 1,000."
Abortions and ethnicity
Abortion rates tend to be higher among minority women in the U.S. In 2000–2001, due to lower access to health care and contraception, the rates among black and Hispanic women were 49 per 1,000 and 33 per 1,000, respectively, vs. 13 per 1,000 among non-Hispanic white women. Note that this figure includes all women of reproductive age, including women that are not pregnant. In other words, these abortion rates reflect the rate at which U.S. women of reproductive age have an abortion each year.
In 2004, the rates of abortion by ethnicity in the U.S. were 50 abortions per 1,000 black women, 28 abortions per 1,000 Hispanic women, and 11 abortions per 1,000 white women.
Reasons for abortions
A 1998 study revealed that in 1987 to 1988, women reported the following as their primary reasons for choosing an abortion:
The source of this information takes findings into account from 27 nations including the United States, and therefore, these findings may not be typical for any one nation.
According to a 1987 study that included specific data about late abortions (i. e., abortions "at 16 or more weeks' gestation"), women reported that various reasons contributed to their having a late abortion:
In 2000, cases of rape or incest accounted for 1% of abortions.
A 2004 study by the Guttmacher Institute reported that women listed the following amongst their reasons for choosing to have an abortion:
A 2008 National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) shows that rates of unintended pregnancy are highest among Blacks, Hispanics, and women with lower socio-economic status.
70% of all pregnancies among Black women were unintended
57% of all pregnancies among Hispanic women were unintended
42% of all pregnancies among White women were unintended
When women have abortions (by gestational age)
According to the Centers for Disease Control, in 2011, most (64.5%) abortions were performed by ≤8 weeks' gestation, and nearly all (91.4%) were performed by ≤13 weeks' gestation. Few abortions (7.3%) were performed between 14 and 20 weeks' gestation or at ≥21 weeks' gestation (1.4%). From 2002 to 2011, the percentage of all abortions performed at ≤8 weeks' gestation increased 6%.
Safety of abortions
In the US, the risk of death from carrying a child to term is approximately 14 times greater than the risk of death from a legal abortion. The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth through at least 21 weeks' gestation.
Birth control effects
Increased access to birth control has been statistically linked to reductions in the abortion rate. As an element of family planning, birth control was federally subsidized for low income families in 1965 under President Lyndon B. Johnson's War on Poverty program. In 1970, Congress passed Title X to provide family planning services for those in need, and President Richard Nixon signed it into law. Funding for Title X rose from $6 million in 1971 to $61 million the next year, and slowly increased each year to $317 million in 2010, after which it was reduced by a few percent.
In 2011, the Guttmacher Institute reported that the number of abortions in the US would be nearly two-thirds higher without access to birth control. In 2015, the Federation of American Scientists reported that federally mandated access to birth control had helped reduce teenage pregnancies in the US by 44 percent, and had prevented more than 188,000 unintended pregnancies.
Public opinion
Americans have been equally divided on the issue; a May 2018 Gallup poll indicated that 48% of Americans described themselves as "pro-choice" and 48% described themselves as "pro-life". A July 2018 poll indicated that 64% of Americans did not want the Supreme Court to overturn Roe v. Wade, while 28% did. The same poll found that support for abortion being generally legal was 60% during the first trimester, dropping to 28% in the second trimester, and 13% in the third trimester.
Support for the legalization of abortion has been consistently higher among more educated adults than less educated, and in 2019, 70% of college graduates support abortion being legal in all or most cases, compared to 60% of those with some college, and 54% of those with a high school degree or less.
In January 2013, a majority of Americans believed abortion should be legal in all or most cases, according to a poll by NBC News and The Wall Street Journal. Approximately 70% of respondents in the same poll opposed Roe v. Wade being overturned. A poll by the Pew Research Center yielded similar results. Moreover, 48% of Republicans opposed overturning Roe, compared to 46% who supported overturning it.
Gallup declared in May 2010 that more Americans identifying as "pro-life" is "the new normal", while also noting that there had been no increase in opposition to abortion. It suggested that political polarization may have prompted more Republicans to call themselves "pro-life". The terms "pro-choice" and "pro-life" do not always reflect a political view or fall along a binary; in one Public Religion Research Institute poll, seven in ten Americans described themselves as "pro-choice" while almost two-thirds described themselves as "pro-life". The same poll found that 56% of Americans were in favor of legal access to abortion in all or some cases.
By gender and age
Pew Research Center polling shows little change in views from 2008 to 2012; modest differences based on gender or age.(The original article's table also shows by party affiliation, religion, and education level.)
By educational level
Support for the legalization of abortion is significantly higher among more educated adults than less educated, and has been consistently so for decades. In 2019, 70% of college graduates support abortion being legal in all or most cases, as well as 60% of those with some college education, compared to 54% of those with a high school degree or less.
By gender, party, and region
A January 2003 CBS News/The New York Times poll examined whether Americans thought abortion should be legal or not, and found variations in opinion which depended upon party affiliation and the region of the country. The margin of error is +/- 4% for questions answered of the entire sample ("overall" figures) and may be higher for questions asked of subgroups (all other figures).
By trimester of pregnancy
A CNN/USA Today/Gallup poll in January 2003 asked about the legality of abortion by trimester, using the question, "Do you think abortion should generally be legal or generally illegal during each of the following stages of pregnancy?" This same question was also asked by Gallup in March 2000 and July 1996. Polls indicates general support of legal abortion during the first trimester, although support drops dramatically for abortion during the second and third trimester.
Since the 2011 poll, support for legal abortion during the first trimester has declined.
By circumstance or reasons
According to Gallup's long-time polling on abortion, the majority of Americans are neither strictly "pro-life" or "pro-choice"; it depends upon the circumstances of the pregnancy. Gallup polling from 1996 to 2021 consistently reveals that when asked the question, "Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances, or illegal in all circumstances?", Americans repeatedly answer 'legal only under certain circumstances'. According to the poll, in any given year 48-57% say legal only under certain circumstances, 21-34% say legal under any circumstances, and 13-19% illegal in all circumstances, with 1-7% having no opinion.
"Do you think abortions should be legal under any circumstances, legal only under certain circumstances, or illegal in all circumstances?"
According to the aforementioned poll, Americans differ drastically based upon situation of the pregnancy, suggesting they do not support unconditional abortions. Based on two separate polls taken May 19–21, 2003, of 505 and 509 respondents respectively, Americans stated their approval for abortion under these various circumstances:
Another separate trio of polls taken by Gallup in 2003, 2000, and 1996, revealed public support for abortion as follows for the given criteria:
Gallup furthermore established public support for many issues supported by the anti-abortion community and opposed by the abortion rights community:
An October 2007 CBS News poll explored under what circumstances Americans believe abortion should be allowed, asking the question, "What is your personal feeling about abortion?" The results were as follows:
Additional polls
A June 2000 Los Angeles Times survey found that, although 57% of polltakers considered abortion to be murder, half of that 57% believed in allowing women access to abortion. The survey also found that, overall, 65% of respondents did not believe abortion should be legal after the first trimester, including 72% of women and 58% of men. Further, the survey found that 85% of Americans polled supported abortion in cases of risk to a woman's physical health, 54% if the woman's mental health was at risk, and 66% if a congenital abnormality was detected in the fetus.
A July 2002 Public Agenda poll found that 44% of men and 42% of women thought that "abortion should be generally available to those who want it", 34% of men and 35% of women thought that "abortion should be available, but under stricter than limits it is now", and 21% of men and 22% of women thought that "abortion should not be permitted".
A January 2003 ABC News/The Washington Post poll also examined attitudes towards abortion by gender. In answer to the question, "On the subject of abortion, do you think abortion should be legal in all cases, legal in most cases, illegal in most cases or illegal in all cases?", 25% of women responded that it should be legal in "all cases", 33% that it should be legal in "most cases", 23% that it should be illegal in "most cases", and 17% that it should be illegal in "all cases". 20% of men thought it should be legal in "all cases", 34% legal in "most cases", 27% illegal in "most cases", and 17% illegal in "all cases".
Most Fox News viewers favor both parental notification as well as parental consent, when a minor seeks an abortion. A Fox News poll in 2005 found that 78% of people favor a notification requirement, and 72% favor a consent requirement.
An April 2006 Harris poll on Roe v. Wade, asked, "In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court decided that states' laws which made it illegal for a woman to have an abortion up to three months of pregnancy were unconstitutional, and that the decision on whether a woman should have an abortion up to three months of pregnancy should be left to the woman and her doctor to decide. In general, do you favor or oppose this part of the U.S. Supreme Court decision making abortions up to three months of pregnancy legal?", to which 49% of respondents indicated favor while 47% indicated opposition. The Harris organization has concluded from this poll that, "49 percent now support Roe vs. Wade".
Two polls were released in May 2007 asking Americans "With respect to the abortion issue, would you consider yourself to be pro-choice or pro-life?" May 4–6, a CNN poll found 45% said "pro-choice" and 50% said pro-life. Within the following week, a Gallup poll found 50% responding "pro-choice" and 44% pro-life.
In 2011, a poll conducted by the Public Religion Research Institute found that 43% of respondents identified themselves as both "pro-life" and "pro-choice".
"Partial birth abortion"
"Partial-Birth abortion" is nomenclature for a procedure called intact dilation and extraction generally used by those who oppose the procedure. A Rasmussen Reports poll four days after the Supreme Court's opinion in Gonzales v. Carhart found that 40% of respondents "knew the ruling allowed states to place some restrictions on specific abortion procedures." Of those who knew of the decision, 56% agreed with the decision and 32% were opposed. An ABC poll from 2003 found that 62% of respondents thought partial-birth abortion should be illegal; a similar number of respondents wanted an exception "if it would prevent a serious threat to the woman's health".
Gallup has repeatedly queried the American public on this issue, as seen on its Abortion page:
Abortion financing
The abortion debate has also been extended to the question of who pays the medical costs of the procedure, with some states using the mechanism as a way of reducing the number of abortions. The cost of an abortion varies depending on factors such as location, facility, timing, and type of procedure. In 2005, a non-hospital abortion at 10 weeks' gestation ranged from $90 to $1,800 (average: $430), whereas an abortion at 20 weeks' gestation ranged from $350 to $4,520 (average: $1,260). Costs are higher for a medical abortion than a first-trimester surgical abortion.
Medicaid
The Hyde Amendment is a federal legislative provision barring the use of federal Medicaid funds to pay for abortions except for rape and incest. The provision, in various forms, was in response to Roe v. Wade, and has been routinely attached to annual appropriations bills since 1976, and represented the first major legislative success by the pro-life movement. The law requires that states cover abortions under Medicaid in the event of rape, incest, and life endangerment. Based on the federal law:
32 states and D.C. fund abortions through Medicaid only in the cases of rape, incest, or life endangerment. SD covers abortions only in the cases of life endangerment, which does not comply with federal requirements under the Hyde Amendment. IN, UT, and WI have expanded coverage to women whose physical health is jeopardized, and IA, MS, UT, and VA also include fetal abnormality cases.
17 states (AK, AZ, CA, CT, HI, IL, MD, MA, MN, MT, NJ, NM, NY, OR, VT, WA, WV) use their own funds to cover all or most "medically necessary" abortions sought by low-income women under Medicaid, 12 of which are required by State court orders to do so.
Private insurance
5 states (ID, KY, MO, ND, OK) restrict insurance coverage of abortion services in private plans: OK limits coverage to life endangerment, rape or incest circumstances; and the other four states limit coverage to cases of life endangerment.
11 states (CO, KY, MA, MS, NE, ND, OH, PA, RI, SC, VA) restrict abortion coverage in insurance plans for public employees, with CO and KY restricting insurance coverage of abortion under any circumstances.
U.S. laws also ban federal funding of abortions for federal employees and their dependents, Native Americans covered by the Indian Health Service, military personnel and their dependents, and women with disabilities covered by Medicare.
Mexico City policy
Under this policy, US federal funding to NGOs that provide abortion is not permitted.
Positions of U.S. political parties
Though members of both major political parties come down on either side of the issue, the Republican Party is often seen as being anti-abortion, since the official party platform opposes abortion and considers fetuses to have an inherent right to life. Republicans for Choice represents the minority of that party. In 2006, pollsters found that 9% of Republicans favor the availability of abortion in most circumstances. Of Republican National Convention delegates in 2004, 13% believed that abortion should be generally available, and 38% believed that it should not be permitted. The same poll showed that 17% of all Republican voters believed that abortion should be generally available to those who want it, while 38% believed that it should not be permitted.
The Republican party was supportive of abortion rights prior to their 1976 convention, at which they supported an anti-abortion constitutional amendment as a temporary political ploy to gain more support from Catholics, though this stance brought many more social conservatives into the party resulting in a large and permanent shift toward support of the anti-abortion position.
The Democratic Party platform considers abortion to be a woman's right. Democrats for Life of America represents the minority of that party. In 2006, pollsters found that 74% of Democrats favor the availability of abortion in most circumstances. Of Democratic National Convention delegates in 2004, 75% believed that abortion should be generally available, and 2% believed that abortion should not be permitted. The same poll showed that 49% of all Democratic voters believed that abortion should be generally available to those who want it, while 13% believed that it should not be permitted.
The Green Party of the United States supports legal abortion as a woman's right.
The Libertarian Party platform (2012) states that "government should be kept out of the matter, leaving the question to each person for their conscientious consideration". Abortion is a contentious issue among Libertarians, and the Maryland-based organization Libertarians for Life opposes the legality of abortion in most circumstances.
The issue of abortion has become deeply politicized: in 2002, 84% of state Democratic platforms supported the right to having an abortion while 88% of state Republican platforms opposed it. This divergence also led to Christian Right organizations like Christian Voice, Christian Coalition and Moral Majority having an increasingly strong role in the Republican Party. This opposition has been extended under the Foreign Assistance Act: in 1973 Jesse Helms introduced an amendment banning the use of aid money to promote abortion overseas, and in 1984 the Mexico City Policy prohibited financial support to any overseas organization that performed or promoted abortions. The "Mexico City Policy" was revoked by President Bill Clinton and subsequently reinstated by President George W. Bush. President Barack Obama overruled this policy by Executive Order on January 23, 2009, and it was reinstated on January 23, 2017, by President Donald Trump. On January 28, 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden signed a Presidential Memorandum which repealed the restoration of Mexico City policy and also called for the United States Department of Health and Human Services to "suspend, rescind or revoke" restrictions which were made to Title X.
Effects of legalization
The risk of death due to legal abortion has fallen considerably since legalization in 1973, due to increased physician skills, improved medical technology, and earlier termination of pregnancy. From 1940 through 1970, deaths of pregnant women during abortion fell from nearly 1,500 to a little over 100. According to the Centers for Disease Control, the number of women who died in 1972 from illegal abortion was thirty-nine.
The Roe effect is a hypothesis which suggests that since supporters of abortion rights cause the erosion of their own political base by having fewer children, the practice of abortion will eventually lead to the restriction or illegalization of abortion. The legalized abortion and crime effect is another controversial theory that posits legal abortion reduces crime, because unwanted children are more likely to become criminals.
Since Roe v. Wade, there have been numerous attempts to reverse the decision. In the 2011 election season, Mississippi placed an amendment on the ballot that redefined how the state viewed abortion. The personhood amendment defined personhood as "every human being from the moment of fertilization, cloning or the functional equivalent thereof". If passed, it would have been illegal to get an abortion in the state.
On July 11, 2012, a Mississippi federal judge ordered an extension of his temporary order to allow the state's only abortion clinic to stay open. The order will stay in place until U.S. District Judge Daniel Porter Jordan III can review newly drafted rules on how the Mississippi Department of Health will administer a new abortion law. The law in question came into effect on July 1, 2012.
According to a 2019 study, if Roe v. Wade is reversed and abortion bans are implemented in trigger law states and states considered highly likely to ban abortion, "increases in travel distance are estimated to prevent 93,546 to 143,561 women from accessing abortion care."
Unintended live birth
Although it is uncommon, women sometimes give birth in spite of an attempted abortion. Reporting of livebirth after attempted abortion may not be consistent from state to state, but 38 were recorded in one study in upstate New York in the two-and-a-half years before Roe v. Wade. Under the Born-Alive Infants Protection Act of 2002, medical staff must report live birth if they observe any breathing, heartbeat, umbilical cord pulsation, or confirmed voluntary muscle movement, regardless of whether the born-alive is non-viable ex utero in the long term because of birth defects, and regardless of gestational age, including gestational ages which are too early for long-term viability ex utero.
See also
Abortion and religion
Abortion by country
Anti-abortion violence in the United States
Catholic Church and abortion in the United States
Feminism in the United States
Heartbeat bill
Reproductive rights
Types of abortion restrictions in the United States
War on Women
Notable cases
Becky Bell, an American teenage girl who died as a result of an unsafe abortion in 1988.
Rosie Jimenez, an American woman who was the first recorded death due to an unsafe abortion after federal Medicaid funds for abortions were removed by the Hyde Amendment in 1977.
Gerri Santoro, an American woman who died because of an unsafe abortion in 1964.
Gerardo Flores, convicted in 2005 on two counts of capital murder for giving his girlfriend, who was carrying twins, an at-home abortion.
Gianna Jessen, an American woman who was born alive in 1977 after an attempted saline abortion.
Sherri Finkbine, an actress who had difficulty seeking an abortion for her thalidomide deformed baby in 1962.
References
Further reading
External links
Abortion pill access
Full Text of Roe v. Wade Decision
Interactive maps comparing U.S. abortion restrictions by state
Number of Abortions - Abortion Counters
For Many Women, The Nearest Abortion Provider Is Hundreds Of Miles Away - Includes map showing distance to nearest abortion clinic
United States law
Human rights in the United States
Reproductive rights in the United States | [
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256025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion%20debate | Abortion debate | The abortion debate is the ongoing controversy surrounding the moral, legal, and religious status of induced abortion. In English-speaking countries, the sides involved in the debate are the self-described "pro-choice" and "pro-life" movements. Pro-choice emphasizes the woman's choice whether to terminate a pregnancy. On the contrary, the Pro-life position stresses the humanity of both the mother and fetus, arguing that a fetus is a human person deserving of legal protection. Both terms are considered loaded in mainstream media, where terms such as "abortion rights" or "anti-abortion" are generally preferred. Each movement has, with varying results, sought to influence public opinion and to attain legal support for its position.
Many people believe that abortion is essentially a moral issue, concerning the beginning of human personhood, rights of the fetus, and bodily integrity. The debate has become a political and legal issue in some countries with anti-abortion campaigners seeking to enact, maintain and expand anti-abortion laws, while abortion-rights campaigners seek to repeal or ease such laws while expanding access to abortion. Abortion laws vary considerably between jurisdictions, ranging from outright prohibition of the procedure to public funding of abortion. The availability of safe abortion also varies across the world.
Overview
In ancient times, issues such as abortion and infanticide were evaluated within the contexts of family planning, gender selection, population control, and the property rights of the patriarch. Rarely were the rights of the prospective mother, much less the prospective child, taken into consideration. Then, as now, these discussions often concerned the nature of humankind, the existence of a soul, when life begins, and the beginning of human personhood.
Discussion of the putative personhood of the fetus may be complicated by the current legal status of children. Like children or minors in the U.S. a fetus or an embryo is not legally a "person", not having reached the age of majority and not deemed able to enter into contracts and sue or be sued. Since the 1860s, they have been treated as persons for the limited purposes of offence against the person law in the UK including N. Ireland, although this treatment was amended by the Abortion Act of 1967 in England, Scotland and Wales. Furthermore, there are logistic difficulties in treating a fetus as "the object of direct action." As one New Jersey Superior Court judge noted, "If a fetus is a person, it is a person in very special circumstances – it exists entirely within the body of another much larger person and usually cannot be the object of direct action by another person." Proposals in the current debate range from complete prohibition, even if the procedure is necessary to save the mother's life, to complete legalization with public funding.
Terminology
Many of the terms used in the debate are seen as political framing: terms used to validate one's own stance while invalidating the opposition's. For example, the labels "pro-choice" and "pro-life" imply endorsement of widely held values such as liberty or the right to life, while suggesting that the opposition must be "anti-choice" or "anti-life". Terms used by some in the debate to describe their opponents include "pro-abortion" or "pro-abort". However, these terms do not always reflect a political view or fall along a binary; in one Public Religion Research Institute poll, seven in ten Americans described themselves as "pro-choice" while almost two-thirds described themselves as "pro-life". Another identifier in the debate is "abolitionist", which harks back to the 19th-century struggle against human slavery. Some Native women have critiqued these terms as not representing their views, as they do not see reproductive decisions as a choice but rather a responsibility, and while they feel that life is sacred, they also see abortion as, sometimes, a necessity.
Appeals are often made in the abortion debate to the rights of the fetus, pregnant woman, or other parties. Such appeals can generate confusion if the type of rights is not specified (whether civil, natural, or otherwise) or if it is simply assumed that the right appealed to takes precedence over all other competing rights (an example of begging the question).
The appropriate terms with which to designate the human organism prior to birth are also debated. The medical terms "embryo" and "fetus" are seen by some anti-abortion advocates as dehumanizing, while everyday terms such as "baby" or "child" are viewed as sentimental by some abortion rights advocates.
The use of the term "baby" to describe the unborn human organism is seen by some scholars as part of an effort to assign the organism agency. This assignation of agency functions to further the construction of fetal personhood.
Anti-abortion activists occasionally use the term the "Silent Holocaust" in reference to the number of abortions that have been performed in the United States since 1973.
Political debate
There is abundant debate regarding the extent of abortion regulation. Some abortion rights advocates argue that it should be illegal for governments to regulate abortion any more than other medical practices. On both sides of the debate, some argue that governments should be permitted to prohibit elective abortions after the 20th week, viability, or the second trimester. Some want to prohibit all abortions, starting from conception.
Privacy
Even though the right to privacy is not explicitly stated in many constitutions of sovereign nations, many people see it as foundational to a functioning democracy. In general the right to privacy can be found to rest on the provisions of habeas corpus, which first found official expression under Henry II in 11th century England, but has precedent in Anglo-Saxon law. This provision guarantees the right to freedom from arbitrary government interference, as well as due process of law. This conception of the right to privacy is operant in all countries which have adopted English common law through Acts of Reception. The Law of the United States rests on English common law by this means.
Time has stated that the issue of bodily privacy is "the core" of the abortion debate. Time defined privacy, in relation to abortion, as the ability of a woman to "decide what happens to her own body". In political terms, privacy can be understood as a condition in which one is not observed or disturbed by government.
Traditionally, American courts have located the right to privacy in the Fourth Amendment, Ninth Amendment, Fourteenth Amendment, as well as the penumbra of the Bill of Rights. The landmark decision Roe v Wade relied on the 14th Amendment, which guarantees that federal rights shall be applied equally to all persons born in the United States. The 14th Amendment has given rise to the doctrine of Substantive due process, which is said to guarantee various privacy rights, including the right to bodily integrity. In Canada, the courts have located privacy rights in the security of persons clause of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Section 7 of that charter echoes language used in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which also guarantees security of persons.
While governments are allowed to invade the privacy of their citizens in some cases, they are expected to protect privacy in all cases lacking a compelling state interest. In the US, the compelling state interest test has been developed in accordance with the standards of strict scrutiny. In Roe v Wade, the Court decided that the state has an "important and legitimate interest in protecting the potentiality of human life" from the point of viability on, but that prior to viability, the woman's fundamental rights are more compelling than that of the state.
U.S. judicial involvement
Roe v. Wade struck down state laws banning abortion in 1973. Over 20 cases have addressed abortion law in the United States, all of which upheld Roe v. Wade. Since Roe, abortion has been legal throughout the country, but states have placed varying regulations on it, from requiring parental involvement in a minor's abortion to restricting late-term abortions.
Legal criticisms of the Roe decision address many points, among them are several suggesting that it is an overreach of judicial powers, or that it was not properly based on the Constitution, or that it is an example of judicial activism and that it should be overturned so that abortion law can be decided by legislatures. Justice Potter Stewart, who joined with the majority, viewed the Roe opinion as "legislative" and asked that more consideration be paid to state legislatures.
Candidates competing for the Democratic nomination for the 2008 Presidential election cited Gonzales v. Carhart as judicial activism. In upholding the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act, Carhart is the first judicial opinion upholding a legal barrier to a specific abortion procedure.
Canadian judicial involvement
With R v. Morgentaler, a 5–2 majority of the Supreme Court of Canada held that the abortion provisions of the Criminal Code were unconstitutional. The majority of the Court held that the abortion provisions infringed the rights of pregnant women, contary to the security of the person clause of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, and could not be justified. The only laws currently governing abortion in Canada are those which govern medical procedures in general, such as those regulating licensing of facilities, the training of medical personnel, and the like. Laws also exist which are intended to prevent anti-abortion activists from interfering with staff and patient access to hospitals and clinics, for instance by creating buffer zones around them.
Because the courts did not establish abortion as a constitutional right, Parliament continues to have jurisdiction to legislate with respect to abortion. The Progressive Conservative government of Brian Mulroney twice attempted to do. The first bill, introduced in 1988, was defeated in the House of Commons. The next year, in 1989, the Mulroney government introduced a bill that would allow abortion only if two doctors certified that the woman's health was in danger. This bill passed the House of Commons but was defeated by a tie vote in the Senate. There have not been any further government attempts to enact legisation relating to abortion in Parliament since then.
Although the courts have not ruled on the question of fetal personhood, the question has been raised in two cases, Tremblay v. Daigle and R. v. Sullivan. Both cases relied on the born alive rule, inherited from English common law, to determine that the fetus was not a person at law.
Two further cases are notable: Dobson (Litigation Guardian of) v. Dobson, and Winnipeg Child & Family Services (Northwest Area) v. G . (D.F.), [I9971 3 S.C.R. 925 M], which dismissed so-called fetal abuse charges.
Worldwide stances
Countries that refuse abortions
As of 2016, there are five countries that completely outlaw abortion: El Salvador, Malta, Vatican City, the Dominican Republic, Philippines, and Nicaragua. This bans women from an abortion for any reason (underage, fetal impairment, rape/incest), even if it might mean saving her life. Penalties include jail time.
Countries with strict laws
Argentina allowed abortion only in case of rape or if the mother's health was at risk. In December 2020, the Argentine Senate passed a bill to legalize abortion. Also in 2020, the Constitutional Tribunal ended almost all legal abortion in Poland. China has a free abortion policy but some studies show that its government also uses forced abortion to enforce strict limits on how many children each family can have.
Effects of legalization/illegalization
Abortion rights advocates argue that illegalization of abortion increases the incidence of unsafe abortions, as the availability of professional abortion services decreases, and leads to increased maternal mortality. According to a global study collaboratively conducted by the World Health Organization and the Guttmacher Institute, most unsafe abortions occur where abortion is illegal.
Withholding access to safe abortions results in 30,000 abortion releated deaths per year. Women may also choose suicide when abortion is illegal.
The effect on crime of legalized abortion is a subject of controversy, with proponents of the theory generally arguing that "unwanted children" are more likely to become criminals and that an inverse correlation is observed between the availability of abortion and subsequent crime.
Economist George Akerlof has argued that the legalization of abortion in the United States contributed to a declining sense of paternal duty among biological fathers and to a decline in shotgun weddings, even when women chose childbirth over abortion, and thus to an increase rather than a decrease in the rate of children born to unwed mothers.
Personhood
There are differences of opinion as to whether a zygote/embryo/fetus acquires "personhood" or was always a "person". If "personhood" is acquired, opinions differ about when this happens.
Traditionally, the concept of personhood entailed the soul, a metaphysical concept referring to a non-corporeal or extra-corporeal dimension of human being. Today, the concepts of subjectivity and intersubjectivity, personhood, mind, and self have come to encompass a number of aspects of human being previously considered the domain of the "soul". Thus, while the historical question has been: when does the soul enter the body, in modern terms, the question could be put instead: at what point does the developing individual develop personhood or selfhood.
Since the zygote is genetically identical to the embryo, the fully formed fetus, and the baby, the notion of acquired personhood could lead to an instance of the Sorites paradox, also known as the paradox of the heap.
Related issues attached to the question of the beginning of human personhood include the legal status, bodily integrity, and subjectivity of the pregnant woman and the philosophical concept of "natality" (i.e. "the distinctively human capacity to initiate a new beginning", which a new human life embodies).
In the 1973 US judgment Roe v Wade, the opinion of the justices included the following statement:
Fetal pain
The existence and implications of fetal pain are part of a larger debate about abortion. A 2005 multidisciplinary systematic review in JAMA in the area of fetal development found that a fetus is unlikely to feel pain until after the sixth month of pregnancy. Developmental neurobiologists suspect that the establishment of thalamocortical connections (at about 26 weeks) may be critical to fetal perception of pain. However, legislation was proposed by anti-abortion advocates that would require abortion providers to tell a woman that the fetus may feel pain during an abortion procedure if the woman's proposed abortion was at least 20 weeks after fertilization.
The 2005 JAMA review concluded that data from dozens of medical reports and studies indicate that fetuses are unlikely to feel pain until the third trimester of pregnancy. However a number of medical critics have since disputed these conclusions. Other researchers such as Anand and Fisk have challenged the idea that pain cannot be felt before 26 weeks, positing instead that pain can be felt at around 20 weeks. Anand's suggestion is disputed in a March 2010 report on fetal awareness published by a working party of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists, citing a lack of evidence or rationale. Page 20 of the report definitively states that the fetus cannot feel pain prior to week 24. Because pain can involve sensory, emotional and cognitive factors, leaving it "impossible to know" when painful experiences are perceived, even if it is known when thalamocortical connections are established.
Wendy Savage—press officer, Doctors for a Woman's Choice on Abortion—considers the question to be irrelevant. In a 1997 letter to the British Medical Journal, she noted that the majority of surgical abortions in Britain were performed under general anesthesia which affects the fetus, and considers the discussion "to be unhelpful to women and to the scientific debate." Others caution against unnecessary use of fetal anesthetic during abortion, as it poses potential health risks to the pregnant woman. David Mellor and colleagues have noted that the fetal brain is already awash in naturally occurring chemicals that keep it sedated and anesthetized until birth. At least one anesthesia researcher has suggested the fetal pain legislation may make abortions harder to obtain because abortion clinics lack the equipment and expertise to supply fetal anesthesia. Anesthesia is administered directly to fetuses only while they are undergoing surgery.
Fetal personhood
Although the two main sides of the abortion debate tend to agree that a human fetus is biologically and genetically human (that is, of the human species), they often differ in their view on whether or not a human fetus is, in any of various ways, a person. Anti-abortion supporters argue that abortion is morally wrong on the basis that a fetus is an innocent human person or because a fetus is a potential life that will, in most cases, develop into a fully functional human being. They believe that a fetus is a person upon conception. Others reject this position by drawing a distinction between human being and human person, arguing that while the fetus is innocent and biologically human, it is not a person with a right to life. In support of this distinction, some propose a list of criteria as markers of personhood. For example, Mary Ann Warren suggests consciousness (at least the capacity to feel pain), reasoning, self-motivation, the ability to communicate, and self-awareness. According to Warren, a being need not exhibit all of these criteria to qualify as a person with a right to life, but if a being exhibits none of them (or perhaps only one), then it is certainly not a person. Warren concludes that as the fetus satisfies only one criterion, consciousness (and this only after it becomes susceptible to pain), the fetus is not a person and abortion is therefore morally permissible. Other philosophers apply similar criteria, concluding that a fetus lacks a right to life because it lacks brain waves or higher brain function, self-consciousness, rationality, and autonomy. These lists diverge over precisely which features confer a right to life, but tend to propose various developed psychological or physiological features not found in fetuses.
Critics of this typically argue that some of the proposed criteria for personhood would disqualify two classes of born human beings – reversibly comatose patients, and human infants – from having a right to life, since they, like fetuses, are not self-conscious, do not communicate, and so on. Defenders of the proposed criteria may respond that the reversibly comatose do satisfy the relevant criteria because they "retain all their unconscious mental states". or at least some higher brain function (brain waves). Warren concedes that infants are not "persons" by her proposed criteria, and on that basis she and others, including the moral philosopher Peter Singer, conclude that infanticide could be morally acceptable under some circumstances (for example if the infant is severely disabled or in order to save the lives of several other infants.)
An alternative approach is to base personhood or the right to life on a being's natural or inherent capacities. On this approach, a being essentially has a right to life if it has a natural capacity to develop the relevant psychological features; and, since human beings do have this natural capacity, they essentially have a right to life beginning at conception (or whenever they come into existence). Critics of this position argue that mere genetic potential is not a plausible basis for respect (or for the right to life), and that basing a right to life on natural capacities would lead to the counterintuitive position that anencephalic infants, irreversibly comatose patients, and brain-dead patients kept alive on a medical ventilator, are all persons with a right to life. Respondents to this criticism argue that the noted human cases in fact would not be classified as persons as they do not have a natural capacity to develop any psychological features. Also, in a view that favors benefiting even unconceived but potential future persons, it has been argued as justified to abort an unintended pregnancy in favor for conceiving a new child later in better conditions.
Philosophers such as Aquinas use the concept of individuation. They argue that abortion is not permissible from the point at which individual human identity is realized. Anthony Kenny argues that this can be derived from everyday beliefs and language and one can legitimately say "if my mother had had an abortion six months into her pregnancy, she would have killed me" then one can reasonably infer that at six months the "me" in question would have been an existing person with a valid claim to life. Since division of the zygote into twins through the process of monozygotic twinning can occur until the fourteenth day of pregnancy, Kenny argues that individual identity is obtained at this point and thus abortion is not permissible after two weeks.
Arguments for abortion rights which do not depend on fetal non-personhood
Bodily rights
An argument first presented by Judith Jarvis Thomson states that even if the fetus is a person and has a right to life, abortion is morally permissible because a woman has a right to control her own body and its life-support functions (i.e. the right to life does not include the right to be kept alive by another person's body). Thomson's variant of this argument draws an analogy between forcing a woman to continue an unwanted pregnancy and forcing a person to allow his body to be used to maintain blood homeostasis (as a dialysis machine is used) for another person suffering from kidney failure. It is argued that just as it would be permissible to "unplug" and thereby cause the death of the person who is using one's kidneys, so it is permissible to abort the fetus (who similarly, it is said, has no right to use one's body's life-support functions against one's will).
Critics of this argument generally argue that there are morally relevant disanalogies between abortion and the kidney failure scenario. For example, it is argued that the fetus is the woman's child as opposed to a mere stranger; that abortion kills the fetus rather than merely letting it die; and that in the case of pregnancy arising from voluntary intercourse, the woman has either tacitly consented to the fetus using her body, or has a duty to allow it to use her body since she herself is responsible for its need to use her body. Some writers defend the analogy against these objections, arguing that the disanalogies are morally irrelevant or do not apply to abortion in the way critics have claimed.
Alternative scenarios have been put forth as more accurate and realistic representations of the moral issues present in abortion. John Noonan proposes the scenario of a family who was found to be liable for frostbite finger loss suffered by a dinner guest whom they refused to allow to stay overnight, although it was very cold outside and the guest showed signs of being sick. It is argued that just as it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation for the guest to protect him from physical harm, it would not be permissible to refuse temporary accommodation of a fetus.
Other critics claim that there is a difference between artificial and extraordinary means of preservation, such as medical treatment, kidney dialysis, and blood transfusions, and normal and natural means of preservation, such as gestation, childbirth, and breastfeeding. They argue that if a baby was born into an environment in which there was no replacement available for her mother's breast milk, and the baby would either breastfeed or starve, the mother would have to allow the baby to breastfeed. But the mother would never have to give the baby a blood transfusion, no matter what the circumstances were. The difference between breastfeeding in that scenario and blood transfusions is the difference between using one's body as a kidney dialysis machine, and gestation and childbirth.
Freedom and equality
Margaret Sanger wrote: "No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother." From this perspective the right to abortion can be construed to be necessary in order for women to achieve equality with men whose freedom is not nearly so restricted by having children.
Impacts of criminalization
Some activists and academics, such as Andrea Smith, argue that the criminalization of abortion furthers the marginalization of oppressed groups such as poor women and women of color. Sending these women into the prison system would do nothing to address the social/political/economic problems that marginalize these women or, sometimes, cause them to require abortions.
Inefficacy of abortion bans on reducing abortion
Research has been conducted exploring whether banning abortion actually reduces abortion rates. Researchers from the Guttmacher Institute, the World Health Organization, and the University of Massachusetts concluded that, in countries where abortions were restricted, the number of unintended pregnancies increased and the proportion of unintended pregnancies ending in abortion also increased. The following table taken from their research shows these findings in greater detail:
Table: Rates of unintended pregnancy and abortion, and proportion of unintended pregnancies ending in abortion, by legal status of abortion for years 2015–19
UI=uncertainty interval.
Abortion safety
Even where abortions are illegal, they continue to take place, however, they are generally done unsafely, both because the need for secrecy tends to be more important than the woman's safety, and due to the lack of training and experience the person performing the abortion. When done correctly by properly trained doctors, abortion is generally safe. Where laws restrict rights to abortion, abortions are less safe and result in the deaths of 30,000 women each year.
Population planning
It has been suggested that access to abortion can help reduce human overpopulation, which is shown to be harmful to the natural environment.
Arguments against abortion
Abortion is the ending of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus before it can survive outside the uterus. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion.
Discrimination
The book Abortion and the Conscience of the Nation presents the argument that abortion involves unjust discrimination against the unborn. According to this argument, those who deny that fetuses have a right to life do not value all human life, but instead, select arbitrary characteristics (such as particular levels of physical or psychological development) as giving some human beings more value or rights than others.
In contrast, philosophers who define the right to life by reference to particular levels of physical or psychological development typically maintain that such characteristics are morally relevant, and reject the assumption that all human life necessarily has value (or that membership in the species Homo sapiens is in itself morally relevant).
Some abortion opponents have argued for, and promoted legislation for, a ban on the abortion of fetuses that have been diagnosed with Down Syndrome on the basis that such abortions unfairly discriminate against the disabled. Critics of these measures charge that they are hypocritical since many of their proponents appear to be unconcerned with addressing the needs of living disabled persons. In response to one such proposed measure in North Carolina, a spokesperson for Disability Rights North Carolina commented, "We would never think of using limits on someone’s bodily autonomy to protect our rights."
Deprivation
The argument of deprivation states that abortion is morally wrong because it deprives the fetus of a valuable future. On this account, killing an adult human being is wrong because it deprives the victim of a future like ours—a future containing highly valuable or desirable experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments. If a being has such a future, then (according to the argument) killing that being would seriously harm the fetus and hence would be seriously wrong. But since a fetus does have such a future, the "overwhelming majority" of deliberate abortions are placed in the "same moral category" as killing an innocent adult human being. Not all abortions are unjustified according to this argument: abortion would be justified if the same justification could be applied to killing an adult human.
Criticism of this line of reasoning follows several threads. Some reject the argument on grounds relating to personal identity, holding that the fetus is not the same entity as the adult into which it will develop, and thus that the fetus does not have a "future like ours" in the required sense. Others grant that the fetus has a future like ours, but argue that being deprived of this future is not a significant harm or a significant wrong to the fetus, because there are relatively few psychological connections (continuations of memory, belief, desire and the like) between the fetus as it is now and the adult into which it will develop. Another criticism is that the argument creates inequalities in the wrongness of killing: as the futures of some people appear to be far more valuable or desirable than the futures of other people, the argument appears to entail that some killings are far more wrong than others, or that some people have a far stronger right to life than others—a conclusion that is taken to be counterintuitive or unacceptable.
Argument from uncertainty
Some anti-abortion supporters argue that if there is uncertainty as to whether the fetus has a right to life, then having an abortion is equivalent to consciously taking the risk of killing another. According to this argument, if it is not known for certain whether something (such as the fetus) has a right to life, then it is reckless and morally wrong to treat that thing as if it lacks a right to life (for example by killing it). This would place abortion in the same moral category as manslaughter (if it turns out that the fetus has a right to life) or certain forms of criminal negligence (if it turns out that the fetus does not have a right to life).
David Boonin replies that if this kind of argument were correct, then the killing of nonhuman animals and plants would also be morally wrong, because (Boonin contends) it is not known for certain that such beings lack a right to life. Boonin also argues that arguments from uncertainty fail because the mere fact that one might be mistaken in finding certain arguments persuasive (for example, arguments for the claim that the fetus lacks a right to life) does not mean that one should act contrary to those arguments or assume them to be mistaken.
Slippery slope
One argument used by anti-abortion activists is the slippery slope argument, that normalizing abortion may lead to the normalization of other practices such as euthanasia.
Religious beliefs
Each religion has many varying views on the moral implications of abortion. These views can often be in direct opposition to each other. Muslims typically cite the Quranic verse 17:31 which states that a fetus shouldn't be aborted out of fear of poverty. Christians who oppose abortion may support their views with Scripture references such as that of Luke 1:15; Jeremiah 1:4–5; Genesis 25:21–23; Matthew 1:18; and Psalm 139:13–16. The Catholic Church believes that human life begins at conception, as does the right to life; thus, abortion is considered immoral. The Church of England also considers abortion to be morally wrong, though their position admits abortion when "the continuance of a pregnancy threatens the life of the mother".
Other factors
Mexico City policy
The Mexico City policy is a policy of the US federal government concerning US funding for abortions outside of the US. Known by critics as the "global gag rule", the policy required any non-governmental organization receiving U.S. government funding to refrain from performing or promoting abortion services in other countries. This had a significant effect on the health policies of many nations across the globe. The Mexico City policy was instituted under President Reagan, suspended under President Clinton, reinstated by President George W. Bush, and suspended again by President Barack Obama on 24 January 2009 and re-instated once again by President Donald J. Trump on 23 January 2017. In 2021 President Biden rescinded the Mexico City policy.
Public opinion
A number of opinion polls around the world have explored public opinion regarding the issue of abortion. Results have varied from poll to poll, country to country, and region to region, while varying with regard to different aspects of the issue.
A May 2005 survey examined attitudes toward abortion in 10 European countries, asking respondents whether they agreed with the statement, "If a woman doesn't want children, she should be allowed to have an abortion". The highest level of approval was 81% (in the Czech Republic); the lowest was 47% (in Poland). In 2019, already 58% of Poles supported abortion on request up to the 12th week of pregnancy.
In North America, a December 2001 poll surveyed Canadian opinion on abortion, asking in what circumstances they believe abortion should be permitted; 32% responded that they believe abortion should be legal in all circumstances, 52% that it should be legal in certain circumstances, and 14% that it should be legal in no circumstances. A similar poll in April 2009 surveyed people in the United States about U.S. opinion on abortion; 18% said that abortion should be "legal in all cases", 28% said that abortion should be "legal in most cases", 28% said abortion should be "illegal in most cases" and 16% said abortion should be "illegal in all cases". A November 2005 poll in Mexico found that 73.4% think abortion should not be legalized while 11.2% think it should be.
Of attitudes in South America, a December 2003 survey found that 30% of Argentines thought that abortion in Argentina should be allowed "regardless of situation", 47% that it should be allowed "under some circumstances", and 23% that it should not be allowed "regardless of situation". A more recent poll now suggest that 45% of Argentineans are in favor of abortion for any reason in the first twelve weeks. This same poll conducted in September 2011 also suggests that most Argentineans favor abortion being legal when a woman's health or life is at risk (81%), when the pregnancy is a result of rape (80%) or the fetus has severe abnormalities (68%). A March 2007 poll regarding the abortion law in Brazil found that 65% of Brazilians believe that it "should not be modified", 16% that it should be expanded "to allow abortion in other cases", 10% that abortion should be "decriminalized", and 5% were "not sure". A July 2005 poll in Colombia found that 65.6% said they thought that abortion should remain illegal, 26.9% that it should be made legal, and 7.5% that they were unsure.
Effect upon crime rate
A theory attempts to draw a correlation between the United States' unprecedented nationwide decline of the overall crime rate during the 1990s and the decriminalization of abortion 20 years prior.
The suggestion was brought to widespread attention by a 1999 academic paper, The Impact of Legalized Abortion on Crime, authored by the economists Steven D. Levitt and John Donohue. They attributed the drop in crime to a reduction in individuals said to have a higher statistical probability of committing crimes: unwanted children, especially those born to mothers who are African American, impoverished, adolescent, uneducated, and single. The change coincided with what would have been the adolescence, or peak years of potential criminality, of those who had not been born as a result of Roe v. Wade and similar cases. Donohue and Levitt's study also noted that states which legalized abortion before the rest of the nation experienced the lowering crime rate pattern earlier, and those with higher abortion rates had more pronounced reductions.
Fellow economists Christopher Foote and Christopher Goetz criticized the methodology in the Donohue-Levitt study, noting a lack of accommodation for statewide yearly variations such as cocaine use, and recalculating based on incidence of crime per capita; they found no statistically significant results. Levitt and Donohue responded to this by presenting an adjusted data set which took into account these concerns and reported that the data maintained the statistical significance of their initial paper.
Such research has been criticized by some as being utilitarian, discriminatory as to race and socioeconomic class, and as promoting eugenics as a solution to crime. Levitt states in his book Freakonomics that they are neither promoting nor negating any course of action—merely reporting data as economists.
Breast cancer hypothesis
The abortion–breast cancer hypothesis posits that induced abortion increases the risk of developing breast cancer. This position contrasts with some scientific data that abortion does not cause breast cancer.
In early pregnancy, levels of estrogen increase, leading to breast growth in preparation for lactation. The hypothesis proposes that if this process is interrupted by an abortion – before full maturity in the third trimester – then more relatively vulnerable immature cells could be left than there were prior to the pregnancy, resulting in a greater potential risk of breast cancer. The hypothesis mechanism was first proposed and explored in rat studies conducted in the 1980s.
Minors
Many states require some form of parental consent before an abortion is set to happen. In the United States, 37 states require the parent to have knowledge while only 21 of those states need one parent to consent. Certain states have an alternative answer to the involvement of the parent by getting the judicial system involved with a judicial bypass. In those states, minors can get permission from the judge if parents are not willing to do so or if they are absent from their lives.
These laws are known as parental involvement laws.
There are different guidelines for minors and abortions in every country. In most of Europe, all persons that are capable of judgment enjoy medical privacy and can decide medical matters on their own. The capability of judgment does not come at a defined age, however, and is dependent on how well the person is able to understand the decision and its consequences. For most medical procedures, the capability of judgment usually sets in at ages 12 to 14.
See also
Notes
References
External links
Findlaw: full text of Roe V Wade decision, plus discussion
Abortion and Ethics Case studies, Christian and non-Christian responses and resources for students
Reasons why women have induced abortions, evidence from 27 countries
Recordings of the College Historical Society debate on abortion featuring Professor William Binchy, Frances Kissling and Rebecca Gomperts
Interactive argument map of the abortion debate on Kialo
Religious perspectives on abortion
Should abortion be legal? – Wikidebate at Wikiversity
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256028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20World%20quail | New World quail | The New World quails are small birds only distantly related to the Old World quail, but named for their similar appearance and habits. The American species are in their own family, the Odontophoridae, whereas Old World quail are in the pheasant family Phasianidae. The family ranges from Canada through to southern Brazil, and two species, the California quail and the bobwhite quail, have been successfully introduced to New Zealand. The stone partridge and Nahan's partridge, both found in Africa, seem to belong to the family. Species are found across a variety of habitats from tropical rainforest to deserts, although few species are capable of surviving at very low temperatures. The 34 species are placed in 10 genera.
The legs of most New World quails are short but powerful, with some species having very thick legs for digging. They lack the spurs of many Old World galliformes. Although they are capable of short bursts of strong flight, New World quails prefer to walk, and run from danger (or hide), taking off explosively only as a last resort. Plumage varies from dull to spectacular, and many species have ornamental crests or plumes on their heads. Moderate sexual dichromism is seen in plumage, with males having brighter plumage.
Behaviour and ecology
The New World quails are shy diurnal birds and generally live on the ground; even the tree quails, which roost in high trees, generally feed mainly on the ground. They are generalists with regards to their diet, taking insects, seeds, vegetation, and tubers. Desert species in particular consume seeds frequently.
Most of the information about the breeding biology of New World quails comes from North American species, which have been better studied than those of the Neotropics. The family is generally thought to be monogamous, and nests are constructed on the ground. Clutch sizes are large, as is typical within the Galliformes, ranging from three to six eggs for the tree quail and wood quail, and as high as 10-15 for the northern bobwhite. Incubation takes between 16 and 30 days depending on the species. Chicks are precocial and quickly leave the nest to accompany the parents in large family groups.
Northern bobwhite and California quail are popular gamebirds, with many taken by hunters, but these species have also had their ranges increased to meet hunting demand and are not threatened. They are also artificially stocked. Some species are threatened by human activity, such as the bearded tree quail of Mexico, which is threatened by habitat loss and illegal hunting.
Species
Subspecies English names by Çınar 2015.
Fossils
Genus †Miortyx Miller 1944
†Miortyx teres Miller 1944
†Miortyx aldeni Howard 1966
Genus †Nanortyx Weigel 1963
†Nanortyx inexpectatus Weigel 1963
Genus †Neortyx Holman 1961
†Neortyx peninsularis Holman 1961
Phylogeny
Living Odontophoridae based on the work by John Boyd.
See also
Quail eggs
List of Galliformes
References
del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors). (1994). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Volume 2: New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions.
External links
gbwf.org - Quail, Aviculture & Conservation
New World quail videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Game birds
Quails
Taxa named by John Gould | [
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256029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemming%20of%20Denmark | Hemming of Denmark | Hemming I (died 812) was a king in Denmark from 810 until his death. He was the successor of King Gudfred, his uncle.
Family
Hemming I is mentioned in the Royal Frankish Annals as son to an unnamed brother of Gudfred. Though Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum by Adam of Bremen considers Hemming and Gudfred to be "patruelis", paternal cousins. Gudfred had several sons who served as co-rulers of the Danes. However, they are typically called "sons of Gudfred" without mention of their names or personal histories. The sole exception was Horik I who seems to have survived his siblings and was sole ruler by 827. They can all be considered paternal cousins of Hemming.
Another nephew of Gudfred, Reginold, is mentioned in the Royal Frankish Annals. He is also identified as son to an unnamed brother of Gudfred. He could be a sibling to Hemming. Assuming Gudfred had more than one sibling, Hemming and Reginold could also be paternal first cousins. Reginold appears in an 808 entry detailing a campaign of Gudfred against the Obotrites. Gudfred reportedly "made two-thirds of the Obodrites tributary. But he lost the best and most battle-tested of his soldiers. With them he lost Reginold, his brother's son, who was killed at the siege of a town along with a great number of Danish nobles."
Hemming had two siblings identified in the Annals, Hankwin and Angandeo. Sigifrid, one of his two rival successors on the throne, is also mentioned as a nephew of Gudfred. He could also be either a sibling or cousin to Hemming. Less clear is the relation of Hemming to the other rival successor, Anulo, and to the siblings of Anulo. Adam of Bremen considered Sigifrid and Anulo to be members of the same family, identifying both as nephews of Gudfred. The relation does not appear in the Royal Annals. However, there is an obscure phrase of the Annals which could support the relation. "Anulo, the nephew of Heriold and of the former king". The vague Latin phrase "Herioldi, et ipsius regis" has been translated variously as "Harald, and the king himself" and "Harald, previous king". Conversely, this could mean Anulo was "nepos" of both the senior Harald and the other King mentioned in the same phrase, Hemming.
Various attempts have been made to harmonize these kings from the Frankish annals with the legendary kings found in the accounts of traditional historians such as Saxo Grammaticus and the sagas. History of the Northmen, or Danes and Normans, from the earliest times to the Conquest (1831) by Henry Wheaton suggested that Hemming was a direct descendant of Ragnar Lodbrok, equating Sigefrid of the annals with Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, the traditional son of Lothbrok, while making successor Gudfrid Sigurd's brother. An alternative reconstruction would make Gudfred identical to the Gudröd of Ynglingatal, semi-legendary king of Vestfold and himself son of Halfdan the Mild, who would then be the grandfather of Hemming. Other scholars reject these identifications and the legends to which they attempt to link, only crediting the annals as representing authentic history.
Reign
The Royal Frankish Annals recorded the brief reign of Hemming. In 810, Charlemagne and Gudfred were in conflict. Gudfred had invaded Frisia and imposed tribute on its local population. He had then returned to Denmark. Charlemagne was preparing a retaliation campaign, gathering troops in the area of the Rhine. He led the assembled troops in the area where the Aller flows into the Weser River. There news reached him that Gudfred had died. "The fleet which ravaged Frisia had returned home and King Godofrid had been murdered by one of his retainers". Charlemagne called off the campaign.
The last entry for year 810 mentions "After the death of Godofrid, king of the Danes, Hemming, the son of his brother, succeeded to his throne and made peace with the emperor." The entries for 811 include detailed accounts of the negotiations between Hemming and Charlemagne. "The peace announced between the emperor and Hemming, the king of the Danes, was only sworn on arms because of the severity of the winter, which closed the road for traveling between the parties. Only with the return of spring and the opening of the roads, which had been closed because of harsh frost, did twelve magnates of each party and people, that is of Franks and Danes, meet on the River Eider at Heiligen and confirm the peace by an exchange of oaths according to their customs."
"The nobles of the Frankish side were Count Walach, son of Bernard, Count Burchard, Count Unroch, Count Odo, Count Meginhard, Count Bernard, Count Egbert, Count Theothari, Count Abo, Count Osdag, and Count Wigman. On the Danish side there were Hankwin and Angandeo, Hemming's brothers, and in addition, other men distinguished among this people: Osfrid nicknamed Turdimulo, Warstein, Suomi, Urm, another Osfrid, son of Heiligen, and Osfrid of Schonen, and Hebbi and Aowin.
New envoys of Hemming are reported meeting Charlemagne in Aachen during November, 811. "About the middle of November he [Charlemagne] came to Aachen. The envoys of King Hemming, Aowin and Hebbi, came to meet him and brought presents and assurances of peace." The entries in 811 end by mentioning the death of Charles the Younger (4 December 811) and Charlemagne wintering in Aachen. The entries in 812 begin with mention of the situation in Denmark. "Not much later the news arrived that Hemming, king of the Danes had died. Sigifrid, the nephew of King Godofrid, and Anulo, the nephew of Heriold and of the former king, both wished to succeed him. Being unable to agree on who should be king, they raised troops, fought a battle, and were both killed. The party of Anulo won, however, and made his brothers Heriold and Reginfrid their kings. The defeated party out of necessity had to go along with Anulo's party and did not reject the brothers as their kings. They say that ten thousand nine hundred and forty men died in that battle." Heriold, usually translated Harald, this man was Harald Klak.
The Annales Fuldenses give an almost identical account of this reign. This is not surprising as the entries of the Annales Fuldenses from 714 to the 830s were adopting material from earlier sources, including the Royal Frankish Annals. Hemming also appears in an 810 entry of the Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum by Adam of Bremen. "After their king Gudfred (Latin: Gotafridus) had subjected the Frisians and likewise the Nordalbingians, the Abodrites, and other Slavic peoples to tribute, he threatened even Charles with war. This strife very seriously retarded the emperor's purpose with respect to Hamburg. When at length, by the dispensation of Heaven, Gudfred died, Hemming, his cousin, succeeded and soon made peace with the emperor, accepting the Eider River as the boundary of the kingdom." The term used in Latin was "patruelis" which would mean a paternal cousin.
Literature
References
External links
"Carolingian Chronicles: Royal Frankish Annals and Nithard's Histories" (1970), translation by Bernhard Walter Scholz
Page of "History of the Norsemen" detailing his family
8th-century births
812 deaths
Scyldings
9th-century Danish monarchs | [
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256036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homeless%20%28disambiguation%29 | Homeless (disambiguation) | Homelessness is the condition of people without a regular dwelling.
Homeless may also refer to:
Homeless (film), a 2006 documentary on homelessness
"Homeless" (Leona Lewis song), 2007
"Homeless" (Marina Kaye song), 2014
"Homeless" (Paul Simon and Ladysmith Black Mambazo song), 1986
The Homeless, a 1974 Japanese film directed by Kōichi Saitō | [
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256038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substance-related%20disorder | Substance-related disorder | Substance-related disorders, also known as substance use disorders, can lead to large societal problems. It is found to be greatest in individuals ages 18–25, with a higher likelihood occurring in men compared to women, and urban residents compared to rural residents. On average, general medical facilities hold 20% of patients with substance-related disorders, possibly leading to psychiatric disorders later on. Over 50% of individuals with substance-related disorders will often have a "dual diagnosis," where they are diagnosed with the substance use, as well as a psychiatric diagnosis, the most common being major depression, personality disorder, anxiety disorders, and dysthymia.
Substance use, also known as drug use, is a patterned use of a substance (drug) in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods which are harmful to themselves or others. The drugs used are often associated with levels of substance intoxication that alter judgment, perception, attention and physical control, not related with medical effects. It is often thought that the main used substances are illegal drugs and alcohol; however it is becoming more common that prescription drugs and tobacco are a prevalent problem.
Signs and symptoms
Common symptoms include:
Sudden changes in behaviour – may engage in secretive or suspicious behaviour
Mood changes – anger towards others, paranoia and little care shown about themselves or their future
Problems with work or school – lack of attendance
Changes in eating and sleeping habits
Changes in friendship groups and poor family relationships
A sudden unexplained change in financial needs – leading to borrowing/stealing money
There are many more symptoms such as physical and psychological changes, though this is often dependent on which substance is being used. It is, however, common that people who use substances will experience unpleasant withdrawal symptoms if the drug is taken away from them.
It is also reported that others have strong cravings even after they have not used the drug for a long period of time. This is called being "clean". To determine how the brain triggers these cravings, multiple tests have been done on mice. It is also now thought that these cravings can be explained by substance-related disorders as a subcategory of personality disorders as classified by the DSM-5.
Classification and terminology
Substance-related disorders were originally subcategorized into "substance use disorders" (SUD) and "substance-induced disorders" (SID). Though DSM-IV makes a firm distinction between the two, SIDs often occur in the context of SUDs.
Substance-induced disorders
Substance-induced disorders include medical conditions that can be directly attributed to the use of a substance. These conditions include intoxication, withdrawal, substance-induced delirium, substance-induced psychosis, and substance-induced mood disorders.
Substance use disorders
Substance use disorders include substance use and substance dependence. In DSM-IV, the conditions are formally diagnosed as one or the other, but it has been proposed that DSM-V combine the two into a single condition called "Substance-use disorder".
Changes in Classification
The more recently published DSM-5 combined substance abuse and substance dependence into a single continuum; this is simply known as substance use disorder and requires more presenting symptoms before a diagnosis is made. It also considers each different substance as its own separate disorder, based upon the same basic criteria. It also distinguishes the difference between dependence and addictions as two separate disorders, not to be confused.
Complications
There are many potential complications that can arise due to substance use such as severe physiological damage, psychological changes and social changes that are often not desirable.
Physiological damage is often the most obvious, observed as an abnormal condition affecting the body of an organism: For instance, there are several known alcohol-induced diseases (e.g. alcoholic hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, alcoholic cardiomyopathy.) Substance use is also often associated with premature ageing, fertility complications, brain damage and a higher risk of infectious diseases due to a weakened immune system.
Long-term use has been linked to personality changes such as depression, paranoia, anxiety which can be related to psychological disorders. It is often reported that substance use coincides with personality disorders, such as borderline personality disorder. It has also now been linked to severe brain damage leading to an inability to control behaviours, which could explain why many people who use substances go on to develop addictions.
Substance use is often regarded as negative in society and therefore those who engage in such behaviours can often be subject to social discrimination. The use of many drugs can lead to criminal convictions, whether the drug itself is illegal or people who use them use unlawful methods to fund their substances. It is also more likely that someone will partake in criminal or anti-social behaviour when they are under the influence of a drug.
See also
Anxiety
Behavioural sciences
Chemical dependency
Major depressive disorder
Psychological trauma
Self-medication
Shared care
Substance use disorder
Drug rehabilitation
Dual diagnosis
References
External links
National Institute on Drug Abuse: "NIDA for Teens: Brain and Addiction".
Substance dependence | [
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256040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenLDAP | OpenLDAP | OpenLDAP is a free, open-source implementation of the Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP) developed by the OpenLDAP Project. It is released under its own BSD-style license called the OpenLDAP Public License.
LDAP is a platform-independent protocol. Several common Linux distributions include OpenLDAP Software for LDAP support. The software also runs on BSD-variants, as well as AIX, Android, HP-UX, macOS, Solaris, Microsoft Windows (NT and derivatives, e.g. 2000, XP, Vista, Windows 7, etc.), and z/OS.
History
The OpenLDAP project was started in 1998 by Kurt Zeilenga. The project started by cloning the LDAP reference source from the University of Michigan where a long-running project had supported development and evolution of the LDAP protocol until that project's final release in 1996.
, the OpenLDAP project has four core team members: Howard Chu (chief architect), Quanah Gibson-Mount, Hallvard Furuseth, and Kurt Zeilenga. There are numerous other important and active contributors including Ondrej Kuznik, Luke Howard, Ryan Tandy, and Gavin Henry. Past core team members include Pierangelo Masarati.
Components
OpenLDAP has four main components:
slapd – stand-alone LDAP daemon and associated modules and tools.
lloadd - stand-alone LDAP load balancing proxy server
libraries implementing the LDAP protocol and ASN.1 Basic Encoding Rules (BER)
client software: ldapsearch, ldapadd, ldapdelete, and others
Additionally, the OpenLDAP Project is home to a number of subprojects:
JLDAP – LDAP class libraries for Java
JDBC-LDAP – Java JDBC – LDAP Bridge driver
ldapc++ – LDAP class libraries for C++
LMDB – memory-mapped database library
Backends
Overall concept
Historically the OpenLDAP server (slapd, the Standalone LDAP Daemon) architecture was
split between a frontend that handles network access and protocol processing, and a
backend that deals strictly with data storage. This split design was a feature of the
original University of Michigan code written in 1996 and carried on in all subsequent
OpenLDAP releases. The original code included one main database backend and two
experimental/demo backends. The architecture is modular and many
different backends are now available for interfacing to other technologies, not just
traditional databases.
Note: In older (1.x) releases, the terms "backend" and "database" were often used interchangeably.
To be precise, a "backend" is a class of storage interface, and a "database" is an instance of a
backend. The slapd server can use arbitrarily many backends at once, and can have arbitrarily
many instances of each backend (i.e., arbitrarily many databases) active at once.
Available backends
Currently 17 different backends are provided in the OpenLDAP distribution, and various
third parties are known to maintain other backends independently. The standard backends
are loosely organized into three different categories:
Data storage backends – these actually store data
back-bdb: the first transactional backend for OpenLDAP, built on Berkeley DB, removed with OpenLDAP 2.5.
back-hdb: a variant of back-bdb that is fully hierarchical and supports subtree renames, removed with OpenLDAP 2.5.
back-ldif: built on plain text LDIF files
back-mdb: a transactional backend built on OpenLDAP's Lightning Memory-Mapped Database (LMDB)
back-ndb: a transactional backend built on MySQL's NDB cluster engine, removed with OpenLDAP 2.6.
back-wiredtiger: an experimental transactional backend built on , introduced with OpenLDAP 2.5.
Proxy backends – these act as gateways to other data storage systems
back-asyncmeta: an asynchronous proxy with meta-directory features, introduced with OpenLDAP 2.5.
back-ldap: simple proxy to other LDAP servers
back-meta: proxy with meta-directory features
back-passwd: uses a Unix system's passwd and group data
back-relay: internally redirects to other slapd backends
back-sql: talks to arbitrary SQL databases, deprecated with OpenLDAP 2.5.
Dynamic backends – these generate data on the fly
back-config: slapd configuration via LDAP
back-dnssrv: Locates LDAP servers via DNS
back-monitor: slapd statistics via LDAP
back-null: a sink/no-op backend, analogous to Unix /dev/null
back-perl: invokes arbitrary perl modules in response to LDAP requests, deprecated with OpenLDAP 2.5.
back-shell: invokes shell scripts for LDAP requests, removed with OpenLDAP 2.5.
back-sock: forwards LDAP requests over IPC to arbitrary daemons
Some backends available in older OpenLDAP releases have been retired from use,
most notably back-ldbm which was inherited from the original UMich code, and
back-tcl which was similar to back-perl and back-shell.
Support for other backends will soon be withdrawn as well. back-ndb is removed now since the partnership with MySQL that led to its development was terminated by Oracle after Oracle acquired MySQL. back-bdb and back-hdb have been removed in favor of back-mdb since back-mdb is superior in all aspects of performance, reliability, and manageability.
In practice, backends like -perl and -sock allow interfacing to any arbitrary programming language, thus providing limitless capabilities for customization and expansion. In effect the slapd server becomes an RPC engine with a compact, well-defined and ubiquitous API.
Overlays
Overall concept
Ordinarily an LDAP request is received by the frontend, decoded, and then passed to a backend for processing. When the backend completes a request, it returns a result to the frontend, which then sends the result to the LDAP client. An overlay is a piece of code that can be inserted between the frontend and the backend. It is thus able to intercept requests and trigger other actions on them before the backend receives them, and it can also likewise act on the backend's results before they reach the frontend. Overlays have complete access to the slapd internal APIs, and so can invoke anything the frontend or other backends could perform. Multiple overlays can be used at once, forming a stack of modules between the frontend and the backend.
Overlays provide a simple means to augment the functionality of a database without requiring that an entirely new backend be written, and allow new functionalities to be added in compact, easily debuggable and maintainable modules. Since the introduction
of the overlay feature in OpenLDAP 2.2 many new overlays have been contributed from the OpenLDAP community.
Available overlays
Currently there are 25 overlays in the core OpenLDAP distribution, with another 24 overlays in the user-contributed code section, and more awaiting approval for inclusion.
The core overlays include:
accesslog: log server activity in another LDAP database, for LDAP-accessible logging
auditlog: log server activity in a flat text file
autoca: Automatic Certificate Authority (OpenLDAP 2.5)
chain: intercept referrals and chain them instead; code is part of back-ldap
collect: implement X.500-style collective attributes (aka Netscape Class Of Service)
constraint: restrict the acceptable values for particular attributes
dds: dynamic data service – short-lived, self-expiring entries
deref: return information about entries referenced in a given search result
dyngroup: simple dynamic group support
dynlist: more sophisticated dynamic group support plus more
homedir: Remote home directory provisioning (OpenLDAP 2.5)
memberof: support for memberOf and similar backlink attributes
otp: allows OATH One-Time Passwords to be used in conjunction with the LDAP user password (OpenLDAP 2.5)
pcache: cache search results, mainly to improve performance for proxied servers
ppolicy: LDAP Password Policy – password quality, expiration, etc.
refint: referential integrity
remoteauth: Allows delegation of authentication requests to remote directories. Works with Active Directory. (OpenLDAP 2.5)
retcode: set predetermined return codes for various operations; used for client debugging
rwm: rewrite module, for various alterations of LDAP data
seqmod: serialize writes to individual entries
sssvlv: Server Side Sorting and Virtual List Views
syncprov: Syncrepl Provider, implements the master side of a replication agreement
translucent: Semi-transparent pass-through, for locally augmenting data on a proxied server
unique: for enforcing uniqueness of attribute values within a tree
valsort: maintain various sort orders for values of an attribute
The contrib overlays include:
addpartial: receive Add requests and turn them into Modifies if the target entry already exists
adremap: remaps attributes for PAM/NSS MS AD support (OpenLDAP 2.5)
allop: returns all operational attributes, for clients that don't know how to request them
authzid: implements RFC 3829 support (OpenLDAP 2.5)
autogroup: dynamically managed static groups
cloak: hide attributes unless explicitly requested in a search
datamorph: stores enumerated values and fixed size integers (OpenLDAP 2.5)
denyop: reject arbitrarily configured requests
dupent: return multivalued results as separate entries
lastbind: record the timestamp of a user's last successful authentication
lastmod: maintain the timestamp of the last change within a tree
nops: filter out redundant modifies
noopsrch: count entries that would be returned by a search
nssov: Answer NSS and PAM requests directly in slapd, replaces nss-ldap and pam-ldap.
ppm: adds additional password checking criteria to the slapo-ppolicy overlay (OpenLDAP 2.5)
proxyOld: support an obsolete encoding of ProxyAuthz used by Sun et al.
pw-radius: allows bind operations to be passed to the specified radius server(s) (OpenLDAP 2.5)
rbac: intercepts, decodes and enforces specific RBAC policies per the Apache Fortress RBAC data formats (OpenLDAP 2.5)
smbk5pwd: Maintain Samba and Kerberos passwords
trace: Log every LDAP request and response
totp: provides one time password support (OpenLDAP 2.5)
usn: Update Sequence Numbers (OpenLDAP 2.5)
variant: allows attributes/values to be shared between several entries (OpenLDAP 2.5)
vc: provides the verify credentials extended operation (OpenLDAP 2.5)
Other modules
Backends and overlays are the two most commonly used types of modules. Backends were typically built into the slapd binary,
but they may also be built as dynamically loaded modules, and overlays are usually built as dynamic modules. In addition,
slapd supports dynamic modules for implementing new LDAP syntaxes, matching rules, controls, and extended operations, as
well as for implementing custom access control mechanisms and password hashing mechanisms.
OpenLDAP also supports SLAPI, the plugin architecture used by Sun and Netscape/Fedora/Red Hat. In current releases,
the SLAPI framework is implemented inside a slapd overlay. While many plugins written for Sun/Netscape/Fedora/Red Hat
are compatible with OpenLDAP, very few members of the OpenLDAP community use SLAPI.
Available modules
Native slapd modules
acl/posixgroup – support posixGroup membership in access controls
comp_match – support component-based matching
kinit – maintain/refresh a Kerberos TGT for slapd
passwd/ – additional password hashing mechanisms. Currently includes Kerberos, Netscape, RADIUS, and SHA-2.
SLAPI plugins
addrdnvalue – add RDN value to an entry if it was omitted in an Add request
Release summary
The major (functional) releases of OpenLDAP Software include:
OpenLDAP Version 1 was a general clean-up of the last release from the University of Michigan project (release 3.3), and consolidation of additional changes.
OpenLDAP Version 2.0, released in August 2000, included major enhancements including LDAP version 3 (LDAPv3) support, Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) support, and numerous other enhancements.
OpenLDAP Version 2.1, released in June 2002, included the transactional database backend (based on Berkeley Database or BDB), Simple Authentication and Security Layer (SASL) support, and Meta, Monitor, and Virtual experimental backends.
OpenLDAP Version 2.2, released in December 2003, included the LDAP "sync" Engine with replication support (syncrepl), the overlay interface, and numerous database and RFC-related functional enhancements.
OpenLDAP Version 2.3, released in June 2005, included the Configuration Backend (dynamic configuration), additional overlays including RFC-compliant Password Policy software, and numerous additional enhancements.
OpenLDAP Version 2.4, released in October 2007, introduced N-way MultiMaster replication, Stand-by master, and the ability to delete and modify Schema elements on the fly, plus many more.
OpenLDAP Version 2.5, released in April 2021, introduced the LDAP load balancing proxy server, LDAP transaction support, HA proxy protocol v2 support, plus much more.
OpenLDAP Version 2.6, released in October 2021, introduced additional load balancing strategies and additional options to improve coherence with certain LDAP controls and extended operations to the LDAP Load Balancer Daemon and the ability to log directly to a file rather than via syslog for both slapd and lloadd
Replication
OpenLDAP supports replication using Content Synchronization as specified in RFC 4533. This spec is hereafter referred to as "syncrepl". In addition to the base specification, an enhancement known as delta-syncrepl is also supported. Additional enhancements have been implemented to support multi-master replication.
syncrepl
The basic synchronization operation is described in RFC 4533. The protocol is defined such that a persistent database of changes is not required. Rather the set of changes is implied via change sequence number (CSN) information stored in each entry and optimized via an optional session log which is particularly useful to track recent deletes. The model of operation is that a replication client (consumer) sends a "content synchronizing search" to a replication server (provider). The consumer can provide a cookie in this search (especially when it has been in sync with the provider previously). In the OpenLDAP implementation of the RFC 4533, this cookie includes the latest CSN that has been received from the provider (called the contextCSN).
The provider then returns as search results (or, see optimization below, sync info replies) the present (unchanged entry only used in the present phase of the refresh stage) (no attributes), added, modified (represented in the refresh phase as an add with all current attributes), or deleted (no attributes) entries to put the consumer into a synchronized state based on what is known via their cookie. If the cookie is absent or indicates that the consumer is totally out of sync, then the provider will, in the refresh stage, send an add for each entry it has. In the ideal case, the refresh stage of the response contains only a delete phase with just a small set of adds (including those that represent the current result of modifies) and deletes that have occurred since the time the consumer last synchronized with the provider. However, due to limited session log state (also non-persistent) kept in the provider, a present phase may be required, particularly including the presentation of all unchanged entries as a means (inefficient) of implying what has been deleted in the provider since the consumer last synchronized.
The search can be done in either refresh or refreshAndPersist mode, which implies what stages occur. The refresh stage always occurs first. During the refresh stage, two phases may occur: present and delete, where present always occurs before delete. The phases are delimited via a sync info response that specifies which phase is completed. The refresh and persist stages are also delimited via such sync info response. An optional optimization to more compactly represent a group of entries that are to be presented or deleted is to use a sync info response containing a syncIdSet that identifies the list of entryUUID values of those entries.
The present phase is differentiated from the delete phase as follows. Entries that present unchanged entries may only be returned in the present phase. Entries that delete entries may only be provided in the delete phase. In either phase, add entries (including adds that represent all current attributes of modified entries) can be returned. At the end of a present phase, each entry that the consumer has that was not identified in an add entry or present response during the present phase is implicitly no longer in the provider and thus must be deleted at the consumer so as to synchronize the consumer with the provider.
Once the persist stage begins, the provider sends search results that indicate only the add, modify and delete of entries (no present unchanged entry indications) for those entries changed since the refresh stage completed. The persist stage continues indefinitely, meaning that search has no final "done" response. By contrast, in the refresh mode only a refresh stage occurs and such stage completes with a done response that also ends the present or delete phase (whichever phase was currently active).
delta-syncrepl
This protocol keeps a persistent database of write accesses (changes) and can represent each modify precisely (meaning only the attributes that have changed). It is still built on the standard syncrepl specification, which always sends changes as complete entries. But in delta-syncrepl, the transmitted entries are actually sent from a log database, where each change in the main database is recorded as a log entry. The log entries are recorded using the LDAP Log Schema.
See also
List of LDAP software
References
External links
The OpenLDAP Foundation
Using libldap, A tutorial on the OpenLDAP client API
An OpenLDAP Update article by Marty Heyman 13 September 2007
Free software programmed in C
Cross-platform free software
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256043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20science%20magazines | List of science magazines | A science magazine is a periodical publication with news, opinions and reports about science, generally written for a non-expert audience. In contrast, a periodical publication, usually including primary research and/or reviews, that is written by scientific experts is called a "scientific journal". Science magazines are read by non-scientists and scientists who want accessible information on fields outside their specialization.
Articles in science magazines are sometimes republished or summarized by the general press.
Examples of general science magazines
Australia
Australasian Science
Australian Geographic
Cosmos
New Scientist
Austria
Universum
Bangladesh
Byapon - Youth Science Magazine in Bengali
Brazil
Galileu
Superinteressante
Ciência Hoje
Bulgaria
Da znaem poveche
Chile
Argo Navis
Czech Republic
Vesmír
Denmark
Aktuel Naturvidenskab
Illustreret Videnskab
Europe
EuroScientist
Finland
Tiede
France
La Recherche
Pour la Science
Science & Vie
Germany
Spektrum der Wissenschaft
Welt der Physik
India
Resonance, published by Indian Academy of Sciences
Current Science
Dream 2047, published by Vigyan Prasar
Jnan o Bijnan, published by Bangiya Bijnan Parishad
Sandarbh
Science Reporter
Safari
Italy
Popular Science Italia
Airone
Focus
Le Scienze
Netherlands
Quest
Zenit
Pakistan
Global Science
Poland
Wiedza i Życie
Russia
Nauka i Zhizn
Tekhnika Molodezhi
Kvant
Vokrug sveta
Serbia
SciTech
South Korea
Donga Science
Sweden
Illustrerad Vetenskap
Turkey
Bilim ve Teknik
United Kingdom
All About Space
BBC Focus
BBC Sky at Night
Laboratory News
New Scientist
Physics World
United States
General
American Scientist
Discover
MIT Technology Review
Popular Mechanics
Knowable Magazine
Popular Science
Nautilus
New Scientist
Quanta Magazine
Science (1979–1986)
Science News
Scientific American
Seed
Astronomy/Aerospace
Air & Space
Astronomy
Mercury
Planetary Report
Sky & Telescope
Spinoff
Others
Physics Today
Scientific American Mind
The Scientist
Skeptic
Technologist
Weatherwise
See also
Popular science works
Science book
Science journalism
References
Lists of magazines
Magazines
Magazines | [
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256044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Wagner%20%28artist%29 | Martin Wagner (artist) | Martin Wagner (born April 27, 1966) is an American artist, cartoonist, and filmmaker.
Career
Comics
While a student at the University of Texas at Austin, Wagner began Hepcats as a comic strip in the college newspaper The Daily Texan in 1987. Starting in 1989, he self-published it as a black-and-white comic book series and it gained more exposure with the assistance of Dave Sim, who allowed Wagner to submit a page to his bi-weekly reprints of Cerebus. To help support the comics financially, Wagner also offered sketches to fans who sent him cash in the mail. Although the series received critical praise, the combination of poor sales, Wagner's lack of business experience, and his divorce in 1991 contributed to financial difficulties. Along with Jeff Smith (Bone), Colleen Doran (A Distant Soil), James Owen (Starchild), Larry Marder (Beanworld) and Sim, Wagner was one of the prominent self-publishers of the 1990s, but a hectic schedule eventually led him to cease publishing the series altogether following issue No. 12 in 1994. In 1996 he made a deal with Antarctic Press to republish the existing material, to be followed by new issues, but the only new material published was a special "#0" color issue. Wagner also developed the Snowblind story-line as part of the Hepcats series which would be re-printed into a novel, but it never continued past part one.
Film
Following his departure from the comics industry, Wagner illustrated children's books and began a new career working in Austin-area film and television commercial productions. In 1999, Wagner produced some early conceptual drawings for director Robert Rodriguez (who was also a cartoonist at the University of Texas at the same time as Wagner) for his film Spy Kids, though he did not work on the film during production or any of its sequels.
In 2005, Wagner was slated to direct a 24p high-definition short film, Tremendous Risk for Mr. Ferdico, but when the producers failed to secure funding, he shifted his attentions to a documentary, Bloody Work, which was successfully funded on Kickstarter in the summer of 2013, but was never released, with updates to the campaign ceasing in 2016.
Wagner was a rotating co-host on the webcast and public access show The Atheist Experience from 2000 to 2016.
References
External links
Listing for The Comics Journal No. 173, including interviews with Wagner and Jeff Smith
1966 births
American comics artists
American comics writers
Artists from Austin, Texas
American atheism activists
Atheist Community of Austin people
Living people
University of Texas at Austin alumni
American people of German descent | [
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256048 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gudfred | Gudfred | Gudfred was a ninth century Danish king who reigned from at least 804 to 810. Alternate spellings include Godfred (Danish), Göttrick (German), Gøtrik (Danish), Gudrød (Danish), and Godofredus (Latin). He stands at the threshold of the History of Denmark in the sense that he is the first ruler about whom we have substantial knowledge from contemporary sources. He waged offensive war against the Carolingian Empire with some success, but was murdered under murky circumstances before a major confrontation had taken place. There is no unambiguous trace of Gudfred in the later Norse sagas, and his history can only be traced from the hostile Frankish texts which makes an assessment of his role problematic. His paternity is unknown but he may have been closely related to Sigfred, who preceded him as king of Denmark c. 770–804. He was the uncle of the later Danish King Hemming (810–812) and the father of King Horik I (813–854).
Family
Gudfred is known to have sired at least five sons, as well as having at least five nephews. Several of them served as rulers or co-rulers of the Danes between 810 and 854. His sons are typically called "sons of Gudfred" without mention of their names, apart from Horik I. Various modern scholars have used later Scandinavian, Frankish and Irish sources in a speculative way to determine the names of some of his other sons: Olaf, Ragnar, Kettil. Nothing of this is conclusive, however. Hemming is mentioned in the Royal Frankish Annals as son to an unnamed brother of Gudfred. Other nephews were Ragnvald, Håkon, Angantyr and Sigfred. The Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum of Adam of Bremen considers Hemming and Gudfred to be "patruelis", paternal cousins, but this is a derivative work. Horik I seems to have survived his siblings and cousins, and became the sole ruler around 828.
A rival royal branch, represented in the first place by Harald Klak (812-813, 819-827), based its claim on being kinsmen of a former King Harald. This Harald may have been a predecessor, co-ruler or short-lived successor of Sigfred.
Failed diplomatic overtures
Towards the end of the 8th century, the Danes and their Saxon neighbours were facing challenges from the Franks under the expansive regime of Charlemagne. In 798, the Saxons were defeated by the Obodrites, a West Slavic people allied to the Frankish Emperor Charlemagne, at the Battle of Bornhöved (or Schwentine River). A part of the Saxons' land, in Holstein north of the Elbe, was awarded to the Obotrites in 804, as a reward for their victory. That same year, a Frankish army penetrated as far as the Ejder (Eider), Denmark's southern boundary at the time. In the face of these developments Gudfred promised to meet Charlemagne in person for a parley. After some time he appeared at Sliesthorp (Schleswig, Hedeby) with his fleet and the entire cavalry of his kingdom. This place marked the border between Saxony and Gudfred's realm. However, the king's men advised Gudfred against meeting the emperor, and he failed to appear. Charlemagne established a camp at Hollenstedt at the Elbe and sent an errand to Gudfred, asking him to extradite some rebels who had taken refuge in the Danish kingdom. Nothing is known to have come out of this, and the emperor returned to Cologne in September in the same year.
Three years after these events, in 807, a Danish chief called Halfdan swore allegiance to Charlemagne for protection. He is often assumed to have been the father of the later king and pretender Harald Klak and brother of the former King Harald, which probably means that he refused to pay allegiance to Gudfred due to a dynastic contest. It may be that Halfdan became earl of some wealthy market towns south of the river Ejder, occupying what became known as North Frisia. This region later became a base for his descendants.
Viking invasion of the Obodrite lands
Fearing an invasion by the Franks, who had conquered heathen Frisia over the previous 100 years and Old Saxony in 772 to 804, Gudfred resolved to attack the Obodrites in the old Saxon territories. The seaborne invasion was successful in spite of considerable Danish losses. During a siege his brother's son Ragnvald, the second man in the kingdom, fell together with several chiefs. Now Gudfred conquered a number of Slavic strongholds and made two districts pay taxes to him. The Obodrite prince Drożko (lat: Thrasco, Thrasucon )was expelled from his land, and another chief called Godelaib was captured by trickery and hanged. The Slavic Linones, Smeldingi and Wiltzes, the last-mentioned being old enemies of the Obodrites, preferred to fight on the Danish side.
Before returning to his kingdom, Gudfred destroyed the important port Reric by the Baltic coast, probably in the modern Blowatz municipality. It is specified that Reric was a Danish name, and that the port brought great advantages to Gudfred's kingdom through the imposition of fees. By this feat he may have impeded Charlemagne from using Reric as part of a strategic trade route. The merchants were forced to follow the Viking fleet to Sliesthorp where the king stayed for some time and drew up plans for the future. Fearing Frankish reprisals, he now decided to seal the border to Saxony with a wall, later known as Danevirke. As well established by modern archaeology, a defensive wall existed long before the time of Gudfred, from about 737. While the Frankish annals give the impression of a new creation, it was therefore an improvement of an old structure to defend his realm. Archaeologists have identified it with the so-called Kovirke, a phase of Danevirke built about 800. The improved Danevirke ran from the Schlei toward the west coast of Denmark by means of the river Trende. The wall was built with an earthen embankment topped by a wooden stockade and protected from the south by a deep ditch. There was only one gate through which horsemen and wagons could move back and forth. Denmark's most important town, Sliesthorp or Hedeby, which apparently already existed on the Schlien, was expanded and garrisoned with Danish soldiers and the early sections of the wall were designed to protect it. Archaeological finds confirm that the town began to flourish in earnest around 810.
Hearing about the Danish invasion, Charlemagne ordered his son Charles the Younger to bring an army of Franks and Saxons to the Elbe, in case the rash Gudfred would try anything against the ethnic Saxon territory. Charles did not attempt to attack the Danish homeland but he ravaged the lands of the Linones and Smeldingi and then returned. In the next year 809, Gudfred informed Charlemagne via travelling merchants, that he was aware of the emperor's ire over the invasion, and wished to negotiate a political solution. The emissaries of Charlemagne met with the Danish grandees at Badenfliot at the river Eider, but failed to negotiate peace. Now the Obodrite prince Drożko appeared again with Saxon auxiliaries and ferociously attacked Gudfred's allies, the Wiltzes, in spite of the fact that his own son was a hostage at Gudfred's court. He then subjugated the Slavic lands which had acknowledged the Danish king and successfully reclaimed his old position. However, Drożko was soon murdered in the rebuilt Reric by assassins dispatched by Gudfred. That the emperor was seriously worried over "the presumptions and arrogance of the Danish king" is seen from the establishment of a garrison to the north of the Elbe, Esesfelth. He also enjoined his subjects to hold special religious services to avert the pagan threat.
Invasion of Frisia and death
In 810 Charlemagne stayed at his main residence in Aachen, drawing up plans for a major military expedition against Gudfred. However, the Danish ruler forestalled his plans. A Viking fleet of 200 sails unexpectedly attacked Frisia. Gudfred did not follow the fleet but stayed at home. The Danes ravaged the islands off the coast, before landing at the mainland. The local troops met the marauders but were defeated in three battles, after which the inhabitants gave up. The Vikings forced the merchants and peasants to pay 100 pounds of silver as "tax", implying that the king claimed Northern Frisia as Danish territory. According to the contemporary historian Einhard, Gudfred "was stuck-up by such a vain hope that he claimed the lordship over all of Germany; also, he did not see Frisia and Saxony as anything else but his provinces".
Hearing this, the incensed emperor gathered whatever troops he could and established a camp at the confluence of Aller and Weser, awaiting the next step by the Danish ruler. As the annals say, "this king, intoxicated by the hope of victory, bragged that he wanted to fight the emperor on the open field". Before more had been done, however, news arrived about the withdrawal of the Viking fleet and the hasty demise of Gudfred, who had been murdered by one of his housecarls (). Details about the drama are given by Notker of St Gall (c. 883), who is however unreliable. In this version Gudfred hunted ducks with falcon when he was attacked by his own son who cut him dead with his sword. The reason for the murder was that the king had abandoned his wife, who egged her son to avenge the slight.
The war against the Carolingian empire ended with the demise of Gudfred. He was succeeded by his nephew Hemming without any known commotion, and the new ruler concluded a peace treaty with the Franks in 811. The Danish kingdom was incapacitated by violent dynastic infighting after 812 which temporarily diminished the Danish menace to the Frankish realm.
The realm of Gudfred
Modern archaeology has found indications of a Danish kingdom of some consequence, several generations before Gudfred. The early urban center and coinage in Ribe (c. 700), the construction of the Kanhave Canal in Samsø (c. 726), and the early phases of the Danevirke (c. 737) suggest that at least parts of present-day Denmark were dominated by a nascent royal power in the 8th century. The rash and confronting politics of Gudfred may indicate that he had access to considerable resources. The Frankish annals only expressly state that Gudfred ruled in South Jutland, but there are some hints of a wider sphere of royal power in the early 9th century. The peace treaty of 811 mentions a delegate from Skåne (Sconaowe) which may speak for a Danish realm on both sides of Öresund. In 813 a rebellion against the current Danish kings broke out in Vestfold, suggesting temporary suzerainty over part of southern Norway.
Possible connections with the saga literature
In spite of his historical importance, there is no clear trace of Gudfred in the Norse saga literature of the 12th-14th centuries. Saxo Grammaticus mentions him under the name Gøtrik, but his information is drawn from Adam of Bremen's chronicle (c. 1075) in conjunction with an unrelated Geatish saga character. According to Saxo, Gøtrik was followed on the throne by his son Olaf who strove to avenge his father and thereby involved Denmark in civil war. This Olaf is unknown to Frankish sources and seems to be from local Danish tradition. The genealogical poem Ynglingatal, the date of which is disputed, mentions a King Gudrød the Hunter of Vestfold, son of Halfdan the Mild and grandfather of Harald Fairhair of Norway, who was slain by the servant of his vengeful wife Åsa. The apparent similarities to the account of Notker of St Gall has led a number of scholars to assume that the two figures are identical. This may be strengthened by Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla which mentions Gudrød as a Danish king (in Skåne). Most scholars nevertheless dismiss the identification as speculative.
Gudfred also occurs in continental medieval literature. In the poem La Chevalerie Ogier de Danemarche (around 1200) he is called Gaufroi de Danemarche, being the father of the renowned hero Ogier the Dane. In the poem Gudfred gives his son as hostage to Charlemagne.
References
Further reading
Erich Hoffmann (1976), Königserhebung und Thronfolgesordnung in Dänemark bis zum Ausgang des Mittelalters. Berlin & New York.
Stig Jørgensen (1987), Danmarks kongemagt og dens fødsel. Århus.
Klavs Randsborg (1980), The Viking Age in Denmark. London.
Viking Age monarchs
810 deaths
Year of birth unknown
9th-century Danish monarchs
9th-century murdered monarchs | [
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256049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob%20Bourdon | Rob Bourdon | Robert Gregory Bourdon (born January 20, 1979) is an American musician, best known as the drummer and co-founding member of the American rock band Linkin Park.
The youngest member of the band, Bourdon met Aerosmith drummer Joey Kramer, and was inspired to learn how to play the drums. After joining his high school's jazz band in his sophomore year, he met Brad Delson and Mike Shinoda, who both lived nearby in the San Fernando Valley. Bourdon and Delson would form their own band, Relative Degree.
Career biography
Bourdon grew up in the town of Calabasas, California, he attended Agoura High School in Agoura Hills where he met future bandmates Mike Shinoda and Brad Delson. He currently resides in Los Angeles.
Discography
With Linkin Park
Hybrid Theory (2000)
Meteora (2003)
Minutes to Midnight (2007)
A Thousand Suns (2010)
Living Things (2012)
The Hunting Party (2014)
One More Light (2017)
References
External links
1979 births
Living people
American rock drummers
Linkin Park members
Nu metal drummers
Jewish musicians
Jewish heavy metal musicians
People from Calabasas, California
20th-century American drummers
American male drummers
21st-century American drummers | [
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256050 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Link%20%28UK%20organization%29 | The Link (UK organization) | The Link was established in July 1937 as an "independent non-party organisation to promote Anglo-German friendship". It generally operated as a cultural organisation, although its journal, the Anglo-German Review, reflected the pro-Nazi views of Barry Domvile, and particularly in London it attracted a number of anti-semites and pro-Nazis. At its height the membership numbered around 4,300.
The Link opposed war between Britain and Germany, and because of this attracted the support of some British pacifists. When The Link and the Anglo-German Review were included among peace organisations across the political spectrum in the Peace Service Handbook (a publication put out by the Peace Pledge Union), The Daily Telegraph and the News Chronicle published articles accusing the PPU of supporting Nazism. In response, PPU member Stuart Morris wrote to the papers stating there was no connection between the PPU and The Link, and that the former organisation did not support the German demand for colonies or peace at the expense of smaller nations. The PPU also sent a letter to its group leaders dissociating The Link from the PPU, and ceased publishing the Peace Service Handbook.
The organisation was investigated by Maxwell Knight, head of counter-subversion in MI5. The organisation closed shortly after the start of World War II in 1939.
Barry Domvile was interned in 1940 under Defence Regulation 18B, as someone who might be "prejudicial to the public safety or the defence of the realm".
According to Anthony Masters, the Link was allegedly resurrected in 1940 by Ian Fleming, then working in the Department of Naval Intelligence, in order to successfully lure Rudolf Hess (deputy party leader and third in leadership of Germany, after Adolf Hitler and Hermann Göring) to Britain in May 1941.
See also
Anglo-German Fellowship
References
1937 establishments in the United Kingdom
Fascist organizations
Far-right politics in the United Kingdom
Germany–United Kingdom relations
Organizations established in 1937 | [
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256054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20H.%20Swanson | William H. Swanson | William H. Swanson (born 1949) is the former chairman and CEO of Raytheon Company (2004 -2014).
Education
A native of California, Swanson graduated magna cum laude from California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo with a bachelor's degree in industrial engineering. He attended Cal Poly with the assistance of a golf scholarship. He was awarded an honorary Doctorate from Pepperdine University and served on the Board of Regents of Pepperdine. He was selected as the Outstanding Industrial Engineering Graduate in 1972, and in 1991 was recognized as an Honored Alumnus by California Polytechnic State University College of Engineering. He attended a graduate degree program in business administration at Golden Gate University.
Career
Raytheon
Swanson joined Raytheon in 1972 and held a wide range of leadership positions, including manufacturing manager of the company’s Equipment Division, general manager of the Missile Systems Division's Andover Plant, senior vice president and general manager of the Missile Systems Division, general manager of Raytheon Electronic Systems, and president, chairman and chief executive officer of Raytheon Systems Company.
Before becoming chairman of Raytheon in January 2004, Swanson was CEO and president of the company. Prior to that he was president of the company, responsible for Raytheon’s government and defense operations, including the four Strategic Business Areas of Missile Defense; Precision Engagement; Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR); and Homeland Security. Before that, he was a Raytheon executive vice president and president of Electronic Systems.
As a protégé of Chairman and CEO Dennis Picard and a long-time Raytheon insider, he was the expected candidate to succeed the retiring chairman in the late 1990s. However, Daniel Burnham, an outsider, was elected to succeed Dennis Picard as Chairman and CEO. After Burnham completed a five-year contract with Raytheon, Swanson was elevated to his position.
Swanson stepped down from the CEO position in March 2014 and retired from Raytheon entirely in September 2014. He was succeeded by Dr. Thomas A. Kennedy, who had previously served as Raytheon's Chief Operating Officer.
Honors and associations
Member of the board of directors of Sprint Nextel Corporation.
Member of the Congressional Medal of Honor Foundation board of directors, the California Polytechnic State University President’s Cabinet, and the Rose Kennedy Greenway board.
Appointed to the Pepperdine University board of regents and awarded an honorary doctor of laws degree and the Woodrow Wilson Award for Corporate Citizenship.
Member of the Secretary of the Air Force advisory board.
Trustee of the Association of the United States Army.
Member of the National Defense Industrial Association.
Member of the Navy League.
Member of the Air Force Association.
Member of the Board of Governors of the Aerospace Industries Association.
Member of the CIA Officers Memorial Foundation board of advisors.
Associate fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
Member of the US president’s National Security Telecommunications Advisory Committee.
Vice chairman of the Business-Higher Education Forum (BHEF).
Co-chair of BHEF's Securing America's Leadership in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) Initiative.
Honorary chair of MATHCOUNTS for 2009 through 2011.
Honorary chair of 2011 Engineers Week.
Swanson's Unwritten Rules of Management and plagiarism
Swanson released a short work called Swanson's Unwritten Rules of Management, thirty three sound-bite rules, including the comparatively well known "Waiter Rule".
On April 24, 2006, in a statement released by Raytheon, Swanson admitted to plagiarism in claiming authorship for his booklet, "Swanson's Unwritten Rules of Management," after being exposed by an article in The New York Times. On May 2, 2006, Raytheon withdrew distribution of the book. On May 3, 2006, Raytheon punished Swanson by reducing his compensation by approximately $1 million for publishing what was "later found to have been taken from a 1944 engineering classic, The Unwritten Laws of Engineering, by W. J. King." Further investigation by the Boston Herald revealed that Swanson had also copied some of the rules from former US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and columnist Dave Barry.
The Boston Globe, the major newspaper in Raytheon's home town, reported "the move was largely symbolic given Swanson's robust $7 million pay package in 2005."
References
External links
Raytheon's biography of William H. Swanson (in PDF format).
Past Leadership of Raytheon
American chief executives of manufacturing companies
1949 births
Living people
Raytheon Company people
Golden Gate University alumni | [
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256056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20O.%20Holliday | Charles O. Holliday | Charles Otis "Chad" Holliday, Jr. (born March 9, 1948) is an American businessman, former chairman of Bank of America, former chief executive officer and a former director of E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company (DuPont). He is chairman emeritus of the U.S. Council on Competitiveness and chairman of the Business Roundtable's Task Force for Environment, Technology and Economy. Holliday is also a founding member of the International Business Council and serves on the board of advisors of the Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions.
Between May 2015 and May 2021 he was chairman of Royal Dutch Shell.
Early life
Holliday was born in 1948 and grew up in Nashville, Tennessee. He graduated from John Overton High, where he met his future wife, Ann. Holliday earned his B.S. in industrial engineering from the University of Tennessee in 1970. He was a member of the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity Zeta chapter. Holliday started at DuPont in the summer of 1970 at DuPont's Old Hickory site. He then turned a summer job at DuPont into a full-time position as an engineer. He advanced through manufacturing and supervisory positions around the world until he was named CEO in 1998.
Professional career
Holliday was the 18th CEO of DuPont in more than 200 years of DuPont history. Under Holliday's leadership, DuPont established a goal of achieving sustainable growth – increasing shareholder and societal value while simultaneously decreasing DuPont's environmental footprint. As a result, DuPont has shifted from being a chemical company to being a science-based products and services company. On September 23, 2008, DuPont announced that Holliday would retire as CEO on December 31, 2008, and that its board of directors had elected Ellen J. Kullman to succeed Holliday with effect from January 1, 2009. On 30 October 2009, DuPont announced that Holliday would retire as chairman with effect from December 31, 2009, and that Kullman had been appointed chairman effective from that date.
Holliday is the chairman of Council on Competitiveness and the Business Roundtable's Task Force for Environment, Technology and Economy. Holliday was previously chairman of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) and chairman of the Society of Chemical Industry – American Section. He was chairman of The Business Council in 2003 and 2004. He is a founding member of the International Business Council and is on the board of advisors of the Nicholas Institute for Environmental Policy Solutions.
On September 21, 2009, Holliday was elected to the board of directors of Bank of America, and was elected chairman on April 28, 2010. Holliday received an honorary doctorate from Polytechnic University, and is a licensed professional engineer.
Holliday was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2004.
Compensation
While CEO of DuPont in 2008, Holliday earned total compensation of $10,213,441, which included a base salary of $1,369,500, a cash bonus of $1,732,000, stocks granted of $4,796,309, and options granted of $2,166,672.
Publications
Holliday has co-written a book titled Walking the Talk, which details the business case for sustainable development and corporate responsibility.
References
External links
Biography at Bank of America website
American manufacturing businesspeople
DuPont people
Directors of Bank of America
People from Nashville, Tennessee
People in the chemical industry
University of Tennessee alumni
1948 births
Living people
American chairpersons of corporations
Directors of Royal Dutch Shell | [
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256057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halfdan%20the%20Old | Halfdan the Old | Halfdan the Old (Old Norse: Hálfdanr gamli and Hálfdanr inn gamli) was an ancient, legendary king from whom descended many of the most notable lineages of legend. A second Halfdan the Old is the purported great-grandfather of Ragnvald Eysteinsson.
Halfdan the Old, ancestor of many lineages
Hyndluljód
The eddic poem Hyndluljód states in verses 14–16:
"Of old the noblest of all was Áli,
Before him Halfdan, foremost of Skjöldungs [Skjǫldungar];
Famed were the battles the hero fought,
To the corners of heaven his deeds were carried.
"Strengthened by Eymund [Eymundr], the strongest of men,
Sigtrygg [Sigtryggr] he slew with the ice-cold sword;
His bride was Álmveig [Álmveigr], the best of women,
And eighteen boys did Álmveig bear him.
"Hence come the Skjöldungs, hence the Skilfings,
Hence the Ödlings [Ǫðlingar], hence the Ynglings,
Hence come the free-born, hence the high-born,
The noblest of men that in Midgard dwell:
And all are thy kinsmen, Óttar, thou fool!"
Though Halfdan is himself called a Skjöldung in verse 14, in verse 16 the Skjöldungs are named instead as one of the families that sprang from Halfdan's marriage with Álmveig.
Skáldskaparmál
Snorri Sturluson explains in the Skáldskaparmál:
There was a king named Halfdan the Old, who was most famous of all kings. He made a great sacrificial feast at mid-winter, and sacrificed to this end, that he might live three hundred years in his kingdom; but he received these answers: he should not live more than the full life of a man, but for three hundred years there should be in his line no woman and no man who was not of great repute. He was a great warrior, and went on forays far and wide in the Eastern Regions: there he slew in single combat the king who was called Sigtrygg. Then he took in marriage that woman named Alvig the Wise, daughter of King Eymund of Hólmgard [Hólmgarðr]: they had eighteen sons, nine born at one birth. These were their names:the first, Thengil [Thengill], who was called Thengil of Men;
the second, Ræsir;
the third, Gram [Gramr];
the fourth, Gylfi;
the fifth, Hilmir;
the sixth, Jöfur [Jǫfurr];
the seventh, Tyggi;
the eighth, Skyli or Skúli;
the ninth, Harri or Herra.
These nine brothers became so famous in foraying that, in all records since, their names are used as titles of rank, even as the name of King or that of Jarl. They had no children, and all fell in battle.
Snorri then gives examples from skaldic verse where these names are used as general terms for 'lord' or 'ruler'. The promise of three hundred years of no women among Halfdan's descendants is paralleled in the story of Ríg-Jarl who has sons only but no daughters. See Ríg (Norse god). None of the titles given here duplicate titles such as hersir, jarl, konungr, and dróttinn which appear in the Ríg account. Snorri continues:
Halfdan and his wife had nine other sons also; these were:Hildir, from whom the Hildings are come;
Nefir, from whom the Niflungs sprang;
Audi [Auði], from whom the Ödlings [Ǫðlingar] are come;
Yngvi, from whom the Ynglings are descended;
Dag [Dagr], from whom come the Döglings [Dǫglingar];
Bragi, from whom the Bragnings are sprung (that is the race of Halfdan the Generous (Hálfdanr inn mildi);
Budli [Buðli], from whom the Budlungs [Buðlungar] are come (from the house of the Budlungs Atli and Brynhild [Brynhildr] descended);
the eighth was Lofdi [Lofði], who was a great war-king (that host who were called Lofdar [Lofðar] followed him; his kindred are called Lofdungs [Lofðungar], whence sprang Eylimi, Sigurd Fáfnir's-bane's mother's sire);
the ninth, Sigar [Sigarr], whence come the Siklings: that is the house of Siggeir [Siggeirr], who was son-in-law of Völsung [Vǫlsungr],—and the house of Sigar, who hanged Hagbard [Hagbarðr].
From the race of Hildings sprang Harald Red-beard [Haraldr granrauði], mother's father of Halfdan the Black [Hálfdanr inn svarti].
Of the Niflung's house was Gjúki.
Of the house of Ödlings, Kjár [Kjárr].
Of the house of the Ylfings was Eirík the Eloquent [Eiríkr inn málspaki].
The Skjöldungs and Skilfings mentioned in the Hyndluljód are missing here. The Ylfings are suddenly introduced at the end in a reference to Eirík the Eloquent yet are also not found among the nine families.
Snorri then immediately mentions what seem to be intended as four famous houses not descended from Halfdan the Old:
These also are illustrious royal houses:from Yngvi, the Ynglings are descended;
from Skjöld in Denmark, the Skjöldungs are come;
from Völsung in the land of Franks, those who are called Völsungs.
One war-king was named Skelfir; and his house is called the House of Skilfings: his kindred is in the Eastern Region.
But Yngvi has been previously named as a son of Halfdan the Old and the Skjöldungs and Skilfings are counted among Halfdan's descendants in the Hyndluljód.
Snorri continues:
These houses which were named but now have been used in skaldship for titles of rank.
Snorri then quotes many skaldic verses which demonstrate this.
Ættartolur
Halfdan and his sons
The Ættartolur, the genealogies appended to the Hversu Noregr byggdist in the Flatey Book introduce Halfdan the Old as the ruler of Ringiríki (a territory including modern Ringerike and Valdres in Oppland). Halfdan is here the son of King Hring (eponym of Ringeríki) by the daughter of a sea-king named Vífil (Vífill). Hring was son of Raum the Old (eponym of Raumaríki) by Hild (Hildr) the daughter Gudröd the Old (Guðrǫðr inn gamli). Raum the Old was son of Nór (Nórr) (the eponym of Norway). See Nór for further details about Nór and his ancestry and descendants.
In his sacrifice Halfdan requested a lifetime of 300 years like that of his ancestor Snær.
The form Tiggi appears instead of Tyggi in the list of the first nine sons. The list of the second nine sons has Skelfir instead of Yngvi and the form Næfil (Næfill) instead of Nefir. The order of the names is the same and it is explained that Hildir, Sigar, and Lofdi were war-kings; Audi, Budli, and Næfil were sea-kings, while Dag, Skelfir, and Bragi remained on their lands.
Döglings
Dag married Thóra Heroes-mother (Thóra drengjamóður) who bore him nine sons, but only four are named: Óli, Ám (Ámr), Jöfur, and Arngrím (Arngrímr).
Óli was father of Dag, father of Óleif (Óleifr), father of Hring, father of Helgi, father of Sigurd Hart (Sigurðr Hjǫrtr), father of Ragnhild (Ragnhildr) the mother of Harald Fairhair.
Arngrím married Eyfura who bore him Angantýr the Berserk (Angantýr berserkr). Angantýr's story is most fully treated in the Hervarar saga. It also appears in part in book five of Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum and an account only the deaths of Angantýr and his eleven brothers appears in Arrow-Odd's saga.
Stanza 18 of the Hyndluljód reads:
The mate of Dag was a mother of heroes [drengja móður],
Thóra, who bore him the bravest of fighters,
Fradmar [Fraðmarr] and Gyrd [Gyrðr] and the Frekis [Frekar] twain,
Ám and Jöfurmar [Jǫfurmar], Álf the Old;
It is much to know,— wilt thou hear yet more?
The name Ám agrees with that of a son of Dag in the Ættartolur and Jöfurmar is probably identical with Jöfur of the Ættartolur. Fradmar, Gyrd, Álf the Old, and the two Frekis bring the total to seven. Adding the names Óli and Arngrím to this list from the Ættartolur brings the tally to nine, as the Ættartolur promised. This may be coincidental. It is odd that the Hyndluljód here leaves out the only two names for which the Hversu provides descendants. It is possible that the following stanzas of the Hyndluljód down to stanza 24 cover otherwise unknown members of the Dögling lineage since stanza 23 at least returns to the Dödlings, providing the names of the twelve sons of Arngrím and the following stanza tells of their birth to Arngrím and Eyfura. Áli mentioned in stanza 14 of the Hyndluljód (quoted near the beginning of this article) may be identical to Óli son of Dag mentioned in the Ættartolur.
Bragnings
Bragi the Old [Bragi gamli] was king of Valdres and father of Agnar, father of Álf, father of Eirík (Eiríkr), father of Hild (Hildr) the mother of Halfdan the Generous, the father of Gudröd (Guðrǫðr) the Hunter, father of Halfdan the Black, father of Harald Fairhair.
Skilfings or Skjöldungs
Skilfir was king of Vörs (Vǫrs, modern Voss in northern Hordaland in southwestern Norway. Skelfir was father of Skjöld (Skjǫldr), father of Eirík, father of Alrek (Alrekr), father of Eirík the Eloquent, father of Alrek the Bold (Alrekr inn frækni), father of Víkar (Víkarr), father of Vatnar (Vatnarr), father of two sons: Ímald (Ímaldr) and Eirík, this Eirik being father of Gyda (Gyða) who was one of the wives of Harald Fairhair. They were called the Skilfing lineage or Skjöldung lineage. For commentary on this lineage and variant traditions on those listed here as belonging to it see Scylfing and Víkar.
Hildings
Hildir was father of Hildibrand (Hildibrandr), father of Vígbrand (Vígbrandr), father of Hildir and Herbrand (Herbrandr). Herbrand was father of Harald Red-beard, father of Ása who was the mother of Halfdan the Black, the father of Harald Fairhair.
(The text actually reads "Harald Grenski" (Haraldr inn grenski) instead of Harald Red-beard, but that must be an error. Harald Grenski was the name of a later figure, the father of King Olaf II of Norway, and the Ynglinga saga and many other sources name Harald Red-beard as Ása's father.
Siklings
Sigar is provided with two sons Siggeir and Sigmund (Sigmundr). Siggeir is prominent in Volsunga saga as the villainous husband of Signý the daughter of Völsung. Sigmund son of Sigar married Hild, daughter of King Grjótgard (Grjótgarðr) of Mœr. (See Gard Agdi for Grjótgard's genealogy.) Their son was Sigar, father of Signý, that Sigar who caused Hagbard (Hagbarðr) to be hanged.
One of the sources where the story of Hagbard appears is in Gesta Danorum, Book 7, which relates the love between Hagbarthus son of Hamundus and Signe daughter of King Sigarus despite Hagbarthus having slain her brothers. When Sigarus discovered the affair, he had Hagbarthus hanged. Then Hagbarthus' brother Haco/Hako/Haki avenged Hagbarthus. In this version Sigar/Sigarus is a king of Denmark, son of Sivaldus, son of King Ungvinus who was originally king of Götaland (see Hagbard and Signy for more).
There are places all over Scandinavia, associated with this legend such as Asige in the former Danish (presently Swedish) province of Halland, which borders Götaland, where there are two large menhirs called Hagbard's gallows.
Hagbard and his brother Haki are mentioned as great sea-kings in the Ynglinga saga where Haki wrests the Swedish throne from king Hugleik (this event also appears in Gesta Danorum where Haco kills the Irish king Huglethus) only to be killed later in battle with Hugleik's cousin Jorund.
A third reference to Hagbard and his brother Haki appears in the Völsunga saga, chapter 25. It is there said that Hagbard and Haki not yet avenged themselves for Sigar's abduction of one sister and the slaying of another. Either the reference is garbled or it refers to a lost variant with a more extended account of Sigar's feud with Hagbard and his brothers.
See Hagbard and Haki for more.
Lofdungs
Lofdi was a great king who raided Reidgotaland (Reiðgotaland) and became king there. Lofdi's sons were Skekkil Sea-king (Skekkill sækonungr) and Skyli. Skyli was father of Egdir (Egðir), the father of Hjálmthér (Hjálmþér), the father of Eylimi, the father of Hjördís (Hjǫrdís), the mother of Sigurd Fáfnir's-bane, father of Áslaug (Áslaugr) by Brynhild whose ancestry appears below in the Budling discussion. This Áslaug was a wife of Ragnar Lodbrok and by him the mother of Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye (Sigurðr ormr í auga) who was father of a second Áslaug who was mother of Sigurd Hart. Sigurd Hart was father of Ragnhild (Ragnhildr), mother of Harald Fairhair as already stated.
But stanza 26 of the Hyndluljód identifies Eylimi the father of Hjördís as an Ödling.
Ödlings
Audi and his brother Budli were sea-kings who raided together and settled in Valland (Gaul) and Saxland (Saxony). Audi ruled in Valland. He was father of Fródi (Fróði), father of Kjár (Kjárr), father of Ölrún (Ǫlrún).
Ölrún, daughter of King Kjár of Valland, appears in the prose introduction to the Völundarkvida, as a Valkyrie swan-maiden who became the wife of Völund's brother Egil. The name Kjárr can be etymologically derived from Latin Caesar. But here the connection with France suggests it might be an adaptation of French Charles.
Budlungs
Budli the sea-king settled down in Saxland. He was father of Attil (Attill), father of Vífil (Vífill), father of Læfi, father of Budli. This second Budli was father of Sörli (Sǫrli) or Serli, of Atli, and of Brynhild. Brynhild was mother of Áslaug, ancestress of Harald Fairhair as described in the previous Lofdungs discussion.
Atli is a legendary version of Attila the Hun and the name Budli comes from Bleda who was the historical Attila's elder brother. The name Sörli is given to a brother of Atli only in this text. But in the eddic poem Atlamál hin grœnlenzku (stanza 50), Atli declares that he was one of four living brothers when his father Budli died and that half of them are now dead, slain by his wife Gudrún. In the German Nibelungenlied Attila is called Etzel and said to be son of Botelung, obviously Budlung interpreted as a name. In this account Etzel has a younger brother named Bloedelin who was slain by Dancwart, Hagen's brother. Blowdelin is probably another memory of the historical Bleda. The eddic poem Oddrúnargrátr tells of Atli's sister Oddrún and her forbidden love affair with Gunnar, which was, according to this poem, one of the motivations for Atli's later treachery. Oddrún is also mentioned in Sigurðarkviða hin skamma (stanza 57), in the prose introduction to Dráp Niflunga, and in the Völsunga saga.
Niflungs
King Næfil was father of Heimar, father of Eynef (Eynefr), father of Rakni, father of Gjúki. GJúki was father of two sons named Gunnar (Gunnarr) and Högni (Hǫgni) and of two daughters named Gudrún (Guðrún) and Gudný (Guðný). For commentary and variant traditions see Nibelung.
Halfdan the Old of Gór's lineage
The Orkneying saga does not speak at all of Nór's descendants, but introduces instead a figure named Halfdan the Old as the son of Sveidi (Sveiði) the Sea-king, who is called Svadi (Svaði) in the Ættartolur. Sveidi/Svadi in both texts was son of Heiti, son of Gór who was Nór's brother.
This second Halfdan the Old is father of Jarl Ívar of the Uplands who became father of Eystein the Clatterer (Eysteinn Glumra), in turn father of Jarl Rögnvald of Møre. The Orkneyinga saga derives both the Jarls of Orkney and the Dukes of Normandy from Rögnvald.
See also
Halfdan
References
Norwegian petty kings
Kings in Norse mythology and legends
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256059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guineafowl | Guineafowl | Guineafowl (; sometimes called "pet speckled hens" or "original fowl") are birds of the family Numididae in the order Galliformes. They are endemic to Africa and rank among the oldest of the gallinaceous birds. Phylogenetically, they branched off from the core Galliformes after the Cracidae (chachalacas, guans, and curassows) and before the Odontophoridae (New World quail). An Eocene fossil lineage Telecrex has been associated with guineafowl; Telecrex inhabited Mongolia, and may have given rise to the oldest of the true phasianids, such as blood pheasants and eared pheasants, which evolved into high-altitude, montane-adapted species with the rise of the Tibetan Plateau. While modern guineafowl species are endemic to Africa, the helmeted guineafowl has been introduced as a domesticated bird widely elsewhere.
Taxonomy and systematics
This is a list of guineafowl species, presented in taxonomic order.
Phylogeny
Cladogram based on a study by De Chen and collaborators published in 2021.
Description
The insect- and seed-eating, ground-nesting birds of this family resemble partridges, but with featherless heads, though both members of the genus Guttera have a distinctive black crest, and the vulturine guineafowl has a downy brown patch on the nape. Most species of guineafowl have a dark grey or blackish plumage with dense white spots, but both members of the genus Agelastes lack the spots. While several species are relatively well known, the plumed guineafowl and the two members of the genus Agelastes remain relatively poorly known. These large birds measure in length, and weigh . Guinea hens weigh more than guinea cocks, possibly because of the larger reproductive organs in the female compared to the male guinea fowl. Also, the presence of relatively larger egg clusters in the dual-purpose guinea hens may be a factor that contributes to the higher body weight of the guinea hens.
Behavior and ecology
The species for which information is known are normally monogamous, mating for life, or are serially monogamous; however, occasional exceptions have been recorded for helmeted and Kenya crested guineafowl, which have been reported to be polygamous in captivity. All guineafowl are social, and typically live in small groups or large flocks. Though they are monogamous, species of the least-derived genera Guttera, Agelastes, and Acryllium tend toward social polyandry, a trait shared with other primitive galliforms such as roul roul, and Congo peafowl.
Guineafowl travel behind herd animals and beneath monkey troops, where they forage within manure and on items that have fallen to the understory from the canopy. They play a pivotal role in the control of ticks, flies, locusts, scorpions, and other invertebrates. They pluck maggots from carcasses and manure.
Wild guineafowl are strong flyers. Their breast muscles are dark (aerobic metabolism), enabling them to sustain themselves in flight for considerable distances if hard-pressed. Grass and bush fires are a constant threat to them and flight is the most effective escape.
Some species of guineafowl, like the vulturine, may go without drinking water for extended periods, instead sourcing their moisture from their food. Young guineafowl (called keets) are very sensitive to weather, in particular cold temperatures.
Guinea hens are not known to be good mothers, but in the wild, the guinea hen's mate (a guinea cock) may help tend the young keets during the day by keeping them warm and finding food. Sometimes, more than one cock helps raise the young. Guineafowl (hens and cocks together) make good parents. During warm weather, the cock is unlikely to set on the keets during the night (leaving that duty to the hen), but may help the hen keep them warm at night when temperatures drop below freezing.
Guineafowl may be trained to go into a coop (instead of roosting in trees) when very young. Once hatched and ready to leave the brooder (around 3 weeks), they may be enclosed in a coop for at least 3 days so they learn where "home" is. When guinea parents (that already roost in a coop) raise their own keets, the hen sets on them outdoors at night, but then the parents teach the keets to also go into the coop in the evenings around 3 weeks of age.
Each sex has a different call, which can be used to differentiate between female and male. Unlike chickens (which generally do best with one rooster for a flock of hens), guinea fowl do well with one cock for each hen.
Guineafowl have been shown to act as a deterrent to foxes.
Due to the spread of Lyme disease from ticks, Guineafowl are often kept because they will eat the ticks.
Distribution and habitat
Guineafowl species are found across sub-Saharan Africa, some almost in the entire range, others more localized, such as the plumed guineafowl in west-central Africa and the vulturine guineafowl in north-east Africa. They live in semiopen habitats such as savanna or semideserts, while some, such as the black guineafowl, mainly inhabit forests. Some perch high on treetops.
The helmeted guinea fowl has been introduced in East Africa, South America, the West Indies, the United States, Britain, and India, where it is raised as food or pets.
Guineafowl as food
Guineafowl meat is drier and leaner than chicken meat and has a gamey flavour. It has marginally more protein than chicken or turkey, roughly half the fat of chicken and slightly fewer calories per gram. Their eggs are substantially richer than those of chickens.
References
Further reading
Madge and McGowan, Pheasants, Partridges and Grouse.
Martínez, I. (1994). "Family Numididae (Guineafowl)", p. 554–570 in; del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. eds. Handbook of the Birds of the World, Vol. 2. New World Vultures to Guineafowl. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.
External links
Guineafowl videos on the Internet Bird Collection
SPPA article on Guinea Fowl Early Birds: Guinea Fowl by Dennis Headley | [
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256061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajendra%20K.%20Pachauri | Rajendra K. Pachauri | Rajendra Kumar Pachauri (20 August 1940 – 13 February 2020) was the chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) from 2002 to 2015, during the fourth and fifth assessment cycles. Under his leadership the IPCC was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2007 and delivered the Fifth Assessment Report, the scientific foundation of the Paris Agreement. He held the post from 2002 until his resignation in February 2015 after facing multiple allegations of sexual harassment. He was succeeded by Hoesung Lee. Dr Pachauri assumed his responsibilities as the Chief Executive of The Energy and Resources Institute in 1981 and led the institute for more than three decades and demitted office as Executive Vice Chairman of TERI in 2016. Dr Pachauri, universally known as Patchy, was an internationally recognized voice on environmental and policy issues, and his leadership of the IPCC contributed to the issue of human-caused climate change becoming recognized as a matter of vital global concern.
Background
Pachauri was born in Nainital, India. He was educated at La Martiniere College in Lucknow and at the Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering in Jamalpur, Bihar. He belonged to the Special Class Railway Apprentices, 1958 Batch, an elite scheme which heralded the beginning of mechanical engineering education in India. He began his career with the Indian Railways at the Diesel Locomotive Works in Varanasi. He was admitted to North Carolina State University in Raleigh, United States, where he obtained an MS in Industrial Engineering in 1972, and a PhD with co-majors in Industrial Engineering and Economics in 1974. His doctoral thesis was titled A dynamic model for forecasting of electrical energy demand in a specific region located in North and South Carolina. He was a strict vegetarian, largely because of "the environmental and climate change implications."
Career
He served as Assistant Professor (August 1974 – May 1975) and Visiting Faculty Member (Summer 1976 and 1977) in the Department of Economics and Business at NC State. He was a Visiting Professor of Resource Economics at the College of Mineral and Energy Resources, West Virginia University. On his return to India, he joined the Administrative Staff College of India, Hyderabad, as Member Senior Faculty (June 1975 – June 1979) and went on to become Director, Consulting and Applied Research Division (July 1979 – March 1981). He joined The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) as Director in 1982. He was also a Senior Visiting Fellow at the Resource Systems Institute (1982), and Visiting Research Fellow at the World Bank, Washington DC (1990). On 20 April 2002, Pachauri was elected Chairman of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, a United Nations panel established by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to assess information relevant for understanding climate change.
Pachauri was on the Board of Governors, Shriram Scientific and Industrial Research Foundation (September 1987); the Executive Committee of the India International Centre, New Delhi (1985 onwards); the Governing Council of the India Habitat Centre, New Delhi (October 1987 onwards); and the Court of Governors, Administrative Staff College of India (1979–81) and advises such companies as Pegasus Capital Advisors, the Chicago Climate Exchange, Toyota, Deutsche Bank and NTPC. He has served as member of many societies and commissions. He has been the Member of Board of the International Solar Energy Society (1991–1997), World Resources Institute Council (1992), while Chairman of the World Energy Council (1993–1995), President and then Chairman of the International Association for Energy Economics (1988–1990), and the President of the Asian Energy Institute (Since 1992). He was a part-time advisor to the United Nations Development Programme (1994—1999) in the fields of Energy and Sustainable Management of Natural Resources. In July 2001, Dr R K Pachauri was appointed Member, Economic Advisory Council to the Prime Minister of India.
Work with the IPCC
On 20 April 2002, Pachauri was elected Chairman of the United Nations established Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Pachauri was vocal on the issue of climate change and said, "What is happening, and what is likely to happen, convinces me that the world must be really ambitious and very determined at moving toward a 350 target." 350 refers to the level in parts per million of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere that some climate scientists such as NASA's James Hansen agree to be a safe upper limit to avoid a climate tipping point. His career with IPCC came to an abrupt end after the sexual harassment charges against him surfaced in Indian courts.
2007 Nobel Peace Prize for IPCC
The IPCC shared the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize with former US Vice-President Al Gore, who had earlier criticised Pachauri when he was first elected in 2002.
On 11 December 2007, Pachauri (representing the recipient IPCC) and co-recipient Al Gore delivered their acceptance speeches at an awards ceremony in Oslo, Norway, on a day when delegates to a United Nations climate conference were meeting in Bali, Indonesia. Pachauri referenced his belief that the Hindu philosophy of "'Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam', which means 'the whole universe is one family,'" must dominate global efforts to protect the global commons." Returning to this theme throughout his speech, he quoted president of the Maldives in 1987 (Maumoon Abdul Gayoom):
"...a mean sea level rise of two meters would suffice to virtually submerge the entire country of 1,190 small islands, most of which barely rise two meters above sea level. That would be the death of a nation."
Pachauri repeatedly emphasised his concerns regarding the implications of climate change for the world's poorest nations, referring to studies that:
"...have raised the threat of dramatic population migration, conflict, and war over water and other resources, as well as a realignment of power among nations. Some also highlight the possibility of rising tensions between rich and poor nations, health problems caused particularly by water shortages and crop failures...
Commitment to other organisations
Rajendra K. Pachauri was a member of the Fondation Chirac's honour committee, since its launch in 2008 by former French president Jacques Chirac to promote world peace.
Lighting a Billion Lives Initiative
Pachauri conceptualised and launched the global 'Lighting a Billion Live's (LaBL) initiative in 2008, to facilitate clean energy access to the energy poor. The initiative has taken solar energy to remote places such as Sundarbans, West Bengal, Thar Desert, Rajasthan, and in the state of Bihar. Being an early advocate for integration of access to clean cooking and lighting solution, the initiative has successfully deployed several thousands of Integrated Domestic Energy Systems (IDES) in rural and remote areas. It has set several benchmarks and has emphasized on access to a menu of clean energy options for the poor at last mile locations. LaBL has also been a platform for several technology manufacturers to start-up with business in the clean energy space. The initiative has its footfalls in 13 plus countries and 23 plus states of India.
Controversies
Allegations of conflict of interest and financial anomalies
Christopher Booker and Richard North wrote an article for the Daily Telegraph in January 2010 alleging potential conflicts of interest related to Pachauri's membership of the board of ONGC and to research grants for TERI, a non-profit institution of which Pachauri was director general. They further alleged that financial anomalies existed at TERI Europe. Pachauri denied all allegations.
In response to the allegations, the audit firm KPMG carried out a review at TERI's request. The review stated: "No evidence was found that indicated personal financial benefits accruing to Dr Pachauri from his various advisory roles that would have led to a conflict of interest". The report explains its objectives and methodology and states that "Work done by us was as considered necessary at that point in time" and that it is based on the information provided by TERI, Pachauri and Pachauri's tax counsel. In a caveat the review explains that its scope was "significantly different from an audit and cannot be relied on to provide the same level of assurance as an audit". KPMG examined payments made by private sector companies and found that payments amounting to $326,399 were made to TERI itself, not to Pachauri. He had received only his annual salary from TERI, amounting to £45,000 a year, plus a maximum of about £2,174 from outside earnings. He received no payment for chairing the IPCC.
On 21 August 2010, the Daily Telegraph issued an apology, saying that it had "not intended to suggest that Dr Pachauri was corrupt or abusing his position as head of the IPCC and we accept KPMG found Dr Pachauri had not made "millions of dollars" in recent years." It stated: "We apologise to Dr Pachauri for any embarrassment caused." The Guardian reported that the Telegraph paid legal costs of over £100,000. Pachauri welcomed the Telegraph's apology, saying that he was "glad that they have finally acknowledged the truth", and attributed the false allegations to "another attempt by the climate sceptics to discredit the IPCC. They now want to go after me and hope that it would serve their purpose."
George Monbiot of The Guardian stated his view that despite Pachauri being cleared by KPMG of conflict of interest and financial wrongdoing, false claims had been repeated about him by Richard North, the Daily Mail and The Australian.
Sexual harassment case
On 18 February 2015, Delhi police filed a First Information Report (FIR) against Pachauri on allegations of sexual harassment, stalking and criminal intimidation. On March 21, the Delhi High Court granted him anticipatory bail. While in May 2015, Pachauri was found guilty of sexual harassment by an internal complaints committee (ICC) of TERI, the findings of the ICC have been challenged before the Industrial Tribunal on the grounds of violation of the principles of natural justice. An article in an Indian magazine The Caravan detailed the exploits of RK Pachauri during his tenure at TERI.
In a statement, Pachauri said that the contents of the charge sheet are “allegations” levelled by the complainant and nothing has been “substantiated” after a year-long investigation. Pachauri has maintained: “From my perspective this was nothing but a very cordial and mutual relationship. There was a light and friendly tone to our correspondence, but at no stage did I ever hint at having a physical relationship nor did I in any way engage in sexual harassment”. Pachauri was granted regular bail from the trial court in July 2016. The court observed "The investigation of the case is complete. Charge sheet has already been filed. He was never arrested during the investigation in the instant case which goes on to show that his custody is not required for the purpose of investigation".
Awards and recognition
In January 2001, India's Government awarded him the Padma Bhushan.
NDTV Global Indian of the Year for the year 2007.
Nature News maker of the Year 2007. The magazine lauded Pachauri in an article as an organisation builder "Rajendra Pachauri's great strength is in building and organizing institutions in the fields he understands best – engineering and economics as they apply to issues of development".
On 14 July 2008, Pachauri received the title UNIDO Goodwill Ambassador.
In January 2008, he was awarded the second-highest civilian award in India, the Padma Vibhushan.
In November 2009, Pachauri received the 'Order of the Rising Sun – Gold and Silver Star' in recognition of his contribution to the enhancement of Japan's policy towards climate change. He was bestowed with the decoration by Emperor Akihito.
In November 2009, Pachauri was rated fifth in the list of "Top 100 Global thinkers" by Foreign Policy magazine, for "ending the debate over whether climate change matters."
In February 2010, the President of Finland conferred the Order of the White Rose of Finland to Pachauri in recognition of his work in promoting international co-operation on climate change and sustainable development.
The French government has awarded him the 'Officer of the Legion of Honour'.
HEC Paris appointed Pachauri Professor Honoris Causa in October 2009.
University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne appointed Pachauri Professor Honoris Causa in September 2012.
In July 2013, the Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Mirandola conferred Pachauri with the Pico della Mirandola Prize
Other interests
Other than his academic publications, Pachauri also wrote poetry and fiction. He is the author of Return to Almora, a romance novel published in 2010. The novel is in the form of the reminiscences of a retired bureaucrat, once an engineering student, about his spiritual and sexual past. He co-wrote Moods and Musings, a collection of poems, with his daughter Rashmi Pachauri-Rajan.
See also
TERI University
The Energy and Resources Institute
References
External links
Dr. R.K. Pachauri biography and timeline, iloveindia.com
Appearance on C-SPAN
1940 births
Indian environmental scientists
Indian civil servants
20th-century Indian economists
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lead authors
2020 deaths
North Carolina State University alumni
La Martinière College, Lucknow alumni
People from Nainital
Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in other fields
Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in science & engineering
Officiers of the Légion d'honneur
Sustainability advocates
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
Indian romantic fiction writers
20th-century Indian earth scientists
Scientists from Uttarakhand
Alumni of the Indian Railways Institute of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering | [
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256067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%B3%C3%B0i | Fróði | Fróði (; ; Middle High German: Vruote) is the name of a number of legendary Danish kings in various texts including Beowulf, Snorri Sturluson's Prose Edda and his Ynglinga saga, Saxo Grammaticus' Gesta Danorum, and the Grottasöngr. A Danish king by this name also appears as a minor character in the Middle High German epic Rabenschlacht. The name is possibly an eponym for the god Freyr.
The Fróði of the Grottasöngr is said to be the father of Fridleif and the son of Skjöld in whose beer king Fjölnir drowned (according to Ynglinga saga). Snorri Sturluson here and in the Skáldskaparmál make this Fróði the contemporary of emperor Augustus and comments on the peacefulness of his reign, suggesting a relationship to the birth of Christ. Though Icelandic sources make this Fróði a very early Danish king, in Gesta Danorum (Book 5), Saxo puts him late in his series of rulers, though including the chronological equation with Augustus and mentioning the birth of Christ.
The Fróði who, according to Ynglinga saga and Gesta Danorum, was the father of Halfdan. He would have lived in the 5th or 6th century. He appears to be the same king who later in the Ynglinga saga aided the Swedish king Ongenþeow in defeating the thrall Tunni. Because of this, Egil and his son Ottar (Ohthere) became tributaries to the Danish king.
Fróði the father of Ingjald, who in Beowulf is Froda the father of Ingeld and king of the Heathobards. The existence of the Heathobards has been forgotten in Norse texts and this Fróði there sometimes appears as the brother of Halfdan with the long hostility between Heathobards and Danes becoming a family feud between Halfdan and his brother Fróði. Fróði kills Halfdan and is himself slain by Halfdan's sons Helgi (Halga) and Hroar (Hrothgar). (In Arngrímur Jónsson's Latin summary to the lost Skjöldunga saga the names Fróði and Ingjald are interchanged. Saxo Grammaticus (Book 6) makes this Fróði instead to be a very late legendary king, the son of Fridleif son of Saxo's late peaceful Fróði. Saxo knows some of the story of this feud but nothing of any relationship to Halfdan. Instead Saxo relates how this Fróði was slain by Saxons and how, after a marriage alliance between his son Ingel and a Saxon princess to heal the feud, Ingel opened it again at the urging of an old warrior, just as the hero Beowulf prophesies of Ingjald in the poem Beowulf.
A legend from Ydre in the South Swedish highlands tells that a king known as Frode was killed by Urkon, the same cow that created Lake Sommen.
The form Fróði is still in use in Icelandic and Faroese and appears Latinized as Frotho or Frodo. This form of the name is used by J. R. R. Tolkien in The Lord of the Rings for the main character. Alternative Anglicizations are Frode, Fródi, Fróthi and Frodhi. The Danish, Norwegian and Swedish form is Frode. The meaning of the name is "clever, learned, wise".
The number of men with the name Frode in Scandinavia as of 2008: Norway (ca.) 11384, Denmark (ca.) 1413, Sweden (ca.) 307.
The Gesta Danorum describes six Frothos.
Frotho I
Frotho II
Frotho III
Frotho IV
Frotho V
Frotho VI
See also
Elgfróði
References
Mythological kings of Denmark
English heroic legends
Danish legendary figures
Scyldings
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256068 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval%20Intelligence%20Division%20%28United%20Kingdom%29 | Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom) | The Naval Intelligence Division (NID) was created as a component part of the Admiralty War Staff in 1912. It was the intelligence arm of the British Admiralty before the establishment of a unified Defence Intelligence Staff in 1964. It dealt with matters concerning British naval plans, with the collection of naval intelligence. It was also known as "Room 39", after its room number at the Admiralty.
History
The Foreign Intelligence Committee was established in 1882 and it evolved into the Naval Intelligence Department in 1887.
The NID staff were originally responsible for fleet mobilisation and war plans as well as foreign intelligence collection; thus in the beginning there were originally two divisions: (1) intelligence (Foreign) and (2) Mobilisation. In 1900 another division, War, was added to deal with issues of strategy and defence, and in 1902 a fourth division, Trade, was created for matters related to the protection of merchant shipping. The Trade Division was abolished in October 1909 in the wake of the Committee of Imperial Defence inquiry into the feud between the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir John Fisher and former Commander-in-Chief Channel Fleet, Admiral Lord Charles Beresford, when it was discovered that the captain heading the Trade Division had been supplying the latter with confidential information during the inquiry.
In 1910, the NID was shorn of its responsibility for war planning and strategy when the outgoing Fisher created the Navy War Council as a stop-gap remedy to criticisms emanating from the Beresford Inquiry that the Navy needed a naval staff—a role the NID had been in fact fulfilling since at least 1900, if not earlier. After this reorganisation, war planning and strategic matters were transferred to the newly created Naval Mobilisation Department and the NID reverted to the position it held prior to 1887—an intelligence collection and collation organisation.
In 1912 the division was established as a component part of the new Admiralty War Staff organisation when that body was abolished in 1917 it continued as a division of the new Admiralty Naval Staff until 1964 when the Admiralty Department was abolished.
World War I
During World War I the NID was responsible for the Royal Navy's highly successful cryptographic efforts, Room 40. The interception and decoding of the Zimmermann Telegram played a role in bringing the United States into the War. It has described as the most significant intelligence triumph for Britain during World War I, and one of the first occasions on which a piece of signals intelligence influenced world events.
World War II
Naval Ultra messages were handled differently from Army and Air Force Ultra because the Admiralty was an operational HQ and could give orders during a battle; while the Imperial General Staff (Army) and Air Staff would give commanders general orders such as, "clear the enemy out of Africa" without telling them how to do it. Hence verbatim translations of naval decodes were sent by Hut 4 to the NID and nowhere else (except for some naval intelligence sent directly from Bletchley Park to Commanders-in-Chief in the Mediterranean).
Hut 8 which decrypted Enigma messages for Hut 4 to translate and analyse had less information for Ultra as the Kriegsmarine operated Enigma more securely than the German Army and Air Force. Hut 4 also broke various hand cyphers and some Italian naval traffic.
The NID also initiated the 30th Assault Unit whose role was information gathering, reconnaissance and sabotage. Members of the unit, including Ralph Izzard, are acknowledged as inspirations for Ian Fleming (who also worked for the NID) in the creation of his fictional spy, James Bond.
Geographical section
The Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division, Naval Staff, Admiralty, produced a series of Geographical Handbooks from 1917-1922 to provide information for the British Armed Forces. The Naval Intelligence Division Geographical Handbook Series was produced between 1941 and 1946 to provide information for the British Armed Forces.
Amalgamation
In 1965, the three service intelligence departments were amalgamated in the new Defence Intelligence Service at the Ministry of Defence.
However, well before the mid-1990s another Royal Naval branch existed, namely the Directorate of Naval Security & Integrated Contingency Planning (DNSyICP), which is based at HM Naval Base Portsmouth under the staff command of the Second Sea Lord & C-in-C Naval Home Command.
Directors of Naval Intelligence
Directors of Naval Intelligence included:
Rear-Admiral Lewis Beaumont, 1895–1899
Rear-Admiral Reginald Custance, 1899–1902
Rear-Admiral Prince Louis of Battenberg, 1902–1905
Rear-Admiral Charles Ottley, 1905–1907
Rear-Admiral Edmond Slade, 1907–1909
Rear-Admiral Alexander Bethell, 1909–1912
Captain Thomas Jackson, 1912–1913
Rear-Admiral Henry Oliver, 1913–1914
Rear-Admiral Sir Reginald 'Blinker' Hall, 1914–1919
Rear-Admiral Hugh 'Quex' Sinclair, 1919–1921
Rear-Admiral Maurice Fitzmaurice, 1921–1924
Rear-Admiral Alan Hotham, 1924–1927
Rear-Admiral William Fisher (Acting), 1926–1927
Rear-Admiral Barry Domvile, 1927–1930
Rear-Admiral Cecil Usborne, 1930–1932
Rear-Admiral Gerald Dickens, 1932–1935
Vice-Admiral James Troup, 1935–1939
Rear-Admiral John Godfrey, 1939–1942
Rear-Admiral Edmund Rushbrooke, 1942–1946
Vice-Admiral Edward Parry, 1946–1948
Rear-Admiral Eric Longley-Cook, 1948–1951
Rear-Admiral Sir Anthony Buzzard, 1951–1954
Vice-Admiral Sir John Inglis, 1954–1960
Vice-Admiral Sir Norman Denning, 1960–1964
Rear-Admiral Patrick Graham, 1964–1965
Deputy Directors of Naval Intelligence
Deputy Directors of Naval Intelligence included:
Raymond A. Nugent, 1918–January 1919
William M. James, January 1919–March 1920
Geoffrey Hopwood, March 1920–April 1922
Edward O. Cochrane, April 1922–August 1923
George K. Chetwode, August 1923–May 1925
Kenneth G. B. Dewar, May 1925–June 1927
Cecil B. Prickett, June 1927–June 1929
Alfred E. Evans, June 1929–April 1930
Gerald C. Harrison, April 1930–April 1932
W. E. Campbell Tait, April 1932–November 1933
George A. Scott, November 1933–December 1935
the Hon. Claude P. Hermon-Hodge, December 1935–February 1938
Geoffrey C. Cooke, February 1938–February 1940
William D. Stephens, February 1940–January 1941
Ian M. R. Campbell, February 1941–April 1942
Charles A. G. Nichols, April 1942–May 1944
Ian M. R. Campbell, May 1944 – 1945
A. Joe Baker-Cresswell, March 1948–March 1951
Thomas J. N. Hilken, March 1951–November 1953
Charles E. Keys, November 1953–January 1956
George F. M. Best, January 1956–January 1958
Nigel H. G. Austen, January 1958–September 1959
Anthony Davies, September 1959–October 1962
William P. B. Barber, October 1962 – 1965
See also
Ian Fleming, who worked as a personal assistant to DNI Rear Admiral John Godfrey (Inspiration for Bond's M)
Ralph Izzard Author, adventurer, journalist, NID officer, member of the 30 Assault Unit and noted as an inspiration for James Bond.
Merlin Minshall, who worked for Fleming in the NID, participated in several operations and has been claimed as one of the inspirations for James Bond.
William Milbourne James, who worked closely with DNI Rear Admiral W.R. Hall and later wrote his biography.
Ewen Montagu, who executed one of its best-known operations, Operation Mincemeat
Jon Pertwee, who worked alongside Fleming in the NID during World War II
Patrick Dalzel-Job, NID officer and member of the 30 Assault Unit under Fleming, noted as an inspiration for James Bond.
Inspirations for James Bond
Intelligence Directorate of the Main Staff of the Russian Navy, Russian Naval Intelligence
Office of Naval Intelligence, the US Navy's intelligence arm
References
Sources
External links
30 Commando Assault Unit - Ian Fleming's 'Red Indians'
Admiralty during World War I
Admiralty during World War II
Naval Intelligence Division (UK)
Naval Intelligence Division (UK)
Military communications of the United Kingdom
History of the Royal Navy
World War I espionage
World War II espionage
Cold War espionage
Military units and formations established in 1882
Military units and formations disestablished in 1962
1882 establishments in the United Kingdom
1962 disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Naval Intelligence Division (UK)
British intelligence services of World War II | [
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256073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lielupe | Lielupe | The Lielupe ( in Latvian literally: Large River, , ) is a river in central Latvia. Its length is 119 km (the length would reach 310 km if the Mēmele River were counted as part of the Lielupe). The surface area of its drainage basin is 17,600 km2. The average fall of the Lielupe is about (.1 meter/kilometer) and its average flow is 106 m³/s, although a maximum of 1380 m³/s has been reached during floods.
Physical geography
The Lielupe begins at the confluence of the Mēmele and Mūsa rivers near Bauska. For the upper part of its course, the river flows through a dolomite valley with a few small rapids, until it reaches Mežotne, where it widens and deepens over the flat Zemgale Plain. For many years the Lielupe would frequently overflow its shallow banks and flood surrounding fields and villages, particularly during the spring thaw. Today many parts of the Lielupe's banks are contained with earthen dikes to prevent disastrous floods. Much of the Lielupe is covered in river grasses. At its lower reaches, the river flows parallel to the coast line of the Gulf of Riga; the city of Jūrmala stretches for almost 30 km between the river and the sea. Eventually Lielupe flows into the Baltic Sea, while the Buļļupe branch () flows into the Daugava River. The modern mouth of the river appeared in 1755. Before then the Buļļupe was the Lielupe's main channel.
About 50-55% of the water discharge of the river is from melted snow. The Lielupe is navigable for a range of 100 km, the longest continuous range among Latvian rivers. Municipalities along the river include Bauska, Mežotne, Jelgava, Kalnciems, Jūrmala and Riga.
The Lielupe also gives its name to a railway station and a neighbourhood in the city of Jūrmala.
Tributaries
The following rivers are tributaries to the river Lielupe (from source to mouth):
Left: Mūša (Mūsa), Īslīce, Svitene, Sesava, Vircava, Platone, Svēte (Švėtė)
Right: Nemunėlis (Mēmele), Garoze, Iecava
References
External links
Information about Lielupe river basin
Rivers of Latvia
Gulf of Riga
Geography of Riga
Jūrmala | [
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256074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campesino | Campesino | Campesino means 'farmer' or 'peasant' in Spanish.
Campesino may refer to:
Tenant farmer or farm worker in Latin America
Los Campesinos!, an indie pop band from Cardiff, Wales
Teatro Campesino, a theater group founded by the United Farm Workers
Valentín González, El Campesino, a military leader during the Spanish Civil War
Via Campesina, the collaborating body for an international peasant movement
Bloque Obrero y Campesino, the Workers and Peasants' Bloc in 1930s Barcelona
Confederación Revolucionaria de Obreros y Campesinos, Mexico
Confederación Sindical Única de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia, Unique Confederation of Rural Laborers of Bolivia | [
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256075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Effi%20Briest | Effi Briest | Effi Briest is a realist novel by Theodor Fontane. Published in book form in 1895, Effi Briest marks both a watershed and a climax in the poetic realism of literature. It can be thematically compared to other novels on 19th century marriage from a female perspective, such as Anna Karenina and Madame Bovary, which are also adultery tragedies.
Plot introduction
Seventeen-year-old Effi Briest, the daughter of a German aristocrat, is married off to 38-year-old Baron Geert von Innstetten, who courted her mother Luise and was spurned for his status, which he has now improved.
Plot summary
Effi Briest, who is attracted by social status, moves to the fictional Pomeranian port of Kessin (loosely modeled on Swinemünde). Her husband Innstetten is away for weeks at a time, and Effi, who is shunned by local nobles, finds but one friend. Her suspicions that their house may be haunted are not entirely laid to rest by Innstetten. When she says there may be a ghost, he derides her fears. The scorn he would bear if people knew of her terror would stall his career; hence his angry reply.
When Major Crampas arrives, Effi cannot help relishing his attentions despite Crampas being a married womaniser, and their love is consummated. Her husband looks down on Crampas, whom he finds a lewd philanderer with cavalier views of law. Crampas views Innstetten as a patronising prig.
Years later, Effi's daughter Annie is growing up, and the family moves to Berlin due to Innstetten's ascent. All seems well, but when Effi's letters to Crampas are found by her husband, he decides to divorce her. He gets custody of Annie and influences her to disdain Effi. When Effi and Annie meet briefly some years later, it is clear the two are estranged, and Effi stops trying to establish a good relationship with Annie.
The Briests disown Effi, thinking it ill behooves them to deal with someone who tarnished their name. Innstetten tells Crampas he wants to duel; he agrees and is killed by Innstetten. But the halcyon days of Innstetten's past life are over, and career success fails to delight him.
Effi's parents take her back when she becomes the victim of nervous disorder, depression. Facing death, she asks Luise to tell Innstetten about her regrets and willingness to forgive him. Her death forms a rather symmetrical ending that matches the novel's start. In the end scene, her parents vaguely concede guilt for her fate without daring to question the social canons that sparked the tragedy, citing the German maxim, "That would be too wide a field" (ein weites Feld).
Background
Manfred von Ardenne’s grandmother Baroness Elisabeth von Ardenne (née Baroness Elisabeth von Plotho) is said to have inspired Effi Briest.
The youngest of five children, Elisabeth was born in Zerben (currently part of Elbe-Parey) in 1853. Her easeful life was cut short by her meeting Armand Léon von Ardenne (1848–1919). She is said to have shown little interest in Ardenne; having rejected his first proposal, she changed her mind during the Franco-Prussian War, which left Ardenne injured. They became engaged on 7 February 1871 and wed in 1873.
His ascent made them move to Düsseldorf in the summer of 1881, where they met the famed and unhappily married judge Emil Hartwich (1843–1886). Elisabeth and Hartwich had much in common including their love of theatre. Despite risk of discovery, they did not cease corresponding when the Ardennes went back to Berlin on 1 October 1884.
Hartwich would come irregularly. During the summer of 1886, which Hartwich spent in Berlin, he and Elisabeth chose to marry each other. But Ardenne saw his secret suspicions confirmed when he found Elisabeth's and Hartwich's year-long correspondence. He filed for divorce and dueled Hartwich on 27 November 1886, drawing strong coverage. Hartwich died from his injuries on 1 December. Ardenne was sentenced to two years in prison but his term was reduced to 18 days.
His divorce on 15 March 1887 gave him full custody of his children, and his ex-wife set about caring for the deprived and disabled. Her name was temporarily removed from the family chronicles. In 1904, her daughter Margot was the first to try to find her; her son Egmont saw her in 1909. She died in Lindau on 4 February 1952 and was interred in a Berlin grave of honor ().
Fiction and truth
Fontane changed myriad details so as not to imperil privacy of those involved. He also made changes for the sake of drama. Elisabeth married at age 19 instead of 17, with Ardenne being five, not twenty, years her senior. She fell in love with Hartwich after twelve years—not twelve months—of marriage, and Ardenne did not kill her paramour years after the dalliance, but when they were still courting. Fontane knew that Elisabeth did not retreat as Effi did; instead, she began to work and devote herself to the needy. Elisabeth died at 98; Effi dies at 29 in the novel.
Some dates were altered, too. Effi marries on 3 October; Elisabeth wed on 1 January. Effi bears Annie on 3 July, while Margot's birthday was 5 November; Egmont's was 4 January. Elisabeth was born on 26 October; Effi has an August birthday.
Legacy
Today Effi Briest is widely discussed and taught at German schools. It has greatly influenced German writers, including Thomas Mann in his creation of Buddenbrooks. Mann said that if one had to reduce one's library to six novels, Effi Briest would have to be one of them.
Editions
First published as a serial novel in Deutsche Rundschau, 1894 – 1895.
Penguin Books, 1967
English translation by Hugh Rorrison and Helen Chambers, Angel Books 1996 , reissued by Penguin (in Penguin Classics) 2001
English translation by Mike Mitchell, Oxford University Press 2015 (in the Oxford World's Classics series)
Film and television adaptations
The False Step, Germany, 1939
Director: Gustaf Gründgens
Cast: Marianne Hoppe (Effi), Karl Ludwig Diehl (Innstetten), Paul Hartmann (Crampas)
, West Germany, 1955
Director: Rudolf Jugert
Cast: Ruth Leuwerik (Effi), Bernhard Wicki (Innstetten), Carl Raddatz (Crampas)
Effi Briest, East Germany 1968, West Germany 1971
Director: Wolfgang Luderer
Cast: Angelica Domröse (Effi), Horst Schulze (Innstetten), Dietrich Körner (Crampas)
Fontane Effi Briest, West Germany 1974
Director: Rainer Werner Fassbinder
Cast: Hanna Schygulla (Effi), Wolfgang Schenk (Innstetten), Ulli Lommel (Crampas)
Effi Briest, Germany 2009
Director: Hermine Huntgeburth
Cast: Julia Jentsch (Effi), Sebastian Koch (Innstetten), Mišel Matičević (Crampas)
Beach House, United States 2018
Director: Jason Saltiel
Cast: Willa Fitzgerald (Emma), Murray Bartlett (Paul), Orlagh Cassidy (Catherine), (Thomas M. Hammond) (Henry)
Loosely based on the novel, Catherine's daughter Emma is also seen reading the novel on the beach.
See also
Adultery in literature
References
External links
Effi Briest, translated and abridged by William A. Cooper, 1914
Summaries for Effi Briest
1896 German novels
Adultery in novels
Novels by Theodor Fontane
Briest, Effi
Briest, Effi
Novels set in Germany
Novels set in Berlin
German novels adapted into films
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256076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddenbrooks | Buddenbrooks | Buddenbrooks () is a 1901 novel by Thomas Mann, chronicling the decline of a wealthy north German merchant family over the course of four generations, incidentally portraying the manner of life and mores of the Hanseatic bourgeoisie in the years from 1835 to 1877. Mann drew deeply from the history of his own family, the Mann family of Lübeck, and their milieu.
It was Mann's first novel, published when he was twenty-six years old. With the publication of the second edition in 1903, Buddenbrooks became a major literary success. Its English translation by Helen Tracy Lowe-Porter was published in 1924. The work led to a Nobel Prize in Literature for Mann in 1929; although the Nobel award generally recognises an author's body of work, the Swedish Academy's citation for Mann identified "his great novel Buddenbrooks" as the principal reason for his prize.
Mann began writing the book in October 1897, when he was twenty-two years old. The novel was completed three years later, in July 1900, and published in 1901. His objective was to write a novel on the conflicts between businessman and artist's worlds, presented as a family saga, continuing in the realist tradition of such 19th-century works as Stendhal's Le Rouge et le Noir (1830; The Red and the Black). Buddenbrooks is his most enduringly popular novel, especially in Germany, where it has been cherished for its intimate portrait of 19th-century German bourgeois life.
Before Buddenbrooks Mann had written only short stories, which had been collected under the title Der kleine Herr Friedemann (1898, Little Herr Friedemann). They portrayed spiritually challenged figures who struggle to find happiness in (or at the margins of) bourgeois society. Similar themes appear in the Buddenbrooks, but in a fully developed style that already reflects the mastery of narrative, subtle irony of tone, and rich character descriptions of Mann's mature fiction.
The exploration of decadence in the novel reflects the influence of Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation (1818, 1844) on the young Mann. The Buddenbrooks of successive generations experience a gradual decline of their finances and family ideals, finding happiness increasingly elusive as values change and old hierarchies are challenged by Germany's rapid industrialisation. The characters who subordinate their personal happiness to the welfare of the family firm encounter reverses, as do those who do not.
The city where the Buddenbrooks live shares so many street names and other details with Mann's native town of Lübeck that the identification is unmistakable, although the novel makes no mention of the name. The young author was condemned for writing a scandalous, defamatory roman à clef about (supposedly) recognisable personages. Mann defended the right of a writer to use material from his own experience.
The years covered in the novel were marked by major political and military developments that reshaped Germany, such as the Revolutions of 1848, the Austro-Prussian War, and the establishment of the German Empire. Historic events nevertheless generally remain in the background, having no direct bearing on the lives of the characters.
Plot summary
In 1835, the wealthy and respected Buddenbrooks, a family of grain merchants, invite their friends and relatives to dinner in their new home in Lübeck. The family consists of patriarch Johann Buddenbrook Jr. and his wife Antoinette; their son Johann III ("Jean") and his wife Elizabeth, and the latter's three school-age children, sons Thomas and Christian, and daughter Antonie ("Tony"). They have several servants, most notably Ida Jungmann, whose job is to care for the children. During the evening, a letter arrives from Gotthold, estranged son of the elder Johann and half-brother of the younger. The elder Johann disapproves of Gotthold's life choices, and ignores the letter. Johann III and Elizabeth later have another daughter, Klara.
As the older children grow up, their personalities begin to show. Diligent and industrious Thomas seems likely to inherit the business some day. By contrast, Christian is more interested in entertainment and leisure. Tony has grown quite conceited and spurns an advance from the son of another up-and-coming family, Herman Hagenström. Herman takes it in stride, but Tony bears a grudge against him for the rest of her life. The elder Johann and Antoinette die, and the younger Johann takes over the business, and gives Gotthold his fair share of the inheritance. The half-brothers will never be close, though, and Gotthold's three spinster daughters continue to resent Johann's side of the family, and delight in their misfortune over the coming years. Thomas goes to Amsterdam to study, while Tony goes to boarding school. After finishing school, Tony remains lifelong friends with her former teacher, Theresa "Sesame" Weichbrodt.
An obsequious businessman, Bendix Grünlich, of Hamburg, introduces himself to the family, and Tony dislikes him on sight. To avoid him, she takes a vacation in Travemünde, a Baltic resort northeast of Lübeck, where she meets Morton Schwarzkopf, a medical student in whom she is interested romantically. In the end, though, she yields to pressure from her father, and marries Grünlich, against her better judgment, in 1846. She produces a daughter, Erika. Later, though, it is revealed that Grünlich had been cooking his books to hide unpayable debt, and had married Tony solely on the hopes that Johann would bail him out. Johann refuses, and takes Tony and Erika home with him instead. Grünlich goes bankrupt, and Tony divorces him in 1850.
Christian begins traveling, going as far as Valparaíso, Chile. At the same time, Thomas comes home, and Johann puts him to work at the business. During the unrest in 1848, Johann is able to calm an angry mob with a speech. He and Elizabeth become increasingly religious in their twilight years. Johann dies in 1855, and Thomas takes over the business. Christian comes home and initially goes to work for his brother, but he has neither the interest nor the aptitude for commerce. He complains of bizarre illnesses and gains a reputation as a fool, a drunk, a womanizer, and a teller of tall tales. Thomas, coming to despise his brother, sends him away, to protect his own and his business's reputation. Later, Thomas marries Gerda Arnoldsen, daughter of a wealthy Amsterdam merchant, violin virtuoso and Tony's former schoolmate.
Klara marries Sievert Tiburtius, a pastor from Riga, but she dies of tuberculosis without producing any children. Tony marries her second husband, Alois Permaneder, a provincial but honest hops merchant from Munich. However, once he has her dowry in hand, he invests the money and retires, intending to live off his interest and dividends, while spending his days in his local bar. Tony is unhappy in Munich, where her family name impresses no one, where her favorite seafoods are unavailable at any price in the days before refrigeration, where even the dialect is noticeably different from her own. She delivers another baby, but it dies on the same day it is born, leaving her heartbroken. Tony later leaves Permaneder after she discovers him drunkenly trying to rape the maid. She and Erika return to Lübeck. Somewhat surprisingly, Permaneder writes her a letter apologizing for his behavior, agreeing not to challenge the divorce, and returning the dowry.
In the early 1860s, Thomas becomes a father and a senator. He builds an ostentatious mansion and soon regrets it, as maintaining the new house proves to be a considerable drain on his time and money. The old house, now too big for the number of people living in it, falls into disrepair. Thomas suffers many setbacks and losses in his business. His hard work keeps the business afloat, but it is clearly taking its toll on him. Thomas throws a party to celebrate the business's centennial in 1868, during which he receives news that one of his risky business deals has resulted in yet another loss.
Erika, now grown up, marries Hugo Weinschenk, a manager at a fire insurance company, and delivers a daughter, Elizabeth. Weinschenk is arrested for insurance fraud and is sent to prison. Thomas's son, Johann IV ("Hanno"), is born a weak, sickly runt and remains one as he grows. He is withdrawn, melancholic, easily upset, and frequently bullied by other children. His only friend, Kai Mölln, is a dishevelled young count, a remnant of the medieval aristocracy, who lives with his eccentric father outside Lübeck. Johann does poorly in school, but he discovers an aptitude for music, clearly inherited from his mother. This helps him bond with his uncle Christian, but Thomas is disappointed by his son.
In 1871, the elder Elizabeth dies of pneumonia. Tony, Erika, and little Elizabeth sadly move out of their old house, which is then sold, at a disappointing price, to Herman Hagenström, who is now a successful businessman himself. Christian expresses his desire to marry Aline, a woman of questionable morals with three illegitimate children, one of whom may, or may not, be Christian's. Thomas, who controls their mother's inheritance, forbids him. Thomas sends Johann to Travemünde to improve his health. Johann loves the peace and solitude of the resort, but returns home no stronger than before. Weinschenk is released from prison, a disgraced and broken man. He soon abandons his wife and daughter and leaves Germany, never to return.
Thomas, becoming increasingly depressed and exhausted by the demands of keeping up his faltering business, devotes ever more time and attention to his appearance, and begins to suspect his wife may be cheating on him. In 1874, he takes a vacation with Christian and a few of his old friends to Travemünde during the off season, where they discuss life, religion, business, and the unification of Germany. In 1875, he collapses and dies after a visit to his dentist. His complete despair and lack of confidence in his son and sole heir are obvious in his will, in which he directed that his business be liquidated. All the assets, including the mansion, are sold at distress prices, and faithful servant Ida is dismissed.
Christian gains control of his own share of his father's inheritance and then marries Aline, but his illnesses and bizarre behavior get him admitted to an insane asylum, leaving Aline free to dissipate Christian's money. Johann still hates school, and he passes his classes only by cheating. His health and constitution are still weak, and it is hinted that he might be homosexual. Except for his friend Count Kai, he is held in contempt by everyone outside his immediate family, even his pastor. In 1877, he takes ill with typhoid fever and soon dies. His mother, Gerda, returns home to Amsterdam, leaving an embittered Tony, her daughter Erika, and granddaughter Elizabeth, as the only remnants of the once proud Buddenbrook family, with only the elderly and increasingly infirm Theresa Weichbrodt to offer any friendship or moral support. Facing destitution, they cling to their wavering belief that they may be reunited with their family in the afterlife.
Major themes
One of the more famous aspects of Thomas Mann's prose style can be seen in the use of leitmotifs. Derived from his admiration for the operas of Richard Wagner, in the case of Buddenbrooks an example can be found in the description of the color – blue and yellow, respectively – of the skin and the teeth of the characters. Each such description alludes to different states of health, personality and even the destiny of the characters. Rotting teeth are also a symbol of decay and decadence because it implies indulging in too many cavity-causing foods. An example of this would be Hanno's cup of hot chocolate at breakfast.
Aspects of Thomas Mann's own personality are manifest in the two main male representatives of the third and the fourth generations of the fictional family: Thomas Buddenbrook and his son Hanno Buddenbrook. It should not be considered a coincidence that Mann shared the same first name with one of them. Thomas Buddenbrook reads a chapter of Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Idea, and the character of Hanno Buddenbrook escapes from real-life worries into the realm of music, Wagner's Tristan und Isolde in particular. (Wagner himself was of bourgeois descent and decided to dedicate himself to art.) In this sense both Buddenbrooks reflect a conflict lived by the author: departure from a conventional bourgeois life to pursue an artistic one, although without rejecting bourgeois ethics.
In any case, a central theme of Thomas Mann's novels, the conflict between art and business, is already a dominant force in this work. Music also plays a major role: Hanno Buddenbrook, like his mother, tends to be an artist and musician, and not a person of commerce like his father.
Literary significance and criticism
Thomas Mann did not intend to write an epic against contemporary aristocratic society and its conventions. On the contrary, Mann often sympathizes with their Protestant ethics. Mann criticizes with irony and detachment. When Die protestantische Ethik und der 'Geist' des Kapitalismus (1905, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism) by Max Weber was published, Thomas Mann himself recognised the affinities with his own novel.
Before writing the novel, Mann conducted extensive research in order to depict with immaculate detail the conditions of the times and even the mundane aspects of the lives of his characters. In particular, his cousin Marty provided him with substantial information on the economics of Lübeck, including grain prices and the city's economic decline. The author carried out financial analysis to present the economic information depicted in the book accurately.
Accurate information through extensive research was a general topic in Thomas Mann's other novels. Some characters in the book speak in the Low German of northern Germany.
In the conversations appearing in the early parts of the book, many of the characters switch back and forth between German and French, and are seen to be effectively bilingual. The French appears in the original within Mann's German text, similar to the practice of Tolstoy in War and Peace. The bilingual characters are of the older generation, who were already adults during the Napoleonic Wars; in later parts of the book, with the focus shifting to the family's younger generation against the background of Germany moving towards unification and assertion of its new role as a major European power, the use of French by the characters visibly diminishes.
All occurrences in the lives of the characters are seen by the narrator and the family members in relation to the family trade business: the sense of duty and destiny accompanying it as well as the economic consequences that events bring. Through births, marriages, and deaths, the business becomes almost a fetish or a religion, especially for some characters, notably Thomas and his sister Tony. The treatment of the female main character Tony Buddenbrook in the novel resembles the 19th-century Realists (Flaubert's Madame Bovary and Tolstoy's Anna Karenina), but from a more ironic and less tragic point of view.
Mann's emotional description of the Frau Consul's death has been noted as a significant literary treatment of death and the subject's self-awareness of the death process.
Thomas Buddenbrook and Schopenhauer
In part 10, chapter 5, Thomas Mann described Thomas Buddenbrook's encounter with Arthur Schopenhauer's philosophy. When he read the second volume of Schopenhauer's The World as Will and Representation, Thomas Buddenbrook was strongly affected by Chapter 41, entitled "On Death and Its Relation to the Indestructibility of Our Inner Nature." From this chapter's influence, he had such thoughts as "Where shall I be when I am dead? ...I shall be in all those who have ever, do ever, or ever shall say 'I' " ..."Who, what, how could I be if I were not—if this my external self, my consciousness, did not cut me off from those who are not I?"..."soon will that in me which loves you be free and be in and with you – in and with you all." "I shall live...Blind, thoughtless, pitiful eruption of the urging will!" Schopenhauer had written that "Egoism really consists in man's restricting all reality to his own person, in that he imagines he lives in this alone, and not in others. Death teaches him something better, since it abolishes this person, so that man's true nature, that is his will, will henceforth live only in other individuals." According to this teaching, there really is no self to lose when death occurs. What is usually considered to be the self is really the same in all people and animals, at all times and everywhere. Irvin D. Yalom had a character in his novel describe it as follows:
However, a few days after reading Schopenhauer, "his middle class instincts" brought Thomas Buddenbrook back to his former belief in a personal Father God and in Heaven, the home of departed individual souls. There could be no consolation if conscious personal identity is lost at death. The novel ends with the surviving characters' firm consoling belief that there will be a large family reunion, in the afterlife, of all the individual Buddenbrook personalities.
Film and television adaptations
A silent film version directed by Gerhard Lamprecht was filmed in Lübeck and released in 1923.
Alfred Weidenmann directed a two-part film version of Buddenbrooks starring Liselotte Pulver, Nadja Tiller, Hansjörg Felmy, Hanns Lothar, Lil Dagover and Werner Hinz. Buddenbrooks – 1. Teil was released in 1959, and Buddenbrooks – 2. Teil was released in 1960.
Franz Peter Wirth directed television series, consisting of 11 episodes, that premiered in 1979. It was filmed in Gdańsk, which had been less damaged by war than Lübeck was.
Another film version, starring Armin Mueller-Stahl, was released in 2008.
See also
Best German Novels of the Twentieth Century
Notes
External links
(original German text)
"Buddenbrooks and the Novel of Business", Ted Gioia (Fractious Fiction)
1901 German novels
Culture in Lübeck
Family saga novels
Novels by Thomas Mann
Fictional families
German historical novels
German novels adapted into films
1901 debut novels | [
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256077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coca%20eradication | Coca eradication | Coca eradication is a strategy promoted by the United States government starting in 1961 as part of its "War on Drugs" to eliminate the cultivation of coca, a plant whose leaves are not only traditionally used by indigenous cultures but also, in modern society, in the manufacture of cocaine. The strategy was adopted in place of running educational campaigns against drug usage. The prohibitionist strategy is being pursued in the coca-growing regions of Colombia (Plan Colombia), Peru, and formerly Bolivia, where it is highly controversial because of its environmental, health and socioeconomic impact. Furthermore, indigenous cultures living in the Altiplano, such as the Aymaras, use the coca leaf (which they dub the "millenary leaf") in many of their cultural traditions, notably for its medicinal qualities in alleviating the feeling of hunger, fatigue and headaches symptomatic of altitude sicknesses. The growers of coca are named Cocaleros and part of the coca production for traditional use is legal in Peru, Bolivia and Chile.
Environmental impact
Plots denuded of coca plants by mechanical means (burning or cutting) or chemical herbicides, such as glyphosate, are abandoned and cause serious problems with erosion in seasonal rains. Because of the continuous high demand for coca, once a plot is destroyed the planters simply move further into the forest, clearing new lands for coca production. It is this vicious cycle of unsustainable cultivation-eradication that has caused the environment in coca producing zones to suffer substantial decline.
Aerial spraying of glyphosate herbicide, one of the most controversial methods of coca eradication, has taken place in Colombia exclusively because of that government's willingness to cooperate with the United States in the militarized eradication of coca after signing Plan Colombia in 2000. In many cases the spraying is carried out by American contractors, such as DynCorp, using planes and helicopters to spray glyphosate on coca plantations. Aerial spraying has been repeatedly condemned by human rights and environmental activists because of its effect on human populations and local soil and water systems. In December 2000, Dutch journalist Marjon van Royen found that "because the chemical is sprayed in Colombia from planes on inhabited areas, there have been consistent health complaints [in humans]. Burning eyes, dizziness and respiratory problems being most frequently reported." In some areas, 80 percent of the children of the indigenous community fell sick with skin rashes, fever, diarrhoea and eye infections. Because the glyphosate is sprayed from the air, there is a much higher chance of human error when spraying suspected illegal coca plantations. In many cases the wrong fields are sprayed, resulting in not only a total loss of the farmer's crop- but the loss of that field altogether as nothing will grow where the herbicide has been sprayed. Though official documentation of the health effects of glyphosate spraying in Colombia are virtually non-existent, neighbouring Ecuador has conducted studies to determine the cause of mysterious illnesses amongst people living along the border of Colombia and has since demanded that no aerial sprayings occur within 10 km of the border because of the damages caused to the people, animals and environment in that area.
In addition, the U.S. has also been involved in the development of the fungus Fusarium oxysporum to wipe out coca. In 2000, the Congress of the United States approved use of Fusarium as a biological control agent to kill coca crops in Colombia (and another fungus to kill opium poppies in Afghanistan), but these plans were canceled by then-President Clinton, who was concerned that the unilateral use of a biological agent would be perceived by the rest of the world as biological warfare. The Andean nations have since banned its use throughout the region. (The use of biological agents to kill crops may be illegal under the Biological Weapons Convention of 1975.)
On June 25, 2003, the Superior Administrative Court of the Colombian department of Cundinamarca ordered a stop to the spraying of glyphosate herbicides until the government complies with the environmental management plan for the eradication program. It also mandated a series of studies to protect public health and the environment. The Colombian State Council, the country's maximum administrative authority, later overruled the court's decision to stop fumigations.
Recently, Boliviana negra, a glyphosate-resistant type of coca plant has been found.
Socioeconomic impact
In the sierra of Peru, Bolivia, and northern Argentina, coca has been consumed (by chewing and brewing in infusion) for thousands of years as a stimulant and cure for altitude sickness; it also has symbolic value. The sale and consumption of coca (but not pure cocaine) is legal and legitimate in these countries.
With the growth of the Colombian drug cartels in the 1980s, coca leaf became a valuable agricultural commodity, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, where the quality of coca is higher than in Colombia. To supply the foreign markets, the cartels expanded the cultivation to areas where coca was not a traditional crop. Many poor campesinos, driven from the central highlands by lack of land or loss of jobs, migrated to the lowlands and valleys of the eastern Andes, where they turned to the cultivation of coca.
To counter this development, the U.S. government, through its foreign aid agency USAID, has promoted a policy of crop substitution, whereby coca cultivation is replaced by coffee, banana, pineapple, palm heart, and other crops suitable for a tropical climate. However; many remote coca-growing areas lack the infrastructure to get such perishable products to market on time. Coca on the other hand stores well and is easily transportable. The price of coca has remained high and in many cases remains a more attractive crop to farmers than these alternatives.
Despite these obstacles, many farmers have embraced alternative crops. In 2006, Bolivia, as a result of alternative development programs, exported US$28 million of banana, US$1.9 million of pineapple, and US$7.0 million of palm heart. These industries now employ more than 20,000 people in the Chapare region.
Geopolitical issues
Given the above-mentioned considerations, many critics of coca eradication believe the fundamental goal of the U.S. government is to constrict the flow of income to the Colombian Marxist rebel movement, FARC, which is heavily funded by the illegal drug trade, rather than combating drugs per se. Few if any such critics have anything favorable to say about the illicit drug trade, but they point out that under the current coca eradication policies, poor campesinos bear the brunt of efforts to combat it, while North American and European chemical companies (which supply chemicals needed in the manufacture of cocaine) and banks (which annually launder hundreds of billions of dollars in illegal revenues) continue to profit from the trade. (Although it is illegal in the United States for banks to hold funds from drug cartels—such as FARC—that have been designated as foreign terrorist organizations.)
Article 26 of the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, a treaty promulgated with U.S. backing in 1961, states that "The Parties shall so far as possible enforce the uprooting of all coca bushes which grow wild. They shall destroy the coca bushes if illegally cultivated."
The US-based Drug Enforcement Administration, along with local governments, has frequently clashed with cocaleros in attempts to eradicate coca across the Andes. This map shows the Chapare region in Bolivia, which has historically been heavily targeted for coca eradication. Human rights NGOs such as Human Rights Watch have accused the US of human rights abuses in the "coca war".
Meanwhile, the US-based Stepan Company is authorized by the Federal Government to import and process the coca plant which it obtains mainly from Peru and, to a lesser extent, Bolivia. Besides producing the coca flavoring agent for Coca-Cola, Stepan Company extracts cocaine from the coca leaves, which it sells to Mallinckrodt, a St. Louis, Missouri pharmaceutical manufacturer that is the only company in the United States licensed to purify cocaine for medicinal use.
Results
At the start of 2003, there were 1,740 km2 of coca in worldwide cultivation, and Colombia represented more than 60% of that total. Critics of the Colombian eradication program had predicted that it would lead to higher coca production in Peru and Bolivia. However, in November 2003, the US Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) claimed the area planted with coca in Peru and Bolivia combined fell by 35 km2 in the year up to June, which would suggest that the crop eradication program in neighboring Colombia had not driven production over the borders. According to ONDCP estimates, the area cultivated with coca in Bolivia rose from 244 km2 in 2002 to 284.5 km2 in June 2003, but this increase was more than offset in Peru, where the area fell from 366 km2 to 311.5 km2.
The U.S. figures were very different from preliminary estimates in September 2003 by the head of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime in Colombia, which indicated that output in Peru and Bolivia may have risen by as much 21%, or 150 km2 that year. The White House office said its estimate was based on sampling from high resolution satellite imagery. The United Nations used a different technique and had not yet put out any formal estimate for 2003.
A March 2005 report by the ONDCP indicated that despite record aerial spraying of over 1,300 km2 of coca in Colombia in 2004, the total area under coca cultivation remained "statistically unchanged" at 1,140 km2. In response to the report, the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA), an NGO that monitors the impact of US foreign policy in Latin America, observed that the aerial spraying strategy appeared to have hit its limits. According to WOLA, the new ONDCP data suggested a continued "balloon effect" as aggressive spraying in some areas has not deterred new cultivation elsewhere. The WOLA Senior Associate for Drug Policy commented, "The stable cultivation in 2004 throws into doubt US officials’ predictions of a major impact on US drug prices and purity." Regardless, Colombian President Álvaro Uribe vowed to press ahead with the U.S.-financed fumigation of coca crops.
Official estimates of coca cultivation in Peru for 2005 have yet to be released, but the State Department's own reporting suggests that cultivation in Peru has increased.
In Bolivia, there has been a decrease in clashes since 2004, when Evo Morales and former President Carlos Mesa struck a deal allowing the Chapare region to legally grow a limited amount of coca, in addition to the already legal Yungas region.
In 2006 the Colombian government destroyed around 730 square kilometres, reaching new records in coca plant destruction. The Colombian government planned to destroy around 500 km2 of coca plants in 2007, which would leave only around 200 km2 left. The Colombian government planned to destroy the remaining coca gradually over the following years.
Quotes
See also
Plan Colombia
Agent Orange
Evo Morales, Bolivian president and former cocalero activist
Chapare Province, a historically targeted region of coca eradication in Bolivia
Prohibition of drugs
References
External links
The Sunshine Project Anti-biowarfare activists
Narco News Drug war reporting
Chemical and Biological War on Drugs Transnational Institute (TNI) website
Vicious Circle: The Chemical and Biological 'War on Drugs' report by the Transnational Institute (TNI), March 2001
Coca or Death? Cocalero Movements in Peru and Bolivia Transnational Institute (TNI), Drugs & Conflict Debate Papers 10, April 2004
Colombia coca cultivation survey results: A question of methods, Transnational Institute (TNI), Drug Policy Briefing No 22, June 2007
Crop spraying: a déjà vu debate: From the Andean strategy to the Afghan strategy, Transnational Institute (TNI), Drug Policy Briefing No 25, December 2007
Coca cultivation in the Andean Region: A survey of Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), June 2007
U.S. Accused of Creating Coca Blight, from the San Francisco Chronicle, 1999
Fifty Years Of Drug Trafficking by CIA and Other Government People
ecolombia.org: No a la privatización y fumigación de los Parques Nacionales Online petition against privatisation of Colombias National Parks in an effort to legalise and re-instate large scale fumigation
Exhibition of Children's Drawings on Fumigation DrugSTRAT
Drug control treaties
Geography of South America
Herbicides
History of drug control
Cocaine
Coca | [
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256084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodhenge | Woodhenge | Woodhenge is a Neolithic Class II henge and timber circle monument within the Stonehenge World Heritage Site in Wiltshire, England. It is north-east of Stonehenge, in Durrington parish, just north of the town of Amesbury.
Discovery
Woodhenge was believed to be identified from an aerial photograph taken by Squadron Leader (later group captain) Gilbert Insall, VC, in 1926, during the same period that an aerial archaeology survey of Wessex by Alexander Keiller and OGS Crawford (Archaeology Officer for the Ordnance Survey) was being undertaken. Although some sources attribute the identification of the henge to Crawford, Che credits the discovery to Insall.
In fact, the site had been previously found in the early 19th century, when it was described as an earthwork and thought to be a disc barrow. It was originally called "Dough Cover". A professional excavation of the site was undertaken between 1926 and 1929 by Maud Cunnington and B.H. Cunnington. They confirmed that it was a henge.
Date
Pottery from the excavation was identified as being consistent with the grooved ware style of the middle Neolithic, although later beaker sherds were also found. Thus, the structure was probably built during the period of cultural similarities commonly known as the Beaker. The beaker culture spans both the Late Neolithic and Britain's early Bronze Age and includes both the distinctive "bell beaker" type ceramic vessels for which the cultural grouping is known, and other local styles of pottery from the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age.
While construction of the timber monument was probably earlier, the ditch has been dated to between 2470 and 2000 BC, which would be about the same time as, or slightly later than, construction of the stone circle at Stonehenge. Radiocarbon dating of artefacts shows that the site was still in use around 1800 BC.
Structure
The site consists of six concentric oval rings of postholes, the outermost being about wide. They are surrounded first by a single flat-bottomed ditch, deep and up to wide, and finally by an outer bank, about wide and high. With an overall diameter measuring (including bank and ditch), the site had a single entrance to the north-east.
At the centre of the rings was a crouched inhumation of a child which Cunnington interpreted as a dedicatory sacrifice, its skull having been split. Subsequent theories have indicated that the weight and pressure of the soil over the years could have caused the skull to fragment. After excavation, the remains were taken to London, where they were destroyed during The Blitz, making further examination impossible. Cunnington also found a crouched inhumation of a teenager within a grave dug in the eastern section of the ditch, opposite the entrance.
Most of the 168 post holes held wooden posts, although Cunnington found evidence that a pair of standing stones may have been placed between the second and third post hole rings. Excavations in 2006 indicated that there were at least five standing stones on the site, arranged in a "cove". The deepest post holes measured up to and are believed to have held posts which reached as high as above ground. Those posts would have weighed up to 5 tons, and their arrangement was similar to that of the bluestones at Stonehenge. The positions of the postholes are currently marked with modern concrete posts – a simple and informative method of displaying the site.
Further comparisons with Stonehenge were quickly noticed by Cunnington: both have entrances oriented approximately to the midsummer sunrise, and the diameters of the timber circles at Woodhenge and the stone circles at Stonehenge are similar.
Relationship with other monuments
Over 40 years after the discovery of Woodhenge, another timber circle of comparable size was discovered in 1966, to the north. Known as the Southern Circle, it lies inside what came to be known as the Durrington Walls henge enclosure.
There are various theories about possible timber structures that might have stood on and about the site, and their purpose, but it is likely that the timbers were free-standing, rather than part of a roofed structure. For many years, the study of Stonehenge had overshadowed work on the understanding of Woodhenge. Recent ongoing investigations as part of the Stonehenge Riverside Project are now starting to cast new light on the site and on its relationship with neighbouring sites and Stonehenge.
Theories have emerged in which the sites may all be part of a layout in which the structures were linked by roads, and which incorporated the natural features of the River Avon. One of these paths, consisting of a series of wide parallel banks and ditches referred to as Stonehenge Avenue, crosses the ridge between the two sites that would otherwise make them both visible from one another, possibly connecting them physically as well as spiritually.
One suggestion is that the use of wood rather than stone may have held a special significance in the beliefs and practices involving the transformation between life and death, possibly separating the two sites into separate "domains". These theories have been supported by findings of bones of butchered pigs exclusively at Woodhenge, showing evidence of feasting, leaving Stonehenge as a site only inhabited by ancestral spirits, not living people. These same possible representations have also been seen in ritualistic megalithic sites on the island of Madagascar, at least 4,000 years after the erection of Woodhenge.
See also
List of archaeoastronomical sites by country
Cuckoo Stone, a standing stone 500 metres to the west
Avebury Henge
Bluestonehenge
Stonehenge
References
External links
Woodhenge – English Heritage
English Heritage sites in Wiltshire
History of Wiltshire
Stone Age sites in England
Archaeological sites in Wiltshire
Henges
Sites associated with Stonehenge | [
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256088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry%20Domvile | Barry Domvile | Admiral Sir Barry Edward Domvile, (5 September 1878 – 13 August 1971) was a high-ranking Royal Navy officer who was interned during the Second World War for being a Nazi sympathiser.
Throughout the 1930s, he had expressed support for Germany's Adolf Hitler as well as pro-Nazi and anti-semitic sentiments.
Naval career
Domvile was the son of Admiral Sir Compton Domvile and followed his father into the Royal Navy in 1892. In 1912, he became Assistant Secretary to the Committee of Imperial Defence, and during World War I he commanded the destroyer HMS Miranda, the destroyer HMS Tipperary, the cruiser HMS Centaur and then the cruiser HMS Curacoa. After the war, he became Director of Plans in 1920, and Chief of Staff to the Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean in 1922 before becoming, in 1925, commanding officer of the battleship HMS Royal Sovereign.
He served as Director of Naval Intelligence from 1927 to 1930, then commanded the Third Cruiser Squadron from 1931 to 1932, and served as President of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich from 1932 to 1934.
Far-Right activism
Domvile visited Germany in 1935, being impressed by many aspects of the Nazi government, and was invited to attend the Nuremberg Rally of September 1936 as a guest of the German Ambassador Joachim von Ribbentrop. He became a council member of the Anglo-German Fellowship, and founded the Anglo-German organisation The Link.
He supported St. John Philby, the anti-semitic British Peoples Party candidate in the Hythe by-election of 1939 and visited Salzburg that summer, attracting some criticism. In June 1940 his mistress, Mrs Olive Baker, was arrested for distributing leaflets promoting Reichssender Hamburg. She tried to commit suicide in prison, and was sentenced to five years imprisonment.
Domvile was prominent in British far-right circles as the prospect of war seemed imminent in the late 1930s. At one meeting of the Right Club, which had been set up in May 1939, he declared the need for "a bloody revolution" in Britain, and added "I am ready to start one right away."
Domvile was interned during World War II under Defence Regulation 18B from 7 July 1940 to 29 July 1943.
Domvile's pro-Nazi and anti-war sympathies were expressed in an endorsement to the 1939 book The Case For Germany. His endorsement consisted of the comment in the preface:
"It is a great pleasure to me to introduce the public to Dr. Laurie's valuable book on modern Germany.
He is best known to the world as a brilliant scientist, but he
has found time in the intervals of his work to pursue with ardour the task upon which every sensible member of the British and German races should be engaged – namely the establishment of good relations and a better understanding between these two great nations.
Dr. Laurie knows full well that this friendship is the keystone to peace in Europe – nay, in the whole world. He is one of the small group who founded the Association known as "The Link", whose sole aim is to get Britons and Germans to know and understand one another better. He is one of the most zealous workers in this good cause in the country.
He writes of the National Socialist movement with knowledge and great sympathy. The particular value of this book lies in the fact that it is written by a foreigner, who cannot be accused of patriotic excess in his interpretation of the great work done by Herr Hitler and his associates. I recommend this volume with confidence to all people who are genuinely impressed with the desire to understand one of the greatest – and most bloodless – revolutions in history."
Admiral Sir Barry Domvile 8 May 1939
Domvile largely faded from public view in the post-war period. He was a supporter of the League of Empire Loyalists but was never more than a peripheral figure in the group. He was a member of the National Front's 'National Council' from its formation in 1967 until his death in 1971.
Domvile's autobiographical memoir From Admiral to Cabin Boy, written during his wartime captivity and first published in 1947, was republished in 2008.
Books
By and Large, pub Hutchinson, 1936 (His autobiography)
From Admiral to Cabin Boy (1947; the cabin referred to is his cell at Brixton prison during internment)
Look to Your Moat (A history of British naval and merchant seamen)
The Great Taboo: Freemasonry
Straight from the Jew's Mouth
Truth about Anti-Semitism
References
|-
1878 births
1971 deaths
Royal Navy admirals
British fascists
Anti-Masonry
People detained under Defence Regulation 18B
Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Companions of the Order of St Michael and St George
Royal Navy officers of World War I
Directors of Naval Intelligence
Admiral presidents of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich | [
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256089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Eavis | Michael Eavis | Athelstan Joseph Michael Eavis (born 17 October 1935) is an English dairy farmer and the co-creator of the Glastonbury Festival, which takes place at his farm in Pilton, Somerset.
Personal life
Eavis was born in Pilton, Somerset and grew up at Worthy Farm in the village. His father was a Methodist local preacher, and his mother a school teacher. Eavis was educated at Wells Cathedral School, followed by the Thames Nautical Training College after which he joined the Union-Castle Line, part of the British Merchant Navy, as a trainee midshipman. His plan was to spend twenty years at sea, and return with a pension to help subsidise the income from the family farm.
After his father died when Eavis was 19, he inherited the family farm of and 60 cows. He worked at Mendip Colliery at Nettlebridge or New Rock colliery at Stratton-on-the-Fosse on the Somerset Coalfield for a couple of years to help supplement the income from the farm.
Eavis and his first wife Ruth had three children, (Juliet, Rebecca and Jane) but divorced in 1964. He next married Jean Hayball, with whom he had a son Patrick and a daughter Emily. Jean died of cancer in 1999, and Eavis has since married his third wife, Liz. In common with his parents and second wife, Eavis remains a practising Methodist, although he has also stated that he is "not really bothered" about the existence of God.
Glastonbury Festival
In 1969, Eavis and his second wife Jean visited the Bath Festival of Blues. Inspired by seeing the performance of Led Zeppelin, Eavis hosted the Pilton Pop Folk & Blues Festival in 1970. The following year a free festival, Glastonbury Fayre was organised by Andrew Kerr and associates, which later developed into the Glastonbury Festival.
In 2010, the festival's 40th year, he appeared on the main stage at the Festival, with headline artist Stevie Wonder, to sing the chorus of the latter's "Happy Birthday".
At the Glastonbury Festival 2016, at the age of 80, he accompanied Coldplay on stage in a rendition of "My Way".
Political activity
Eavis has credited a number of influences for his political views, including traditions of nonconformity in his family, as well as his time as a miner, during which he was a member of the National Union of Mineworkers. During the early 1980s he was involved in establishing a local branch of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and subsequently agreed to make the Glastonbury Festival a fundraiser for CND, as it was from 1981 to 1987.
After recovering from stomach cancer, Eavis stood as a candidate for the Labour Party in the 1997 general election in Wells, polling 10,204 votes. In 2004, however, he suggested that disillusioned Labour voters should switch their vote to the Green Party in protest at the Iraq War, though he returned to supporting the Labour Party in 2010.
In 2005, Eavis was quoted in The Guardian as being a supporter of hunting. "I don't hunt myself, but I support the people who want to hunt. With all that's going on in the world, it was outrageous to ban it." In 2006, he was appointed as President of the Somerset Chamber of commerce and Industry.
In 2011, Eavis was quoted as lamenting the decline in political activity associated with the Glastonbury Festival. He was guest editor of the Western Daily Press newspaper on Glastonbury's 'fallow' weekend, 23 June 2012.
Eavis invited Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn to appear at the 2017 festival, introducing Run The Jewels' set. Eavis supports Corbyn's anti-nuclear and anti-austerity policies, saying "he’s got something new and precious, and people are excited about it. He really is the hero of the hour."
Charitable work
He has apportioned profits from his Glastonbury Festival to support charitable causes, including local projects such as the restoration of the Tithe Barn, Pilton. In November 2008, during an appearance on the BBC Radio 4 programme Desert Island Discs, Eavis stated that the Festival could never lose its licence due to the contribution it makes to the local economy.
In 2009, Eavis starred in a short film to promote Somerset, commissioned by Inward Investment Agency Into Somerset.
Eavis served as vice-president (alongside Rebecca Pow MP) of Somerset Wildlife Trust until June 2018: he stepped down following an online petition criticising his support for badger culling. In response to the petition, Eavis claimed that signatories "probably live in Kensington" and had "never seen a badger".
Honours and tributes
Eavis holds honorary degrees from the University of Bath (Doctor of Arts honoris causa, 2004) and the University of Bristol (Master of Arts honoris causa, 2006). He was awarded the CBE for services to music in the Queen's 2007 Birthday Honours list.
In 2009, Eavis was nominated by Time magazine as one of the top 100 most influential people in the world. In 2012, he was awarded an honorary Master of Arts degree from the University for the Creative Arts.
In 2015, train operator First Great Western named High Speed Train powercar 43026 Michael Eavis. After this was withdrawn, 802013 was named in April 2019.
See also
Max Yasgur, the US farmer who hosted the Woodstock Festival in 1969
References
External links
Interview with Michael Eavis (July 2005)
1935 births
Living people
British Merchant Navy officers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English farmers
English Methodists
Glastonbury Festival
Labour Party (UK) parliamentary candidates
People educated at Wells Cathedral School
People from Mendip District
Dairy farmers | [
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256092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right%20to%20silence | Right to silence | The right to silence is a legal principle which guarantees any individual the right to refuse to answer questions from law enforcement officers or court officials. It is a legal right recognized, explicitly or by convention, in many of the world's legal systems.
The right covers a number of issues centered on the right of the accused or the defendant to refuse to comment or provide an answer when questioned, either prior to or during legal proceedings in a court of law. This can be the right to avoid self-incrimination or the right to remain silent when questioned. The right may include the provision that adverse inferences cannot be made by the judge or jury regarding the refusal by a defendant to answer questions before or during a trial, hearing or any other legal proceeding. This right constitutes only a small part of the defendant's rights as a whole.
The origin of the right to silence is attributed to Sir Edward Coke's challenge to the ecclesiastical courts and their ex officio oath. In the late 17th century, it became established in the law of England as a reaction to the excesses of the royal inquisitions in these courts. In the United States, informing suspects of their right to remain silent and of the consequences for giving up that right forms a key part of the Miranda warning.
History
Neither the reasons nor the history behind the right to silence are entirely clear. The Latin brocard nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare ('no man is bound to accuse himself') became a rallying cry for religious and political dissidents who were prosecuted in the Star Chamber and High Commission of 16th-century England. People coming before these tribunals were forced to make the ex officio oath by which they swore to truthfully answer the questions to be put before them without knowing what they were being accused of. This created what has been termed the cruel trilemma whereby these accused were forced to choose between committing the mortal sin of perjury (if they lied under oath to protect themselves), harsh punishment for contempt of court (if they refused to answer), or betraying their "natural" duty of self-preservation (if they told the truth to honour their oath). Sir Edward Coke's challenge to the ecclesiastical courts and their ex officio oath is seen as the origin of the right to silence. With his decision that common law courts could issue writs of prohibition against such oaths and his arguments that such oaths were contrary to the common law (as found in his Reports and Institutes), Coke "dealt the crucial blow to the oath ex officio and to the High Commission".
After the parliamentary revolutions of the late 17th century, according to some historical accounts, the right to silence became established in the law as a reaction to the excesses of the royal inquisitions in these courts. The rejection of the procedures of the Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission eventually resulted in the emergence of the principle, according to US jurist and law of evidence expert John Henry Wigmore, "that no man is bound to incriminate himself, on any charge (no matter how properly instituted), or in any Court (not merely in the ecclesiastical or Star Chamber tribunals)". It was extended during the English Restoration (from 1660 on) to include "an ordinary witness, and not merely the party charged".
However, the right to silence was not always a practical reality for all accused in the English courts for some period afterwards. With limited access to legal counsel (often depending on the social status of the accused), a shifting standard of proof, and a system generally distrustful of silent defendants, a criminal accused who remained silent was often believed to be guilty and was sentenced. Nevertheless, it remained a basic right available to the accused and has been an accepted practice over the past few centuries. In England, the practice of judicial questioning of accused persons at trial (as distinct from questioning prior to trial), did not really disappear until well into the 18th century, but by the 19th century, the accused were not allowed to give evidence on oath even if they wanted to – also said to be a reaction to the inequities of the Star Chamber and High Commission.
In countries formerly part of the British Empire (such as Commonwealth nations, the United States and the Republic of Ireland) the right to silence has remained enshrined in the common-law tradition inherited from England, although it no longer applies in England and Wales, where remaining silent can be considered a sign of guilt by juries. NB Scots law, which is not derived from English law but wholly separate, still upholds the full right to silence. In the US, the right existed prior to the American Revolution. However, it was considered one of the most important safeguards protecting citizens against arbitrary actions of the state, and was enshrined in the Fifth Amendment to the Constitution, along with the words "due process", which was first mentioned in a statute of Edward III in 1354 and contains similar wording to the Fifth Amendment.
The right to silence spread to many nations of the British Empire. The two different but diverging paths along which these rights evolved and operate in Anglo-American jurisprudence (one through rights expressed in an entrenched constitution, the other in Acts of Parliament specifying rights or protections at common law) can be seen today in Commonwealth nations like New Zealand, where police officers are still required at common law to issue "Miranda-style" warnings (but which are completely unrelated to the US Miranda warning ruling) and inform arrested persons that they do not have to answer any questions but that whatever they do say (or do) can be used in court as evidence. The police must also determine whether the arrested persons understand these rights. Any failure to do so can jeopardize a criminal prosecution. While differing slightly from the wording used in the US, the intent is identical and comes from the inherited tradition of law. However, in Australia for instance, anything said by the accused under police questioning while in custody will generally not be accepted into evidence unless it is corroborated, generally by audio or video record. Australian police all wear chest cams as part of their standard issue, and turn them on with every interaction, so that they record and provide such evidence.
As in the US, suspects in some Commonwealth countries are also entitled to have counsel present during questioning. In the United Kingdom, laws introduced, have the suspects told they have the right to remain silent, but are now also cautioned that anything they do not reveal in questioning, but later rely upon in court may harm their defence. In other words, in some cases inferences can be drawn. The right to counsel, which also became increasingly entrenched in the US following the American Revolution, gave defendants a practical method of mounting a defense while remaining silent, and the development of the modern police force in the early 19th century opened up the question of pretrial silence for the first time. The key American case of Bram v. United States paved the way for the right to be extended to pretrial questioning, and the practice of "Miranda warnings" became established in the US and elsewhere following the case of Miranda v. Arizona in 1966.
While initially alien to inquisitorial justice systems, the right to silence spread across continental Europe, in some form, throughout the late 20th century, due to developments in international law which had an increasing universalisation of certain due process protections.
Worldwide
Warnings of a right to remain silent are given in approximately 108 nations around the world.
Australia
Australia has no constitutional protection for the right to silence, but it is broadly recognized by State and Federal Crimes Acts and Codes and is regarded by the courts as an important common law right and a part of the privilege against self-incrimination. In general, criminal suspects in Australia have the right to refuse to answer questions posed to them by police before trial and to refuse to give evidence at trial. However a person must provide their full name, address, place of birth, and date of birth if asked to by police. No other question has to be answered. As a general rule judges cannot direct juries to draw adverse inferences from a defendant's silence (Petty v R) but there are exceptions to this rule, most notably in cases which rely entirely on circumstantial evidence which it is only possible for the defendant to testify about (Weissensteiner v R). This exception has been abolished in Victoria by sections 42 and 44 of the Jury Directions Act 2015. The right does not apply to corporations (EPA v Caltex).
Within Australia, the right to silence derives from common law. The basic position amongst the states is that neither the judge nor the jury is permitted to draw any adverse inference about the defendant's culpability, where he/she does not answer police questions [RPS v R (2000) 199 CLR 620 ... overturning Jones v Dunkel [1959] 101 CLR 298]. While this is the common law position, it is buttressed by various legislative provisions within the states. For instance s.464J of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic) and s.89 of the Evidence Act 1995 (NSW).
However, s89A of the Evidence Act (NSW) operates to allow adverse inferences to be drawn from a failure to mention, when questioned, something which the subject later relies upon in Court and which he/she ought reasonably have been aware of at the time of questioning. This inference can only be drawn if the subject has been given the special caution, which is a caution in addition to the usual caution and the subject consults with an Australian Legal practitioner in persona so as to fully understand the effect of the special caution. In NSW a subject has the right to a lawyer being present in a police interrogation but they do not have the right to have a lawyer provided for them, therefore a lawyer will only attend if the subject can afford private legal counsel. Therefore, the subject can prevent the invocation of s89A by receiving legal advice over the phone or choosing not to have a lawyer present (assuming they can afford one).
It has also been upheld by the High Court in the case of Petty v R (1991) 173 CLR 95. However, where a defendant answers some police questions, but not others, an inference may sometimes be drawn about the questions he refused to answer. (See Coldrey, below.)
Where a defendant refuses to speak to the police, but then speaks to an undercover member of the police, the court is likely to exclude that evidence to ensure that the police do not avoid their limitations. However, if a defendant speaks to a person who is not a member of the police, and who is fitted with a listening device, that evidence would be admitted.[Queen v Swaffield; Pavic v The Queen (1998) 192 CLR]
Australian research indicates that very few suspects actually refuse to speak. Stevenson's research (see below for citation) indicates that only 4% of suspects who are subsequently charged and tried in the District Court of New South Wales in Sydney remain silent during interviews. The Victorian DPP found that 7–9% of suspects refused to answer police questions.
A number of states have conducted enquiries into the adoption of the English changes set out in the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994. All states have rejected such change. As the NSW Report said:
It is also important to note that anything said to an Australian police member should be corroborated, especially by way of video or audio tape. If it is not so corroborated it will be admitted only under exceptional circumstances, S.464H (2)(a) of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic), and where the circumstances, on the balance of probabilities, justify the reception of the evidence, S.464H (2)(b) of the Crimes Act 1958 (Vic). While initially the police were insulted by this ruling most have now come to find it useful as a way of proving that they did not invent a false, verbal confession, never made by an accused (a practice called "verballing" an accused).
There are numerous statutory abrogations of the right, particularly in the area of bankruptcy. It is also not available to witnesses testifying before a Royal Commission. There are also abrogations of the right in recent Federal anti-terrorism and Victorian organised crime Acts. Each of these acts set up coercive questioning regimes which operate outside the normal criminal processes. Direct testimonial evidence gained from this coercive questioning cannot be used in any subsequent criminal trial of the person providing the evidence, however a witness who testifies in his defense at a subsequent criminal trial who provides a different testimony to that during the questioning may face prosecution for perjury.
New South Wales
The state of New South Wales passed the Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 which allows the judiciary to direct the jury to draw unfavourable inferences against a defendant who failed or refused to mention a fact during police questioning that they later rely on in court in a bid to be found not guilty. The law strictly applies to those over the age of 18 and who have an Australian legal practitioner physically present and available at the time of questioning. The change is designed to reflect reforms made in the United Kingdom in 1994 and only applies to indictable offences that carry a penalty of five or more years imprisonment. The introduction of the Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 sparked some controversy and concern amongst legal scholars and practitioners.
The current caution used in New South Wales is:
Queensland
The current caution used in Queensland is:
Bangladesh
Article 33 of the Constitution of Bangladesh discusses the rights of the arrested and detained; no right to silence is mentioned either in the Constitution or the Bangladesh Penal Code, except in Article 35(4) of the Constitution, which protects individuals from self-implication. To facilitate protection from self-implication, Bangladesh Penal Code makes an exception in cases of confessions, in which case, the Magistrate obtaining a confession under Section 164 must explain the confessor's right to silence, and must attest to the fact that the rights of the confessor were read out to him and explained, and the confessor waived his right of silence.
Article 33 of the Constitution of Bangladesh compels arresting authorities to inform the accused of the accusations brought against him before he is detained, and that the detained must be presented to the nearest court within 24 hours. Exceptions to this rule include preventive detention and the arrest of an enemy alien. Right to counsel is an inalienable right, but the arresting officer need not explicitly state it to the detained.
Article 35(4) of the Constitution protects individuals from self-implication. Therefore, warnings must be read out to the detained person if he wants to voluntarily confess to the charges; in this case, a Magistrate must read and explain the confessor's right to silence and protection from self-implication, and attest to the fact that the rights of the confessor were read out to him and explained, and the confessor waived his right of silence.
Canada
In Canada, the right to silence is protected under the common law confessions rule, and section 7 and section 11(c) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The accused may not be compelled as a witness against himself in criminal proceedings, and therefore only voluntary statements made to police are admissible as evidence. Prior to an accused being informed of their right to legal counsel, any statements they make to police are considered involuntarily compelled and are inadmissible as evidence. After being informed of the right to counsel, the accused may choose to voluntarily answer questions and those statements would be admissible.
These rights to silence exist only when the suspect is knowingly dealing with a person in authority. When the subject is unaware he is dealing with the police, such as in the case of an undercover operation, these protections do not exist unless the authority figure actively elicits a statement. Statements made to police officers during undercover operations almost always comply with the confessions rule unless the conduct of the police was deemed so egregious that it would shock the community. However, section 7 rights might still become implicated in the case of elicitation, after which a court could only admit the statement if it's satisfied that it would not bring the administration of justice into disrepute.
Under the Charter, an arrested person has the right:
To be informed promptly of the reasons therefor.
To retain and instruct counsel without delay and be informed of that right.
To have the validity of the detention determined by way of habeas corpus and to be released if the detention is not lawful.
The Canadian Charter warning reads (varies by police service): "You are under arrest for _ (charge); do you understand? You have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. We will provide you with a toll-free telephone lawyer referral service, if you do not have your own lawyer. Anything you do say can and will be used in court as evidence. Do you understand? Would you like to speak to a lawyer?"
A more detailed version:
I am arresting you for (charge). It is my duty to inform you that you have the right to retain and instruct counsel without delay. You may call any lawyer you want. There is a 24-hour telephone service available which provides a legal aid duty lawyer who can give you legal advice in private. This advice is given without charge and the lawyer can explain the legal aid plan to you. If you wish to contact a legal aid duty lawyer, I can provide you with a telephone number. Do you understand? Do you want to call a lawyer? You are not obliged to say anything, but anything you do say may be given in evidence in court.
Section 14 of the Charter further provides that a translator must be made available so that the person can understand the proceedings against them. This right to a translator extends to the deaf. In Quebec, the Charter warning is read in Canadian French. In New Brunswick, and Ottawa the warning is read in either English or French, and the officer is required to ask the person's language of preference before issuing the warning.
While Section 10b of the Charter guarantees the right to be provided legal counsel, Canadian law only entitles criminal suspects under the age of 18 to have counsel actually be present throughout the entire interrogation. Once an adult suspect has asserted their right to counsel, the police are obliged to hold off in attempting to obtain evidence until the suspect has had a reasonable opportunity to contact legal counsel, however after that opportunity has been exhausted there is no guarantee of further access until the interrogation is over. Also, in Canada even if the suspect directly asserts his decision to remain silent, the police may continue to interrogate them. There is no automatic exclusion of evidence obtained after such an assertion, however it risks breaching the confessions rule if a court finds that it created reasonable doubt to whether the confession was obtained under "oppressive conditions", a determination which is made upon the totality of evidence.
A leading case on the right to silence in Canada is R. v. Singh (163 C.R.R. (2d) 280), in which a person in police custody invoked his right to silence 18 times yet was continually questioned. In a 5-4 majority, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled that there was no ancillary right under section 7 to have the police stop questioning a suspect after the asserted their right to silence. The court did, however, acknowledge that repeated police questioning after a defendant has asserted their right to silence raises doubts regarding the admissibility of further evidence under the confessions rule, though that was not the finding in the case. Another Supreme Court case, R. v. Hodgson, clarified that the right to silence only applied to the state and could not be used to exclude confessions made to private actors.
Although an accused has the right to remain silent and may not be compelled to testify against himself, where an accused freely chooses to take the witness box and testify, there is no further right to silence and no general restriction on what kinds of questions they may be required to answer. Section 13 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees that witnesses may not have any incriminating evidence they gave as testimony used against them in separate proceedings. In effect, a person can be compelled to give involuntary self-incriminating evidence, but only where that evidence is to be used against a third party.
In the past most cases, except for certain sex offences or where the victims were children, spouses could not be compelled to testify against each other, however after Bill C-32, The Victim's Bill of Rights Act, this is no longer the case. However, spouses retain the right to assert privilege, and to refuse to answer questions about communications during the marriage.
Mainland China
The right of silence is not guaranteed by law in China. Article 93 of the Criminal Procedure Law states that "The criminal suspect shall answer the investigators' questions truthfully, but he shall have the right to refuse to answer any questions that are irrelevant to the case." But since the 1996 amendments to the Criminal Procedure Law, Article 15 states that "It shall be strictly prohibited to extort confessions by torture, gather evidence by threat, enticement, deceit, or other illegal means, or force anyone to commit self-incrimination." In 2012 the law was also re-amended to include clauses that protect human rights. China has recognized the right against self-incrimination and forced confessions are prohibited by law. The signing of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1998, also guarantees Chinese citizens the right against self-incrimination, however the treaty has not been ratified in China.
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic protects the right to silence by two clauses in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms. Article 37, clause 1 states that "everyone has the right to refuse a statement if he/she would cause risk of prosecution of himself/herself or a close person". In Article 40, clause 4, it is stated that "an accused person has the right to refuse a statement; he/she must not be deprived of this right in any way".
European Union
Within the European Union, a gradual process of harmonising the laws of all the states of the Union has resulted in the adoption a common letter of rights that will apply to everyone across the European Union. The agreed law—also known as "the Reding Rights" taking the name of the EU Justice Commissioner Viviane Reding, who has proposed and negotiated the measure to become law across the entire European Union—will mean that suspects in the European Union will once detained receive a "Letter of Rights listing their basic rights during criminal proceedings".
The European law ensures that people suspected of a criminal offence receive adequate information about their basic rights during criminal proceedings. These are the right to a lawyer; to be informed of the charge; to interpretation and translation for those who do not understand the language of the proceedings; the right to remain silent and to be brought promptly before a court following arrest.
In particular, the law includes five innovations:
Suspects will be informed of their rights following the arrest;
They will be given a "letter of rights" spelling out their rights in writing;
The letter of rights will be easy to understand, without legal jargon;
It will be made available in a language the suspect understands;
It will contain practical details about the person's rights.
These rights are contained in a letter of rights—"the Reding Rights"—a printed document given to suspects after they are detained and before interrogation. The European Union law, proposed in July 2010 by the European Commission, was adopted by the European Parliament and Council in December 2011. The European Union Directive was published officially on 1 June 2012 in the Official Journal of the European Union L 142, 1 June 2012. It became operational across the European Union by 2 June 2014.
European Convention on Human Rights
The concept of right to silence is not specifically mentioned in the European Convention on Human Rights but the European Court of Human Rights has held that
the right to remain silent under police questioning and the privilege against self-incrimination are generally recognized international standards which lie at the heart of the notion of a fair procedure under Article 6.
France
In France, any person brought in police custody ("Garde à vue") must be informed of the maximal duration of the custody, and a number of rights, in a language that this person understands. Among these rights are: the possibility of warning a relative or employer of the custody, that of asking to be examined by a physician, and that of discussing the case with a lawyer .
The French Code of Criminal Procedure (art. L116) makes it compulsory that when an investigating judge hears a suspect, he must warn him that he has the right to remain silent, to make a statement, or to answer questions. A person against which suspicions lay cannot legally be interrogated by justice as an ordinary witness.
At the actual trial, a defendant can be compelled to make a statement. However, the code also prohibits hearing a suspect under oath; thus, a suspect may say whatever he feels fit for his defense, without fear of sanction for perjury. This prohibition is extended to the suspect's spouse and members of his close family (this extension of the prohibition may be waived if both the prosecution and the defence counsel agree to the waiver).
Since 15 April 2011, any person held by the police has new rights:
The person is immediately informed by a police officer, or in the presence of one, in a language that he can understand, that (Article 3):
he has the right to ask assistance of a lawyer (63-3-1 to 63-4-3 of Penal Procedure code);
he has the right, after answering questions about his identity, to answer other questions or to remain silent.
From the beginning of custody, the person can ask for the assistance of a lawyer (Article 6).
The conversation with the lawyer has to remain confidential (Article 7).
The lawyer has the right to access some of the documents related to the procedure and to be present at any police interview of the suspect made by the police (Article 8).
Witnesses under indictment (or who are cited as suspects) cannot be heard under oath, and thus do not risk prosecution for perjury. Such witnesses must be assisted by an attorney, and must be informed of these rights when heard by the judiciary. Suspects brought before a Juge d'instruction must be informed of their right to remain silent, to make statements, or to answer questions. In all cases, an attorney can be designated by the head of the bar if necessary.
Germany
According to § 136 (StPO, i.e. Criminal Procedure Code) a suspect, arrested or not, has to be informed before any interrogation about their right to remain silent. Though the police and courts may not draw inference from the complete silence of the accused in any stage of criminal proceedings, inference may be drawn if the accused is selectively silent. Suspects cannot be heard under oath.
Before any interrogation begins a suspect, arrested or not, must be informed:
Of the crime for which he is charged
About his right to remain silent
About his right to consult an attorney before the interview
About his right to name any evidence in his favour
Foreign suspects have the following additional rights:
Translation assistance, and
Consular assistance
A person against which exist plausible causes of suspicion can be interrogated as an ordinary witness in criminal proceedings against another person. However, in this case according to § 55 StPO, the witness can refuse to answer questions which could incriminate themselves (or one of their relatives). The suspicious witness also must be cautioned about the right to remain silent. Suspicious witnesses cannot be heard under oath.
However, the German constitutional court has decided that the much more strict UK laws, in which complete silence of the accused can be used against him depending on additional evidence, are compatible with the German constitution. Thus, Germany may extradite persons to the UK. It also implies that changing the German laws towards those of the UK would not violate the German constitution.
Hong Kong
The right to silence is protected according to common law. The "Rules and Directions for the Questioning of Suspects and the Taking of Statements" (Rules and Directions), promulgated by the then Secretary for Security in 1992, stipulate that the caution to be used to remind a suspect of his right to remain silent when
he is questioned. The statement can be read in English and Cantonese:
English:"You are not obliged to say anything unless you wish to do so but what you say may be put into writing and given in evidence."
This is similar to the caution given in England and Wales prior to the passage of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
According to Jessica Wing-kay Chiu (趙穎琦), then a PhD candidate of the University of Hong Kong, the law does not codify the exact procedure for law enforcement to serve a notice to the right to silence.
India
The Constitution of India guarantees every person right against self incrimination under Article 20 (3): "No person accused of any offence shall be compelled to be a witness against himself".
It is well established that the Right to Silence has been granted to the accused by virtue of the pronouncement in the case of Nandini Sathpathy vs P.L.Dani, no one can forcibly extract statements from the accused, who has the right to keep silent, but only in the court of law. It is not clear if the accused can exercise his right to silence during interrogation by public servants. In 2010, the Supreme court found that forced narco-analysis, brain mapping and lie detector tests violate of Article 20(3).
Israel
In Israel, according to Sections 28 (Hearing arguments of the detainee) and Section 31 (Explanation of rights to the detainee) of the Criminal Procedure Law (Enforcement Authority—Arrests) 1996, an officer interrogating/arresting a suspect must duly warn him first that he does not have to say any thing that may incriminate him, and that any thing he will say may be used against him. According to Israeli law, the exercise of the right to remain silent may be considered as supplemental evidence in most cases, and this fact also needs to be explained to the suspect. Also the officer needs to inform the suspect that he has the right to notify a family member or acquaintance and a lawyer of his arrest, his right for counsel, and the duration he can be held before he is released or brought before a judge.
Israeli law has not adopted the "Fruits of the Poisoned Tree" doctrine, and flaws in the process of collecting it affect only the weight of tainted evidence. However, in Criminal Appeal 5121/98, Issaharov v. The Military Prosecutor, a court of nine ruled that the defendant's confession, given without proper warning regarding the right of representation, was not considered as given with consent and free will, and was not accepted by the court.
Japan
According to the Constitution of Japan under Article 38(1), no person is allowed to testify against themselves.
Latvia
In Latvia, the Criminal procedure law (Kriminālprocesa likums) (sections 60.2, 150, 265, and more) sets out a right for anyone against whom criminal proceedings has been initiated or suspicions raised to remain silent. Upon arrest and before first interrogation of a person against whom any (official or unofficial) suspicion has been raised in a criminal case, such person must be warned of his or her right to remain silent, and that everything such person says may be used against that person in a criminal proceedings. Witnesses, victims and persons whose property rights has been affected by criminal proceedings has a right not to incriminate oneself and his or her relatives and not to give any information that is directly or indirectly self-incriminating or may incriminate such persons' relatives. Refusal to testify or answer all or any questions on the basis of right against self-incrimination cannot be used against such person in any way or be used as evidence of guilt. No judge, prosecutor, investigator or any other public body may draw adverse inferences about a person from exercising a right against self-incrimination. Outside criminal proceedings right against self-incrimination is honored as long-standing unwritten general principle of law in all quasi-criminal (such as administrative offense law) and public proceedings, which has been repeatedly upheld by legal precedent and case law.
Netherlands
In the Netherlands, each accused suspect has the right to remain silent to questions of the police and the prosecutor, during interrogation or investigation at the hearing. According to Dutch law, only the police officer will read the rights of the suspect in the police station. Security guards have the right to put somebody under arrest, but they have to hand over the suspect immediately to the police officer who will read the rights of the suspect later in the station. The rights are: to remain silent, the right to have an attorney, the right to have access to some files coming from the criminal dossier, and the right to make contact to an attorney.
There is an exception:
The accused must co-operate when there is "een aan de wil van de verdachte onafhankelijk goed" (material which has an existence independent of the will of a suspect) and a legal obligation for the suspect to hand over such material exists. For example, a suspect has to co-operate with giving a blood sample (with a suspicion of alcohol in traffic). Or the defendant must co-operate in handing over mucus, dandruff or hair for a DNA test. Such a DNA test can only be done at the request of the Prosecutor and ordered by the judge. There also have to be serious objections against the accused. And temporary detention has to be applicable.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, the right of persons arrested to refrain from making a statement and to be informed of that right is contained in the Bill of Rights Act 1990, as further reflected in a practice note on police questioning issued in 2006, by then Chief Justice Sian Elias.. The Evidence Act 2006 explicitly prohibits the inference of guilt in a criminal proceeding from a defendant exercising their right to silence. At common law the leading case is Taylor v New Zealand Poultry Board where Justice Cooke held, "The starting point ... [is], unless an Act of Parliament imposes or authorises the imposition of a duty to the contrary, every citizen has in general a right to refuse to answer questions from anyone, including an official."
The obligation to caution arises when:
a suspect is in custody;
when police have enough evidence to believe the person has committed an offence;
when detained, such as for the execution of a statutory or common law power of search or in the execution of drink driving investigations;
other situations as dictated by statute or case law.
The caution to be given to adults (17 and over) is:
The caution to be given to children and young persons under 17 is:
Norway
According to Straffeprosessloven (Criminal Procedures Code), a defendant cannot be obliged to testify(§90). Further; no promises, inaccurate information, threats or coercion can be used. The same applies to any means which reduces the defendants consciousness or his ability to self-determination. Any interrogation must not have as a goal to wear out the defendant(§92). However, if the defendant decides not to testify, the judge may advise him that it may in certain circumstances be held against him(§93).
In general, anyone is required to appear before the courts and give testimony, except dictated otherwise by the law(§108)
There are some notable exceptions:
§119: The court may not hear evidence from a priest in the Norwegian Church, or indeed any priest or similar in any registered faith, lawyers, defence attorneys, arbitrators in marriage affairs, medical doctors, psychologists, nurses, midwives or apothecaries, except with the explicit permission of the person entitled to silence, concerning anything they have learnt during the performance of their function. The above does not apply if testimony is required to prevent someone from being wrongfully convicted(§119). Catholic priests have refused to testify about information obtained in confession even in these cases, and the Supreme Court has not sanctioned this.
§121: Even if the relationship is not regulated by §119, the courts may relieve a witness of the duty to testify concerning information obtained in counseling, social work, medical care, judicial assistance "or similar".
§122: A defendants spouse, relatives in directly ascending or descending order, siblings and their spouses are not required to give testimony. The same applies to separated or divorced spouses, or people living in a "marriage like" relationship, e.g. common-law marriages. The court may extend this right to fiancees, foster-parents/children/siblings.
§123: A witness may refuse to answer questions leading to self-incrimination either for the witness itself, or for anyone related to the witness as described by §122.
§124: A witness may refuse to answer questions relating to business secrets. The court may oblige the witness to testify after consideration.
§125: The editor of a printed magazine/newspaper may refuse to divulge the writer of any articles in his journal, or sources for its content.
Pakistan
Article 13 of the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan protects a person, when accused of an offence, from self-incrimination.
Philippines
The 1987 Constitution of the Philippines, in section 12(1) of Article 3 (Bill of Rights), states:
This was expanded into a caution during arrest under Republic Act 7438. Previously, informing arrested persons of their rights occurred long after arrest, if it ever occurred at all.
Section 17 of the Bill of Rights further states that "No person shall be compelled to be a witness against himself".
Punishments for law enforcement officers who fail to read suspects their rights, under RA7438, are severe: besides a fine of 6,000 Philippine pesos, officials may be jailed for between eight and ten years.
In the 1999 case People vs Mahinay, G.R. No. 122485, the Supreme Court of the Philippines was asked to consider the case of Larry Mahinay y Amparado, a man convicted of the rape and murder of a 12-year-old girl, the neighbor of his employer. Mahinay confessed but later retracted his confession, claiming that he made it due to fear surrounding his imprisonment and not actual guilt. Mahinay claimed that the police officers attacked him and threatened to kill him if he would not confess, and they did not inform him of his right to remain silent until after he had already confessed and all that remained was to sign the confession.
There was no physical evidence to back up Mahinay's claims, and his attorney claimed that Mahinay was read his rights before he confessed. In its decision to affirm Mahinay's conviction, the court declared:
But the court also declared the following, which has since become a landmark decision in the rights of the accused in the Philippines, and is sometimes referred to as the Mahinay doctrine:
No court or legislature has as yet determined the exact wording of the caution to be presented to arrested persons. As such, the Philippine National Police has created their own version. According to the 2010 edition of the official PNP manual, "every police officer, either on board a mobile car, motorcycle or on foot patrol must always carry with him a police notebook, a pen and the Miranda Warning card. The notebook, which is approximately pocket-sized, will be used to inscribe important events that transpire during his tour of duty."
The version in use by the PNP reads:
Various regional offices of the PNP use translations in other languages spoken in the Philippines depending on the jurisdiction of the office. In 2012, the International Committee of the Red Cross donated 15,000 cards to the PNP, and commissioned the translation of the warning into two more languages, Visaya and Cebuano, shown on the front of the card along with the Filipino version above.
Due to the increasing numbers of arrests of foreign nationals during President Rodrigo Duterte's Oplan Double Barrel, the Human Rights Affairs Office (PNP-HRAO) of the Philippine National Police in Camp Crame, Quezon City has further translated the Miranda warning into four foreign languages: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese. Distribution of the translated warnings to law enforcement officers will occur via a publicly available mobile app, according to the officer-in-charge of PNP-HRAO, Sr. Supt. Dennis Siervo.
According to the website of the Philippine National Police Regional Office 13, at Camp Rafael C Rodriguez in Butuan City, failure to recite either the Miranda or anti-torture warnings above can result in "dismissal of the case against the suspect and filing of administrative case for the arresting police [officer]."
Republic of Ireland
In the Republic of Ireland, the Supreme Court held that the right was not only a common law right but also a constitutional right which might however be validly limited by legislation (O'Leary v AG [1995] 1 IR 254).
In this jurisdiction, a number of statutory measures have re-interpreted the right to silence, such as the Criminal Justice Act 1984, the Criminal Justice (Drug Trafficking) Act, 1998 and the Offences Against the State (Amendment) Act, 1998. The general effect of some of these measures is to provide for adverse inferences to be drawn against a suspect who declines to answer questions while being questioned in Garda custody. The Criminal Justice Act 2006 also affects the right to silence, in that it permits inferences to be drawn from silence where no solicitor is present.
Russian Federation
Clause 1 of the article 51 of the Russian Constitution grants everyone the right to not witness against either themselves or against their spouses and close relatives. As the decision whether or not an answer to a particular question would lead to (self)incrimination is left to the discretion of the person being questioned, this clause allows to remain silent at any time.
South Africa
The Constitution of South Africa requires that any arrested person be informed of their right to remain silent and the consequences of not remaining silent, their right to choose and consult with a legal practitioner, and their right to have a legal practitioner assigned to the detained person by the state and at state expense if substantial injustice would otherwise result. The South African Police Service rules prescribe that arrested people be given a Form 14A "Notice of Rights in Terms of the Constitution" which describes these and other rights of arrested people.
According to Section 35 of the Constitution of 1996 ("Arrested, detained and accused persons") states:
Everyone who is arrested for allegedly committing an offence has the right
to remain silent;
to be informed promptly
of the right to remain silent; and
of the consequences of not remaining silent;
not to be compelled to make any confession or admission that could be used in evidence against that person;
and later in the section:
Every accused person has a right to a fair trial, which includes the right
. ...
not to be compelled to give self-incriminating evidence;
Spain
In Spain, according to the Ley de Enjuiciamiento Criminal (Penal procedure code) article 520.2, the suspect must be informed of the charges leading to his/her detention, as well as the reasons for being deprived of his/her freedom. Additionally, the individual must be advised of the following rights:
Right to remain silent, to answer only questions of his/her choosing, or to express their desire to make a statement only in front of a judge.
Right not to give evidence against him/herself, as well as not to confess his/her guilt.
Right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, which will assist him during hearings and procedures.
Right to inform a member of his/her family or a person of his/her choosing regarding the detention as well as their location, at any moment of the proceedings. Foreigners have the right to contact their consulate in Spain.
Right to request the services of an interpreter, at no cost, when the foreign national does not speak Spanish.
Right to undergo a medical examination by the forensic doctor.
Switzerland
Article 158 of the unified Swiss code of criminal procedure, which entered into force in 2011, establishes that the results of an interrogation may not be used unless the accused has been informed that:
he/she is the subject of a criminal investigation for some specific infractions,
he/she has the right to remain silent and not to cooperate with police,
he/she has the right to legal representation by a private or state-funded attorney, and
he/she has the right to request the services of an interpreter.
The cantonal codes of procedure, which remain in force until 2011, generally contain similar provisions.
Thailand
Sections 83 and 84 of the Thai Code of Criminal Procedure, which have been amended by the Act Amending the Criminal Procedure Code (No. 22), BE 2547 (2004), require the police officers who conduct the arrests to inform the arrestees of the Miranda rights.
Paragraph two of section 83 reads:
In cases an arrest is conducted by an officer, the officer must inform the arrestee of the charge, produce to him a warrant of arrest, if any, and enlighten him that he has the right to remain silent, that anything he says can and will be used as evidence in a trial, and that he also has the right to meet and confer with a counsel or person to become his counsel. If the arrestee wishes to inform his relative or intimate of his arrest and the fulfillment of his wish would not be difficult and not be disruptive to his arrest or restraint or detrimental to any person, the officer shall allow the arrestee to so fulfill to the extent reasonable according to the circumstances. In this respect, the arresting officer shall also draw up a record of arrest.
While paragraph one of section 84 prescribes:
{{Quote|An officer or private citizen conducting an arrest must without delay bring the arrestee to the judicial police office under section 83. Upon arriving there, the arrestee must be delivered to an administrative or police officer thereof to further be dealt with as follows:
(2) In cases the arrest is conducted by a private citizen, the administrative or police officer receiving the arrestee shall draw up a record of the name, occupation and address of the citizen, including the information and circumstances as to the arrest as well, and require the citizen to sign such record. The officer shall then inform the male arrestee of the charge and detailed grounds for his arrest, and enlighten him that he has the right to remain silent and anything he says can and will be used as evidence in a trial.}}
Ukraine
Section 4 of Article 29 of Constitution of Ukraine reads:
Everyone arrested or detained shall be informed without delay of the reasons for his or her arrest or detention, apprised of his or her rights, and from the moment of detention shall be given the opportunity to personally defend himself or herself, or to have the legal assistance of a defender.
Article 63 of Constitution of Ukraine reads:
The Criminal Process Code of Ukraine has some regulations on how the rights of suspects and accused. Section 2 of Article 21 reads:
Inquirer, investigator, prosecutor, judge, and court, before the first examination of the suspect, accused, and defendant, are required to advise them of the right to have a defense counsel and draw up an appropriate record thereon, as well as provide the suspect, accused, and defendant the possibility to defend themselves with legal remedies from the charge brought and ensure protection of their personal and property rights.
Article 43–1, Section 1 gives the following definition of "suspect":
Consequently, the list of suspect's rights follows:
The suspect has the right to: know what he/she is suspected of; give testimonies or refuse testifying and answering questions; have a defense counsel and meet him/her before the first examination; produce evidence; submit motions and propose disqualifications; request that the court or prosecutor verify legality of the apprehension; submit complaints against actions and decisions of the officer who conducts operational-detective activities, inquirer, investigator, and prosecutor, and, with appropriate grounds present, have his/her security ensured.
The fact that the suspect was advised of his/her rights is entered into the record of apprehension or decision to impose a measure of restraint.
Article 53 contains the following regulation:
Court, prosecutor, investigator and the inquirer are required to advise participants to the case of their rights and to ensure the possibility to enjoy such rights.
However, there are no clear regulations on how the rights should be announced. This is commonly made by reading them out when announcing the decision on instituting criminal proceedings or arrest and then requiring a suspect or arrestee to sign the list of these rights.
United Kingdom
The right to silence is different depending on which UK jurisdiction the suspect is questioned. In England and Wales it is possible for an adverse inference to be drawn from an accused person's silence during questioning. The same is true for Northern Ireland under the Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988, but no adverse inference may be drawn in Scotland under Scots law.
England and Wales
The right to silence has a long history in England and Wales, first having been codified in the Judges' Rules in 1912. A defendant in a criminal trial has a choice whether or not to give evidence in the proceedings. Further, there is no general duty to assist the police with their inquiries.
At common law, and particularly following the passing of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994, adverse inferences may be drawn in certain circumstances where the accused:
fails to mention any fact which he later relies upon and which in the circumstances at the time the accused could reasonably be expected to mention;
fails to give evidence at trial or answer any question;
fails to account on arrest for objects, substances or marks on his person, clothing or footwear, in his possession, or in the place where he is arrested; or
fails to account on arrest for his presence at a place.
There may be no conviction based wholly on silence. Where inferences may be drawn from silence, the court must direct the jury as to the limits to the inferences which may properly be drawn from silence.
In respect of those questioned by the Serious Fraud Office, the right to silence has been reduced by virtue of Section 2 of the Criminal Justice Act 1987. The right has also been reduced for those accused of terrorist offences.
The UK has some of the strictest key disclosure laws of the western world. Under Section 49 and Section 53 of the Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIPA), it is an offence to fail to disclose when requested the key to encrypted data (with a penalty of two years in prison, or five years with regards to child sex abuse cases). Schedule 7 of the Terrorism Act 2000 has been used to convict people who have refused to disclose their password to customs.
History
Warnings regarding the right against self-incrimination may have originated in England and Wales. In 1912, the judges of the King's Bench issued the Judges' Rules. These provided that, when a police member had admissible evidence to suspect a person of an offence and wished to question that suspect about an offence, the officer should first caution the person that he was entitled to remain silent. However, the warning about the possibility of anything the male suspect said being potentially used against him predates even that.
The pre-trial operation of the privilege against self-incrimination was further buttressed by the decision in Ibrahim v R [1914] AC 599 that an admission or confession made by the accused to the police would only be admissible in evidence if the prosecution could establish that it had been voluntary. An admission or confession is only voluntary if made in the exercise of a free choice about whether to speak or remain silent:
In R v Leckey (1943) CAR 128 the Court of Criminal Appeal said:
Therefore, a caution of the form of:
was used. Major reform to the questioning and treatment of suspected offenders occurred in 1984 when the Police and Criminal Evidence Act came into force. Under Code C the right to silence was amended by allowing adverse inferences to be drawn at a court hearing in cases where a suspect refuses to explain something, and then later produces an explanation (see right to silence in England and Wales). In other words, the jury is entitled to infer that the accused fabricated the explanation at a later date, as he refused to provide the explanation during police questioning. The jury is also free to make no such inference. The new caution is:
You do not have to say anything, but it may harm your defence if you do not mention, when questioned, something which you later rely on in court. Anything you do say may be given in evidence.
If questioning is forthcoming, "when questioned" may be replaced with "now". In cases in which the suspect has clearly nothing to gain by failing to remain silent:
Anything you do say may, and will, be given in evidence.
or:
You do not have to say anything unless you wish to do so, but I must warn you that if you fail to mention any fact which you rely on in your defence in court, your failure to take this opportunity to mention it may be treated in court as supporting any relevant evidence against you. If you do wish to say anything, what you say may be given in evidence.
or even (in circumstances where no adverse inference can be drawn from silence):
You do not have to say anything, but anything you do say may be given in evidence.
Northern Ireland
The Criminal Evidence (Northern Ireland) Order 1988 provided for adverse inferences being drawn for failure to mention something prior to being charged to an offence. The Criminal Procedure (Amendment) Rules 2009/2087 which came into effect on 5 October 2009, and replaced the Criminal Procedure Rules 2005, Pt 24 provides for post-charge questioning. This can be applied for failure to mention facts after a suspect has been charged with an offence.
The scope of emergency legislation in Northern Ireland includes limitations on the right to silence, extended police detention powers and limitations on a suspect's right to legal counsel at time of arrest which can all impact upon a suspects right to a fair trial. In John Murray v United Kingdom, the ECHR declared that the fair trial guarantee encompassed the entire legal process from the moment of arrest through to conviction. The ECHR addressed this issue in a limited context in Murray v UK (1996);
"To deny access to a lawyer for the first 48 hours of police questioning, in a situation where the rights of the defense may well be irretrievably prejudiced, is – whatever the justification for such denial – incompatible with the rights of the accused under Article 6."
Scotland
The right to silence in Scots law has been enshrined in statute by section 34 of the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2016. Previously, the right to silence, as with much of Scots criminal law, was held under common law.
The common law caution given by police to inform a person of their right to silence in Scotland is:
"You are not obliged to say anything but anything you do say will be noted down and may be used in evidence. Do you understand?"
The only exception to this rule is that a person must state, upon being required to do so, their name, address, date of birth, place of birth (in such detail as a constable considers necessary or expedient for the purpose of establishing the person's identity), and nationality. The requirement to give personal details also exists in Scots law under section 13 of the Criminal Procedure (Scotland) Act 1995, which provides that a person suspected to have committed, or suspected of having been witness to, an offence must provide the aforementioned details to a constable upon being required to do so. Failure to provide said details under section 13 is a criminal offence.
No adverse inference can be drawn by an accused person's silence when they are interviewed under caution.
United States
The Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution provides that no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself or herself. At trial, the prosecution can neither call the defendant as a witness, nor comment on the defendant's failure to testify. Whether to testify or not is exclusively the privilege of the defendant,Harris v. N.Y., 401 U.S. 222, 225 (1971). although defendants were originally not allowed to testify on their own behalf at all. An 1864 appropriations act allowed defendants to do so while removing race restrictions, and the 1987 Supreme Court case Rock v. Arkansas established a constitutional "right to take the witness stand."
Outside the context of lawful detention or arrest, a person has no duty to answer any questions of the police. If judicial compulsion is sought by the State, the person can still invoke his or her Fifth Amendment right against compulsory self-incrimination, and refuse to testify if answers to questions posed are potentially self-incriminating. Only if granted immunity by the state, in a formal proceeding, from having any testimony or evidence derived from the testimony used against him or her, can a person be compelled to answer over an assertion of this right. If police detain (or arrest) a person, they must advise him or her that he or she has a right to remain silent, and the right to an attorney, among other rights. (This is known as the Miranda warning.) If the detained person invokes these rights, all interrogation must cease, and ordinarily nothing said by the defendant in violation of this rule may be admitted against him or her at trial.
The form of the Miranda warning varies based on jurisdiction, but it usually follows this pattern:
You have the right to remain silent. Anything you say can be used against you in a court of law. You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future. If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you before any questioning if you wish. If you decide to answer questions now without an attorney present, you have the right to stop answering at any time. Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present?
On 17 June 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Salinas v. Texas that, prior to being arrested, an individual must specifically invoke the Fifth Amendment right to "remain silent", otherwise selective silence can be used against him or her in court.
Uniform Code of Military Justice
Members of the United States Armed Forces are covered by the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). Under the UCMJ, sworn military personnel, whether of enlisted, warrant or commissioned rank, have a right to remain silent that was established 16 years before the Miranda v. Arizona ruling. There are significant protections against coercive self incrimination in Article 31, UCMJ, but it does differ somewhat from the Miranda'' warning, and in essence provides greater protections. This is one difference between civilian and military justice in the United States, and many other nations have similar corollary rules regarding military justice vs. civilian justice.
See also
Privilege (evidence)
Taking the Fifth
Right to counsel
Miranda warning
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Article 14)
Presumption of innocence
References
Further reading
External links
Don't Talk to the Police — lecture by law professor James Duane of the Regent University School of Law and Officer George Bruch from the Virginia Beach police department.
Evidence law
Criminal procedure
Legal communication
Criminal law
Silence
Australian criminal law
Bangladeshi law
Canadian criminal law
Criminal law of the United Kingdom
French criminal law
German criminal law
Hong Kong law
Indian criminal law
Prisoners and detainees of the Netherlands
Pakistani criminal law
South African criminal law
Law enforcement in the Czech Republic
United States law | [
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256093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamboanga%20del%20Norte | Zamboanga del Norte | Zamboanga del Norte
(Chavacano:
Zamboanga del Norte;
Cebuano: Amihanang Zamboanga; Subanon: Utara Sembwangan; ), officially the Province of Zamboanga del Norte, is a province in the Philippines situated within the Zamboanga Peninsula region in Mindanao. Its capital is Dipolog and the province borders Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay to the south, Misamis Occidental to the east, and the Sulu Sea to the west.
Zamboanga del Norte is the largest province of the Zamboanga Peninsula region by land area covering . Zamboanga del Norte is the 26th populous province in the Philippines.
History
Early history
Prior to its creation as a province, Zamboanga del Norte formed the northern portion of the historical province of Zamboanga.
The early history of Zamboanga del Norte is shared with that of Zamboanga City, which had been the center of the entire Mindanao area, most notably during the American era. When Zamboanga City became a chartered city on October 12, 1936, it encompassed the southern tip of the Zamboanga Peninsula and the island of Basilan, making it the largest city in the world in terms of land area.
Creation as a Province
Through Republic Act No. 711 issued on June 6, 1952, Zamboanga province was divided into two independent provinces, which included Zamboanga del Sur.
Martial law era
Zamboanga del Norte was the site of at least one major assassination during the Marcos Martial law era - the gunning down of Human Rights lawyers Jacobo Amatong and Zorro Aguilar by two soldiers of the Marcos government, who were never caught. Both lawyers have since been honored by having their names inscribed on the wall of remembrance at the Philippines’ Bantayog ng mga Bayani, which honors the heroes and martyrs who fought against Ferdinand Marcos and his martial law regime.
Proposed carving out of new province
In 2017, House Bill No. 5040 was introduced in the House of Representatives seeking to carve out a new province from Zamboanga del Norte. The proposed Zamboanga Hermosa province was to consist of 12 municipalities and 2 legislative districts that make up the 3rd legislative district of Zamboanga del Norte: Baliguian, Godod, Gutalac, Kalawit, Labason, Leon B. Postigo, Liloy (its proposed capital), Salug, Sibuco, Siocon, Sirawai, and Tampilisan. However, the bill ultimately did not pass the 16th congress.
Geography
Zamboanga del Norte covers a total area of occupying the northern portion of the Zamboanga Peninsula in western Mindanao. The province is bordered on the north and west by the Sulu Sea, on the northeast by Misamis Occidental, and on the south by Zamboanga del Sur and Zamboanga Sibugay.
It has an average elevation of , with Mount Dabiak in Katipunan as the highest peak at . Other parts, near the coastlines, are plains. The province's irregular coastline runs some from north to south.
Climate
Zamboanga del Norte has a mild and moderate climate due to evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year. Its southern portion has a longer dry season.
Administrative divisions
Zamboanga del Norte comprises 25 municipalities and 2 cities. Dipolog City, Sindangan and Dapitan City are the top most densely populated area in the province These are further subdivided into 691 barangays, and clustered into 3 congressional districts.
Sibuco is the largest municipality by land area, constituting of the total provincial area. Sibutad is the smallest, with .
Demographics
The population of Zamboanga del Norte in the was people, with a density of . Dipolog is the most populated locality in the province, followed by the town of Sindangan and city of Dapitan.
The main language spoken is Cebuano. Other languages include Chavacano, Subanon, Tagalog, and English.
Religion
The predominant religion was Islam until the Spanish regime reign over the region and spread Christianity by the help of the church's missionary congregations like the Jesuits, Augustinians, and Dominicans. The province hailed its first martyr of faith soon to be raised as a saint in the whole Mindanao island by the name of Padre Francesco Palliola, S.J. He was a jesuit missionary from Nola, Italy and was assigned to Zamboanga Peninsula. He held missionary works in Lubungan (Katipuan), Zamboanga del Norte, Iligan, Dapitan, and met his martyrdom at the barrio of Ponot now a town of Jose Dalman. Roman Catholicism is a significant majority with about 50% adherence. The province have one diocese – the Roman Catholic Diocese of Dipolog under the Archdiocese of Ozamiz, covering the entire province. There are also followers of other Christian sects.
Government
Officials
These are the officials after the local elections of 2019:
Governor: Roberto "Berto" Y. Uy (PDP–Laban)
Vice Governor: Senen O. Angeles (PDP–Laban)
Members of the House of Representatives:
1st District: Rep. Romeo "Jon-jon" M. Jalosjos, Jr. (Nacionalista/APP/HNP)
2nd District: Rep. Glona G. Labadlabad (PDP–Laban)
3rd District: Rep. Isagani "Gani" S. Amatong (LP)
Board Members
1st District:
Patri "Jing" Bajamunde - Chan
Anacleto "Boy" H. Olvis, Jr.
2nd District:
Crisologo "Logoy" A. Decierdo
Ronillo "Boy" D. Lee
Julius C. Napigquit
Romulo "Muling" P. Soliva
3rd Drstrict:
Dra. Ruth M. Brillantes
Luzviminda "Bebe" E. Torrino
Venus A. Uy
Constantino "Boy" C. Soriano, Jr.
Economy
About half of the province's land area is devoted to agriculture. Corn, coconut, and rice are the major crops. The province being rich in marine and mineral sources, its fish production has accelerated through the development of fishponds. Commercial fishing has steadily increased through the years, with the yellow fin tuna as the primary species.
In 2006, a study by National Statistics Coordination Board (NSCB), found Zamboanga del Norte Province to be the Philippines' poorest province with a poverty incidence rate of 64.6%, an increase from 47% in year 2000 statistical figures.
As of 2015, the province's poverty incidence has dropped to 51.6% (ranking 8th). Large foreign mining companies operating within the province such as Canadian company TVI Resource Development and Philex Mining Corp. cause adverse effects to the culture and traditions of the indigenous Subanon and other poor settlers.
References
External links
Old website of the Province of Zamboanga del Norte
Daily Zamboanga Times
Provinces of the Philippines
Zamboanga Peninsula
States and territories established in 1952
1952 establishments in the Philippines | [
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256095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Eves | Ernie Eves | Ernest Larry Eves (born June 17, 1946) is a Canadian lawyer and former politician who served as the 23rd premier of Ontario from 2002 to 2003. A Progressive Conservative, he took over the premiership upon Mike Harris's resignation as party leader, but the party was defeated in the 2003 election by the Liberals, under Dalton McGuinty.
Eves was born in Windsor, Ontario, to a working-class family. He studied law at Osgoode Hall Law School and practised law in his own firm, Green & Eves. He was elected in the northern Ontario riding of Parry Sound in 1981 by a margin of six votes but retained the seat for 20 years. He served briefly as a cabinet minister in the short-lived government of Frank Miller in 1985, but he was consigned to the opposition benches when the Tories were defeated in a motion of no confidence by an alliance of the opposition Liberal and New Democrats. He remained in opposition until 1995, when the Tories returned to power under Mike Harris, who appointed Eves as his Deputy Premier and Minister of Finance. Family tragedy and marital problems led to his resignation from the legislature in 2001.
After a brief return to the private sector, Eves returned to politics when Harris resigned in 2002. He won the party leadership and regained a seat in the legislature after winning a by-election in the central Ontario riding of Dufferin—Peel—Wellington—Grey. His tenure as premier was short, as his party was defeated 16 months later in the 2003 election, which saw the PC party lose 35 of its 59 seats. He resigned as leader in 2004 and retired from the legislature on January 31, 2005.
In 2007, Eves was appointed as Chairman of Jacob Securities Inc., a Toronto-based financial services company. He served in that position until July 2012.
Early life and career
Eves was born into a working-class family in Windsor, Ontario, in 1946, the son of Julie (née Hawrelechko) and Harry Louis Eves, a factory worker. His maternal grandparents were Ukrainian. As a teenager, Eves moved with his family to the central Ontario town of Parry Sound. Eves went to Osgoode Hall Law School, was called to the bar in 1972, and practiced with the firm of Green and Eves. In 1981, he ran for provincial parliament in the riding of Parry Sound. He defeated Liberal candidate Richard Thomas by only six votes, leading to the nickname "Landslide Ernie", and went on to keep the seat for twenty years.
Eves was a cabinet minister in the short-lived government of Frank Miller, serving as Provincial Secretary for Resources Development from February 8 to March 22, 1985, Minister of Skills Development from March 22 to May 17, 1985, and Minister of Community and Social Services from May 17 to June 26, 1985. As Minister of Skills Development, Eves was also the minister responsible for Native Affairs. In this capacity, he made history in 1985 by proclaiming Ontario as favouring native self-government. He left cabinet on the defeat of the Miller ministry in the legislature, and served as an opposition Member of Provincial Parliament (MPP) until the Progressive Conservatives returned to power in 1995.
The Harris years
Eves is a long time close friend of fellow northern Ontario MPP Mike Harris. In 1990, Eves backed Harris' bid for the party leadership. In 1995, after being elected on the "Common Sense Revolution", a program of tax cuts and government cutbacks, Eves was appointed Harris' Minister of Finance and Deputy Premier.
In Finance, Eves supervised significant cuts to taxes and public spending, particularly in the field of social assistance. Provincial income taxes were cut by 30% and welfare rates were reduced by 22%, resulting in 500,000 people being cut from the Ontario welfare rolls. There were also cuts to education and health services. The Harris government justified these measures as necessary to eliminate the provincial deficit.
After initially adopting a policy of restraint toward health care costs, Eves' later budgets increased health spending. He eventually succeeded in balancing the budget early in the government's second term.
As Minister of Finance, Eves also oversaw two privatization initiatives: the long-term lease of the Bruce nuclear generating station to British Energy and the 99-year lease of Highway 407 to a consortium of mainly foreign investors.
Upon his retirement, Eves claimed that the impact of his 22% reduction in welfare rates "kept him up at night." There have also been reports that Eves was conflicted about the risks of adding $22 billion to the provincial debt by cutting taxes before balancing the budget. Some believe that Eves was responsible for restraining some of Harris' more radical initiatives during their time in office.
Despite the close friendship and similar backgrounds and beliefs of Harris and Eves, the two have very different public personae. While Harris tried to be the embodiment of a grass-roots politician, Eves was just the opposite. He was always meticulously well-turned-out in expensive suits, with court-filings revealing he spent $25,000 a year on clothing, $5,000 a year on jewelry and cufflinks and $700 a month on dry cleaning. Eves also sported a slicked-back hair style that reinforced his image as a "slick" politician.
Eves' personal life in the last few years of the Harris government was tumultuous. His son, Justin, was killed in a traffic accident in Parry Sound, and soon afterward his long-standing marriage broke down. Eves began a relationship with a fellow cabinet colleague, Isabel Bassett, and he and his wife separated. On February 8, 2001 Eves decided to resign from his post of Finance Minister to seek opportunities in the private sector. He became vice-chair of the investment bank Credit Suisse First Boston and senior partner at a prominent Toronto law firm.
In a March 2001 by-election, he was replaced as MPP for the riding of Parry Sound—Muskoka by Norm Miller, son of former Premier Frank Miller.
Return to politics
His retirement was brief, however. When Mike Harris stepped down as Conservative leader, Eves decided to run in the 2002 Ontario Progressive Conservative leadership election. Eves immediately became the front-runner and most Tory MPPs and members of the party came to support him. Eves staved off a determined run by his successor at Finance, Jim Flaherty, who pushed a hard-right agenda to appeal to the party's grassroots. Flaherty's campaign featured scathing attacks on Eves, calling him a "serial waffler" and a "pale, pink imitation of Dalton McGuinty." Eves became leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario on March 23, 2002, following a second-ballot victory.
Premier
Eves was sworn in as Ontario's 23rd Premier on April 15, 2002, and returned to the legislature as the member for Dufferin—Peel—Wellington—Grey after a by-election on May 2, 2002.
Reforms were made to the power system. Cost over-runs at nuclear reactors and a very hot summer combined with problems in market regulation to drive hydro prices up significantly (particularly in northern Ontario). The government was forced to cancel the privatization and capped hydro rates below cost, billing the taxpayers hundreds of millions of dollars.
In late 2002, cabinet minister Cam Jackson was forced to resign when the Liberals alleged he had spent more than $100,000 on meals and alcohol in expensive restaurants and in four star Toronto hotels. Jackson was later fully exonerated of allegations of wrongdoing. Eves was also caught unaware when the Liberals broke that Mike Harris had arranged a secret tax break for professional sports teams on his last day in office.
In December 2002, a coroner's inquest into the death of Kimberly Rogers recommended numerous changes to the government's welfare legislation, which Community and Social Services Minister Brenda Elliott dismissed as unnecessary tinkering with a system that "was working effectively".
Concerned about returning to the Legislature, Eves' advisors instead hatched a public relations disaster. They convinced the Premier to have Minister of Finance Janet Ecker present the government's 2003 budget on 28 March at a televised press conference at the headquarters of auto parts maker Magna International, instead of in the legislature. Magna's CEO was prominent Tory supporter Belinda Stronach, who later became a Liberal cabinet minister at the federal level. The "Magna Budget" resulted in accusations that the government was trying to avoid the scrutiny of the legislature and was flouting centuries of parliamentary tradition in favour of a PR stunt. Furthermore, the expense of this move was condemned as a waste of money considering that the legislative chamber was already equipped with video equipment for televised coverage. The "Magna Budget" was intended to launch a provincial election campaign, but was so poorly received that the election was delayed until the autumn. Attacks came from not only the opposition parties and the media but from one of Eves' own party members, Gary Carr. As Speaker of the legislature, Carr ruled that the government's actions were prima facie in contempt of the legislature. (Subsequently, the PC majority in the Legislature voted to overturn Carr's ruling.) The budget also included several assumptions that led many commentators to believe the government was in fact running a deficit in the range of $2 billion.
On 10 June, the Eves cabinet selected Archie Campbell (judge) to chair its SARS Commission inquiry into the failures of the health system when the virus that caused the SARS epidemic was transmitted on 23 February from China to Toronto, where it wreaked havoc including from 7 March at Scarborough Grace Hospital.
Soon after the budget, Energy Minister Chris Stockwell ran into trouble when he allowed a company he regulated to pay for a family trip to Europe. After several weeks of front-page news on the scandal and an unfavourable ruling from the province's Integrity Commissioner, Eves forced Stockwell to resign on 17 June.
In the summer of 2003, the power issue caused further trouble for Eves. During its time in office, the Tory government had failed to make any substantial investments in new sources of power. Warm weather and the use of air conditioners pushed the Ontario hydro grid to the brink, and after the Northeast blackout of 2003, the provincial power utility was forced to buy expensive power from neighbouring producers in Quebec. During that time, Eves made daily television appearances announcing developments in the situation, and appealing to the public to conserve as much electricity as possible during the period. As a result of this exposure, Eves enjoyed a moderate uptick in the polls.
A highlight of his premiership was Eves' meeting with Ukrainian opposition leader Victor Yushchenko in May 2003. During Yushchenko's visit to Toronto was a banquet organized by the Ukrainian Canadian Congress which attended by over 1,000 people. Yushchenko was welcomed by "the members of the Canadian political elite in Toronto, headed by Premier of Ontario Ernie Eves", who was presented as a leading Canadian of Ukrainian heritage, as well as federal cabinet minister Sheila Copps and Bishop Augustine Eugene Hornyak, Senator A. Raynell Andreychuk, and City Councillor Gloria Lindsay Luby.
2003 election
In September 2003, Eves called an election for October 2, 2003. While exposure from the blackout had boosted the PCs into a short-lived tie with Dalton McGuinty's Liberals in the polls, and despite the reputation of the Ontario Tories for increasing their support base in mid-campaign, Eves had trouble convincing voters that his party deserved to stay in office. The Tories had released their platform, "The Road Ahead", in May. Eves had hired many of Harris' advisers for the campaign, and they drafted a platform that was closer to Flaherty's (and Harris') views than those of Eves. Eves was visibly uncomfortable defending policy proposals that he had opposed a year earlier. When a Tory campaign staffer distributed a press release referring to McGuinty as an "evil reptilian kitten-eater from another planet", many voters were turned off by the attack.
In contrast, the Liberals ran a highly focused, disciplined campaign on the simple theme of "Choose Change". They had spent the last four years positioning themselves as the government in waiting. McGuinty appeared ready for the office of Premier and tapped into voter frustration over deteriorating public services and the needless conflict of the Harris/Eves governments. Eves was unable to make any headway in the leadership debate, appearing uncharacteristically restrained in the face of criticism from McGuinty, and was unable to revive support for his party in the final days of the campaign.
On October 2, 2003, the Liberals won 72 of the 103 seats in the Legislature, and Eves' Tories won just 24. However, as a sign of his personal strength, Eves won his own seat by the largest margin of any PC candidate.
Resignation
Eves' time as Opposition leader was more fruitful, when he led attacks against the McGuinty government's first budget, particularly the Ontario Health Premium —which broke the Liberals' campaign pledge not to raise taxes and the elimination of health services such as eye examinations and physical therapy. Despite being considered a lame-duck leader, Eves led in opinion polls for that period of time.
In early 2004, Eves announced his intention to resign prior to the fall 2004 legislative session. A leadership election chose John Tory as Eves' successor on September 18, 2004; Eves was officially neutral in the contest. Tory and Eves share a number of attributes, both coming from the so-called Red Tory wing of the party.
Eves had been widely expected to resign his seat in the provincial legislature during the 2004 Christmas holidays in order to allow Tory an opportunity to enter the Ontario legislature through a by-election. Eves' resignation was not forthcoming, however. After staff in Tory's office leaked Eves' impending resignation, Eves reportedly refused to resign, thereby undercutting the new leader's credibility. Another report contends that Eves was refusing to resign before securing an appointment to the Canadian Senate or to a public board. As federal and provincial patronage appointments were in the hands of Liberals, it would have been difficult for John Tory to persuade either the provincial or federal government to make such an appointment.
On January 31, 2005, Eves resigned his seat in the provincial legislature. Although he had received several high-profile job offers from the private sector after stepping down as leader, he had reportedly turned them down. In 2007, he joined Jacob & Company Securities Inc. (now Jacob Securities Inc.), a Toronto-based boutique investment bank that specializes in the renewable energy and clean technology sectors, where he served as Executive Chairman until July 2012.
Career in cannabis
In 2015, Eves became chairman of , a medical cannabis firm in Jamaica.
Federal politics
For many years, Eves was known as the most prominent supporter of the federal Progressive Conservative Party in Mike Harris's government. He had supported Joe Clark from the first ballot at the party's 1976 leadership convention, and continued to support the federal Tories in the 1990s despite the rise of the Reform Party as a rival right-wing force. He endorsed Hugh Segal's bid for the leadership of the federal party in 1998.
Eves took out a membership in the Canadian Alliance in 2000 to support Tom Long's leadership bid, but rejoined the Tories after Stockwell Day was chosen as the Canadian Alliance leader. During the 2002 Ontario PC Party leadership race, Eves and his supporters invited federal PC Party leader Joe Clark to attend as an honorary delegate. No such invitation was extended by any camp to the newly minted Canadian Alliance leader and future Tory leader Stephen Harper. Harper did, however, attend the provincial PC convention in late 2004 as leader of the Conservative Party of Canada.
References
External links
1946 births
Canadian people of Ukrainian descent
Deputy premiers of Ontario
Finance ministers of Ontario
Lawyers in Ontario
Leaders of the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario
Living people
Members of the Executive Council of Ontario
Osgoode Hall Law School alumni
People from Parry Sound, Ontario
Politicians from Windsor, Ontario
Premiers of Ontario
20th-century Canadian politicians
21st-century Canadian politicians | [
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256096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamboanga%20del%20Sur | Zamboanga del Sur | Zamboanga del Sur (Cebuano: Habagatang Zamboanga; Subanen: S'helatan Sembwangan/Sembwangan dapit Shelatan; Chavacano: Zamboanga del Sur; ), officially the Province of Zamboanga del Sur, is a province in the Philippines located in the Zamboanga Peninsula region in Mindanao. Its capital is the city of Pagadian. Statistically grouped with Zamboanga del Sur is the highly urbanized City of Zamboanga, which is geographically separated and a chartered city and governed independently from the province.
The province borders Zamboanga del Norte to the north, Zamboanga Sibugay to the west, Misamis Occidental to the northeast, and Lanao del Norte to the east. To the south is the Moro Gulf.
Etymology
The name of Zamboanga is the Hispanicized spelling of the Sinama term for "mooring place" - samboangan (also spelled sambuangan; and in Subanen, sembwangan), from the root word samboang ("mooring pole"). "Samboangan" was the original name of Zamboanga City, from where the name of the peninsula is derived from. "Samboangan" is well-attested in Spanish, British, French, German, and American historical records from as far back as the 17th century.
This is commonly contested by folk etymologies which instead attribute the name of Zamboanga to the Indonesian word jambangan (claimed to mean "place of flowers", but actually means "pot" or "bowl"), usually with claims that all ethnic groups in Zamboanga were "Malays". However, this name has never been attested in any historical records prior to the 1960s.
History
.
Early history
The original inhabitants of the Zamboanga peninsula were the Maguindanaon, and Subanen, who settled along the riverbanks in inland areas; and the various Sama-Bajau and Yakan ethnic groups who settled in coastal areas. Tausūg settlers from northeastern Mindanao also migrated to the region in the 13th century.
The region was additionally settled by migrants (mostly from the Visayas islands) after World War II. Together with the original settlers, these pioneers helped develop Zamboanga del Sur into the abundant and culturally diverse province that it is.
As part of the Zamboanga province
Historically, Zamboanga was the capital of the Moro Province in western Mindanao, which comprised five districts: Cotabato, Davao, Sulu, Lanao, and Zamboanga. In 1940, these districts became individual provinces. Zamboanga City became the capital of Zamboanga province. Soon after World War II, the provincial capital was transferred to Dipolog. Molave was created as the provincial capital in 1948.
Creation as Zamboanga del Sur
On June 6, 1952, through Republic Act 711, Zamboanga del Sur was carved out from the former Zamboanga province that encompassed the entire peninsula in southwestern Mindanao. As the 52nd province of the Philippines, it originally consisted of 11 towns with the City of Zamboanga and the Island of Basilan, which were later expanded into 42 municipalities and one city, Pagadian, its capital.
This happened in the midst of the postwar period, a time when Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive. Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao. Tensions in Mindanao mostly began to rise only as the 1970s approached, as a result of social and economic tensions which affected the whole country.
The Marcos era
The late 1960s in Mindanao saw a rise in land dispute conflicts arising from the influx of settlers from Luzon and Visayas, and from the Marcos administration’s encouragement of militia groups such as the Ilaga. News of the 1968 Jabidah massacre ignited a furor in the Moro community, and ethnic tensions encouraged with the formation of secessionist movements, starting from the largely political Muslim Independence Movement and Bangsamoro Liberation Organization, and eventually the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969, violent crackdowns on student protests in 1970, and 1971, and eventually the declaration of Martial Law all led to the radicalization of many students. Many of them left schools in Manila and joined New People's Army units in their home provinces, bringing a Communist rebellion in the Philippines to Mindanao for the first time.
1982 was a particularly bloody year for Zamboanga del Sur under the Marcos dictatorship, as two massacres happened in the province that year. On February 12, 1982, members of the Ilaga killed 12 persons in Dumingag, Zamboanga del Sur, allegedly to avenge the death of their leader, who they believed had been killed by the NPA. And on May 25, 1982, three people were killed and eight people were injured when the administration's airplanes dropped bombs on Barangay Dimalinao of Bayog, Zamboanga del Sur, allegedly as reprisal for the killing of 23 soldiers by supposed rebels two days earlier. Days later, two more men from the community were picked up and killed, and a few months later, the residence of Bayog's Jesuit parish priest was strafed after he had written letters decrying the torture and harassment of the indigenous Subanon people from his parish, whom government had tagged as communist supporters.
Separation of Zamboanga Sibugay
Political developments in February 2001 saw another major change in the territorial jurisdiction of Zamboanga del Sur. Its inhabitants voted to create a new province out of the third congressional district, named Zamboanga Sibugay.
Geography
Zamboanga del Sur covers a total area of occupying the southern section of the Zamboanga peninsula in western Mindanao. It is located at longitude 122° 30"" and latitude 7° 15"" north. When Zamboanga City is included for statistical purposes, the province's land area is . The province is bordered on the north by Zamboanga del Norte, west by Zamboanga Sibugay, northeast by Misamis Occidental, east by Lanao del Norte, southeast by the Illana Bay, and south by the Moro Gulf.
Topography
Stretching northward from Sibugay in the southwest and running along the northern boundary to Salug Valley in the east is the province’s mountainous countryside. The coastal plains extend regularly from south to west then spread into wide flat lands when reaching the coastal plains of the Baganian peninsula in the southeast.
The longest river in Region IX, the Sibugay River gets its water from the mountains of Zamboanga del Sur most specifically in Bayog and Lakewood, from where it flows into Sibuguey Bay which is now part of Zamboanga Sibugay. Other notable rivers are the Kumalarang River, the Dinas River with its headwaters in the Mount Timolan Protected Landscape, and Salug River in Molave.
Climate
The province has a relatively high mean annual rainfall: . Temperature is relatively warm and constant throughout the year: .
Administrative divisions
Zamboanga del Sur comprises 26 municipalities and 1 component city, organized into two congressional districts and further subdivided into 681 barangays.
Traditionally grouped with Zamboanga del Sur is the highly urbanized city of Zamboanga, which is administratively independent from the province.
Demographics
The population of Zamboanga del Sur in the was people, with a density of . When Zamboanga City is included for statistical purposes, the province's population is 2,027,902 people, with a density of .
Religion
Most of the inhabitants in Zamboanga del Sur are Roman Catholics. Other Christian groups are Baptists, Methodists, Aglipayans, Church of Christ of Latter Day Saints, Iglesia ni Cristo, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist and other Evangelical Christians. There is a large Muslim minority.
Languages
The most commonly spoken first language in the province is Cebuano, while Chavacano is the majority language in and around Zamboanga City. Tagalog and English are also widely used and understood as the national official languages, with the former used as a lingua franca between various non-local ethnic groups or recent migrants and their families. Minority languages include Maguindanaon, Subanen, Tausug, Maranao, and Iranun.
Economy
The economy is predominantly agricultural. Products include coco oil, livestock feed milling, rice/corn milling, including the processing of fruits, gifts and housewares made from indigenous materials like handmade paper, roots, rattan, buri, and bamboo; wood-based manufacture of furniture and furniture components from wood, rattan, and bamboo; marine and aquaculture including support services; construction services and manufacture of marble, concrete, and wooden construction materials. There are also mining areas in the province, such as those found in the municipality of Bayog managed by TVI, a Canadian-based mining firm which concentrates on gold mining, and the Cebu Ore Mining which is handling the Ore-Copper-Steel mines. There are also small-scale mines in the municipality of Dumingag.
Government
Governor:
Victor J. Yu (PDP-Laban)
Vice Governor:
Roseller L. Ariosa (UNA)
Representatives:
1st District - Divina Grace C. Yu (PDP-Laban)
2nd District - Leonardo L. Babasa Jr. (PDP-Laban)
Board Members:
1st District:
Baldomero Fernandez (PDP-Laban)
Rogelio Saniel (UNA)
Cesar Dacal Jr. (PDP-Laban)
Francisvic Villamero (PDP-Laban)
Almando Sanoria (NUP)
2nd District:
Juan Regala (PDP-Laban)
Basilio Vidad (PDP-Laban)
Raul Famor (PDP-Laban)
Ronaldo Poloyapoy (PDP-Laban)
Jennifer Mariano (PDP-Laban)
Ex-Officio:
ABC President:
PCL President: Teomila Nobleza (PDP-Laban)
SK Federation President: Vergel Pilar
References
External links
Official website of Zamboanga del Sur
Daily Zamboanga Times
Provinces of the Philippines
Zamboanga Peninsula
States and territories established in 1952
1952 establishments in the Philippines | [
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256099 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal | Postal | Postal may refer to:
Places
The Italian name for Burgstall, South Tyrol in northern Italy
Postal, Missouri
Postal Square
Postal Museum (Liechtenstein), a postal museum in Vaduz, Liechtenstein
People
Fred Postal, former co-owner of the Washington Senators of the American League
Paul Postal (born 1936), American linguist
Arts and entertainment
Postal (franchise), a series of computer games launched in 1997
Postal (video game), first entry in the series
Postal (film), a 2007 Uwe Boll-directed film based on the Postal computer game
Postal (comics), a comic book series written by Matt Hawkins and Bryan Hill
Other uses
Postal code
Postal service, mail
See also
Going postal (disambiguation)
Postal Act (disambiguation)
Postal Bank (disambiguation)
Postal abbreviation (disambiguation)
Postal inspector (disambiguation)
Postal service (disambiguation)
Postal strike (disambiguation) | [
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256101 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-German%20Fellowship | Anglo-German Fellowship | The Anglo-German Fellowship was a membership organisation that existed from 1935 to 1939, and aimed to build up friendship between the United Kingdom and Germany. It was widely perceived as being allied to Nazism. Previous groups in Britain with the same aims had been wound up when Adolf Hitler came to power.
Origins
In a 1935 speech, the Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) had called for a closer understanding of Germany in order to safeguard peace in Europe, and in response Sir Thomas Moore, a Conservative Member of Parliament, suggested setting up a study group of pro-German MPs. From that idea emerged the AGF, established in September 1935 with Lord Mount Temple as chairman, and historian Philip Conwell-Evans and merchant banker Ernest Tennant as secretaries. Tennant was a friend of Joachim von Ribbentrop, German Ambassador to Britain. The group's stated aims were to foster political, professional, commercial and sporting links with Germany, but Mount Temple stated publicly that membership of the society did not assume support for Nazism or anti-Semitism.
An application was made to the Board of Trade on 26 July 1935 for "a license directing an association about to be formed under the name of The Anglo-German Fellowship". The objectives of the proposed association were given as:
Membership
The organisation was aimed at the influential in society, and the membership was dominated by businessmen keen to promote commercial links. Members included Bank of England director Frank Cyril Tiarks, Admiral Sir Barry Domvile, Prince von Bismarck, Governor of the Bank of England Montagu Norman, Geoffrey Dawson editor of The Times. "Corporate membership" was also available for leading companies who wished to show their support for co-operation with Germany and this was taken out by such leading organisations as Price Waterhouse, Unilever, Dunlop Rubber, Thomas Cook & Son, the Midland Bank and Lazard Brothers amongst others.
Several Members of Parliament, mostly from the Conservative Party, joined the group: they included Sir Peter Agnew, Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland, Ernest Bennett, Sir Robert Bird, Robert Tatton Bower, Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, Marquess of Clydesdale, Robert Vaughan Gower, Thomas "Loel" Guinness, Norman Hulbert, Archibald James, Alfred Knox, John Macnamara, Sir Thomas Moore, Assheton Pownall, Frank Sanderson, Duncan Sandys, Admiral Murray Sueter, Charles Taylor and Ronald Tree. Members of the House of Lords to hold membership included Lord Brocket, Lord Galloway, the Earl of Glasgow, Lord Mount Temple, Lord Londonderry, Lord Nuffield, Lord Redesdale, Lord Rennell and the Duke of Wellington.
By 1937, the group seems to have had 347 members.
Activities
The AGF's sister organization in Berlin was the Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaft. Neither group had an avowed mission to Nazify Britain. Instead, the two groups would unite, to host grand dinners at which leading German figures noted for their Anglophilia or their familial links to the United Kingdom, such as Rudolf Hess, von Ribbentrop, General Werner von Blomberg, the Duke of Brunswick and the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, would be guests of honour.
However, the organisation did have a pro-Nazi leaning, as well as a number of fascist members. The spies Guy Burgess and Kim Philby, seeking to disguise their Communist affiliations, joined the AGF in the knowledge that it was widely perceived as allied to the far right.
Reaction to Nazi antisemitism
Lord Mount Temple resigned in November 1938 as chairman of the AGF because of the treatment of the German Jews by the Nazis. Following his resignation he told the press:
The Council of the Anglo-German Fellowship met in London and released a statement:
Closure
At the time of the Munich Crisis in 1938 Ernest Tennant recorded that the feeling in the organisation was that they should close. However, they approached the UK Foreign Office for advice. Tennant reported that Lord Vansittart recommended their staying active, which they did until the outbreak of the Second World War.
However, this claim was later refuted by Vansittart. He responded that he queried the claim with the intermediary between the Fellowship and the Foreign Office, Conwell Evans, who reported that he had met with Lord Halifax on the matter.
In the House of Commons on 7 September 1939 Vyvyan Adams MP asked the Home Secretary what the Government is doing to "deal with" organisations such as the Fellowship. To this, Sir John Anderson reported to the house that "the Anglo-German Fellowship has entirely suspended its activities".
See also
Germany–United Kingdom relations
Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaft
The Link (UK organization)
Anglo-German Friendship Committee, founded 1905
References
Organizations established in 1935
Organizations disestablished in 1939
Germany–United Kingdom relations
Far-right politics in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom friendship associations
Germany friendship associations
1935 establishments in Germany
1939 disestablishments in Germany
1935 establishments in the United Kingdom
1939 disestablishments in the United Kingdom | [
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256104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriharikota | Sriharikota | Sriharikota is a barrier island off the Bay of Bengal coast located in the Shar Project settlement of Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh, India. It houses the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, one of the two satellite launch centres in India (the other being the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station in Thiruvananthapuram). Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launches satellites using multistage rockets such as the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle and the Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle from Sriharikota.
Location
Sriharikota is partly located in Sullurpeta mandal and partly located in Tada mandal in Nellore district in Andhra Pradesh and separates Pulicat Lake from the Bay of Bengal The nearest town and railway station is Sullurpeta which is 16 km west of Sriharikota. A 16 km elevated road connects Sriharikota to the mainland. It is about 70 km north of Chennai city. It has elevation of 1 meter.
Climate
The climate of Sriharikota is tropical wet and dry (Aw; bordering on As) in the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system. Sriharikota has hot summers and mild winters. Summers can reach up to 38 degrees Celsius, while winters can reach down to 20 degrees Celsius. Since Sriharikota is only 105 km north of Chennai, its climate is similar to that of Chennai.
References
External links
Sriharikota's Videos and Pictures
About Sriharikota at Sharicons website
Barrier islands
Space programme of India
Islands of Andhra Pradesh
Islands of the Bay of Bengal
Geography of Nellore district | [
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256105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal%20conversion | Criminal conversion | Criminal conversion is a crime, limited to parts of common law systems outside England and Wales, of exerting unauthorized use or control of someone else's property, at a minimum personal property, but in some jurisdictions also applying to types of real property, such as land (to squatting or holding over) or to patents, design rights and trademarks. It differs from theft in that it does not include the element of intending to deprive the owner of permanent possession of that property. As such, it is a lesser offense than the crime of theft. Criminal conversion specifies a type of conversion in that it involves criminal law, not civil law.
An example might be tapping someone's secured wireless LAN or public utility line (which could also amount to theft of services). Another example might be taking a joy ride in a car, never intending to keep it from the owner. Some have redefined such conduct as a specific type of theft, or another offence such as taking without owner's consent.
Note that the "unauthorized" use may begin after a period of authorized use, where, for example, a person rents a car then keeps it for an extra week without permission from the rental company. Another common example occurs when a person fails to report finding lost goods (including animals), intending only to keep them until someone asks for their return. When the intent becomes one of keeping the property, it is a theft.
Fraudulent conversion
The two-pronged definition of fraudulent conversion is "conversion that is committed by the use of fraud, either by obtaining the property, or in withholding it".
In England and Wales, the term fraudulent conversion was superseded by the identically named offences under the Larceny Act 1901 and sections 20 and 21 of the Larceny Act 1916.
The former offence of fraudulent conversion was replaced by an offence of theft, contrary to section 1(1) of the Theft Act 1968, from which it slightly differs.
See also
Conversion (law)
Embezzlement
Taking without owner's consent
Notes and references
Notes
References
Crimes | [
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256107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Cyril%20Tiarks | Frank Cyril Tiarks | Frank Cyril Tiarks OBE (also known as FC Tiarks) (Balham, Wandsworth, London, Middlesex, 9 July 1874 – Loxton, Somerset, 7 April 1952) was an English banker.
Family
He was son of Henry Frederick Tiarks (London, Middlesex, 23 December 1832 - Foxbury, Chislehurst, London, Middlesex, 18 October 1911), banker, partner in J. Henry Schröder & Co. in London, and wife (London, Middlesex, 11 September 1862) Agnes Morris (Oxford, Oxfordshire, July / September 1840 - Chislehurst, London, Middlesex, 5 February 1923), adopted daughter of Alexander Schlüsser, partner in J. Henry Schröder & Co. in London, paternal grandson of Johann Gerhard Tiarks (Jever, Hanover, Holy Roman Empire, 25 May 1798 - Tottenham, London, Middlesex, 8 March 1858), chaplain of the Duchess of Kent (son of Johann Gerhard Tiarks and wife Christine Dorothea Ehrentraut), and wife (London, Middlesex, 20 October 1825) Emily Phipps (London, Middlesex, 26 May 1798 - London, Middlesex, 6 March 1841) (daughter of Josiah Phipps and wife ...) and maternal grandson of James Taylor Morris (? - Oxford, Oxfordshire, April / June 1840) and wife ....
Biography
Educated on HMS Britannia 1887–1889, and served as midshipman in the Royal Navy 1889–1894. Resigned his commission following the death of his elder brother, to join his father in business. Among his appointments were a directorship of the Bank of England (1912–1945); a partnership in J. Henry Schröder & Co.; a partnership in the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (1917–1948); and High Sheriff of Kent for 1927. He was created an Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.
He served in World War I under Sir William Reginald Hall, Director of Naval Intelligence, in Room 40 Admiralty, as Lieut.-Cmdr.
Of German descent himself, like his wife, he was also listed as a member of the Anglo-German Fellowship, of the British Union of Fascists and in Hitler's 'Black Book'.
Marriage and issue
Tiarks married in Hamburg, Germany, on 18 November 1899 Emmie "Emmy" Marie Franziska Brödermann (Hamburg, Germany, 15 February 1875 – 27 July 1943), daughter of Eduard Matthias Brödermann (Hamburg, German Confederation, 27 February 1842 - Hamburg, Germany, 28 February 1904), merchant, and wife (Hamburg, Germany, 3 May 1872) Ramona Luisa Clara Ignacia Störzel (Grabow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, German Confederation, 2 June 1852 - Hamburg, Germany, 24 June 1939), paternal granddaughter of Carl Matthias Brödermann (Hamburg, Holy Roman Empire, 28 April 1789 - Eimsbüttel, Hamburg, German Confederation, 10 June 1854), trader, married firstly in Havana, Cuba, Spain, on 16 March 1828 to Anna Oom (Lisbon, Portugal, 1 September 1787 - Hamburg, German Confederation, 28 February 1837) (son of Johann Hinrich Brödermann, Bürger and shipbroker, and wife Anna Senglemann), and second wife (Hamburg, German Confederation, 18 December 1838) Marianne Kunhardt (Hamburg, German Confederation, 10 March 1815 - Eimsbüttel, Hamburg, Germany, 23 February 1882) (daughter of Georg Wilhelm Kunhardt and wife Anna Maria Schultz) and maternal granddaughter of Heinrich Eduard Störzel (Grabow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, German Confederation, 26 September 1819 - Hamburg, Germany, 2 April 1885) and wife (Ciudad Durango, Durango, Mexico, 15 December 1847) María Ramona Redo Balmaseda (Cincinnati, Hamilton County, Ohio, 14 October 1830 - Brannenburg, Bavaria, Germany, 23 October 1914) (daughter of Diego Redo and wife María Francisca Balmaceda).
His granddaughter, Henrietta Tiarks, The Dowager Duchess of Bedford, is the widow of the fourteenth Duke of Bedford. He is also first cousin third removed of Mark Phillips.
References
"The Forgotten Banker",
Nicholas Mander, "Queen of Seven Swords", Owlpen Press, 2013, gives a biography with references.
"Burke's Peerage and Baronetage"
1874 births
1952 deaths
English bankers
Anglo-Persian Oil Company
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
BP people
High Sheriffs of Kent
Royal Navy officers
British Union of Fascists politicians
English fascists | [
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256109 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sounding%20rocket | Sounding rocket | A sounding rocket or rocketsonde, sometimes called a research rocket or a suborbital rocket, is an instrument-carrying rocket designed to take measurements and perform scientific experiments during its sub-orbital flight. The rockets are used to launch instruments from 48 to 145 km (30 to 90 miles) above the surface of the Earth, the altitude generally between weather balloons and satellites; the maximum altitude for balloons is about 40 km (25 miles) and the minimum for satellites is approximately 121 km (75 miles). Certain sounding rockets have an apogee between 1,000 and 1,500 km (620 and 930 miles), such as the Black Brant X and XII, which is the maximum apogee of their class. Sounding rockets often use military surplus rocket motors. NASA routinely flies the Terrier Mk 70 boosted Improved Orion, lifting 270–450-kg (600–1,000-pound) payloads into the exoatmospheric region between 97 and 201 km (60 and 125 miles).
Etymology
The origin of the term comes from nautical vocabulary to sound, which is to throw a weighted line from a ship into the water to measure the water's depth. The term itself has its etymological roots in the Romance languages word for probe, of which there are nouns sonda and sonde and verbs like sondear which means "to do a survey or a poll". Sounding in the rocket context is equivalent to "taking a measurement".
Design
The basic elements of a sounding rocket are a solid-fuel rocket motor and a science payload. Larger, higher altitude rockets have two to three stages to increase efficiency and payload capability. The freefall part of the flight is an elliptic trajectory with vertical major axis allowing the payload to appear to hover near its apogee. The average flight time is less than 30 minutes; usually between five and 20 minutes. The rocket consumes its fuel on the first stage of the rising part of the flight, then separates and falls away, leaving the payload to complete the arc and return to the ground under a parachute.
Advantages
Sounding rockets are advantageous for some research because of their low cost, short lead time (sometimes less than six months) and their ability to conduct research in areas inaccessible to either balloons or satellites. They are also used as test beds for equipment that will be used in more expensive and risky orbital spaceflight missions. The smaller size of a sounding rocket also makes launching from temporary sites possible, allowing field studies at remote locations, and even in the middle of the ocean, if fired from a ship.
Applications
Meteorology
Weather observations, up to an altitude of 75 km, are done with rocketsondes, a kind of sounding rocket for atmospheric observations that consists of a rocket and radiosonde. The sonde records data on temperature, moisture, wind speed and direction, wind shear, atmospheric pressure, and air density during the flight. Position data (altitude and latitude/longitude) may also be recorded.
Common meteorological rockets are the Loki and Super Loki, typically a 3.7 m tall and powered by a 10 cm diameter solid fuel rocket engine. The rocket engine separates at an altitude of 1500 m and the rest of the rocketsonde coasts to apogee (highest point). This can be set to an altitude of 20 km to 113 km.
Research
Sounding rockets are commonly used for:
Research in aeronomy, the study of the upper atmosphere, which requires this tool for in situ measurements in the upper atmosphere
Ultraviolet and X-ray astronomy, which require being above the bulk of the Earth's atmosphere
Microgravity research which benefits from a few minutes of weightlessness on rockets launched to altitudes of a few hundred kilometers
Remote Sensing of Earth Resources uses sounding rockets to get an essentially instant synoptic view of the geographical area under observation.
Dual use
Due to the high military relevance of ballistic missile technology, there has always been a close relationship between sounding rockets and military missiles. It is a typical dual-use technology, which can be used for both civil and military purposes. During the Cold War, the Federal Republic of Germany cooperated on this topic with countries that had not signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty on Nuclear Weapons at that time, such as Brazil, Argentina and India. In the course of investigations by the German peace movement, this cooperation was revealed by a group of physicists in 1983. The international discussion that was thus set in motion led to the development of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) at the level of G7 states. Since then, lists of technological equipment whose export is subject to strict controls have been drawn up within the MTCR framework.
Operators and programs
Andøya Space Center in Norway operates two sounding rocket launch sites, one at Andøya and one at Svalbard. Has launched sounding rockets since 1962.
Poker Flat Research Range is owned by the University of Alaska Fairbanks.
The British Skylark sounding rocket programme began in 1955 and was used for 441 launches from 1957 to 2005. Skylark 12, from 1976, could lift to altitude.
ISRO's VSSC developed the Rohini sounding rockets series starting in 1967 that reached altitudes of 500 km
Delft Aerospace Rocket Engineering from the Delft University of Technology operates the Stratos sounding rocket program, which reached 21.5 km in 2015 and aims to reach 100 km in 2019.
The Australian Space Research Institute (ASRI) operates a Small Sounding Rocket Program (SSRP) for launching payloads (mostly educational) to altitudes of about 7 km
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST) launched a Sounding Rocket (Vyom) in May, 2012, which reached an altitude of 15 km. Vyom Mk-II is in its conceptual design stage with an objective to reach 70 km altitude with 20 kg payload capacity.
The University of Queensland operates Terrier-Orion sounding rockets (capable of reaching altitudes in excess of 300 km) as part of their HyShot hypersonics research
Iranian Space Agency operated its first sounding rocket in February 2007
UP Aerospace operates the SpaceLoft XL sounding rocket that can reach altitudes of 225 km
TEXUS and MiniTEXUS, German rocket programmes at Esrange for DLR and ESA microgravity research programmes
Astrium operates missions with sounding rockets on a commercial basis, as prime contractor to ESA or the German Aerospace Centre (DLR).
MASER, Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for ESA microgravity research programmes
MAXUS, German-Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for ESA microgravity research programmes
Pakistan's SUPARCO launched Rehbar series of sounding rockets from 1962 to 1971. A total of 200 rockets were launched.
REXUS, German-Swedish rocket programme at Esrange for DLR and ESA student experiment programmes
The NASA Sounding Rocket Program
The JAXA operates the sounding rockets S-Series: S-310 / S-520 / SS-520.
United States/New Zealand company Rocket Lab developed the highly adaptable Ātea series of sounding rockets to carry 5–70 kg payloads to altitudes of 250 km or greater
The Meteor rockets were built in Poland between 1963 and 1974.
The Kartika I rocket was built and launched in Indonesia by LAPAN on 1964, becoming the third sounding rocket in Asia, after those from Japan and Pakistan.
The Soviet Union developed an extensive program using rockets such as the M-100, the most used ever; its successor by its successor state, Russia, is the MR-20 and later the MR-30.
Brazil has been launching its own sounding rockets since 1965. The largest and most current family of rocket are the Sonda, which are the R&D basis for Brazil's soon-to-be-launched VLS satellite launcher. Other rockets include the VSB-30
The Paulet I rocket was built and launched in Peru by The National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (CONIDA) on 2006, becoming the first sounding rocket of the country and the third rocket in South America, after those from Brazil and Argentina.
The Experimental Sounding Rocket Association (ESRA) is a non-profit organization based on the United States, operates the Intercollegiate Rocket Engineering Competition (IREC) since 2006.
ONERA in France launched a sounding rocket by the name of Titus. It was developed for observation of the total solar eclipse in Argentina on November 12, 1966. The Titus was a two-stage rocket with a length of 11.5 m, a launch weight of 3.4 tons, and a diameter of 56 cm. It reached a maximum height of 270 kilometers. The Titus was launched twice in Las Palmas, Chaco during the eclipse in collaboration with the Argentinian space agency CNIE.
German Aerospace Center's Mobile Rocket Base (DLR MORABA) designs, builds and operates a variety of sounding rocket types and custom vehicles in support for national and international research programs.
Interstellar Technologies is a Japanese company that is developing the experimental MOMO sounding rocket.
See also
References
External links
Sounding rockets at EADS Astrium page
ESA article on sounding rockets
30 years of sounding rocket launches at Esrange in Kiruna, Sweden
NASA Sounding Rocket Program
NASA Sounding Rocket Operations Contract
NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958–1968: A Historical Summary (NASA SP-4401, 1971)
Australian Space Research Institute Small Sounding Rocket Program
UP Aerospace
German, Swedish and EADS-ST Programmes
MASER Programme of the Swedish Space Corporation
Sounding rockets launched from Andøya Space Center in Norway
Experimental Sounding Rocket Association (ESRA)
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256112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle%20Hill%2C%20Mere | Castle Hill, Mere | Castle Hill, also called Mere Castle, was a medieval fortification built by Richard, the Earl of Cornwall, in 1253 on a hill overlooking the town of Mere, Wiltshire, England. The castle was constructed in stone, with six towers, inner buildings and gates. It was abandoned in the 14th century and stripped of its stone and metalwork. Only earthworks remain in the 21st century.
History
Construction
The village of Mere was a small and unimportant settlement in the early 13th century. In 1243 Richard, the Earl of Cornwall, acquired the manor. Richard was the brother of Henry III and immensely rich. In 1253 he began to build a castle at Mere.
The castle was built on Long Hill, a chalk ridge overlooking the village; the hill was flattened and scarped, with a deep ditch cut into the west side. As archaeologist Phil Mcmahon describes, documentary sources imply the castle was "a rectangular stone-built structure with six towers, incorporating a hall, an inner and outer gate, a deep well and a chapel", and it may have resembled a smaller version of Framlingham Castle. The castle was probably entered from the west, with a possible road running up the south side of the hill. At the same time the village was expanded into a planned town with an unofficial market. The castle was renovated in 1300, possibly in response to the threat of rebellion in England at the time.
Decline
Richard's son Edmund inherited the property, but on his death it was taken back by the Crown. Edward II gave it to his royal favourite, Piers Gaveston, whom he made Earl of Cornwall. Edward II and Gaveston fell from power in 1327 and John, Edward's second son, took possession as the new Earl of Cornwall. Edward III then reacquired the castle, which became a permanent part of the Duchy of Cornwall.
During the 14th century, however, the castle had declined and became abandoned. In 1398 Richard II had the lead taken from the castle roofs for reuse at Portchester Castle. In 1660, visitors' accounts imply that the stonework had all been dismantled, and 18th-century accounts suggest that this was reused for construction work in the town below, which had prospered from the wool and later linen trade.
21st century
In the 21st century the site is protected under law as a scheduled monument. It is owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, and leased to the local parish council. A flagpole, which is illuminated at night, and a memorial to the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division are located on the castle site. A ceremony is held at the castle site each Easter.
Archaeological investigation
Archaeological excavations of the site were carried out in 1887 by T. H. Baker and C. N. Wyld, but most of the results of their work were subsequently lost.
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England
References
Notes
Bibliography
Castles in Wiltshire
Hills of Wiltshire
Mere, Wiltshire | [
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256122 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilia%20Galotti | Emilia Galotti | Emilia Galotti () is a play in five acts by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (1729–1781), which premiered on 8 March 1772 in Brunswick ("Braunschweig" in German). The work is a classic example of German bürgerliches Trauerspiel (bourgeois tragedy). Other works in this category include Schiller's Kabale und Liebe and Hebbel's Maria Magdalene. The story is based upon the Roman myth of Verginia.
Emilia Galotti is a drama of the Enlightenment, though it doesn't precisely follow the standard French model of the era. Although love is a central theme, in reality Emilia Galotti is primarily a political commentary. The arbitrary style of rule by the aristocracy is placed in stark contrast to the new and enlightened morality of the bourgeoisie. The more feudal ideas of love and marriage thus come into conflict with the growing tendency to marry for love, rather than family tradition and power. This combination results in a rather explosive situation. It was made into a film in 1958.
Characters
Emilia Galotti
Odoardo Galotti, father of Emilia Galotti
Claudia Galotti, mother of Emilia Galotti
Pirro, servant of the Galottis
Hettore Gonzaga, prince of Guastalla
Marinelli, chamberlain of the prince
Camillo Rota, one of the prince's advisors
Conti, a painter
Count Appiani
Countess Orsina
Angelo, a robber
Battista, servant of Gonzaga
Plot
Set in Italy , Emilia Galotti tells the story of a virtuous young woman of the bourgeoisie. The absolutist prince of Guastalla, Hettore Gonzaga, becomes obsessed with the idea of making Emilia his lover after their first meeting. He thus gives his conniving Chamberlain, Marinelli, the right to do anything in his power to delay the previously arranged marriage between Emilia and Count Appiani. Marinelli then hires criminals who shortly thereafter murder the count on his way to the wedding. Emilia is quickly brought to safety in the prince's nearby summer residence. Unlike her mother Claudia, Emilia does not yet recognise the true implications of the scheme. A few moments later, Countess Orsina, the prince's former mistress, comes to the residence as well. Out of frustration over her harsh rejection by the prince, she attempts to convince Odoardo, Emilia's father, to avenge Count Appiani by stabbing the prince to death. Odoardo, however, hesitates in agreeing to this proposal and decides to leave the revenge in the hands of God. Emilia, who must remain under the protection of the prince due to another intrigue on Marinelli's behalf, attempts to convince her father to kill her in order to maintain her dignity in light of the prince's exertions to seduce her. The father agrees and stabs her, but immediately feels appalled by his deed. In the end Odoardo leaves the matter to the prince. He subsequently decides that Marinelli is responsible for the catastrophe and has him banned from his court. Ultimately, Emilia's father recognises God as the absolute authority.
Theme
Lessing's work of course comprises an attack against the nobility and its powers. Lessing depicts aristocrats as having unfair powers in society and as ruining the happiness of the emerging middle class. With the play, Lessing directs criticism at the tyranny of the reigning class.
Criticism
Music historian Charles Burney, arriving in Vienna in 1772, attended a performance of Emilia Galotti. "I should suppose this play to have been well acted; there were energy and passion, and many speeches were much applauded." But the Englishman was surprised by the "impious oaths and execrations" of the script: "The interlocutors curse, swear, and call names, in a gross and outrageous manner. I know not, perhaps, the exact ideas annexed by the Germans to the following expressions, of "Mein Gott," "Gott verdamm ihn," etc., but they shocked my ears very frequently." Still, Burney was impressed by the piece: "There is an original wildness in the conduct and sentiments of this piece which renders it very interesting."
In Arthur Schopenhauer's The Art of Literature, he criticised Emilia Galotti as a play with a "positively revolting" end.
In literature
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe refers to Emilia Galotti in his novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (Die Leiden des jungen Werthers), which was published in 1774.
The detail of Emilia Galotti'''s presence in the room, like many of the details of Werther'', was taken from the 1772 suicide of Goethe's acquaintance Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem.
References
External links
full text
full text
eBook at Project Gutenberg
NY Times review, October 14, 2005
1772 plays
Plays by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
Italy in fiction
German plays adapted into films
Tragedy plays | [
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256124 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengu | Tengu | are a type of legendary creature found in Japanese folk religion. They are considered a type of yōkai (supernatural beings) or Shinto kami (gods). The tengu were originally thought to take the forms of birds of prey and monkey deity, and they are traditionally depicted with human, monkey and avian characteristics. Sarutahiko Ōkami is considered to be the original model of Konoha-Tengu (a supernatural creature with a red face and long nose), which today is widely considered the tengus defining characteristic in the popular imagination. He is the Shinto monkey deity who sheds light on heaven and earth. Some experts theorize that Sarutahiko was a sun god worshiped in Ise region prior to the popularization of Amaterasu.
Buddhism long held that the tengu were disruptive demons and harbingers of war. Their image gradually softened, however, into one of protective and even manifestations of buddhist deities, if still dangerous, spirits of the mountains and forests. Tengu are associated with the ascetic practice of Shugendō, and they are usually depicted in the garb of its followers, the yamabushi.
Image
The tengu in art appears in a variety of shapes. It usually falls somewhere between a large, monstrous bird and a wholly anthropomorphized being, often with a red face or an unusually large or long nose. Early depictions of tengu show them as kite-like beings who can take a human-like form, often retaining avian wings, head or beak. The tengu's long nose seems to have been conceived in the 14th century, likely as a humanization of the original bird's bill. This feature allies them with the Sarutahiko Ōkami, who is described in the 720 CE text the Nihon Shoki with a similar nose measuring seven hand-spans in length. In village festivals, the two figures are often portrayed with identical red phallic-nosed mask designs.
Some of the earliest representations of tengu appear in Japanese picture scrolls, such as the , painted c. 1296, which parodies high-ranking priests by endowing them the hawk-like beaks of tengu demons.
Tengu are often pictured as taking the shape of some sort of priest. Beginning in the 13th century, tengu came to be associated in particular with yamabushi, the mountain ascetics who practice Shugendō. The association soon found its way into Japanese art, where tengu are most frequently depicted in the yamabushi's unique costume, which includes a distinctive headwear called the tokin and a . Due to their priestly aesthetic, they are often shown wielding the khakkhara, a distinct staff used by Buddhist monks, called a shakujō in Japanese.
Tengu are commonly depicted holding a magical . In folk tales, these fans sometimes have the ability to grow or shrink a person's nose, but usually, they have attributed the power to stir up great winds. Various other strange accessories may be associated with tengu, such as a type of tall, one-toothed geta sandal often called tengu-geta.
Origins
The term tengu and the characters used to write it are borrowed from the name of a fierce demon from Chinese folklore called tiāngǒu though this still has to be confirmed. Chinese literature assigns this creature a variety of descriptions, but most often it is a fierce and anthropophagous canine monster that resembles a shooting star or comet. It makes a noise like thunder and brings war wherever it falls. One account from the Shù Yì Jì (, "A Collection of Bizarre Stories"), written in 1791, describes a dog-like tiāngǒu with a sharp beak and an upright posture, but usually tiāngǒu bear little resemblance to their Japanese counterparts.
The 23rd chapter of the Nihon Shoki, written in 720, is generally held to contain the first recorded mention of tengu in Japan. In this account a large shooting star appears and is identified by a Buddhist priest as a "heavenly dog", and much like the tiāngǒu of China, the star precedes a military uprising. Although the Chinese characters for tengu are used in the text, accompanying phonetic furigana characters give the reading as amatsukitsune (heavenly fox). M. W. de Visser speculated that the early Japanese meaning for the characters used to write Tengu may represent a conglomeration of two Chinese spirits: the tiāngǒu and the fox spirits called huli jing before the nuances of meaning were expanded to include local Japanese kami, therefore the true Tengu in appearance
Some Japanese scholars have speculated that the tengu's image derives from that of the Hindu eagle deity Garuda, who was pluralized in Buddhist scripture as one of the major races of non-human beings. Like the tengu, the garuda are often portrayed in a human-like form with wings and a bird's beak. The name tengu seems to be written in place of that of the garuda in a Japanese sutra called the Emmyō Jizō-kyō (), but this was likely written in the Edo period, long after the tengu's image was established. At least one early story in the Konjaku Monogatari describes a tengu carrying off a dragon, which is reminiscent of the garuda's feud with the nāga serpents. In other respects, however, the tengu's original behavior differs markedly from that of the garuda, which is generally friendly towards Buddhism. De Visser has speculated that the tengu may be descended from an ancient Shinto bird-demon which was syncretized with both the garuda and the tiāngǒu when Buddhism arrived in Japan. However, he found little evidence to support this idea.
A later version of the Kujiki, an ancient Japanese historical text, writes the name of Amanozako, a monstrous female deity born from the god Susanoo's spat-out ferocity, with characters meaning tengu deity (). The book describes Amanozako as a raging creature capable of flight, with the body of a human, the head of a beast, a long nose, long ears, and long teeth that can chew through swords. An 18th-century book called the suggests that this goddess may be the true predecessor of the tengu, but the date and authenticity of the Kujiki, and of that edition in particular, remain disputed.
Evil spirits and angry ghosts
The Konjaku Monogatarishū, a collection of stories published in the late Heian period, contains some of the earliest tales of tengu, already characterized as they would be for centuries to come. These tengu are the troublesome opponents of Buddhism, who mislead the pious with false images of the Buddha, carry off monks and drop them in remote places, possess women in an attempt to seduce holy men, rob temples, and endow those who worship them with unholy power. They often disguise themselves as priests or nuns, but their true form seems to be that of a kite.
Throughout the 12th and 13th centuries, accounts continued of tengu attempting to cause trouble in the world. They were now established as the ghosts of angry, vain, or heretical priests who had fallen on the "tengu-realm" (, tengudō). They began to possess people, especially women and girls, and speak through their mouths (kitsunetsuki). Still the enemies of Buddhism, the demons also turned their attention to the royal family. The Kojidan tells of an Empress who was possessed, and the Ōkagami reports that Emperor Sanjō was made blind by a tengu, the ghost of a priest who resented the throne.
One notorious tengu from the 12th century was himself the ghost of an emperor. The Hōgen Monogatari tells the story of Emperor Sutoku, who was forced by his father to abandon the throne. When he later raised the Hōgen Rebellion to take back the country from Emperor Go-Shirakawa, he was defeated and exiled to Sanuki Province in Shikoku. According to legend he died in torment, having sworn to haunt the nation of Japan as a great demon, and thus became a fearsome tengu with long nails and eyes like a kite's.
In stories from the 13th century, tengu began to abduct young boys as well as the priests they had always targeted. The boys were often returned, while the priests would be found tied to the tops of trees or other high places. All of the tengu's victims, however, would come back in a state of near death or madness, sometimes after having been tricked into eating animal dung.
The tengu of this period were often conceived of as the ghosts of the arrogant, and as a result the creatures have become strongly associated with vanity and pride. Today the Japanese expression tengu ni naru ("becoming a tengu") is still used to describe a conceited person.
Great and small demons
In the Genpei Jōsuiki, written in the late Kamakura period, a god appears to Go-Shirakawa and gives a detailed account of tengu ghosts. He says that they fall onto the tengu road because, as Buddhists, they cannot go to Hell, yet as people with bad principles, they also cannot go to Heaven. He describes the appearance of different types of tengu: the ghosts of priests, nuns, ordinary men, and ordinary women, all of whom in life possessed excessive pride. The god introduces the notion that not all tengu are equal; knowledgeable men become , but ignorant ones become .
The philosopher Hayashi Razan lists the greatest of these daitengu as Sōjōbō of Kurama, Tarōbō of Atago, and Jirōbō of Hira. The demons of Kurama and Atago are among the most famous tengu.
A section of the Tengu Meigikō, later quoted by Inoue Enryō, lists the daitengu in this order:
of Mount Kurama
of Mount Atago
of the Hira Mountains
of Mount Akiha
of Mount Kōmyō
of Mount Hiko
of Mount Daisen
of Mount Ueno (Ueno Park)
of Itsukushima
of Mount Ōmine
of Katsuragi
of Hitachi Province
of Mount Fuji
of Mount Takao
of Shiramine
of Mount Iizuna
of Higo Province
Daitengu are often pictured in a more human-like form than their underlings, and due to their long noses, they may also called . Kotengu may conversely be depicted as more bird-like. They are sometimes called , or . Inoue Enryō described two kinds of tengu in his Tenguron: the great daitengu, and the small, bird-like konoha-tengu who live in Cryptomeria trees. The konoha-tengu are noted in a book from 1746 called the , as bird-like creatures with wings two meters across which were seen catching fish in the Ōi River, but this name rarely appears in literature otherwise.
Creatures that do not fit the classic bird or yamabushi image are sometimes called tengu. For example, tengu in the guise of wood-spirits may be called , but this word can also refer to tengu with canine mouths or other features. The people of Kōchi Prefecture on Shikoku believe in a creature called , but this is a small childlike being who loves sumō wrestling and sometimes dwells in the water, and is generally considered one of the many kinds of kappa. Another water-dwelling tengu is the of the Greater Tokyo Area. This creature is rarely seen, but it is believed to create strange fireballs and be a nuisance to fishermen.
Protective spirits and deities
In Yamagata Prefecture among other areas, thickets in the mountains during summer, there are several tens of tsubo of moss and sand that were revered as the "nesting grounds of tengu," and in mountain villages in the Kanagawa Prefecture, they would cut trees at night and were called "tengu daoshi" (天狗倒し, tengu fall), and mysterious sounds at night of a tree being cut and falling, or mysterious swaying sounds despite no wind, were considered the work of mountain tengu. It is also theorized that shooting a gun three times would make this mysterious sound stop. Beside this, in the Tone District, Gunma Prefecture, there are legends about the "tengu warai" (天狗笑い, tengu laugh) about how one would hear a laughter out of nowhere, and if one simply presses on further, it'd become an even louder laugh, and if one tries laughing back, it'd laugh even louder than before, and the "tengu tsubute" (天狗礫, tengu pebble) (said to be the path that tengu go on) about how when walking on mountain paths, there'd be a sudden wind, the mountain would rumble, and stones would come flying, and places tengu live such as "tenguda" (天狗田, tengu field), "tengu no tsumetogi ishi" (天狗の爪とぎ石, tengu scratching stone), "tengu no yama" (天狗の山, tengu mountain), "tengudani" (天狗谷, tengu valley), etc., in other words, "tengu territory" (天狗の領地) or "tengu guest quarters" (狗賓の住処). In Kanazawa's business district Owari in Hōreki 5 (1755), it is said that a "tengu tsubute" (天狗つぶて) was seen. In Mt. Ogasa, Shizuoka Prefecture, a mysterious phenomenon of hearing the sound of hayashi from the mountains in the summer was called "tengubayashi" (天狗囃子), and it is said to be the work of the tengu at Ogasa Jinja. On Sado Island (Sado, Niigata Prefecture), there were "yamakagura" (山神楽, mountain kagura), and the mysterious occurrence of hearing kagura from the mountains was said to be the work of a tengu. In Tokuyama, Ibi District, Gifu Prefecture (now Ibigawa), there were "tengu taiko" (天狗太鼓), and the sound of taiko (drums) from the mountains was said to be a sign of impending rain.
The Shasekishū, a book of Buddhist parables from the Kamakura period, makes a point of distinguishing between good and bad tengu. The book explains that the former are in command of the latter and are the protectors, not opponents, of Buddhism – although the flaw of pride or ambition has caused them to fall onto the demon road, they remain the same basically good, dharma-abiding persons they were in life.
The tengu's unpleasant image continued to erode in the 17th century. Some stories now presented them as much less malicious, protecting and blessing Buddhist institutions rather than menacing them or setting them on fire. According to a legend in the 18th-century , a tengu took the form of a yamabushi and faithfully served the abbot of a Zen monastery until the man guessed his attendant's true form. The tengu's wings and huge nose then reappeared. The tengu requested a piece of wisdom from his master and left, but he continued, unseen, to provide the monastery with miraculous aid.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, tengu came to be feared as the vigilant protectors of certain forests. In the 1764 collection of strange stories , a tale tells of a man who wanders into a deep valley while gathering leaves, only to be faced with a sudden and ferocious hailstorm. A group of peasants later tell him that he was in the valley where the guhin live, and anyone who takes a single leaf from that place will surely die. In the , written in 1849, the author describes the customs of the wood-cutters of Mino Province, who used a sort of rice cake called kuhin-mochi to placate the tengu, who would otherwise perpetrate all sorts of mischief. In other provinces a special kind of fish called okoze was offered to the tengu by woodsmen and hunters, in exchange for a successful day's work. The people of Ishikawa Prefecture have until recently believed that the tengu loathe mackerel, and have used this fish as a charm against kidnappings and hauntings by the mischievous spirits.
Tengu are worshipped as beneficial kami (gods or revered spirits) in various Japanese religious cults. For example, the tengu Saburō of Izuna is worshipped on that mountain and various others as , one of the primary deities in the Izuna Shugen cult, which also has ties to fox sorcery and the Dakini of Tantric Buddhism. Izuna Gongen is depicted as a beaked, winged figure with snakes wrapped around his limbs, surrounded by a halo of flame, riding on the back of a fox and brandishing a sword. Worshippers of tengu on other sacred mountains have adopted similar images for their deities, such as or of Akiba and of Saijō-ji Temple in Odawara.
In popular folk tales
Tengu appear frequently in the orally transmitted tales collected by Japanese folklorists. As these stories are often humorous, they tend to portray tengu as ridiculous creatures who are easily tricked or confused by humans. Some common folk tales in which tengu appear include:
: A boy looks through an ordinary piece of bamboo and pretends he can see distant places. A tengu, overwhelmed by curiosity, offers to trade it for a magic straw cloak that renders the wearer invisible. Having duped the tengu, the boy continues his mischief while wearing the cloak. Another version of this story tells of an ugly old man who tricks a tengu into giving him his magical cloak and causes mayhem for his fellow villagers. The story ends with the tengu regaining the coat through a game of riddle exchange and punishes the man by turning him into a wolf.
: An old man has a lump or tumor on his face. In the mountains he encounters a band of tengu making merry and joins their dancing. He pleases them so much that they want him to join them the next night, and offer a gift for him. In addition, they take the lump off his face, thinking that he will want it back and therefore have to join them the next night. An unpleasant neighbor, who also has a lump, hears of the old man's good fortune and attempts to repeat it, and steal the gift. The tengu, however, simply give him the first lump in addition to his own, because they are disgusted by his bad dancing, and because he tried to steal the gift.
A scoundrel obtains a tengu's magic fan, which can shrink or grow noses. He secretly uses this item to grotesquely extend the nose of a rich man's daughter, and then shrinks it again in exchange for her hand in marriage. Later he accidentally fans himself while he dozes, and his nose grows so long it reaches heaven, resulting in painful misfortune for him.
: A gambler meets a tengu, who asks him what he is most frightened of. The gambler lies, claiming that he is terrified of gold or mochi. The tengu answers truthfully that he is frightened of a kind of plant or some other mundane item. The tengu, thinking he is playing a cruel trick, then causes money or rice cakes to rain down on the gambler. The gambler is of course delighted and proceeds to scare the tengu away with the thing he fears most. The gambler then obtains the tengu's magic gourd (or another treasured item) that was left behind.
Martial arts
During the 14th century, the tengu began to trouble the world outside of the Buddhist clergy, and like their ominous ancestors the tiāngǒu, the tengu became creatures associated with war. Legends eventually ascribed to them great knowledge in the art of skilled combat.
This reputation seems to have its origins in a legend surrounding the famous warrior Minamoto no Yoshitsune. When Yoshitsune was a young boy going by the name of Ushiwaka-maru, his father, Yoshitomo, was assassinated by the Taira clan. Taira no Kiyomori, head of the Taira, allowed the child to survive on the grounds that he be exiled to the temple on Mount Kurama and become a monk. But one day in the Sōjō-ga-dani Valley, Ushiwaka encountered the mountain's tengu, Sōjōbō. This spirit taught the boy the art of swordsmanship so that he might bring vengeance on the Taira.
Originally the actions of this tengu were portrayed as another attempt by demons to throw the world into chaos and war, but as Yoshitsune's renown as a legendary warrior increased, his monstrous teacher came to be depicted in a much more sympathetic and honorable light. In one of the most famous renditions of the story, the Noh play Kurama Tengu, Ushiwaka is the only person from his temple who does not give up an outing in disgust at the sight of a strange yamabushi. Sōjōbō thus befriends the boy and teaches him out of sympathy for his plight.
Two stories from the 19th century continue this theme: In the Sōzan Chomon Kishū, a boy is carried off by a tengu and spends three years with the creature. He comes home with a magic gun that never misses a shot. A story from Inaba Province, related by Inoue Enryō, tells of a girl with poor manual dexterity who is suddenly possessed by a tengu. The spirit wishes to rekindle the declining art of swordsmanship in the world. Soon a young samurai appears to whom the tengu has appeared in a dream, and the possessed girl instructs him as an expert swordsman.
In popular culture
Tengu continue to be popular subjects in modern fiction, both in Japan and other countries. They often appear among the many characters and creatures featured in Japanese cinema, animation, comics, role-playing games, and video games.
The Unicode Emoji character U+1F47A (👺) represents a tengu, under the name "Japanese Goblin".
Nuzleaf and Shiftry from the Pokémon franchise are based on the tengu.
"Tengu Man" is one of the eight Robot Master bosses in Mega Man 8 (1996) and Mega Man and Bass (1998).
The tengu featured in the 2013 movie 47 Ronin, with their Lord played by Togo Igawa.
"Karasu Tengu" is an enemy present in the video game Nioh (2017) and its sequel Nioh 2 (2020). They are depicted as a yōkai with crow-like wings who wield the power of the wind.
Kujou Sara, a crow tengu, is a playable character in the 2020 game Genshin Impact.
See also
Eboshi-ori
Matsuyama tengu
Tiangou (China)
References
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Japanese gods
Shinto kami
Yōkai
Goblins
Shapeshifting
Legendary birds
Mythological human hybrids
Shugendō
Oni
Demons
Devils | [
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256125 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe%20Ungaretti | Giuseppe Ungaretti | Giuseppe Ungaretti (; 8 February 1888 – 2 June 1970) was an Italian modernist poet, journalist, essayist, critic, academic, and recipient of the inaugural 1970 Neustadt International Prize for Literature. A leading representative of the experimental trend known as Ermetismo ("Hermeticism"), he was one of the most prominent contributors to 20th century Italian literature. Influenced by symbolism, he was briefly aligned with futurism. Like many futurists, he took an irredentist position during World War I. Ungaretti debuted as a poet while fighting in the trenches, publishing one of his best-known pieces, L'allegria ("The Joy").
During the interwar period, Ungaretti worked as a journalist with Benito Mussolini (whom he met during his socialist accession), as well as a foreign-based correspondent for Il Popolo d'Italia and Gazzetta del Popolo. While briefly associated with the Dadaists, he developed Hermeticism as a personal take on poetry. After spending several years in Brazil, he returned home during World War II, and was assigned a teaching post at the University of Rome, where he spent the final decades of his life and career.
Biography
Early life
Ungaretti was born in Alexandria, Egypt into a family from the Tuscan city of Lucca. Ungaretti's father worked on digging the Suez Canal, where he suffered a fatal accident in 1890. His widowed mother, who ran a bakery on the edge of the Sahara, educated her child on the basis of Roman Catholic tenets.
Giuseppe Ungaretti's formal education began in French, at Alexandria's Swiss School. It was there that he became acquainted with Parnassianism and Symbolist poetry, in particular with Gabriele d'Annunzio, Charles Baudelaire, Jules Laforgue, Stéphane Mallarmé and Arthur Rimbaud. He also became familiar with works of the Classicists Giacomo Leopardi and Giosuè Carducci, as well as with the writings of maverick author Giovanni Pascoli. This period marked his debut as a journalist and literary critic, with pieces published Risorgete, a journal edited by anarchist writer Enrico Pea. At the time, he was in correspondence with Giuseppe Prezzolini, editor of the influential magazine La Voce. A regular visitor of Pea's Baracca Rossa ("Red House"), Ungaretti was himself a sympathizer of anarchist-socialist circles. He abandoned Christianity and became an atheist. It was not until 1928 that he returned to the Catholic faith.
In 1912, the 24-year-old Giuseppe Ungaretti moved to Paris, France. On his way there, he stopped in Rome, Florence and Milan, meeting face to face with Prezzolini. Ungaretti attended lectures at the Collège de France and the University of Paris, and had among his teachers philosopher Henri Bergson, whom he reportedly admired. The young writer also met and befriended French literary figure Guillaume Apollinaire, a promoter of Cubism and a forerunner of Surrealism. Apollinaire's work came to be a noted influence on his own. He was also in contact with the Italian expatriates, including leading representatives of Futurism such as Carlo Carrà, Umberto Boccioni, Aldo Palazzeschi, Giovanni Papini and Ardengo Soffici, as well as with the independent visual artist Amedeo Modigliani.
World War I and debut
Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Ungaretti, like his Futurist friends, supported an irredentist position, and called for his country's intervention on the side of the Entente Powers. Enrolled in the infantry a year later, he saw action on the Northern Italian theater, serving in the trenches. In contrast to his early enthusiasm, he became appalled by the realities of war. The conflict also made Ungaretti discover his talent as a poet, and, in 1917, he published the volume of free verse Il porto sepolto ("The Buried Port"), largely written on the Kras front. Although depicting the hardships of war life, his celebrated L'Allegria was not unenthusiastic about its purpose (even if in the poem "Fratelli", and in others, he describes the absurdity of the war and the brotherhood between all the men); this made Ungaretti's stance contrast with that of Lost Generation writers, who questioned their countries' intents, and similar to that of Italian intellectuals such as Soffici, Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Piero Jahier and Curzio Malaparte.
By the time the 1918 armistice was signed, Ungaretti was again in Paris, working as a correspondent for Benito Mussolini's paper Il Popolo d'Italia. He published a volume of French-language poetry, titled La guerre ("The War", 1919). In 1920, Giuseppe Ungaretti married the Frenchwoman Jeanne Dupoix, with whom he had a daughter, Ninon (born 1925), and a son, Antonietto (born 1930).
During that period in Paris, Ungaretti came to affiliate with the anti-establishment and anti-art current known as Dadaism. He was present in the Paris-based Dadaist circle led by Romanian poet Tristan Tzara, being, alongside Alberto Savinio, Julius Evola, Gino Cantarelli, Aldo Fiozzi and Enrico Prampolini, one of the figures who established a transition from Italian Futurism to Dada. In May 1921, he was present at the Dadaist mock trial of reactionary author Maurice Barrès, during which the Dadaist movement began to separate itself into two competing parts, headed respectively by Tzara and André Breton. He was also affiliated with the literary circle formed around the journal La Ronda.
Hermeticism and fascism
The year after his marriage, Ungaretti returned to Italy, settling in Rome as a Foreign Ministry employee. By then, Mussolini had organized the March on Rome, which confirmed his seizure of power. Ungaretti joined in the National Fascist Party, signing the pro-fascist Manifesto of the Italian Writers in 1925. In his essays of 1926–1929, republished in 1996, he repeatedly called on the Duce to direct cultural development in Italy and reorganize the Italian Academy on fascist lines. He argued: "The first task of the Academy will be to reestablish a certain connection between men of letters, between writers, teachers, publicists. This people hungers for poetry. If it had not been for the miracle of Blackshirts, we would never have leaped this far." In his private letters to a French critic, Ungaretti also claimed that fascist rule did not imply censorship. Mussolini, who did not give a favorable answer to Ungaretti's appeal, prefaced the 1923 edition of Il porto sepolto, thus politicizing its message.
In 1925, Ungaretti experienced a religious crisis, which, three years later, made him return to the Roman Catholic Church. Meanwhile, he contributed to a number of journals and published a series of poetry volumes, before becoming a foreign correspondent for Gazzetta del Popolo in 1931, and traveling not only to Egypt, Corsica and the Netherlands, but also to various regions of Italy.
It was during this period that Ungaretti introduced Ermetismo, baptized with the Italian-language word for "Hermeticism". The new trend, inspired by both Symbolism and Futurism, had its origins in both Il porto sepolto, where Ungaretti had eliminated structure, syntax and punctuation, and the earlier contributions of Arturo Onofri. The style was indebted to the influence of Symbolists from Edgar Allan Poe to Baudelaire, Rimbaud, Mallarmé and Paul Valéry. Alongside Ungaretti, its main representatives were Eugenio Montale and Salvatore Quasimodo.
Despite the critical acclaim he enjoyed, the poet confronted himself with financial difficulties. In 1936, he moved to the Brazilian city of São Paulo, and became a Professor of Italian at São Paulo University. It was there that, in 1939, his son Antonietto died as a result of a badly performed appendectomy.
World War II and after
In 1942, three years after the start of World War II, Ungaretti returned to Axis-allied Italy, where he was received with honors by the officials. The same year, he was made a Professor of Modern Literature at the University of Rome. He continued to write poetry, and published a series of essays. By then, Hermeticism had come to an end, and Ungaretti, like Montale and Quasimodo, had adopted a more formal style in his poetry. At Rome, Ungaretti mentored the poet Elio Filippo Accrocca, whose work was greatly influenced by Ungaretti's.
At the close of the war, following Mussolini's downfall, Ungaretti was expelled from the faculty owing to his fascist connections, but reinstated when his colleagues voted in favor of his return. Affected by his wife's 1958 death, Giuseppe Ungaretti sought comfort in traveling throughout Italy and abroad. He visited Japan, the Soviet Union, Israel and the United States.
In 1964, he gave a series of lectures at Columbia University in New York City, and, in 1970, was invited by the University of Oklahoma to receive its Books Abroad Prize. During this last trip, Ungaretti fell ill with bronchopneumonia, and, although he received treatment in New York City, died while under medical supervision in Milan. He was buried in Campo Verano (Rome).
Poetry
L'Allegria, previously called L'Allegria di Naufragi, is a decisive moment of the recent history of Italian literature: Ungaretti revises with novel ideas the poetic style of the poètes maudits (especially the broken verses without punctation marks of Guillaume Apollinaire's Calligrammes and the equality between verse and a single word), connecting it with his experience of death and pain as a soldier at war. The hope of brotherhood between all the people is expressed strongly, together with the desire of searching for a renovated "harmony" with the universe, impressive in the famous verses of Mattina:
A famous poem regarding the First World War is Soldati (soldiers), which emblematically and emotionally describes their feelings of uncertainty and fear:
In the successive works he studied the importance of the poetic word (marked by Hermeticism and symbolism), as the only way to save the humanity from the universal horror, and was searching for a new way to recuperate the roots of the Italian classical poetry. His last verses are on the poem l'Impietrito e il Velluto, about the memory of the bright universe eyed Dunja, an old woman that was house guest of his mother in the time of his childhood. Here is the end:
Legacy
Although Ungaretti parted company with Ermetismo ("Hermeticism"), his early experiments were continued for a while by poets such as Alfonso Gatto, Mario Luzi and Leonardo Sinisgalli. His collected works were published as Vita di un uomo ("The Life of a Man") at the time of his death.
Two of Ungaretti's poems ("Soldiers – War – Another War" and "Vanity") were made into song by American composer Harry Partch (Eleven Intrusions, 1949–50); and eleven poems were set by the French-Romanian composer Horațiu Rădulescu in his cycle End of Kronos (1999). Fragments of his poetry are set by composer Michael Mantler in Cerco un Paese Innocente, a work recorded in 1994.
Austrian-Hungarian composer Iván Eröd used his poems in four of his works: "Tutto ho perduto" Op. 12 (1965), "Canti di Ungaretti" Op. 55 (1988), "Vox lucis" Op. 56 (1988–89) and in his last work "Canti di un Ottantenne" Op. 95 (2019), completed only several days before his death in June 2019.
Published volumes
Il porto sepolto ("The Buried Port", 1916 and 1923)
La guerra ("The War", 1919 and 1947)
Allegria di naufragi ("The Joy of Shipwrecks", 1919)
L'allegria ("The Joy", 1931)
Sentimento del tempo ("The Feeling of Time", 1933)
Traduzioni ("Translations", 1936)
Poesie disperse ("Scattered Poems", 1945)
Il dolore ("The Pain", 1947)
La terra promessa ("The Promised Land", 1950)
Un grido e paesaggi ("A Shout and Landscapes", 1952)
Il taccuino del vecchio ("The Old Man's Notebook", 1960)
Vita di un uomo ("The Life of a Man", 1969)
Notes
References
Alessandro Baruffi, in Giuseppe Ungaretti, the Master of Hermeticism, Translated in English, LiteraryJoint Press, Philadelphia, PA, 2018.
Roberta L. Payne, "Ungaretti, Giuseppe", in A Selection of Modern Italian Poetry in Translation, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal & Kingston, p. 198.
John Picchione, Lawrence R. Smith, Twentieth-century Italian Poetry. An Anthology, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1993.
Hans Richter, Dada. Art and Anti-art, Thames & Hudson, London & New York, 2004.
George Talbot, "Alberto Moravia and Italian Fascism: Censorship, Racism and Le ambizioni sbagliate", in Modern Italy, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2006 (hosted by the University of Hull)
Finding aid to Luciano Rebay collection of Giuseppe Ungaretti at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.
External links
1888 births
1970 deaths
Burials at Campo Verano
Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Deaths from bronchopneumonia
Deaths from pneumonia in Lombardy
Italian essayists
Italian expatriates in Brazil
Italian expatriates in Egypt
Italian expatriates in France
Italian fascists
Italian male journalists
Italian military personnel of World War I
Italian World War I poets
Italian writers in French
People from Alexandria
Sapienza University of Rome faculty
Symbolist poets
University of São Paulo faculty
Italian male poets
20th-century Italian male writers
20th-century Italian poets
Male essayists
20th-century essayists
20th-century Italian journalists | [
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256126 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Quebec%20history | Timeline of Quebec history | This article presents a detailed timeline of Quebec history. Events taking place outside Quebec, for example in English Canada, the United States, Britain or France, may be included when they are considered to have had a significant impact on Quebec's history.
1533 and before
1534 to 1607
1608 to 1662
1663 to 1759
1760 to 1773
1774 to 1790
1791 to 1840
1841 to 1866
1867 to 1899
1900 to 1930
1931 to 1959
1960 to 1981
1982 to present
See also
List of Quebec general elections
History of Quebec
History of North America
List of years in Canada
List of Quebecers
Quebec politics
Timeline of Montreal history
New France
External links
Quebec History Chronologies
1524-2003: From New France to Modern Quebec
The 1837 Rebellions
Le Bilan du Siècle (in French)
National Assembly historical data (in French)
Canada in the Making - Constitutional History
Chronologie de l'histoire du Québec (in French)
Chronologie historique des femmes du Québec (in French)
Rond-point : Histoire du Québec (in French)
L'influence amérindienne sur la société canadienne du régime français (in French)
Les patriotes de 1837-1838 (in French)
Histoire du français au Québec (in French)
Quebec-related lists
Quebec | [
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256131 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence%20and%20Security%20Committee%20of%20Parliament | Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament | The Intelligence and Security Committee of Parliament (ISC) is a statutory joint committee of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, appointed to oversee the work of the UK intelligence community.
The Committee was established in 1994 by the Intelligence Services Act 1994, and its powers were reinforced by the Justice and Security Act 2013.
Work of the committee
The Committee's statutory remit (under the Justice and Security Act 2013) is to examine the expenditure, administration, policy and operations of the security and intelligence Agencies; the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), the Security Service (MI5) and Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) and Defence Intelligence in the Ministry of Defence, the Office for Security and Counter-Terrorism (OSCT) in the Home Office and the intelligence-related work of the Cabinet Office including the Joint Intelligence Organisation (JIO) and the National Security Secretariat (NSS).
The members of the committee are notified under the Official Secrets Act 1989 and are given access to highly classified material in carrying out their duties. The committee holds evidence sessions with Government Ministers and senior officials (for example, the heads of the security and intelligence Agencies), expert witnesses such as academics and journalists, and other interested parties. It also considers written evidence from the intelligence and security Agencies and relevant government departments.
The work of the committee is invariably conducted in secret. The Committee produces an annual report which focuses on administration and finance, and special reports on operational or policy issues which it considers are of particular concern. The Government is required to respond to the Committee's reports within 60 days. The Committee published five reports in 2018 - a report examining the 2017 UK terror attacks, two reports on detainee mistreatment and rendition, a report on diversity and inclusion in the UK intelligence community and an Annual Report. In 2019 the Committee published a statement on 5G suppliers and was due to publish a report on Russia but was unable to do so because the Prime Minister did not confirm that the report could be published before Parliament dissolved for the 2019 General Election.
Unlike a Select Committee, the ISC shares its reports with the Government and Agencies it oversees in advance of publication. This is to ensure that no details which might damage national security are published. Each report is subject to four stages: requests for factual amendments; requests for redactions; contested requests for redactions (where the Committee is unwilling to accept an initial redaction request, representatives of the Agencies must appear to argue the case); and confirmation from the Prime Minister that the document no longer contains any details damaging to national security. By convention, the Prime Minister has 10 working days in which to examine the report and confirm that there are no national security issues outstanding. Once that certification is received the Committee makes administrative arrangement to lay the Report before Parliament.
Structure
The ISC is unusual, being a statutory committee rather than a normal parliamentary select committee. Originally constituted under the Intelligence Services Act 1994 the Committee was reformed, and its powers expanded by the Justice and Security Act 2013. The Committee has an independent secretariat of analysts and investigators and an independent webpage.
The degree to which it is independent was historically questioned by journalists and privacy groups such as Liberty although the ISC itself says it is independent because it is composed of cross-party MPs and Peers and operates in a non-partisan manner. The ISC gained stronger powers under the Justice and Security Act 2013 and is no longer appointed by the Prime Minister: as a result its reports since then have been seen as independent.
Membership
Parliament appoints the nine members from both the House of Commons and the House of Lords, after considering nominations from the Prime Minister, made following discussion with the Leader of the Opposition. The Committee elect their own Chair from amongst the members. Serving ministers are not allowed to be members, but members may previously have held ministerial positions. Members of the committee cease to be members when Parliament is dissolved, and new members are appointed after the new Parliament convenes.
Malcolm Rifkind was Chair until 24 February 2015, when he resigned following a sting by journalists involving a bogus Chinese company and his suspension from the Conservative Party. Former Attorney General Dominic Grieve was elected by the Committee as his replacement on 15 September 2015 when it reconvened after the 2015 general election. He was re-elected as Chair by the committee on 23 November 2017 when it reconvened after the June 2017 general election.
On 15 July 2020, it was reported that Chris Grayling had failed to secure the nomination as Chair of the committee. Acting against the Conservative Whip, Julian Lewis was elected Chair by the members of the ISC. As a consequence, he had the Conservative Whip temporarily removed. A ‘senior government source’ told the BBC that Dr Lewis "has been told by the chief whip that it is because he worked with Labour and other opposition MPs for his own advantage". Grayling subsequently resigned from the Committee on 28 August. Bob Stewart has been appointed as Grayling's replacement.
The membership of the Committee for the 2019-2024 Parliament is as follows:
The Russia report
The "Russia report" is the Intelligence and Security Committee's report into allegations of Russian interference in British politics, including alleged Russian interference in the 2016 Brexit referendum.
According to the report, there is substantial evidence that Russian interference in British politics is commonplace. According to the Guardian, the main points of the report are:
UK government failed to investigate evidence of successful interference in democratic processes
‘Credible open-source commentary’ suggesting Russia sought to influence Scottish independence referendum
Russian influence in the UK is ‘the new normal’
Links between Russian elite and UK politics
Intelligence community ‘took its eye off the ball’ on Russia
UK’s paper-and-pencil voting system makes direct interference harder
Defending UK’s democratic processes is a ‘hot potato’
Errors in Salisbury poisoning and weapons watchdog hack do not diminish Moscow threat
New legislation needed to replace outdated spy laws.
The inquiry began in November 2017, and a 50-page report was completed in March 2019. The report thereafter went through a process of redaction by intelligence and security agencies and was sent to Prime Minister Boris Johnson on 17 October 2019. Johnson's government refused to publicly release the report before the general election in December 2019. A number of legal actions are underway to try to force the government to publish it: one brought by the widow of the murdered Russian dissident Alexander Litvinenko, and another brought by the Bureau of Investigative Journalism. The Prime Minister approved its release on 13 December 2019, the day after the general election, Johnson pledged in Prime Minister's Questions in February 2020 that the report would be released, but that it could not be released until the Intelligence and Security Committee (which disbanded following the dissolution of parliament ahead of the election) was reconstituted; a former chair of the committee, Dominic Grieve, said that this was an "entirely bogus" reason for delaying publication. Grieve stated that the time between approval of release and publication was typically 10 days. By June 2020, the report had still not been released, and the Intelligence and Security Committee had not been convened, the longest gap since the committee's creation in 1994. This prompted a cross-party group of 30 MPs to urge the committee to be reconstituted and the report to be published, writing that serious issues of "transparency and integrity" of the democratic process were raised by the withholding of the report.
The full report was released on Tuesday 21 July 2020 at 1030 BST.
See also
Joint committee of the Parliament of the United Kingdom
Global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)
Intelligence and Security Committee (New Zealand)
Investigatory Powers Tribunal
Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom
Parliamentary Joint Committee on Intelligence and Security (Australia)
Parliamentary Committees of the United Kingdom
Security Intelligence Review Committee (Canada)
United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
References
External links
Inte
National security of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom intelligence community
Legislative intelligence oversight
1994 establishments in the United Kingdom | [
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256132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Do%20Not%20Call%20Registry | National Do Not Call Registry | The National Do Not Call Registry is a database maintained by the United States federal government, listing the telephone numbers of individuals and families who have requested that telemarketers not contact them. Certain callers are required by federal law to respect this request. Separate laws and regulations apply to robocalls in the United States.
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) opened the National Do Not Call Registry in order to comply with the Do-Not-Call Implementation Act of 2003 (, was , and codified at et seq.), sponsored by Representatives Billy Tauzin and John Dingell and signed into law by President George W. Bush on March 11, 2003. The law established the FTC's National Do Not Call Registry in order to facilitate compliance with the Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991. A guide by FTC addresses a number of cases.
Registration for the Do-Not-Call list began on June 27, 2003, and enforcement started on October 1, 2003. Since January 1, 2005, telemarketers covered by the registry have up to 31 days (initially the period was 90 days) from the date a number is registered to cease calling that number. Originally, phone numbers remained on the registry for a period of five years, but are now permanent because of the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007, effective February 2008.
Consumers may add landline or cellular numbers to the registry, but FCC regulations prohibit telemarketers from calling a cellular phone number with an automatic dialer under almost all circumstances. In 2005, a rumor began circulating via e-mail that cell phone providers were planning on making their number directories available to telemarketers. The FTC responded by clarifying that cell phones cannot legally be called by telemarketers. Similarly, fax numbers do not need to be included in the
registry due to existing federal laws and regulations that prohibit the sending of unsolicited faxes.
If a person does not want to register a number on the national registry, they can still prohibit individual telemarketers from calling by asking the caller to put the called number on the company's do-not-call list.
Legal challenges
The do-not-call list was slated to take effect on October 1, 2003, but two federal district court decisions almost delayed it. One from Oklahoma was overcome by special legislation giving the FTC specific jurisdiction over the matter. The other from Colorado revolved around questions of regulation of commercial speech and threatened to delay implementation of the list. However, President Bush signed a bill authorizing the no-call list to go ahead in September 2003. Finally, the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit on February 17, 2004, upheld the constitutionality of the law.
Exceptions to the do-not-call rule
Exceptions
Placing one's number on the National Do Not Call Registry will stop some, but not all, unsolicited calls. The following are exceptions granted by existing laws and regulations—and these types of organizations can register with donotcall.gov and can purchase telephone lists from the Do Not Call Registry
The registry only applies to personal calls, not to business lines or business to business calls.
A person may still receive calls from political organizations.
The organization Citizens for Civil Discourse has lobbied Congress to close this exception by developing a National Political Do Not Call Registry where voters can register their phone numbers and ask politicians to take the "Do Not Contact Pledge". Its database is not backed by the force of law and as of November 2008, only 3 politicians running for office signed the pledge.
A person may still receive calls from not-for-profit organizations.
A person may still receive calls from those conducting surveys.
A person may still receive calls from a company up to 31 days after submitting an application or inquiry to that company, unless the company is specifically asked not to call.
A person may still receive calls from bill collectors (either primary creditors or collection agencies). These callers are, however, regulated by other laws, such as the Fair Debt Collection Practices Act, which limits them to calling during "reasonable hours". Some creditors may not call debtors who file for bankruptcy protection.
Loopholes
Some attempts have been made by telemarketers to skirt the do-not-call list rules. An example is the Dove Foundation, which places "survey" calls and then requests permission for a follow-up call. The follow-up call is conducted by a for-profit company attempting to sell products. This operation resulted in a restraining order in Missouri in March 2006.
Enforcement
Complaints concerning telemarketing calls to homes and personal cell phones can be made to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission and the Federal Trade Commission.
The Federal Communications Commission has created rules implementing the National Do-Not-Call Implementation Act. These rules are codified at the Code of Federal Regulations, title 47, Section 64.1200. The rules should be consulted in order to determine whether a particular incident violated the rules and can result in enforcement.
In order to create an actionable complaint pursuant to FCC rules, an individual with a home phone or a personal cell phone is required to specify details of the infraction to the FCC. Typically this includes facts such as when the call occurred, the phone number called, the calling organization, the goods or services being marketed, whether the caller has any exemption status. Details of these rules can be found on the FCC's complaint form.
Many journalists and victims of fraudulent calls and Do-Not-Call violations have extensively documented ongoing and widespread inaction and lack of enforcement by the FTC.
In May 2014 Sprint Corporation was fined a record $7.5 million for failing to honor requests by consumers to opt out of receiving telemarketing calls and texts. The fine followed an investigation that had begun in 2012. "We expect companies to respect the privacy of consumers who have opted out of marketing calls," Travis LeBlanc, acting chief of the FCC's enforcement bureau, said at the time. "When a consumer tells a company to stop calling or texting with promotional pitches, that request must be honored. Today's settlement leaves no question that protecting consumer privacy is a top enforcement priority."
Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007
On February 15, 2008, U.S. President George W. Bush signed into law as , the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act of 2007. Two major changes were enacted through this law:
While originally required to renew their phone numbers every five years, consumers need now only register once to maintain their phone numbers on the Do Not Call Registry.
The frequency with which the FTC must purge the registry of disconnected and reassigned numbers has also been increased to several times a month. However, the Do-Not-Call Improvement Act prohibits removing numbers from the do-not-call registry unless the number is invalid, disconnected, reassigned, or the individual to whom the number is assigned so requests.
Results
According to the 2009 Economic Report of the President, prepared by the Council of Economic Advisers,
The program has proved quite popular: as of 2007, according to one survey, 72 percent of Americans had registered on the list, and 77 percent of those say that it made a large difference in the number of telemarketing calls that they receive (another 14 percent report a small reduction in calls). Another survey, conducted less than a year after the Do Not Call list was implemented, found that people who registered for the list saw a reduction in telemarketing calls from an average of 30 calls per month to an average of 6 per month.
See also
Do Not Call Register (Australia)
National Do Not Call List (Canada)
New Zealand Name Removal Service
Telephone Preference Service (United Kingdom)
Auto dialer
Call screening
Predictive dialer, a computerized system that automatically dials batches of telephone numbers for connection to agents assigned to sales or other campaigns
Robinson list, an opt-out list of people who do not wish to receive marketing calls
Robocall
Teleblock
Telemarketing
Lead management
References
External links
15 U.S. Code Chapter 87A - National Do Not Call Registry
Donotcall.gov Registration page
Report Unwanted Telemarketing Calls
Telemarketing Calls Reported to the National Do Not Call Registry
Federal Trade Commission
Telemarketing
Federal Communications Commission
108th United States Congress | [
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256133 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffrey | Jeffrey | Jeffrey may refer to:
Jeffrey (name), including a list of people with the name
Jeffrey (1995 film), a 1995 film by Paul Rudnick, based on Rudnick's play of the same name
Jeffrey (2016 film), a 2016 Dominican Republic documentary film
Jeffrey's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Jeffrey City, Wyoming, United States
Jeffrey Street, Sydney, Australia
Jeffrey's sketch, a sketch on American TV show Saturday Night Live
Nurse Jeffrey, a spin-off miniseries from the American medical drama series House, MD
Jeffreys Bay, Western Cape, South Africa
People with the surname
Alexander Jeffrey (1806–1874), Scottish solicitor and historian
Charles Jeffrey (died 1915), Scottish footballer
E. C. Jeffrey (1866–1952), Canadian-American botanist
Grant Jeffrey (1948–2012), Canadian writer
Hester C. Jeffrey (1842–1934), American activist, suffragist and community organizer
Peter Jeffrey (badminton) (born 1975), Badminton England Head Coach
Richard Jeffrey (1926–2002), American philosopher, logician, and probability theorist
Robin Jeffrey (active from 1967), Canadian academic
Tom Jeffrey (born 1938), Australian film and television director and producer
See also
Geoffrey (disambiguation)
Jeff, a given name (and list of people with the name)
Jeffers
Jeffery (disambiguation)
Jeffreys
Jeffries | [
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256134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Shields%20%28politician%2C%20born%201806%29 | James Shields (politician, born 1806) | James Shields (May 10, 1806June 1, 1879) was an Irish American Democratic politician and United States Army officer, who is the only person in U.S. history to serve as a Senator for three different states, and one of only two to represent multiple states in the U.S. Senate. Shields represented Illinois from 1849 to 1855, in the 31st, 32nd, and 33rd Congresses, Minnesota from 1858 to 1859, in the 35th Congress, and Missouri in 1879, in the 45th Congress.
Born and initially educated in Ireland, Shields emigrated to the Americas in 1826. He was briefly a sailor, and spent time in Quebec, before settling in Kaskaskia, Illinois, where he studied and practiced law. In 1836, he was elected to the Illinois House of Representatives, and later as State Auditor. His work as auditor was criticized by a young Abraham Lincoln, who (with his then fiancée, Mary Todd) published a series of inflammatory pseudonymous letters in a local paper. Shields challenged Lincoln to a duel, and the two nearly fought on September 22, 1842, before making peace, and eventually becoming friends.
In 1845, Shields was appointed to the Illinois Supreme Court, from which he resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. General Land Office. At the outbreak of the Mexican–American War, he left the Land Office to take an appointment as brigadier general of volunteers. He served with distinction and was twice wounded. In 1848, Shields was appointed to and confirmed by the Senate as the first governor of the Oregon Territory, which he declined. After serving as Senator from Illinois, he moved to Minnesota and founded the town of Shieldsville there. He was then elected as Senator from Minnesota. He served in the American Civil War, and at the Battle of Kernstown, his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of Stonewall Jackson in the war. Shields resigned his commission shortly thereafter. After moving multiple times, Shields settled in Missouri and served again for three months in the Senate. He died in 1879 and represents Illinois in the National Statuary Hall.
Early life and career
Shields was born in Altmore, County Tyrone, Ireland, to parents, Charles Shields and Anne McDonnell, the first of three children. As his father died when Shields was six, his uncle, also named James Shields and also born in Ireland, played a large role in his life. The elder Shields was a professor of Greek and Latin, and served as a Congressman from Ohio.
The younger Shields obtained early schooling at a hedge school near his home, later at a school run by a clergyman from Maynooth College, and subsequently his uncle. He was educated in military science, fencing, and the French language by a veteran of the Napoleonic Wars, of which there were many in Ireland at the time. Shields attempted to emigrate to the United States in 1822, but failed when his ship was driven aground off the coast of Scotland, leaving him one of only either three or four survivors. He successfully made it to America around 1826, although his uncle whom he had sailed to meet had died.
Shields took a job as a sailor, becoming a purser on a merchant ship. However, after a time, an accident left Shields disabled, and in the hospital with both legs broken for three months. After the accident, he volunteered and fought in the Second Seminole War, reaching the rank of lieutenant.
He spent some time in Quebec, founding a fencing school. Eventually, Shields settled in Kaskaskia, Randolph County, Illinois where he studied and began practicing law in 1832, supplementing his income by teaching French. He served as a member of the Illinois House of Representatives, beginning in 1836, and in 1839 was elected as State Auditor. As auditor, Shields was involved in correcting the state's finances following the Panic of 1837. This was done, at times, through practices that proved unpopular.
Duel with Abraham Lincoln
Shields almost fought a duel on September 22, 1842 with Abraham Lincoln, then a young lawyer in Springfield, Illinois. Lincoln had published an inflammatory letter in a local newspaper, the Sangamo Journal, that attacked Shields, impersonating a local farmer, and taking the pseudonym of Aunt Becca, or simply Rebecca. At the time, there was great controversy over the use of paper money, or that of gold and silver for the paying of public debts. The Illinois State Bank had been forced to close, and Shields as state auditor had become the target of resentment among members of the Whig Party, and more so given the upcoming 1842 elections. Lincoln's future wife and then fiancée, Mary Todd, helped to revise the letter, and she and a close friend Julia Jayne, continued writing to the paper without Lincoln's knowledge.
"Rebecca" as she was, denounced Shields in the paper as a "fool as well as a liar," and scandalously described him at a party among a group of women:
If I was deaf and blind I could tell him by the smell ... All the galls about town were there, and all the handsome widows, and married women, finickin about, trying to look like galls, tied as tight in the middle, and puffed out at both ends like bundles of fodder that hadn't been stacked yet, wanted stackin pretty bad ... He was paying his money to this one and that one and tother one, and sufferin great loss because it wasn' silver instead of State paper ... [quoting Shields] "Dear girls, it is distressing, but I cannot marry you all. Too well I know how much you suffer, but do, do remember, it is not my fault that I am so handsome and so interesting."
The publications caused "intense excitement" in Springfield, and Shields, taking great offense at being publicly ridiculed, demanded satisfaction, as well as the true identity of the author, then known only to the editor of the paper. Lincoln took responsibility for the articles and accepted the challenge. Shields confronted Lincoln, demanded a full retraction, and the incident escalated to the two men picking seconds, and meeting on an island located between Missouri and Illinois called Bloody Island to participate in a duel. Lincoln, as the one challenged, chose the weapons for the duel, and selected the cavalry broadsword, as Shields was an excellent marksman, and because Lincoln stood to Shields' .
At least two accounts have John J. Hardin and R. W. English intervening and convincing the two to cease hostilities. Others have them resolving their differences without incident, whether through threats on the part of Lincoln, or through apology and explanation from him. However, all accounts agree that they left the island without following through with the duel. Thereafter, Shields and Lincoln became and remained good friends.
Subsequent career
Shields was appointed as an Illinois Supreme Court justice on February 18, 1845, to take the seat vacated by Stephen A. Douglas. His term was relatively unremarkable, and he soon resigned to become Commissioner of the U.S. General Land Office. While at the Land Office, Shields spent much effort boring, testing, surveying and examining land in Iowa, as he planned to establish a colony for Irish immigrants there. He resigned from the position to assume command as a brigadier general following the outbreak of the Mexican–American War.
Mexican–American War
On July 1, 1846, Shields was commissioned a brigadier general of volunteers to fight in the Mexican–American War. He served under Zachary Taylor, then also a brigadier general, and later under Brigadier General John E. Wool and Major General Winfield Scott.
In 1846, Shields left for war with two brigades under his command. In February 1847, when Tampico was abandoned, his men assumed control of the city. He commanded the 3rd Brigade, Volunteer Division, at the battles of Vera Cruz and Cerro Gordo, where he was severely wounded by grapeshot, and spent nine weeks recuperating. He returned to fight in a single day, at both the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. His command that day was criticized as clumsy by some, and praised as skillful by others. He required reinforcements to overcome strong enemy resistance, but his brigade took over 800 prisoners.
Shields was again wounded, receiving a fractured arm in the Battle of Chapultepec, after his horse was shot out from underneath him, and he continued fighting on foot, and leading his troops with sword. He remained on the field until the conclusion of the battle, but was then forced to spend several months recuperating, where he remained until after the final battles of the war.
Shields returned to America, where he was mustered out and his brigade disbanded on July 28, 1848. Shields returned to his law practice in Illinois. He was brevetted to major general, and received two honorary swords from the states South Carolina and Illinois.
Senator from Illinois
Following the war, on August 14, 1848, he was nominated by President Polk, and confirmed by the United States Senate to serve as governor of Oregon Territory, which had been created that same day. However, he declined the position and Joseph Lane was nominated and became the first governor of the new territory.
Shields declined the governorship to run for the Senate from Illinois. He won, but the election was voided by on the grounds that he had not been a U.S. citizen for the nine years required by the United States Constitution; having been naturalized October 21, 1840, and elected on January 13, 1849. He therefore resigned from the Senate on March 14, returned to Illinois, campaigned once again for the seat he had resigned, and won a special election held by the governor in December (after nine years had passed), in order to replace himself as senator.
As senator, he opposed slavery, and supported land grants to agricultural colleges, to railroads, to soldiers, and to settlers under a homestead act.
Shields published the 1854 book, A History of Illinois, from its Commencement as a State in 1818 to 1847, originally written by Illinois Governor Thomas Ford. According to the foreword by Shields, Ford gave him the manuscript on his death bed, so that Shields might publish it, and use the proceeds to benefit Ford's then orphaned children. In 1854, a military company in Chicago was named "The Shields Guards" in his honor. The Guards would come to make up companies I and K in the 23rd Illinois Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
Senator from Minnesota
In 1855, Shields was defeated for re-election in Illinois in a three way runoff between himself, Lincoln, and Lyman Trumbull, with Trumbull eventually winning the seat after several ballots. Shields then moved to Minnesota, to inspect lands he had been awarded there in return for his military service. He arranged for Irish immigrants to move from the East Coast to Minnesota, settling in Rice and Le Sueur counties. Shields himself founded Shieldsville, Minnesota, and was also involved in the early settlement of Faribault, Minnesota. In 1857, Native Americans massacred settlers in Spirit Lake, Iowa. Shields led a group of about 100 people from Minnesota to fight the tribes; however, by the time he arrived, the tribes had been beaten by troops under the control of Judson Bishop.
When Minnesota achieved statehood in 1858, and the legislature convened in December, Shields was put forward as a compromise candidate for U.S. Senator along with Henry Mower Rice. The two drew straws to determine who would serve out the longer and shorter terms. Shields drew the short straw and thus served until only March 1859, losing his re-election bid to Morton S. Wilkinson.
American Civil War
Shields then moved to California, and married Mary Carr in 1861. He was engaged in a mining venture in Mexico, and it was there that Shields was when he was appointed as brigadier general of volunteers from that state following the outbreak of the American Civil War, succeeding the late Frederick W. Lander. He commanded the 2nd Division of the V Corps, Army of the Potomac (subsequently part of the Army of the Shenandoah), during the Valley Campaign of 1862.
Shields was wounded at the Battle of Kernstown on March 22, 1862, but his troops inflicted the only tactical defeat of General Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson during the campaign (or the war). The day after Kernstown, he was promoted to major general, but the promotion was withdrawn, reconsidered, and then finally rejected. Largely a result of his promotion being rejected, Shields resigned from the army. Shields was informally offered command of the Army of the Potomac by Abraham Lincoln. Shields declined owing to a poor relationship with Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.
Senator from Missouri
In 1863, Shields moved to San Francisco, where he would serve as the state railroad commissioner, and then to the Mississippi Valley, and to Wisconsin. In 1866 he settled in Carrollton, Missouri, which remained his home, and where he tended to his farm, lectured, and continued public involvement until his death 13 years later.
He ran for Congress unwillingly in 1868, and, in a contested election, lost. The result was disputed, and Congress awarded a year's salary to Shields. A member of Congress, Benjamin Butler, proposed him as Doorkeeper of the United States House of Representatives in 1876, but Shields, viewing it as an indignity, declined. Shields was involved in fundraising to provide aid to the yellow fever stricken Southern US. He served as member of the Missouri State House of Representatives, and as railroad commissioner was involved in establishing the State Railroad Commission. In 1879, he was elected to fill the seat left vacant by the death of Senator Lewis V. Bogy. He served only three months and declined to run for re-election, but this made Shields the only person to have ever served as senator from three different states.
Death and legacy
Shields died unexpectedly in Ottumwa, Iowa on June 1, 1879, while on a lecture tour, after reportedly complaining of chest pains. His body was transferred to Carrollton, Missouri by train, where a funeral was held at the Catholic church, and his body escorted to St. Mary's Cemetery by two companies of the Nineteenth Infantry, the Craig Rifles, and a twenty-piece brass band. His grave remained unmarked for 30 years, until the local government and the U.S. Congress funded a granite and bronze monument there in his honor.
Shields was not a wealthy man in later life, and upon his death the most valuable possessions he had to leave his family were his ceremonial swords, given to him following the end of the Mexican–American War. After his death, Mary Shields remained in Carrollton, with their daughter and two sons, until eventually moving to New York to live with their son Daniel.
A bronze statue of Shields was given by the State of Illinois in 1893, to the U.S. Capitol, and represents the state in the National Statuary Hall. The statue was sculpted by Leonard Volk, and dedicated in December 1893. A statue of Shields stands in front of the Carroll County Courthouse in Carrollton, Missouri. Dedicated on November 12, 1910, newspapers reported "hundreds of visitors from several states" that were present at the unveiling. Congress allocated $5,000 for the monument. A third statue stands on the grounds of the state capitol in Saint Paul, Minnesota, dedicated in 1914.
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
List of duels
List of sculptures in the National Statuary Hall Collection
List of United States senators born outside the United States
List of members of the United States Congress from multiple states
Notes
References
Further reading
Eicher, John H., and Eicher, David J., Civil War High Commands, Stanford University Press, 2001, .
External links
1806 births
1879 deaths
19th-century American politicians
19th-century Irish people
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Auditors of Public Accounts of Illinois
Catholics from Illinois
Democratic Party United States senators
General Land Office Commissioners
Illinois Democrats
Irish emigrants to the United States (before 1923)
Members of the Illinois House of Representatives
Members of the Missouri House of Representatives
Members of the United States Senate declared not entitled to their seat
Military personnel from Illinois
Minnesota Democrats
Missouri Democrats
People from County Tyrone
People from Kaskaskia, Illinois
People of California in the American Civil War
Union Army generals
United States senators from Illinois
United States senators from Minnesota
United States senators from Missouri | [
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256135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20English | Indian English | Indian English (IE) is a class of varieties of the English language spoken in India, and among the Indian diaspora elsewhere in the world. English is used by the Indian government for communication along with Hindi, as enshrined in the Constitution. English is an official language of 7 states and 5 Union Territories and also an additional official language of 7 states and 1 Union Territory. English is also the sole official language of the Judiciary of India, unless a state governor or legislature mandates the use of a regional language, or the president has given approval for the use of regional languages in courts.
Status
After gaining independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, English remained an official language of the new Dominion of India and later the Republic of India. Only a few hundred thousand Indians, or less than 0.1% of the total population, spoke English as their first language.
According to the 2001 Census, 12.18% of Indians knew English at that time. Of those, approximately 200,000 reported that it was their first language, 86 million reported that it was their second, and 39 million reported that it was their third.
According to the 2005 India Human Development Survey, of 41,554 surveyed, households reported that 72% of men (29,918) spoke no English, 28% of them (11,635) spoke at least some English, and 5% of them (2,077, roughly 17.9% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke fluent English. Among women, 83% (34,489) spoke no English, 17% (7,064) spoke at least some English, and 3% (1,246, roughly 17.6% of those who spoke at least some English) spoke English fluently. According to statistics of District Information System for Education (DISE) of National University of Educational Planning and Administration under Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India, enrollment in English-medium schools increased by 50% between 2008–09 and 2013–14. The number of English-medium school students in India increased from over 15 million in 2008–09 to 29 million by 2013–14.
According to the 2011 Census, 129 million (10.6%) Indians spoke English. 259,678 (0.02%) Indians spoke English as their first language. It concluded that approximately 83 million Indians (6.8%) reported English as their second language, and 46 million (3.8%) reported it as their third language, making English the second-most spoken language in India.
India ranks 50 out of 100 countries in the 2021 EF English Proficiency Index published by the EF Education First. The index gives the country a score of 496 indicating "low proficiency". India ranks 8th out of 24 Asian countries included in the index. Among Asian countries, Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, South Korea, Hong Kong, China and Macau received higher scores than India.
The journalist Manu Joseph wrote in a The New York Times article that, due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth." In his book, In Search of Indian English: History, Politics and Indigenisation, Ranjan Kumar Auddy shows that the history of the rise of Indian nationalism and the history of the emergence of Indian English are deeply inter-related.
Court language
Under the Indian Constitution, English is the language of India’s Supreme Court and of all the high courts of India. However, as allowed by the Constitution, Hindi is also used in courts in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan by virtue of special presidential approval. As of 2018, the high courts of Punjab and Haryana were also awaiting presidential approval to use Hindi alongside English.
Names
The first occurrence of the term Indian English dates from 1696, though the term did not become common until the 19th century. In the colonial era, the most common terms in use were Anglo-Indian English, or simply Anglo-Indian, both dating from 1860. Other less common terms in use were Indo-Anglian (dating from 1897) and Indo-English (1912). An item of Anglo-Indian English was known as an Anglo-Indianism from 1851.
In the modern era, a range of colloquial portmanteau words for Indian English have been used. The earliest of these is Indlish (recorded from 1962), and others include Indiglish (1974), Indenglish (1979), Indglish (1984), Indish (1984), Inglish (1985) and Indianlish (2007).
Features
Indian English generally uses the Indian numbering system. Idiomatic forms derived from Indian literary languages and vernaculars have been absorbed into Indian English. Nevertheless, there remains general homogeneity in phonetics, vocabulary, and phraseology between various dialects of Indian English.
Formal written publications in English in India tend to use lakh/crore for Indian currency and Western numbering for foreign currencies like dollars and pounds.
History
The English language established a foothold in India with the granting of the East India Company charter by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600 and the subsequent establishment of trading ports in coastal cities such as Surat, Bombay (called Mumbai since 1995), Madras (called Chennai since 1996), and Calcutta (called Kolkata since 2001).
English-language public instruction began in India in the 1830s during the rule of the British East India Company (India was then, and is today, one of the most linguistically diverse regions of the world). In 1835, English replaced Persian as the official language of the East India Company. Lord Macaulay played a major role in introducing English and Western concepts into educational institutions in India. He supported the replacement of Persian by English as the official language, the use of English as the medium of instruction in all schools, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers. Throughout the 1840s and 1850s, primary, middle, and high schools were opened in many districts of British India, with most high schools offering English language instruction in some subjects. In 1857, just before the end of East India Company rule, universities that were modeled on the University of London and used English as the medium of instruction were established in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. During the British Raj (1858 to 1947), English-language penetration increased throughout India. This was driven in part by the gradually increasing hiring of Indians in the civil services. At the time of India's independence in 1947, English was the only functional lingua franca in the country.
After Indian Independence in 1947, Hindi was declared the first official language, and attempts were made to declare Hindi the sole national language of India. Due to protests from Tamil Nadu and other non-Hindi-speaking states, it was decided to temporarily retain English for official purposes until at least 1965. By the end of this period, however, opposition from non-Hindi states was still too strong to have Hindi declared the sole language. With this in mind, the English Language Amendment Bill declared English to be an associate language "until such time as all non-Hindi States had agreed to its being dropped." This has not yet occurred, and English is still widely used. For instance, it is the only reliable means of day-to-day communication between the central government and the non-Hindi states.
The view of the English language among many Indians has changed over time. It used to be associated primarily with colonialism; it is now primarily associated with economic progress, and English continues to be an official language of India.
While there is an assumption that English is readily available in India, studies show that its usage is actually restricted to the elite, because of inadequate education to large parts of the Indian population. The use of outdated teaching methods and the poor grasp of English exhibited by the authors of many guidebooks disadvantage students who rely on these books, giving India only a moderate proficiency in English.
In addition, many features of Indian English were imported into Bhutan due to the dominance of Indian-style education and teachers in the country after it withdrew from its isolation in the 1960s.
Hinglish and other hybrid languages
The term Hinglish is a portmanteau of the languages English and Hindi. This typically refers to the macaronic hybrid use of Hindi and English. It is often the growing preferred language of the urban and semi-urban educated Indian youth, as well as the Indian diaspora abroad. The Hindi film industry, more popularly known as Bollywood, incorporates considerable amounts of Hinglish as well. Many internet platforms and voice commands on Google also recognise Hinglish.
Other macaronic hybrids such as Minglish (Marathi and English), Manglish (Malayalam and English), Kanglish (Kannada and English), Tenglish (Telugu and English), and Tanglish or Tamglish (Tamil and English) exist in South India.
Phonology
Vowels
In general, Indian English has fewer peculiarities in its vowel sounds than the consonants, especially as spoken by native speakers of languages like Hindi, the vowel phoneme system having some similarities with that of English. Among the distinctive features of the vowel-sounds employed by some Indian English speakers:
North Indians, especially a minority of English students and teachers along with some people in various professions like telephone customer service agents, often speak with a non-rhotic accent. Examples of this include flower pronounced as , never as , water as , etc. Some South Indians, however, like native Telugu-speakers speak with a rhotic accent, but the becomes an , and an alveolar tap is used for /r/, resulting in water and never as and respectively.
Features characteristic of North American English, such as rhoticity and r-coloured vowels, have been gaining influence on Indian English in recent years as cultural and economic ties increase between India and the United States.
Many North Indians have an intonation pattern similar to Hiberno-English, which perhaps results from a similar pattern used while speaking Hindi.
Indian English speakers do not make a clear distinction between and unlike Received Pronunciation (RP), i.e. they have the cot-caught merger
Diphthong is pronounced as
Diphthong is pronounced as
Diphthong is pronounced as
may be more front or central
can be more mid central or open-mid
Most Indians have the trap–bath split of Received Pronunciation, affecting words such as class, staff and last (, and respectively). Though the trap-bath split is prevalent in Indian English, it varies greatly. Many younger Indians who read and listen to American English do not have this split. The distribution is somewhat similar to Australian English in Regional Indian English varieties, but it has a complete split in Cultivated Indian English and Standard Indian English varieties.
Most Indians do not have the hoarse-horse merger.
The following are some variations in Indian English resulting from not distinguishing a few vowels:
Pronunciation of as
Pronunciation of and as
Pronunciation of and as
Consonants
The following are the characteristics of dialect of Indian English most similar to RP:
The voiceless plosives are always unaspirated in Indian English, (aspirated in cultivated form) whereas in RP, General American and most other English accents they are aspirated in word-initial or stressed syllables. Thus "pin" is pronounced in Indian English but in most other dialects. In native Indian languages (except in Dravidian languages such as Tamil), the distinction between aspirated and unaspirated plosives is phonemic, and the English stops are equated with the unaspirated rather than the aspirated phonemes of the local languages. The same is true of the voiceless postalveolar affricate . The aspirated plosives are instead equated with the fricatives such as "f" or "th".
The alveolar stops English , are often retroflex , , especially in the South of India. In Indian languages there are two entirely distinct sets of coronal plosives: one dental and the other retroflex. Native speakers of Indian languages prefer to pronounce the English alveolar plosives sound as more retroflex than dental, and the use of retroflex consonants is a common feature of Indian English. In the Devanagari script of Hindi, all alveolar plosives of English are transcribed as their retroflex counterparts. One good reason for this is that unlike most other native Indian languages, Hindi does not have true retroflex plosives (Tiwari, [1955] 2001). The so-called retroflexes in Hindi are actually articulated as apical post-alveolar plosives, sometimes even with a tendency to come down to the alveolar region. So a Hindi speaker normally cannot distinguish the difference between their own apical post-alveolar plosives and English's alveolar plosives. Languages such as Tamil have true retroflex plosives, however, wherein the articulation is done with the tongue curved upwards and backwards at the roof of the mouth. This also causes (in parts of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar) the preceding alveolar to allophonically change to ( → ). Mostly in south India, some speakers allophonically further change the voiced retroflex plosives to voiced retroflex flap , and the nasal to a nasalised retroflex flap.
Most major native languages of India lack the dental fricatives and (spelled with th), although [ð] occurs variably in languages like Gujarati and Tamil. Usually, the aspirated voiceless dental plosive is substituted for in the north (it would be unaspirated in the south) and the unaspirated voiced dental plosive , or possibly the aspirated version , is substituted for . For example, "thin" would be realised as instead of for North Indian speakers, whereas it would be pronounced unaspirated in the south.
The following are the variations in Indian English:
The rhotic consonant /r/ is pronounced by most speakers as an alveolar tap , but may also be pronounced as a retroflex flap or alveolar trill based on the influence by the native phonology, or an alveolar approximant like in most varieties of English.
Pronunciations vary between rhotic and non-rhotic; with pronunciations leaning towards native phonology being generally rhotic, and others being non-rhotic.
In recent years, rhoticity has been increasing. Generally, American English is seen as having a large influence on the English language in India recently.
Many Indians with rhotic accents prefer to pronounce words with as , such as as and as , as opposed to and in more non-rhotic varieties. Speakers with rhotic accents, especially some south Indians, may also pronounce word-final as , resulting in water and never as and respectively.
Most Indian languages (except Assamese, Bengali, Marathi, Odia and Punjabi) including Standard Hindi, do not differentiate between (voiced labiodental fricative) and (voiced labiovelar approximant). Instead, many Indians use a frictionless labiodental approximant for words with either sound, possibly in free variation with and/or depending upon region. Thus, wet and vet are often homophones.
South Indians tend to curl the tongue (retroflex accentuation) more for and .
Sometimes, Indian speakers interchange and , especially when plurals are being formed, unlike speakers of other varieties of English, who use for the pluralisation of words ending in a voiceless consonant, for words ending in a voiced consonant or vowel, and for words ending in a sibilant.
In case of the postalveolar affricates , native languages like Hindi have corresponding affricates articulated from the palatal region, rather than postalveolar, and they have more of a stop component than fricative; this is reflected in their English.
Syllabic , and are usually replaced by the VC clusters , and (as in button ), or if a high vowel precedes, by (as in little ). Syllable nuclei in words with the spelling er/re (a schwa in RP and an r-coloured schwa in GA) are also replaced by VC clusters. e.g., metre, → .
Indian English uses clear in all instances like Irish English whereas other varieties use clear in syllable-initial positions and dark l (velarised-L) in coda and syllabic positions.
The following are variations in Indian English due to language contact with Indian languages:
Most Indian languages (except Hindustani varieties, Assamese, Marathi and Konkani) lack the voiced alveolar fricative . A significant portion of Indians thus, even though their native languages do have its nearest equivalent: the unvoiced , often use the voiced palatal affricate (or postalveolar) , just as with a Korean accent. This makes words such as and sound as and (the latter, especially in the North). This replacement is equally true for Persian and Arabic loanwords into Hindi. The probable reason is the confusion created by the use of the Devanagari grapheme (for /dʒ/) with a dot beneath it to represent (as ). This is common among people without formal English education. In Telugu, and are allophones, so words such as rosy become and words such as fridge become . The same happens in Bengali as well.
In Assamese, and are pronounced as ; and and are pronounced as . Retroflex and dental consonants are not present and only alveolar consonants are used unlike other Indian languages. Similar to Bengali, is pronounced as and in Assamese. For example; change is pronounced as , vote is pronounced as and English is pronounced as .
Again, in Assamese and Bhojpuri, all instances of are spoken like , a phenomenon that is also apparent in their English. Exactly the opposite is seen for many Bengalis.
Inability to pronounce certain (especially word-initial) consonant clusters by people of rural backgrounds, as with some Spanish-speakers. This is usually dealt with by epenthesis. e.g., .
Many Indians with lower exposure to English also may pronounce as an aspirated voiceless bilabial plosive . Again note that in Hindi Devanagari the loaned from Persian and Arabic is written by putting a dot beneath the grapheme for native : . This substitution is rarer than that for , and in fact in many Hindi is used by native speakers instead of , or the two are used interchangeably.
Many speakers of Indian English do not use the voiced postalveolar fricative (). Some Indians use or instead, e.g. , and in the south Indian variants, with as in , e.g. .
Spelling pronunciation
A number of distinctive features of Indian English are due to "the vagaries of English spelling". Most Indian languages, unlike English, have a nearly phonetic spelling, so the spelling of a word is a highly reliable guide to its modern pronunciation. Indians' tendency to pronounce English phonetically as well can cause divergence from British English. This phenomenon is known as spelling pronunciation.
In words where the digraph represents a voiced velar plosive () in other accents, some Indian English speakers supply a murmured version , for example . No other accent of English admits this voiced aspiration.
Similarly, the digraph may be aspirated as or , resulting in realisations such as , found in no other English accent. This is somewhat similar to the traditional distinction between and present in English, however, wherein the former is , whilst the latter is .
In unstressed syllables, which speakers of American English would realise as a schwa, speakers of Indian English would use the spelling vowel, making sound as instead of . This trait is also present in other South Asian dialects (Pakistani and Sri Lankan English).
The word "of" is usually pronounced with a instead of a as in most other accents.
Use of instead of for the "-ed" ending of the past tense after voiceless consonants, for example "developed" may be instead of RP .
Use of instead of for the ending of the plural after voiced consonants, for example may be instead of .
Pronunciation of as in both the noun and the verb, instead of as a noun and as a verb.
Silent letters may be pronounced. For example, 'salmon' is usually pronounced with a distinct .
Supra-segmental features
English is a stress-timed language. Both syllable stress and word stress (where only certain words in a sentence or phrase are stressed) are important features of Received Pronunciation. Indian native languages are actually syllable-timed languages, like French. Indian-English speakers usually speak with a syllabic rhythm. Further, in some Indian languages, stress is associated with a low pitch, whereas in most English dialects, stressed syllables are generally pronounced with a higher pitch. Thus, when some Indian speakers speak, they appear to put the stress accents at the wrong syllables, or accentuate all the syllables of a long English word. Certain Indian accents possess a "sing-song" quality, a feature seen in a few English dialects of Britain, such as Scouse and Welsh English.
Numbering system
The Indian numbering system is preferred for digit grouping. When written in words, or when spoken, numbers less than 100,000/100 000 are expressed just as they are in Standard English. Numbers including and beyond 100,000/100 000 are expressed in a subset of the Indian numbering system. Thus, the following scale is used:
Larger numbers are generally expressed as multiples of the above (for example, one lakh crores for one trillion).
Vocabulary
Indian English includes many political, sociological, and administrative terms, such as dharna, hartal, eve-teasing, vote bank, swaraj, swadeshi, scheduled caste, scheduled tribe, and NRI. It incorporates some Anglo-Indian words such as tiffin, hill station, gymkhana, along with slang.
Some examples of words and phrases unique to, or chiefly used in, standard written Indian English include:
academics (noun) (also Canadian and U.S. English): Academic pursuits in contrast to technical or practical work.
e.g. "For 14 years he immersed himself in academics and was a fine achiever." (Hindu (Madras), 6 Dec 1991 27/2)
avail (verb): take advantage of an opportunity or resource
brinjal (noun): eggplant/aubergine
cinema hall (noun): A cinema or movie theatre.
e.g. "Cinema halls in Uttar Pradesh will soon display the newly-unveiled logo for Kumbh Mela, right after the national anthem is played" (Times of India, 3 Jan 2018)
do the needful: To do that which is necessary or required, with the respectful implication that the other party is trusted to understand what needs doing without being given detailed instructions.
e.g. "When asked if the UP government could reduce Value Added Tax (VAT) on petro-products to bring down prices, the CM said that the state government was aware of the situation and will do the needful." (2018 The Pioneer)
English-knowing (adjective): Of a person or group of people that uses or speaks English.
e.g. "The official and Service atmosphere... set the tone for almost all Indian middle-class life, especially the English-knowing intelligentsia." (Toward Freedom vii. 40, J. Nehru, 1941)
freeship (noun): A studentship or scholarship.
e.g. "Two permanent freeships, each tenable for one year and one of which is for the second and the other for the third year class." (Med. Reporter (Calcutta) 57/1, 1 Feb 1893)
e.g. "Private institutions can only develop if they are allowed to charge reasonable fees, while also providing need based freeships and scholarships for a certain percentage of students." (Economic Times (India) (Nexis), 12 Oct 2006)
hotel (noun): A restaurant or café.
e.g. "A group of four friends had gone to have dinner at a roadside hotel." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 Feb 1999, (Midweek section) 4/3)
lady finger/lady's finger (noun): okra
matrimonial (noun): Advertisements in a newspaper for the purpose of finding a marriageable partner.
e.g. "When I have a job I'll have to begin a whole new search for my better half... Back to the newspaper matrimonials on Sundays." (Statesman (Calcutta), 10 Feb 1999, (Midweek section) 4/3)
petrol pump/station (noun) (also Australian English, British English, Hiberno-English): gas station (American English, Canadian English)
press person (noun, frequently as a single word): A newspaper journalist, a reporter, a member of the press.
e.g. "The Prime Minister greeted the presspersons with a 'namaskar' [customary Hindu greeting] and a broad smile." (Hindu (Nexis), 20 June 2001)
redressal (noun): redress
e.g. "There is an urgent need for setting up an independent authority for redressal of telecom consumer complaints." (Statesman (India) (Nexis), 2 Apr 1998)
e.g. "Where does he go for the redressal of his genuine grievances?" (Sunday Times of India, 15 Sep 2002 8/4)
upgradation (noun) The enhancement or upgrading of status, value or level of something.
e.g. "Our Company lays great stress on technical training and knowledge upgradation." (Business India, 8 Sep 1986 153/1 (advert))
revert (verb): To report back with information.
e.g. "Please revert with the required documentation."
chain-snatching (verb): To snatch a gold-chain from a woman (or a man) and run away, usually perpetrated by 2 or more criminals on a motorbike/moped.
e.g. "Women, (as well as men), are avoiding wearing gold-chains due to the concerning rise in number of chain-snatching cases in many parts of the city."
prepone (verb): To bring (something) forward to an earlier date or time.
e.g. "The meeting has been preponed due to a change in the schedule."
footpath (noun) ( also Australian English, British English, Hiberno-English ): a sidewalk (American English).
e.g. "Pedestrian trips account for a quarter to a third of all trips in many Indian cities, yet, footpaths are designed as an afterthought to vehicles and commercial establishments." (The Hindu, 29 Nov 2019)
capsicum (noun) (also Australian English): Bell pepper
e.g. "He is allergic to capsicum."
Spelling
Spelling practices in Indian English generally follow the British style, e.g., using organise, analyse, travelling, litre, practise (as a verb), anaesthesia, fulfil, catalogue and colour, rather than the American style.
Dictionaries
The most famous dictionary of Indian English is Yule and Brunell's Hobson-Jobson, originally published in 1886 with an expanded edition edited by William Crooke in 1903, widely available in reprint since the 1960s.
Numerous other dictionaries ostensibly covering Indian English, though for the most part being merely collections of administratively-useful words from local languages, include (chronologically): Rousseau A Dictionary of Words used in the East Indies (1804), Wilkins Glossary to the Fifth Report (1813), Stocqueler The Oriental Interpreter and Treasury of East Indian Knowledge (1844), Elliot A Supplement to the Glossary of Indian Terms: A-J (1845), Brown The Zillah Dictionary in the Roman Character (1852), Carnegy Kutcherry Technicalities (1853) and its second edition Kachahri Technicalities (1877), Wilson Glossary of Judicial and Revenue Terms (1855), Giles A Glossary of Reference, on Subjects connected with the Far East (1878), Whitworth Anglo-Indian Dictionary (1885), Temple A Glossary of Indian Terms relating to Religion, Customs, Government, Land (1897), and Crooke Things India: Being Discursive Notes on Various Subjects connected with India (1906).
The first dictionary of Indian English to be published after independence was Hawkins Common Indian Words in English (1984). Other efforts include (chronologically): Lewis Sahibs, Nabobs and Boxwallahs (1991), Muthiah Words in Indian English (1991), Sengupta's Indian English supplement to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (1996) and Hankin Hanklyn-Janklin (2003). Nihalani et al. Indian and British English: A Handbook of Usage and Pronunciation (2004) delineates how Indian English differs from British English for a large number of specific lexical items. The Macmillan publishing company also produced a range of synchronic general dictionaries for the Indian market, such as the Macmillan Comprehensive Dictionary (2006).
The most recent and comprehensive dictionary is Carls A Dictionary of Indian English, with a Supplement on Word-formation Patterns (2017).
See also
Regional differences and dialects in Indian English
Indian English literature
Indian numbering system
Languages with official status in India
Indian States by most popular languages
Kanglish
Hinglish
Manglish
Pakistani English/ Paklish
Bangladeshi English/ Banglish
Tanglish
Tenglish
English as a lingua franca
Regional accents of English
References
Bibliography
Auddy, Ranjan Kumar (2020). In Search of Indian English: History, Politics and Indigenisation.London & New York: Routledge. &
Further reading
External links
Indian general spoken Problems in English.
Indian Pronunciation Problems in English, ESLAN.
'Hover & Hear' pronunciations in a Standard Indian English accent, and compare side by side with other English accents from around the World.
"Linguistic and Social Characteristics of Indian English" by Jason Baldridge: An analysis of Indian language published by the "Language In India" magazine.
On the future of Indian English, by Gurcharan Das.
An exploration into linguistic majority-minority relations in India, by B. Mallikarjun.
108 varieties of Indian English, Dharma Kumar, India Seminar, 2001 (Volume 500).
India Human Development Survey-II 2011–2012
English to Hindi
Indian Novels in English: Texts, Contexts and Language Hardcover – 2018 by Jaydeep Sarangi (Author)
Languages of India
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256136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenska%20Bistrica | Slovenska Bistrica | Slovenska Bistrica (; ) is a town south of Maribor in eastern Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Slovenska Bistrica, one of the largest municipalities in Slovenia. The area is part of the traditional region of Styria. The town is included in the Drava Statistical Region.
History
The town was established in the 13th century on the trade road between Maribor and Celje. It was granted market rights in 1313. It was originally called just Bistrica. The present name of Slovenska Bistrica () first appears in records dating from 1565.
Before 1918, the town had a German-speaking majority (in the last Austrian census of 1910, 57.7% of the inhabitants declared German as their language of daily communication), while the surroundings were almost exclusively Slovene-speaking.
Demographics
The town has a population of 8,016 (in 2018). Many locals commute to Maribor for work, less than an hour's drive away.
Landmarks
The town offers several interesting sights, including Bistrica Castle, churches, a Roman road, Ančnik fort (an Ancient Roman fort) and more. It is also a good starting point for people wishing to hike on Mount Boč, a nearby mountain peak and park.
Parish church
The parish church in the settlement is dedicated to Saint Bartholomew () and belongs to the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Maribor. It is first mentioned in written documents dating to 1240, but was greatly rebuilt and extended in the Baroque style in the 18th century. The belfry dates to the 19th century. Two other larger churches in the town are dedicated to Our Lady of the Seven Sorrows and Saint Joseph. They date to the 15th and 18th centuries.
Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Slovenska Bistrica include the following:
Herta Haas (1914–2010), one of the wives of Josip Broz Tito
References
External links
Slovenska Bistrica on Geopedia
Cities and towns in Styria (Slovenia)
Populated places in the Municipality of Slovenska Bistrica | [
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256138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere | Mere | Mere may refer to:
Places
Mere, Belgium, a village in East Flanders
Mere, Cheshire, England
Mere, Wiltshire, England
People
Mere Broughton (1938–2016), New Zealand Māori language activist and unionist
Mere Smith, American television script-writer and story editor
Ain-Ervin Mere (1903–1969), Estonian war criminal
Other uses
Mere (lake), a type of body of water, often one that is broad in relation to its depth.
Mere (weapon), a Māori war club
Mere (album), an album by Norwegian rock band deLillos
Mère, honorary title given to female French cooks
Mere, a brand of Russian discount supermarket chain Svetofor
See also
Mere Brow, Lancashire, England
Mere Green (disambiguation), two places in England
Meré, Spain
Méré (disambiguation)
Meres (disambiguation) | [
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256139 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20D.%20Schall | Thomas D. Schall | Thomas David Schall (June 4, 1878December 22, 1935) was an American lawyer and politician. He served in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate from Minnesota. He was initially elected as a Progressive but later joined the Republican Party.
Schall was born in Reed City, Michigan, and moved with his family to Campbell, Minnesota, in 1884. He initially attended Hamline University, but graduated from the University of Minnesota in 1902, followed by William Mitchell College of Law (then the St. Paul College of Law) in 1904. Three years later, he was blinded by an electrical shock from a cigar lighter.
Schall was elected to the House of Representatives in 1914 and served from March 4, 1915, to March 3, 1925, in the 64th, 65th, 66th, 67th, and 68th congresses. As he was legally blind, he was granted, by House vote, a full-time page to assist him with his work.
After losing the Republican primary for a special election to the Senate in 1923, Schall was elected to the Senate in 1924, defeating Magnus Johnson with 46% of the vote. He served from March 4, 1925, until his death, in the 69th, 70th, 71st, 72nd, and 73rd congresses. He had a tough re-election campaign in 1930, facing strong candidates from both the Democratic and Farmer Labor parties, and eventually won with 37% of the vote.
Schall was struck by a hit and run driver while walking across the Baltimore–Washington Parkway in Cottage City, Maryland, on December 19, 1935. He died in Washington three days later, becoming one of the few United States Senators or Congressmen to die in a road accident while in office. He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)
References
George Daniel Harden, The Career of Thomas Schall of Minnesota, unpublished M.S. thesis, Winona State University, Winona, Minn., 1968.
External links
1878 births
1935 deaths
United States senators from Minnesota
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
University of Minnesota alumni
William Mitchell College of Law alumni
Minnesota lawyers
American Episcopalians
People from Reed City, Michigan
Pedestrian road incident deaths
Road incident deaths in Maryland
Blind people from the United States
Blind politicians
Republican Party United States senators
Minnesota Progressives (1912)
American politicians with physical disabilities
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
People from Wilkin County, Minnesota | [
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256141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorescent%20tag | Fluorescent tag | In molecular biology and biotechnology, a fluorescent tag, also known as a fluorescent label or fluorescent probe, is a molecule that is attached chemically to aid in the detection of a biomolecule such as a protein, antibody, or amino acid. Generally, fluorescent tagging, or labeling, uses a reactive derivative of a fluorescent molecule known as a fluorophore. The fluorophore selectively binds to a specific region or functional group on the target molecule and can be attached chemically or biologically. Various labeling techniques such as enzymatic labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling are widely utilized. Ethidium bromide, fluorescein and green fluorescent protein are common tags. The most commonly labelled molecules are antibodies, proteins, amino acids and peptides which are then used as specific probes for detection of a particular target.
History
The development of methods to detect and identify biomolecules has been motivated by the ability to improve the study of molecular structure and interactions. Before the advent of fluorescent labeling, radioisotopes were used to detect and identify molecular compounds. Since then, safer methods have been developed that involve the use of fluorescent dyes or fluorescent proteins as tags or probes as a means to label and identify biomolecules. Although fluorescent tagging in this regard has only been recently utilized, the discovery of fluorescence has been around for a much longer time.
Sir George Stokes developed the Stokes Law of Fluorescence in 1852 which states that the wavelength of fluorescence emission is greater than that of the exciting radiation. Richard Meyer then termed fluorophore in 1897 to describe a chemical group associated with fluorescence. Since then, Fluorescein was created as a fluorescent dye by Adolph von Baeyer in 1871 and the method of staining was developed and utilized with the development of fluorescence microscopy in 1911.
Ethidium bromide and variants were developed in the 1950s, and in 1994, fluorescent proteins or FPs were introduced. Green fluorescent protein or GFP was discovered by Osamu Shimomura in the 1960s and was developed as a tracer molecule by Douglas Prasher in 1987. FPs led to a breakthrough of live cell imaging with the ability to selectively tag genetic protein regions and observe protein functions and mechanisms. For this breakthrough, Shimomura was awarded the Nobel Prize in 2008.
New methods for tracking biomolecules have been developed including the use of colorimetric biosensors, photochromic compounds, biomaterials, and electrochemical sensors. Fluorescent labeling is also a common method in which applications have expanded to enzymatic labeling, chemical labeling, protein labeling, and genetic labeling.
Methods for tracking biomolecules
There are currently several labeling methods for tracking biomolecules. Some of the methods include the following.
Isotope markers
Common species that isotope markers are used for include proteins. In this case, amino acids with stable isotopes of either carbon, nitrogen, or hydrogen are incorporated into polypeptide sequences. These polypeptides are then put through mass spectrometry. Because of the exact defined change that these isotopes incur on the peptides, it is possible to tell through the spectrometry graph which peptides contained the isotopes. By doing so, one can extract the protein of interest from several others in a group. Isotopic compounds play an important role as photochromes, described below.
Colorimetric biosensors
Biosensors are attached to a substance of interest. Normally, this substance would not be able to absorb light, but with the attached biosensor, light can be absorbed and emitted on a spectrophotometer. Additionally, biosensors that are fluorescent can be viewed with the naked eye. Some fluorescent biosensors also have the ability to change color in changing environments (ex: from blue to red). A researcher would be able to inspect and get data about the surrounding environment based on what color he or she could see visibly from the biosensor-molecule hybrid species.
Colorimetric assays are normally used to determine how much concentration of one species there is relative to another.
Photochromic compounds
Photochromic compounds have the ability to switch between a range or variety of colors. Their ability to display different colors lies in how they absorb light. Different isomeric manifestations of the molecule absorbs different wavelengths of light, so that each isomeric species can display a different color based on its absorption. These include photoswitchable compounds, which are proteins that can switch from a non-fluorescent state to that of a fluorescent one given a certain environment.
The most common organic molecule to be used as a photochrome is diarylethene. Other examples of photoswitchable proteins include PADRON-C, rs-FastLIME-s and bs-DRONPA-s, which can be used in plant and mammalian cells alike to watch cells move into different environments.
Biomaterials
Fluorescent biomaterials are a possible way of using external factors to observe a pathway more visibly. The method involves fluorescently labeling peptide molecules that would alter an organism's natural pathway. When this peptide is inserted into the organism's cell, it can induce a different reaction. This method can be used, for example to treat a patient and then visibly see the treatment's outcome.
Electrochemical sensors
Electrochemical sensors can used for label-free sensing of biomolecules. They detect changes and measure current between a probed metal electrode and an electrolyte containing the target analyte. A known potential to the electrode is then applied from a feedback current and the resulting current can be measured. For example, one technique using electrochemical sensing includes slowly raising the voltage causing chemical species at the electrode to be oxidized or reduced. Cell current vs voltage is plotted which can ultimately identify the quantity of chemical species consumed or produced at the electrode. Fluorescent tags can be used in conjunction with electrochemical sensors for ease of detection in a biological system.
Fluorescent labels
Of the various methods of labeling biomolecules, fluorescent labels are advantageous in that they are highly sensitive even at low concentration and non-destructive to the target molecule folding and function.
Green fluorescent protein is a naturally occurring fluorescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria that is widely
used to tag proteins of interest. GFP emits a photon in the green region of the light spectrum when excited by the absorption of light. The chromophore consists of an oxidized tripeptide -Ser^65-Tyr^66-Gly^67 located within a β barrel. GFP catalyzes the oxidation and
only requires molecular oxygen. GFP has been modified by changing the wavelength of light absorbed to include other colors of fluorescence. YFP or yellow fluorescent protein, BFP or blue fluorescent protein, and CFP or cyan fluorescent protein are examples of GFP variants. These variants are produced by the genetic engineering of the GFP gene.
Synthetic fluorescent probes can also be used as fluorescent labels. Advantages of these labels include a smaller size with more variety in color. They can be used to tag proteins of interest more selectively by various methods including chemical recognition-based labeling, such as utilizing metal-chelating peptide tags, and biological recognition-based labeling utilizing enzymatic reactions. However, despite their wide array of excitation and emission wavelengths as well as better stability, synthetic probes tend to be toxic to the cell and so are not generally used in cell imaging studies.
Fluorescent labels can be hybridized to mRNA to help visualize interaction and activity, such as mRNA localization. An antisense strand labeled with the fluorescent probe is attached to a single mRNA strand, and can then be viewed during cell development to see the movement of mRNA within the cell.
Fluorogenic labels
A fluorogen is a ligand (fluorogenic ligand) which is not itself fluorescent, but when it is bound by a specific protein or RNA structure becomes fluorescent.
For instance, FAST is a variant of photoactive yellow protein which was engineered to bind chemical mimics of the GFP tripeptide chromophore.
Likewise, the spinach aptamer is an engineered RNA sequence which can bind GFP chromophore chemical mimics, thereby conferring conditional and reversible fluorescence on RNA molecules containing the sequence.
Use of tags in fluorescent labeling
Fluorescent labeling is known for its non-destructive nature and high sensitivity. This has made it one of the most widely used methods for labeling and tracking biomolecules. Several techniques of fluorescent labeling can be utilized depending on the nature of the target.
Enzymatic labeling
In enzymatic labeling, a DNA construct is first formed, using a gene and the DNA of a fluorescent protein. After transcription, a hybrid RNA + fluorescent is formed. The object of interest is attached to an enzyme that can recognize this hybrid DNA. Usually fluorescein is used as the fluorophore.
Chemical labeling
Chemical labeling or the use of chemical tags utilizes the interaction between a small molecule and a specific genetic amino acid sequence. Chemical labeling is sometimes used as an alternative for GFP. Synthetic proteins that function as fluorescent probes are smaller than GFP's, and therefore can function as probes in a wider variety of situations. Moreover, they offer a wider range of colors and photochemical properties. With recent advancements in chemical labeling, Chemical tags are preferred over fluorescent proteins due to the architectural and size limitations of the fluorescent protein's characteristic β-barrel. Alterations of fluorescent proteins would lead to loss of fluorescent properties.
Protein labeling
Protein labeling use a short tag to minimize disruption of protein folding and function. Transition metals are used to link specific residues in the tags to site-specific targets such as the N-termini, C-termini, or internal sites within the protein. Examples of tags used for protein labeling include biarsenical tags, Histidine tags, and FLAG tags.
Genetic labeling
Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), is an example of a genetic labeling technique that utilizes probes that are specific for chromosomal sites along the length of a chromosome, also known as chromosome painting. Multiple fluorescent dyes that each have a distinct excitation and emission wavelength are bound to a probe which is then hybridized to chromosomes. A fluorescence microscope can detect the dyes present and send it to a computer that can reveal the karyotype of a cell. This technique allows abnormalities such as deletions and duplications to be revealed.
Cell imaging
Chemical tags have been tailored for imaging technologies more so than fluorescent proteins because chemical tags can localize photosensitizers closer to the target proteins. Proteins can then be labeled and detected with imaging such as super-resolution microscopy, Ca2+-imaging, pH sensing, hydrogen peroxide detection, chromophore assisted light inactivation, and multi-photon light microscopy. In vivo imaging studies in live animals have been performed for the first time with the use of a monomeric protein derived from the bacterial haloalkane dehalogenase known as the Halo-tag. The Halo-tag covalently links to its ligand and allows for better expression of soluble proteins.
Advantages
Although fluorescent dyes may not have the same sensitivity as radioactive probes, they are able to show real-time activity of molecules in action. Moreover, radiation and appropriate handling is no longer a concern.
With the development of fluorescent tagging, fluorescence microscopy has allowed the visualization of specific proteins in both fixed and live cell images. Localization of specific proteins has led to important concepts in cellular biology such as the functions of distinct groups of proteins in cellular membranes and organelles. In live cell imaging, fluorescent tags enable movements of proteins and their interactions to be monitored.
Latest advances in methods involving fluorescent tags have led to the visualization of mRNA and its localization within various organisms. Live cell imaging of RNA can be achieved by introducing synthesized RNA that is chemically coupled with a fluorescent tag into living cells by microinjection. This technique was used to show how the oskar mRNA in the Drosophila embryo localizes to the posterior region of the oocyte.
See also
Molecular tagging velocimetry
Spectrophotometer for Nucleic Acid Measurements
Protein tags
Notes
External links
Molecular biology
Fluorescence techniques | [
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256145 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1859%20in%20music | 1859 in music |
Events
January 14 – Hans von Bülow interrupts a performance of Franz Liszt's Die Ideale at the Berlin Singakademie to ask for hostile elements in the audience to be silent.
January 22 – The First Piano Concerto of Johannes Brahms is given its first public performance in Hanover.
February 8 – Count Michael Wielhorsky invites musical associates to his home in an attempt to revive the Symphonic Society; this indirectly results in the formation of the Russian Musical Society, under the patronage of Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna and her protégé, Anton Rubinstein.
March 4 – Charter of the French Opera House, New Orleans, which opens on December 1 of the same year with a gala performance of Rossini's William Tell.
March 11 – Giuseppe Verdi announces his retirement to friends at a dinner party.
March 12 – The Prelude to Act 1 of Tristan und Isolde receives its first public performance at the Sophieninselsaal in Prague, in a charity concert in aid of poor medical students, conducted by Hans von Bülow, who provided his own concert ending for the occasion.
April 3 – Richard Wagner takes up residence in Lucerne, Switzerland.
April 4 – Bryants Minstrels give the first performance of "Dixie" at Mechanics' Hall, New York City.
April 4 – Tannhäuser is performed at the Stadt Theater in New York City under the musical direction of Carl Bergmann. It is the first performance of a Wagner opera in the United States.
May 6 – At the first concert of the Victoria Philharmonic Society, its future conductor John Bayley is a soloist on both clarinet and violin.
July 1 – A monument to George Frideric Handel (by Hermann Heidel) is unveiled in his birthplace, Halle; Franz Liszt is among those present.
October 23 – Richard Wagner and an ailing Hector Berlioz meet in Paris and make up their differences.
December 19 – César Franck inaugurates the new organ at the basilia of Sainte-Clotilde, Paris, an instrument built by Aristide Cavaillé-Coll.
Alexander Borodin begins a period of chemical research at Heidelberg, working on benzene derivatives.
Alberto Mazzucato becomes musical director of La Scala opera house.
Richard Wagner finishes his opera Tristan und Isolde. The Prelude to Act 1 receives its first public performance on March 2.
Published popular music
"Darling little blue eyed Nell" w. B. E. Woolf m. Frederick Buckley
In 1859, John Freeman Young published the English translation of Silent Night that is most frequently sung today.
Classical music
Charles-Valentin Alkan – Concerto for Solo Piano
Mily Balakirev – Overture to King LearJohannes Brahms
Piano Concerto No. 1
Serenade No. 2 in A
Max Bruch – String Quartet No. 1 in C minor, Op. 9
Felix Draeseke – Helges Treue Edvard Grieg
23 Little Piano Pieces, EG 104
Siehst du das Meer, for voice and piano
Fromental Halévy – Italie (cantata)
Franz LisztTotentanzfirst version of Psalm 23
Prelude after a theme from Weinen, Klagen, Sorgen, Zagen for pianoDeux Épisodes d'apres le Faust de Lenau (orchestral arrangement)Te Deum II for chorus, organ, brass and percussion, S. 27
Opera
César Cui – The Mandarin's SonLéo Delibes – L'Omelette à la FollembucheCharles Gounod – Faust first performed in Paris on March 19. Libretto by Jules Barbier and Michel Carré, based on a work by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Le pardon de PloërmelGiuseppe Verdi – Un ballo in mascheraMusical theater
Jacques Offenbach – Les vivandières de la grande arméeBirths
January 26 – W. O. Forsyth, pianist and composer (died 1937)
February 1 – Victor Herbert, cellist, conductor and composer (died 1924)
April 3 – Reginald de Koven, US composer (died 1920)
April 5 – Wilhelm Harteveld, composer (died 1927)
April 11 – Basil Harwood, organist and composer (died 1949)
May 13 – August Enna, composer (died 1939)
June 22 – Frank Heino Damrosch, founder of Institute of Music (died 1937)
June 27 – Mildred J. Hill, composer of "Happy Birthday to You" (died 1916)
July 21 – Charles H. Taylor, lyricist (died 1907)
September 21 – Otto Lohse, conductor and composer (died 1925)
September 24 – Julius Klengel, cellist, composer (died 1933)
October 14 – Camille Chevillard, conductor and composer (died 1923)
October 20 – Guglielmo Zuelli, opera composer (died 1941)
October 26 – Arthur Friedheim, Russian-born pianist
November 15 – Joseph Vidal, composer (died 1924)
November 19 – Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, conductor and composer (died 1935)
November 22 – Cecil Sharp, folk music revivalist (died 1924)
November 30 – Sergei Lyapunov, pianist and composer (died 1924)
December 21 – Max Fiedler, conductor and composer (died 1939)
December 23 – Adrian Ross, English lyricist (died 1933)
December 27 – William Henry Hadow, musicologist (died 1937)
December 30 – Josef Bohuslav Foerster, composer (died 1951)
Deaths
January 7 – Peter Ferdinand Funck, violinist and composer (born 1788)
January 13 – Francisco José Debali, composer (born 1791)
January 20 – Bettina von Arnim, composer (born 1785)
February 6 – Jane Stirling, pianist and friend of Frédéric Chopin (born 1804; ovarian cyst)
March 14 – Nicola Tacchinardi, cellist and operatic tenor (born 1772)
April 14 – Ignaz Bösendorfer, piano manufacturer (born 1796)
July 23 – Marceline Desbordes-Valmore, actress, singer and poet (born 1786)
July 29 – Auguste Mathieu Panseron, composer and singing teacher (born 1796)
August 18 – Antonio D'Antoni, opera composer and conductor (born 1801)
August 28 – Edward Holmes, musicologist, music critic, pianist and music educator (born 1797)
October 16 – John Fane, 11th Earl of Westmorland, soldier, politician, diplomat and musician (born 1784)
October 22 – Louis Spohr, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1784)
November 7 – Carl Gottlieb Reißiger, Kapellmeister and composer (born 1798)
December 13 – Daniel Liszt, son of Franz Liszt and Countess Marie d'Agoult (born 1839; tuberculosis)
December 31 – Luigi Ricci, composer (born 1805)Date unknown'' – Lewis Henry Lavenu, conductor, composer and impresario (born 1818)
References
19th century in music
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256146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1858%20in%20music | 1858 in music |
Events
January 2 – Sigismond Thalberg is given a farewell concert by the Academy of Music, New York.
January 14 – While on their way to the Paris Opéra, Napoleon III of France and Empress Eugénie are attacked by a would-be assassin. The emperor proceeds to attend the performance.
January 25 – The "Wedding March" by Felix Mendelssohn is played at the marriage of Queen Victoria's daughter "Vicky" (Victoria, Princess Royal) to Prince Friedrich of Prussia in St James's Palace, London, leading to its becoming popular wedding music.
January 30 – Hallé Orchestra founded by Charles Hallé in Manchester, England.
February 20 – Giacomo Meyerbeer pays Mathilde Heine 4,500 francs not to publish four poems by her late husband Heinrich Heine.
April 7 – Richard Wagner's affair with Mathilde Wesendonck is discovered by her husband; he leaves Zurich shortly afterwards.
May 15 - The Royal Italian Opera opens in Covent Garden, London with a performance of Meyerbeer's Les Huguenots.
June 17 – Modest Musorgsky resigns from the Preobrazhensky Regiment to take up music full-time.
September 7 – Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom opens Leeds Town Hall; the celebratory concert marks the first Leeds Festival.
September 16 – Jules Massenet gives his first piano recital.
October 6 – Edvard Grieg enters Leipzig Conservatory, having had his talent recognised by Ole Bull.
October 21 – Jacques Offenbach's operetta Orpheus in the Underworld, featuring music associated with the can-can, is first performed, at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens in Paris.
Camille Saint-Saëns succeeds Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély as organist of La Madeleine, Paris.
Arthur Sullivan goes to Leipzig to study music.
The Wiener Singverein is formed as a choir in its modern form in Vienna.
The Harvard Glee Club is founded at Harvard University in the United States.
Hector Berlioz completes the score for his opera Les Troyens.
Published popular music
"The Infernal Gallop" ("The Can-Can"), music by Jacques Offenbach (from his operetta, Orphée Aux Enfers)
"Warblings at Eve" m. Henry Brinley Richards
Classical music
Johannes Brahms — Piano Concerto No. 1
Camille Saint-Saëns —
Piano Concerto No.1
Violin Concerto No. 2
Johann Strauss II —
Tritsch-Tratsch-Polka
Champagner-Polka
Opera
Peter Cornelius — Der Barbier von Bagdad
Giovanni Pacini — Il saltimbanco
Musical theatre
Orphée Aux Enfers, operetta by Jacques Offenbach, Paris production opened at the Théâtre des Bouffes Parisiens on October 21 and ran for 228 performances
Births
January 6 — Ben Davies, operatic tenor (died 1943)
February 24 — Arnold Dolmetsch, musical instrument maker (died 1940)
March 30 — DeWolf Hopper, US actor and singer (died 1935)
April 22 — Ethel Smyth, composer (died 1944)
May 22 — Charles Kjerulf, composer (died 1919)
July 16 — Eugène Ysaÿe, composer (died 1931)
July 21 — Chauncey Olcott, singer and songwriter (died 1932)
August — Guy d'Hardelot, pianist and composer
August 1 — Hans Rott, composer (died 1884)
August 9 — Isidore de Lara, composer (died 1935)
October 12 – Alice Charbonnet-Kellermann, piano composer (died 1914)
November 11 — Alessandro Moreschi, castrato singer (died 1922)
December 22 — Giacomo Puccini, composer (died 1924)
Deaths
January 5 — Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, military leader and subject of the Radetzky March by Johann Strauss I (b. 1766)
January 23 — Luigi Lablache, operatic bass (b. 1794)
April — Bernard Sarrette, founder of the Paris Conservatoire (b. 1765)
April 8 — Anton Diabelli, publisher and composer (b. 1781)
April 16 — Johann Baptist Cramer, pianist and composer (b. 1771)
June 3 — Julius Reubke, pianist and composer (b. 1834)
August 24 — Francis Edward Bache, composer (b. 1833)
September 15 — Thomas Adams, organist and composer (b. 1785)
October 31 — Karl Thomas Mozart, musician, son of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (b. 1784)
November 15 — Johanna Kinkel, composer (b. 1810)
December 27 — Alexandre Pierre François Boëly, pianist, organist and composer (b. 1785)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1857%20in%20music | 1857 in music |
Events
January 7 – Franz Liszt's Piano Concerto No. 2 receives its first public performance. Hans von Bronsart is the pianist with Liszt conducting, in Weimar.
January 21 – Giacomo Meyerbeer conducts a work by Mikhail Glinka, at a concert in Berlin attended by the composer. Glinka catches a cold and dies a few weeks later, aged 52; autopsy results are inconclusive.
January 27 – Franz Liszt's Sonata in B minor (Liszt) is given its first public performance by Hans von Bülow in Berlin.
February 7 – Louis Gottschalk leaves New York to begin a concert tour of Cuba.
March 14 – Stephen Foster sells all his copyrights to his music publisher for $1,872.28.
April 28 – Richard Wagner moves into Green Hill at Zürich, a villa owned by Otto Wesendonck.
July 4 – Georges Bizet wins the Prix de Rome.
August 27 – Joseph Joachim writes to Franz Liszt, ending their professional relationship.
October 8 – Irish opera diva Catherine Hayes marries her manager, William Avery Bushnell, in San Francisco; he dies less than a year later.
November 12 – 73-year-old Louis Spohr is forced into retirement from his post at the Hesse-Kassel court.
Gioacchino Rossini begins Péchés de vieillesse.
Hans von Bülow marries Cosima Liszt daughter of Franz Liszt. They had two daughters.
Published popular music
"Le beau Monde (Fashionable Society)" m. Johann Strauss II
"Does He Love Me?" w. Annie Chambers Bradford m. F. W. Smith
"Jingle Bells w.m. James Pierpont originally published as "One Horse Open Sleigh"
"Lorena" w. Reverend Henry D. L. Webster m. Joseph Philbrick Webster
Classical music
Charles-Valentin Alkan
Sonate de Concert in E, Op. 47 for cello and piano
Douze études dans tous les tons mineurs Op. 39 for piano
Georges Bizet – Herminie (cantata)
Johannes Brahms
Serenade No 1, Op. 11
Eleven Variations on an Original Theme, in D major Opus 21 No.1
Wilhelm Kalliwoda – Scherzo, Op.4
Franz Liszt
Dante Symphony
Hunnenschlacht
Die Ideale (premiered on 5 September)
Modest Mussorgsky – Souvenir d'Enfance
Joachim Raff
Ode to Spring: Concert Piece in G major, Op. 76, for piano and orchestra
String Quartet No. 2 in A major; Op. 90
Bedřich Smetana – Piano Trio in G minor, Op. 15 (revised version – original finished 1855)
Julius Reubke – The 94th Psalm
Opera
Karel Miry – Karel V (opera in 5 acts, libretto by Hippoliet van Peene, premiered on January 29 in Ghent)
Ambroise Thomas – Le Carnaval de Venise
Giuseppe Verdi – Simon Boccanegra
Births
January 17 – Wilhelm Kienzl, Austrian composer (died 1941)
February 28 – Gustave Kerker, German-born composer (died 1923)
March 3 – Alfred Bruneau, French composer (died 1934)
March 4
Gustav Kobbé, American music critic and author (died 1918)
Henry W. Petrie, American songwriter (died 1925)
March 8 – Ruggiero Leoncavallo, Italian opera composer (died 1919)
April 21 – Paul Dresser, American composer (died 1906)
April 29 – František Ondříček, Czech violinist and composer (died 1922)
May 2 – Frederic Cliffe, English composer (died 1931)
May 9 – Luigi Illica, Italian librettist for Puccini, Catalani, Giordano and others (died 1919)
May 12 – Lillian Nordica, American opera singer (died 1914)
June 2 – Edward Elgar, English composer (died 1934)
June 5 – Árpád Doppler, Hungarian-German composer (died 1927)
August 8 – Cécile Chaminade, French composer (died 1944)
August 18 – Eusebius Mandyczewski, publisher and musician (died 1929)
September 8 – Olga Björkegren, Swedish opera singer (died 1950)
October 12 – Paul Lange, German musician, teacher, orchestra and choir leader (died 1919)
November 5 – Joseph Tabrar, English music hall songwriter (d. 1931)
November 14 – Rosalind Ellicott, English composer (died 1924)
December 18 – Rosa Newmarch, née Jeaffreson, English musicologist (died 1940)
December 27 – Charles Manners, né Southcote Mansergh, English operatic bass and opera company manager (died 1935)
December 30 – Sylvio Lazzari, Italian composer and conductor (died 1944)
Deaths
January 19 – Franz Limmer, conductor and composer (b. 1808)
February 14 – Johannes Bernardus van Bree, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1801)
February 15 – Mikhail Glinka, composer (b. 1804)
March 1 – Benjamin Cross, organist, singer, conductor and composer (b. 1786)
April – Alessandro Curmi, pianist and composer (b. 1801)
June 28 – Joseph Fischhof, pianist, composer and music teacher (born 1804)
July 15 – Carl Czerny, pianist and composer (b. 1791)
July 16 – Pierre-Jean de Béranger, songwriter (b. 1780)
August 1 – Emilie Zumsteeg, pianist and songwriter (b. 1796)
October 20 – John Diamond, dancer (born 1823)
October 21 – Ananias Davisson, singing teacher and printer of shape note books (b. 1780)
December 11 – Castil-Blaze, music critic, musicologist and composer (b. 1784)
probable – Ferdinand Prévôt, operatic baritone (born c.1800)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1856%20in%20music | 1856 in music |
Events
January – Evan James and his son James James write the words and music of Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau, which later becomes the Welsh national anthem.
January 6 – Charles Gounod is awarded the Légion d'Honneur.
January 27 – In recognition of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's 100th birthday, Franz Liszt conducts a concert of his music in Vienna.
March 23 – Richard Wagner completes the score of Die Walküre.
March 24 – The Théâtre de la Monnaie opens in Brussels.
May 15 – Following his discovery of the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer and his growing interest in Buddhist philosophy, Wagner drafts a brief summary of a proposed Buddhist opera, called Die Sieger (The Victors). At about the same time he changes the ending of the Ring cycle, and changes the titles of Der junge Siegfried and Siegfried’s Tod to Siegfried and Götterdämmerung respectively.
May 28 – Mikhail Glinka relocates to Berlin.
July 4 – 14-year-old Arthur Sullivan wins the Mendelssohn Scholarship, enabling him to study at the Royal Academy of Music.
July 28 – Clara Schumann and Johannes Brahms begin their vigil outside the bedroom of the dying Robert Schumann.
December 1 – Bedřich Smetana opens his new music school in Göteborg.
Foundation of the Teatro de la zarzuela by Francisco Asenjo Barbieri.
In St Petersburg, Russia, Mily Balakirev (the leader) meets César Cui, as the first two Russian composers of The Mighty Five. In October, Mussorgsky meets Alexander Borodin while both men serve at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg.
The words of the "Himno Nacional de El Salvador" are written by General Juan José Cañas; it becomes the National Anthem of El Salvador in 1953.
Published popular music
Stephen Foster – "Gentle Annie"
Benjamin Hanby – "Darling Nelly Gray"
Classical music
Mily Balakirev – Piano Concerto No. 1 in F-sharp minor, Op. 1 (in one movement)
William B. Bradbury – Esther, the Beautiful Queen (oratorio)
Antonín Dvořák – Polka Pomnenka
Louis Gottschalk – Grande Valse poétique concertante for voice and piano
– Ballad (Dedicated to Lady MacDonnell of South Australia)
Camille Saint-Saëns – Symphony in F major "Urbs Roma"
Robert Schumann – 2 Endenicher Choräle
Opera
Alexander Dargomyzhsky – Rusalka
Aimé Maillart – Les Dragons de Villars
Giovanni Pacini – Margherita Pusterla
Musical theater
Hiawatha. Broadway production opened at Wallack's Lyceum Theatre on December 25 and ran for 24 performances.
Novelty (Music: Thomas Baker). Broadway production opened at Laura Keene's Variety House on February 22.
Births
January 6 – Giuseppe Martucci, composer (d. 1909)
January 9 – Stevan Mokranjac, composer (d. 1914)
January 11
Christian Sinding, composer (d. 1941)
Francisco D'Andrade, opera singer (d. 1921)
March 20 – Josef Wagner, military bandmaster and composer (d.1908)
May 3 – Max Alvary, Wagnerian tenor (d. 1898)
May 26 – George Templeton Strong, composer and artist (d. 1948)
September 3 – Selma Ek, soprano (d. 1941)
December 2 – Robert Kajanus, conductor and composer (d. 1933)
December 20 – Ferdinand Avenarius, poet and lyricist, relative of Richard Wagner (d. 1923)
Deaths
January 17 – Thomas Attwood Walmisley, composer and organist (d. 1814)
May 3 – Adolphe Adam, French composer (d. 1803)
July 20 – Anna Nielsen, mezzo-soprano (d. 1803)
July 29 – Robert Schumann, composer (d. 1810)
August 5 – Robert Lucas de Pearsall, composer (d. 1795)
August 8 – Lucia Elizabeth Vestris, actress and singer (d. 1797)
August 21 – Peter Josef von Lindpaintner, conductor and composer (d. 1791)
October 14 – Johann Kaspar Mertz, guitarist and composer (d. 1806)
November 23 – Giovanni Morandi, composer (d. 1777)
December 31 – Domenico Crivelli, music teacher
date unknown – Ashutosh Deb, Hindu musician and composer
References
19th century in music
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256150 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Areopagitica | Areopagitica | Areopagitica; A speech of Mr. John Milton for the Liberty of Unlicenc'd Printing, to the Parlament of England is a 1644 prose polemic by the English poet, scholar, and polemical author John Milton opposing licensing and censorship. Areopagitica is among history's most influential and impassioned philosophical defences of the principle of a right to freedom of speech and expression. Many of its expressed principles have formed the basis for modern justifications.
Background
Areopagitica was published 23 November 1644 at the height of the English Civil War. It takes its title in part from Areopagitikos (), a speech written by Athenian orator Isocrates in the 4th century BC. (The Areopagus is a hill in Athens, the site of real and legendary tribunals, and was the name of a council whose power Isocrates hoped to restore.) Some argue that it is more importantly also a reference to the defense that St Paul made before the Areopagus in Athens against charges of promulgating foreign gods and strange teachings, as recorded in .
Like Isocrates, Milton (who was not a member of parliament) did not mean his work to be an oral speech to that assembly. Instead, it was distributed via pamphlet, thus defying the same publication censorship which he argued against. As a radical, Milton had supported the Presbyterians in Parliament, and would later work as a civil servant for the new republic, but in this work he argued forcefully against Parliament's 1643 Ordinance for the Regulating of Printing, also known as the Licensing Order of 1643, in which Parliament required authors to have a license approved by the government before their work could be published.
This issue was personal for Milton, as he had suffered censorship himself in his efforts to publish several tracts defending divorce (a radical stance which met with no favour from the censors). In particular, The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643), which he published anonymously and unlicensed, was condemned by the Puritan clergy as being heretical and intending to foster sexual libertinism, and it was cited in petitions to parliament as evidence of the need to reinstall a system of prepublication licensing. Areopagitica is full of biblical and classical references which Milton uses to strengthen his argument. This is particularly fitting because it was being addressed to the Calvinist Presbyterians who composed Parliament at that time.
According to George H. Sabine, the Areopagitica presumed and was written for an engaged public:
Argument
Before presenting his argument, Milton defends the very idea of writing a treatise such as Areopagitica. He compliments England for having overcome the tyranny of Charles I and the prelates, but his purpose is to voice his grievances. Milton defends this purpose, holding that to bring forth complaints before the Parliament is a matter of civil liberty and loyalty, because constructive criticism is better than false flattery. He concludes his introduction by encouraging Parliament to obey "the voice of reason" and to be "willing to repeal any Act" for the sake of truth and upright judgment.
Origins of licensing system
Milton begins with historical evidence noting that Ancient Greece and Rome did not adhere to the practice of licensing. In some cases, blasphemous or libellous writings were burnt and their authors punished, but it was after production that these texts were rejected rather than prior to it. Milton argues that a work should be "examined, refuted, and condemned" rather than prohibited before examination. Milton points out that licensing was first instituted by the Catholics with the Inquisition. This fact appealed to Parliament's religious beliefs since it was dominated by Protestants, and there were conflicts between the Protestants and Catholics in England. Milton provides historical examples of the aftermath following the Inquisition, including how there were popes in Rome beginning in the 14th century who became tyrannical licensers. For example, Pope Martin V became the first to prohibit the reading of heretical books, and then in the 16th century the Council of Trent and Spanish Inquisition prohibited texts that were not even necessarily heretical, but only unfavorable to the friars.
Use of books and reading
Milton precedes his argument by discussing the purpose of reading. He mentions that Moses, David, and Paul were all learned, which reminds his Protestant audience that being learned involves reading "books of all sorts". He argues that this includes even the "bad" or heretical books, because we can learn from their wrongs and discover what is true by considering what is not true. Milton's point is that God endowed every person with the reason, free will, and conscience to judge ideas for themselves, so the ideas in a text should be rejected by the reader's own choice, not by a licensing authority. Also, the mind is not corrupted simply by encountering falsehood. Milton points out that encountering falsehood can actually lead to virtuous action, such as how St. Paul's converts had privately and voluntarily burned Ephesian books considered to be "magick".
Usefulness of licensing order
Milton then argues that Parliament's licensing order will fail in its purpose to suppress scandalous, seditious, and libellous books: "this order of licencing conduces nothing to the end for which it was fram'd". The order was meant to rectify manners by preventing the spread of an "infection" caused by bad books. Milton objects, arguing that the licensing order is too sweeping, because even the Bible itself had been historically limited to readers for containing offensive descriptions of blasphemy and wicked men. Milton also points out that Parliament will not protect the ignorant from bad books by this order, because the books would more likely have been read by the learned anyhow. Furthermore, whatever bad ideas were written can still be taught through word of mouth or otherwise, so "infection" or corruption is not prevented. Milton's point is that licensing books cannot possibly prevent societal corruption (it is "far insufficient to the end which it intends"), so there is no viable stopping point: "If we think to regulat Printing, thereby to rectifie manners, we must regulate all recreations and pastimes, all that is delightful to man". Finally, Milton also points out that, if there are even licensers fit for making these judgments, then the possibility of error in licensing books is still great, and the amount of time that the job would take is impractical.
Harmfulness of licensing order
Milton argues that licensing is "a dishonour and derogation to the author, to the book, to the privilege and dignity of Learning". This is because many authors will produce a written work with genuinely good intentions only to have it censored by what amounts to a subjective, arbitrary judgment of the licenser.
Milton also thinks that England needs to be open to truth and understanding, which should not be monopolised by the government's standards. Faith and knowledge need exercise, but this order will lead to conformity and laziness. Licensing will hinder discovery of truth by the government's prejudice and custom, because there will always be more truth to be found that we do not yet know of. Milton thinks that licensing could potentially hinder God's plans, since it gives the licenser the power to silence others.
Conclusion
Milton recognises individual rights, but he is not completely libertarian in Areopagitica as he argues that the status quo ante worked best. According to the previous English law, all books had to have at least a printer's name (and preferably an author's name) inscribed in them. Under that system, Milton argues, if any blasphemous or libellous material is published, those books can still be destroyed after the fact. "Those which otherwise come forth, if they be found mischievous and libellous, the fire and the executioner will be the timeliest and the most effectuall remedy, that mans prevention can use." Milton seeks a means by which to ensure that authors and publishers remain culpable for any "mischievous" or "libellous" work that they produce. Regardless, Milton certainly is not without remorse for the libellous author, nor does he promote unrestricted free speech. In addition, he admits that his tolerance is limited: According to Nicholas McDowell, the second part of the forecited statement is usually left out by those quoting the first part to show that Milton was, at heart, a religious bigot, and that his ideas about free speech and intellectual liberty have little to teach us about liberalism today. (That said, whether the second half of the statement is actually an effective mitigation to the bigotry is a question eminently suited for discussion.)
Critical response
Areopagitica did not persuade the Presbyterians in Parliament to invalidate the prepublication censorship component of the Licensing Order of 1643; freedom of the press in this sense was not achieved until 1695, when the Parliament chose not to renew the order. However, as Milton's treatise has been overwhelmingly praised, understanding his audience moves us toward an understanding of why it was unsuccessful. Milton and the Presbyterians had together abolished the Star Chamber under Charles I, but now that they were not being oppressed and they held the power, the Presbyterians in Parliament no longer held to their defence of freedom of the press. Through the Licensing Order of 1643, they were set on silencing the more radical Protestants, the Independents as well as works supporting the King which had begun to appear in London. Milton's treatise is his response to that licensing order, which clearly came at a time when he and the Parliament were already at odds.
In addition, by the time Milton wrote Areopagitica he had already unsuccessfully challenged Parliament in other areas of privilege and right. Milton's divorce tracts proved too radical for his immediate day, as did this work. Milton's ideas were ahead of his time in the sense that he anticipated the arguments of later advocates of freedom of the press by relating the concept of free will and choice to individual expression and right. Milton's treatise "laid the foundations for thought that would come after and express itself in such authors as John Locke and John Stuart Mill".
However, although Milton's ideas were initially resisted by the Puritans, they were incorporated into the official charter of the Puritan church within a few years. The Westminster Confession of Faith, written between 1643 and 1650, allows for divorce on two grounds: infidelity and abandonment.
The Westminster Confession of Faith states: "Adultery or fornication, committed after a contract, being detected before marriage, giveth just occasion to the innocent party to dissolve that contract. In the case of adultery after marriage, it is lawful for the innocent party to sue out a divorce, and after the divorce to marry another, as if the offending party were dead."
The Westminster Assembly or Synod was a broad representation of the "Puritan" community in Britain at that time. 120 members were leaders in the Church of England, 30 were lay delegates and 6 were commissioners from the Church of Scotland.
Another example of its influence is in that of the United States Constitution, which includes the prohibition against prior restraint, or pre-publication censorship. This prohibition is necessary because, as Milton recognised in Areopagitica, to threaten censorship prior to publication would have a chilling effect on expression and speech, or in Milton's view, it would interfere with the pursuit of truth as it relates to a providential plan.
Modern references to Areopagitica
A quotation from Areopagitica is prominently displayed over the entrance to the renovated Main Reading Room of the New York Public Library: "A good Booke is the precious life-blood of a master spirit, imbalm'd and treasur'd up on purpose to a life beyond life".
The Supreme Court of the United States has referred to Areopagitica, in interpreting the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, to explain the Amendment's protections. The Court has cited Areopagitica by name in four cases. Most notably, the Court cited Areopagitica in the landmark case New York Times Co. v. Sullivan to explain the inherent value of false statements. The Court cited Milton to explain the dangers of prior restraint in Times Film Corporation v. City of Chicago. Later, Justice Douglas concurred in Eisenstadt v. Baird, citing the pamphlet to support striking down restrictions on lecturing about birth control. Finally, Justice Black cited Areopagitica when he dissented from the Court's upholding of restrictions on the Communist Party of the United States against a free speech and free association challenge in Communist Party of the United States v. Subversive Activities Control Board. In each instance, Milton is cited by the Court's members to support a broad and expansive protection of free speech and association.
The online magazine Areo, whose editor-in-chief Helen Pluckrose and whose frequent contributor James A. Lindsay were involved in orchestrating the Grievance Studies affair, is named after Areopagitica.
See also
Book censorship
Chilling effect
Of Education
John Peter Zenger
References
Editions
; includes Arber's introduction and the text of the Star Chamber decree 11-07-1637 and orders of the House of Commons 29-01-1642, 9-03-1643 and of the Lords and Commons 14-06-1643
External links
Online text from Dartmouth's Milton Reading Room
Areopagitica in Modern English
Areopagitica audio recording, public domain solo recording by Moira Fogarty at Internet Archive
Books by John Milton
Political books
1644 books
English Civil War
Books about the media
Philosophical literature
Censored books
Freedom of speech in the United Kingdom | [
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256151 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1855%20in%20music | 1855 in music |
Events
February 17 – Franz Liszt gives the first performance of his Piano Concerto No. 1, conducted by Hector Berlioz.
March–June – Richard Wagner stays in London to conduct a series of concerts.
June 13 - Twentieth opera of Giuseppe Verdi "Les vêpres siciliennes" (The Sicilian Vespers) is premiered in Paris.
July 5 – Jacques Offenbach inaugurates performances of operettas as director of his own theater, the Théâtre des Bouffes-Parisiens.
Late autumn – Mily Balakirev meets Mikhail Glinka in Saint Petersburg. Their friendship cements the former's ambition to foster Russian nationalist music.
November 27 – Piano Trio No. 1 of Brahms is given its first public performance at Dodsworth's Hall in Manhattan on Broadway at 11th Street. It is the earliest performance of Brahms' music in the United States
December 3 – The Piano Trio in G minor by Bedřich Smetana is given its first public performance in Prague.
Tchaikovsky takes private music lessons with Rudolph Kündinger, who tells Tchaikovsky's father that he saw nothing to suggest a future composer.
Bands formed
Black Dyke Mills Band re-formed after failure of its immediate predecessor, the Queenshead Band in Queensbury, West Yorkshire, England.
Popular music
Stephen Foster – "Come Where My Love Lies Dreaming"
George Martin Lane – "The Lone Fish Ball"
Caroline Norton – "Juanita"
words Septimus Winner (as "Alice Hawthorne") music Richard Milburn – "Listen to the Mocking Bird"
Classical music
Georges Bizet – Symphony in C
Franz Berwald – Piano Concerto in D
Eduard Franck – String Quartet in F minor op. 49 ()
Charles Gounod – Symphony No. 1 in D
Franz Liszt – Prelude and Fugue on B-A-C-H
Anton Rubinstein – Quintet for Piano and Winds Op. 55 (probably from this year)
Camille Saint-Saëns
Six Bagatelles for piano, Op. 3
Quintet for Piano and Strings, Op. 14
Bedřich Smetana – Piano Trio in G minor, Op. 15
Opera
George Frederick Bristow – Rip van Winkle
Fromental Halévy –
Jacques Offenbach – one-act operettas
Ba-ta-clan
Les deux aveugles
Giuseppe Verdi – Les vêpres siciliennes
Musical theatre
Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage (Music: James Gaspard Maeder, Book and Lyrics: John Brougham) Broadway production opened Wallack's Lyceum Theatre on December 24 and transferred to the Bowery Theatre on June 28, 1856. Featuring John Brougham as John Smith.
Births
January 20 – Ernest Chausson, composer (d. 1899)
February 18 – Vera Timanova, Russian pianist
May 9 – Julius Röntgen, composer (d. 1932)
May 11 – Anatoly Lyadov, conductor, composer and music teacher (d. 1914)
July 25 – Edward Solomon, pianist, conductor and composer (died 1895)
August 2 – Cornélie van Zanten, opera singer and teacher (d. 1946)
August 27 – Domenico Salvatori, castrato singer (d. 1909)
September 9 – Michele Esposito, pianist and composer (d. 1929)
November 6 – Paul Kalisch, singer (d. 1946)
December 7 – Gunhild Rosén, ballerina
Deaths
January 25 – Gaetano Rossi, librettist (b. 1774)
February 1 – Claus Harms, researcher of Lutheran hymns (b. 1778)
February 27 – Louis Lambillotte, composer and music palaeographer (b. 1796)
March 17 – Ramon Carnicer, conductor and composer (b. 1789)
April 12 – Pedro Albéniz, pianist and composer (b. 1795)
April 30 – Henry Rowley Bishop, composer (b. 1786)
September 27 – August Lanner, conductor and composer (b. 1835)
November 9 – Domenico Cosselli, operatic bass-baritone (b. 1801)
November 21 – Olea Crøger, collector of Norwegian folk tunes (b. 1801)
December 2 – Frédéric Bérat, songwriter and composer (b. 1801)
Marie Antoinette Petersén, singer and member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (b. 1771)
References
19th century in music
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256152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20C.%20Dvorak | John C. Dvorak | John Charles Dvorak () (born April 5, 1952) is an American columnist and broadcaster in the areas of technology and computing. His writing extends back to the 1980s, when he was a regular columnist in a variety of magazines. He was vice president of Mevio, and has been a host on TechTV and TWiT.tv. He is currently a co-host of the No Agenda podcast.
Early life
Dvorak was born in 1952 in Los Angeles, California. The nephew of sociologist and creator of the Dvorak keyboard, August Dvorak, he graduated from the University of California, Berkeley with a degree in history, with a minor in chemistry.
Writing career
Periodicals
Dvorak started his career as a wine writer.
He has written for various publications, including InfoWorld, PC Magazine (two separate columns since 1986), MarketWatch, BUG Magazine (Croatia), and Info Exame (Brazil). He has been a columnist for Boardwatch, Forbes, Forbes.com, MacUser, MicroTimes, PC/Computing, Barron's Magazine, Smart Business, and The Vancouver Sun. (The MicroTimes column ran under the banner Dvorak's Last Column.) He has written for The New York Times, Los Angeles Times, MacMania Networks, International Herald Tribune, The San Francisco Examiner and The Philadelphia Inquirer, among numerous other publications.
On episode 524 of the No Agenda podcast, he mentioned that MarketWatch had "gotten rid of him" after Adam Curry made a suggestion for his next column. He did not give further details.
Dvorak created a few tech running jokes. In episode 18 of TWiT (This Week in Tech) he claimed that, thanks to his hosting provider, he "gets no spam."
Books
Dvorak has written or co-authored over a dozen books, including Hypergrowth: The Rise and Fall of the Osborne Computer Corporation with Adam Osborne and Dvorak's Guide to Desktop Telecommunications in 1990, Dvorak's Guide to PC Telecommunications (Osborne McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, California, 1992), Dvorak's Guide to OS/2 (Random House, New York, 1993) with co-authors Dave Whittle and Martin McElroy, Dvorak Predicts (Osborne McGraw-Hill, Berkeley, California, 1994), Online! The Book (Prentice Hall PTR, October, 2003) with co-authors Wendy Taylor and Chris Pirillo and his latest e-book is Inside Track 2013.
Awards and honors
The Computer Press Association presented Dvorak with the Best Columnist and Best Column awards. He was also the winner of the American Business Editors Association's national gold award in 2004 and 2005, for Best Online Columns of 2003 and 2004, respectively.
He was the creator and lead judge of the Dvorak Awards (1992–1997).
In 2001, he received the Telluride Tech Festival Award of Technology.
He has received the title of Kentucky Colonel, the highest title of honor awarded by the Commonwealth of Kentucky.
In July, 2016, Dvorak and co-host Adam Curry won the "Best Podcast" Podcast Award for No Agenda, in the News & Politics category.
TV and online media
Dvorak was on the start-up team for CNET Networks, appearing on the television show CNET Central. He also hosted a radio show called Real Computing, and later 'Technically Speaking' on NPR, as well as a television show on TechTV (formerly ZDTV) called Silicon Spin.
He appeared on Marketwatch TV and This Week in Tech, a podcast audio and now video program hosted by Leo Laporte and featuring other former TechTV personalities such as Patrick Norton, Kevin Rose, and Robert Heron. Dvorak was once banned from the show. In March 2006, he started a new show called CrankyGeeks, where he led a rotating panel of "cranky" tech gurus in discussions of technology news stories of the week. The last episode (No. 237) aired on September 22, 2010.
In 2007, Mevio hired Dvorak as Vice President and Managing Editor for a new Mevio TECH channel, where he manages content from existing Mevio tech programming. He also hosted the show "Tech5", where he discussed the day's tech news in approximately five minutes; it ended production in late 2010. He co-hosts a podcast with Mevio co-founder Adam Curry called No Agenda. The show is a conversation about the week's news, happenings in the lives of the hosts and their families, and restaurant reviews from the dinners Dvorak and Curry have together when they are in the same city (usually San Francisco). Curry usually has more outlandish opinions of the week's news or world events, while Dvorak plays the straight man in the dialogue.
Since early 2011, Dvorak has been one of the featured "CoolHotNot Tech Xperts," along with Chris Pirillo, Jim Louderback, Dave Graveline, Robin Raskin, Dave Whittle, Steve Bass, and Cheryl Currid, at CoolHotNot's web site, He shares his "Loved List" of favorite consumer electronics, his "Wanted List" of tech products he'd like to try, and his "Letdown List" of tech products he found disappointing.
Dvorak hosted the show X3, which, like the defunct Tech 5, was a short tech-focused cast. Unlike Tech 5, it was in video format, with two co-hosts. The last update was 24 June 2012.
Since September 2009, Dvorak has hosted the DH Unplugged podcast with personal money manager Andrew Horowitz.
He is a co-founder, with Gina Smith and the late Jerry Pournelle, of the web site aNewDomain.net, where he is also a columnist.
In September 2015, Leo Laporte famously "banned" Dvorak—his long-time friend and frequent guest—from TWiT for comments Dvorak made on Twitter. In reply to Dvorak's comments that Laporte was biased, Laporte told Dvorak "you won't ever have to worry about it again", insinuating that he never wanted Dvorak back on TWiT. Laporte apologized a few days later. Dvorak returned to TWiT on December 23, 2018.
Criticism and advocacy for new technology
On February 19, 1984, in an article in The San Francisco Examiner, Dvorak listed the mouse as one of many reasons Apple Inc.'s Macintosh computer might not be successful: "The Macintosh uses an experimental pointing device called a ‘mouse’. There is no evidence that people want to use these things." In 1987 he revisited the article and recanted, writing "The Mac mouse is great. I've been converted."
In 1985, following Steve Jobs leaving Apple, Dvorak wrote, "Maybe when the smoke clears, we will have heard the last of Steve Jobs as guru, seer, visionary and hapless victim too ... He'll go the way of pet rock, electric carving knives, silly putty, Tiny Tim, and the three-tone paint job. Let's hope so."
In the May 26, 1987 edition of PC Mag, Dvorak investigated the origin of the term nerd, crediting and quoting Theodor S. Geisel (Dr. Seuss) with coining the phrase in 1950 having "never heard the word before."
In his 2007 article for MarketWatch regarding the iPhone, Dvorak wrote, "If [Apple's] smart, it will call the iPhone a 'reference design' and pass it to some suckers to build with someone else's marketing budget. Then it can wash its hands of any marketplace failures. [... ] It should do that immediately before it's too late." Although he later admitted having been wrong about its success, he criticized Apple's iPad when it first appeared in 2010, stating that it was no different from other previous tablets that had failed: "I cannot see it escaping the tablet computer dead zone any time soon."
Dvorak has mentioned in the past that he is a fan of MorphOS and used the Video Toaster in its heyday.
In 2018 he wrote an article on Medium in which he claimed he was fired from PC Magazine because of an article he wrote that questioned the safety of 5G.
Criticism of Creative Commons
In 2005, Dvorak wrote "Creative Commons Humbug", an opinion piece criticizing Creative Commons licensing.
Personal life
Dvorak married Mimi Smith-Dvorak on August 8, 1988. He is listed as a minister of the Universal Life Church. He said on show #600 of No Agenda that he occasionally posts online under the pseudonym Mark Pugner.
References
External links
PC Magazine: John C. Dvorak's column
PC Magazine: John C. Dvorak's profile
PC Magazine: John C. Dvorak's Inside Track
MarketWatch: John C. Dvorak's Second Opinion
aNewDomain.net: John C. Dvorak's column archive
CrankyGeeks official site
No Agenda Show Podcast
Dvorak's current list of best, most wanted, and worst tech products
DH Unplugged
Amateur radio people
American male journalists
American male bloggers
American bloggers
American columnists
American people of Czech descent
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Living people
TechTV people
American men podcasters
American podcasters
1952 births
21st-century American non-fiction writers
Berkeley Macintosh Users Group members | [
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256153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1854%20in%20music | 1854 in music |
Events
February 27 – Robert Schumann unsuccessfully attempts suicide by throwing himself from a bridge into the River Rhine.
June 13 – Anthony Faas patents the 1st US accordion, having made improvements to both the keyboard, and to enhance the sound (11,062). US patent No.US11062A
Anton Rubinstein begins a four-year concert tour of Europe, establishing his reputation as the leading piano virtuoso of his generation.
Richard Wagner completes Das Rheingold.
Published popular music
"Hard Times Come Again No More" w.m. Stephen Collins Foster
"(I Dream of) Jeanie With the Light Brown Hair" w.m. Stephen Collins Foster
"Maggie by My Side" Stephen Collins Foster
"Old Dog Tray" Stephen Collins Foster
"What Is Home Without A Mother" w.m. Septimus Winner
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – L'enfance du Christ
Charles Gounod – Chant de paix
Franz Liszt – Les préludes
Henri Wieniawski – Le carnaval russe for violin and piano
Johannes Brahms
Piano Trio No. 1, Op. 8 (revised in 1889)
Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann in F-sharp minor, Op. 9, for piano. The theme is from Op. 99, Bunte Blätter.
Ballades, Op. 10
Fourteen Variations on a Hungarian Melody, in D major, Op. 21 No. 2
Charles Sandys Packer – "City of Sydney Polka"
Opera
Karel Miry – La Lanterne magique (opera in 3 acts, libretto by Hippoliet van Peene, premiered on March 10 in Ghent)
Franz Schubert – Alfonso und Estrella (premiered June 24 by Franz Liszt in Weimar, thirty-two years after it was composed)
Births
January 21 – Georges Ernest Street, composer (died 1908)
April 13 – António D'Andrade, opera singer (d. 1942)
May 6 – Laura Joyce Bell, contralto singer and actress (d. 1904)
July 3 – Leoš Janáček, composer (d. 1928)
July 14 – Alexander Kopylov, violinist and composer (d. 1911)
August 24 – Alfred Dudley Turner, composer (some sources have b.1853) (d.1888)
September 1 – Engelbert Humperdinck, composer (d. 1921)
November 6 – John Philip Sousa, composer (d. 1932)
November 14 – Dina Edling, opera singer (d. 1935)
Deaths
January 12 – Philip Klitz, composer (born 1805)
March 3 – Giovanni Battista Rubini, operatic tenor (born 1794)
March 26 – Emilie Hammarskjöld, pianist, singer and composer (born 1821)
April 18 – Józef Elsner, composer and teacher (born 1769)
May 1 – Jean Coralli, dancer and choreographer (born 1779)
May 31 – Vatroslav Lisinski, composer (born 1819)
June 17 – Henriette Sontag, operatic soprano (born 1806) (cholera)
July 14 – Louis-Pierre Norblin, cellist (born 1781)
August 21 – August Ferdinand Anacker, composer (born 1790)
October – Luigi Tarisio, violin dealer and collector (born c. 1790)
November 2 – Anton Pann, poet, musicologist and composer (born c. 1790)
November 17 – Alberich Zwyssig, composer of the Swiss national anthem (born 1808)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1853%20in%20music | 1853 in music |
Events
March 5 – The American-German piano company Steinway & Sons is founded by Heinrich Engelhard Steinweg.
October – Louis Niedermeyer reorganizes and re-opens the school known as the École Choron, which becomes the École Niedermeyer.
October 1 – The piano manufacturer C. Bechstein Pianofortefabrik is founded by Carl Bechstein in Berlin.
October 22 – The overture to Tannhäuser is performed in Boston Music Hall by the Germania Musical Society conducted by Carl Bergmann. It is the first American performance.
November 1 – Richard Wagner begins composing the music for The Ring of the Nibelung.
Louis Moreau Gottschalk returns the United States after eleven years in Europe.
Brahms meets Joseph Joachim and Robert and Clara Schumann.
Julius Blüthner founds Blüthner (piano manufacturer) in Leipzig, Germany.
Published popular music
Danmarks gamle Folkeviser collected by Svend Grundtvig
"Farewell My Lilly Dear" by Stephen Foster
"My Cottage Home" w.m. Alice Hawthorne
"My Old Kentucky Home" by Stephen Foster
"P'tit quinquin" (in Picard) by Alexandre Desrousseaux
"The Yellow Rose of Texas"
Classical music
Franz Berwald
Piano Trio No. 4 in C major
Piano Quintet No. 1 in C minor
Johannes Brahms – Piano Sonata No. 1, Piano Sonata No. 3
Ida Henriette da Fonseca
Der Abschied
Byrons Statue
Die Erwartung
Granen ved Lougen
Regnbuen
Wechsellied zum Tanze
Zum neuen Jahr
William Henry Fry – Santa Claus, Christmas Symphony
Louis Moreau Gottschalk – The Banjo, Op. 15
Charles Gounod – Méditation sur le Premier Prélude de Piano de S. Bach, later known as Ave Maria (Bach/Gounod)
Franz Liszt
Piano Sonata in B minorHungarian Rhapsodies 1–15
Camille Saint-Saëns
Piano Quartet in E major
Symphony No. 1 in E♭ major
Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms and Albert Dietrich – F-A-E SonataHenryk Wieniawski – Violin Concerto No. 1
Opera
Victor Massé – Les noces de JeannetteKarel Miry – Anne Mie (opera in 1 act, premiered on October 9 in Antwerp)
Giuseppe VerdiIl trovatore (premiered on January 19 at Teatro Apollo in Rome)La traviata (premiered on March 6 at La Fenice in Venice)
Births
May 17 – Carolina Östberg, opera singer (d. 1929)
July 24 – Alessandro Parisotti, composer and music editor (d. 1913)
November 23 – Giuseppina Bozzachi, ballerina (d. 1870)
December 22 – Teresa Carreño, pianist, singer, conductor and composer (d. 1917)
December 30 – André Messager, composer (d. 1929)date unknown
Alfonso Rendano, pianist (d. 1931)
Maria Westberg, ballerina (d. 1893)
Deaths
January 16 – Matteo Carcassi, guitarist and composer (b. 1792)
March 15 – Giovanni Ricordi, violinist (b. 1785)
October 3 – George Onslow, composer (b. 1784)
October 29 – Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann, pianist, composer and music teacher (b. 1785)
October 30 – Pietro Raimondi, composer (b. 1786)
December 5
Johann Peter Heuschkel, oboist, organist and composer (b. 1773)
Jeanette Wässelius, operatic sopranodate unknown'' – James Hill, folk musician (b. c. 1811)
19th century in music
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256155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1852%20in%20music | 1852 in music |
Events
March 24 – First performance of Fredrik Pacius' opera Kung Karls jakt, the first to be composed in Finland, in Helsinki with a Swedish language libretto by Zachris Topelius.
May 15 – Teatro Comunale Alighieri, the opera house in Ravenna, is inaugurated with a production of Meyerbeer's Robert le diable followed by Giovanni Pacini's Medea.
Michael William Balfe sets off for Danzig to visit his daughter.
Charles Gounod improvises a melody over the C major Prelude from Book 1 of Bach's Well Tempered Clavier. It is published the next year as 'Méditation sur le Premier Prélude de Piano de S. Bach' later to be known as Ave Maria.
Franz Liszt conducts a performance of the 1838 opera Benvenuto Cellini by Hector Berlioz at Weimar. This revives the French composer's career which has been stagnant.
The earliest known performance of Wagner's music in the United States takes place as an arrangement of one of the finales from Tannhäuser is performed by the Germania Musical Society conducted by Carl Bergmann.
Popular music
Stephen Foster – "Massa's in de Cold Cold Ground"
S.M. Grannis – "Do They Miss Me At Home?" (lyrics by Carolina A.Mason)
John Howson – "Christmas Present Polka"
Gustav Reichardt – "Des Deutschen Vaterland" (words by Ernst Moritz Arndt)
Classical music
Johannes Brahms – Piano Sonata No. 2 (Brahms)
Joachim Raff – Zwei Lieder with words by Gotthold Logau
Luigi Ricci – Tarantella Napoletana from the opera "La Festa di Piedigrotta".
Johann Strauss, Jr.
Orakel-Sprüche Walzer, Op. 90
Maskenfest-Quadrille, Op. 92
Kaiser-Jäger-Marsch, Op. 93
Rhadamantus-Klänge Walzer, Op. 94
Promenade-Quadrille, Op. 98
Frauenkäferln Walzer, Op. 99
Vöslauer Polka, Op. 100
Mephistos Höllenrufe Walzer, Op. 101
Albion-Polka, Op. 102
Vivat! Quadrille, Op. 103
Windsor-Klänge Walzer, Op. 104
5 Paragraphe aus dem Walzer Codex, Op. 105
Harmonie-Polka, Op. 106
Großfürsten-Marsch, Op. 107
Die Unzertrennlichen Walzer, Op. 108
Tête-à-Tête-Quadrille, Op. 109
Elektro-magnetische Polka, Op. 110
Blumenfest-Polka, Op. 111
Melodien-Quadrille, Op. 112
Sachsen-Kürassier-Marsch, Op. 113
Liebes-Lieder Walzer, Op. 114
Wiener Jubel-Gruss-Marsch, Op. 115
Hofball-Quadrille, Op. 116
Annen-Polka, Op. 117
Lockvögel Walzer, Op. 118
William Vincent Wallace
Fantasie elegante sur des themes de 'Don Pasquale'
Happy Birdling of the Forest, Op. 63
Henri Wieniawski
Polonaise de concert, Op. 4
Adagio élégiaque, Op. 5
Violin Concerto No.1, Op. 14
Opera
Fromental Halévy – La Juif errant
Fredrik Pacius – Kung Karls jakt
Births
January 8 – Maurice Kufferath, editor and conductor (died 1919)
January 26 – Frederick Corder, translator and composer (died 1932)
January 29 – Sir Frederic Hymen Cowen, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1935)
February 17 – Hans Bischoff, pianist and musician (died 1889)
March 6 – Josef Bayer, composer and music director (d. 1913)
April 5 – Franz Eckert, bandmaster and composer (d. 1916)
April 14 – Henrique Oswald, composer (d. 1931)
May 23 – Mathilda Grabow, opera singer (d. 1940)
June 23 – Raoul Pugno, organist, pianist and composer (d. 1914)
June 28 – Hans Huber, composer (d. 1921)
July 3 – Rafael Joseffy, pianist and composer (d. 1915)
July 4 – Alfred Grünfeld, arranger and composer (died 1924)
July 6
John Albert Delany composer, conductor (d. 1907)
Otto Neitzel, composer and pianist (d. 1920)
September 30 – Sir Charles Villiers Stanford, composer (d. 1924)
October 12 – Max Friedlaender, German musicologist (died 1934)
November 21 – Francisco Tárrega, guitarist and composer (d. 1909)
Deaths
February 25 – Thomas Moore, poet and songwriter (b. 1779)
March 5 – Sophie Gay, librettist (b. 1776)
March 7 – Jacopo Ferretti, librettist (b. 1784)
March 15 – Antoine de Lhoyer, guitarist and composer (b. 1768)
June 6 – Tommaso Marchesi, composer (b. 1773)
July 17 – Salvadore Cammarano, librettist (b. 1801)
September 20 – Anton Weidinger, trumpet virtuoso (b. 1767)
October 6 – Stephen Codman, composer (b. 1796)
November 12 – Georg Hellmesberger, Jr., violinist and composer (b. 1830)
date unknown – Ulrika Åberg, ballerina (b. 1771)
References
19th century in music
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256156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1851%20in%20music | 1851 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1851.
Events
February – Operatic tenor Sims Reeves returns to perform in Dublin with his new wife, soprano Charlotte Emma Lucombe.
February 6 – Schumann's Symphony No. 3 receives its première in Düsseldorf, the composer conducting. ()
March 11 – Giuseppe Verdi's opera Rigoletto is first performed at La Fenice in Venice.
April 5 – Jenny Lind visits the Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, USA.
July 23 – Richard Wagner writes down the leitmotif for the "Ride of the Valkyries".
Operatic baritone Hans von Milde marries soprano Rosa Agthe.
Eight-year-old Adelina Patti sings in public for the first time.
Published popular music
"Cora, the Indian Maiden's Song" – w. Shirley Brooks m. Alexander Lee
"Old Folks at Home" (Way Down Upon the Swanee River) by Stephen Foster
"Ring, Ring, de Banjo" by Stephen Foster
"I Would Not Die in Summer Time" by Stephen Foster
"Laura Lee" by Stephen Foster
Classical music
Woldemar Bargiel – Piano Trio No. 1 in F major, Op. 6
Johannes Brahms
Scherzo in E-flat minor for solo piano, Op. 4
Heimkehr (Homecoming) for voice and piano, Op. 7 No. 6
Franz Liszt
Transcendental Études for Piano, S 139
Grandes études de Paganini
Jacques Offenbach – Concerto Rondo for cello and orchestra.
George Onslow – Wind Quintet Op. 81
Anton Rubinstein – Symphony No. 2 (Ocean) (first version)
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 4 from 1841, revised
Violin Sonata No. 1
Violin Sonata No. 2
Der Rose Pilgerfahrt, oratorio
Mädchenlieder, Op. 103
7 Lieder, Op. 104
6 Gesänge, Op. 107
Piano Trio No. 3, Op. 110
3 Gedichte, Op. 119
Julius Cäsar Ouverture, Op. 128
3 Fantasiestücke, for piano
Märchenbilder, for piano and viola
Opera
Félicien-César David – La Perle du Bresil
Charles Gounod – Sapho
Albert Lortzing – Die Oprnprobe
Joachim Raff – König Alfred
Giuseppe Verdi – Rigoletto
Births
January 25 – Jan Blockx, pianist, composer and music teacher (d. 1912)
January 27 – Gaspar Villate, composer (d. 1891)
February 12 – Anna Yesipova, pianist (d. 1914)
March 27
Ruperto Chapí, composer (d. 1909)
Vincent d'Indy, composer (d. 1931)
May 1 – Ludvig Hegner, composer (d. 1923)
May 6
Aristide Bruant, French singer (d. 1925)
Jean-Alexandre Talazac, operatic tenor (d. 1896)
May 7 – Julius Buths, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1920)
May 17 – Victor Bendix, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1926)
June 11 – Oscar Borg, composer (d. 1930)
June 12 – Pol Plançon, operatic bass (d. 1914)
August 8 – Walborg Lagerwall, Swedish violinist (d. 1940)
October 11 – Josif Marinković, composer (d. 1931)
October 16 – Viggo Bielefeldt, composer (d. 1909)
November 5 – Émile Pierre Ratez, composer (d. 1934)
November 16 – Minnie Hauk, operatic soprano (d. 1929)
probable – Marie Heilbron, operatic soprano (d. 1886)
Deaths
January 21 – Albert Lortzing, composer (b. 1801)
January 24 – Gaspare Spontini, composer (b. 1774)
February 20 – Josef Alois Ladurner, Austrian composer and pedagogue (b. 1769)
March 6
Alexander Alyabyev, composer (b. 1787)
Emma Hartmann, composer (b. 1807)
April 8 – John Parry (Bardd Alaw), harpist and composer (b. 1776)
July 4 – Martin-Joseph Mengal, composer (b. 1784)
July 17 – Béni Egressy, composer and librettist (b. 1814)
August 8 – James Shudi Broadwood, piano-maker (b. 1772)
October 8 – George Alexander Lee, singer, songwriter and opera producer (b. 1802)
December 1 – Carl Dahlén, ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1770)
External links
19th century in music
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256157 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1850%20in%20music | 1850 in music |
Events
August 28 (anniversary of Goethe's birth) – Richard Wagner's romantic opera Lohengrin (including the Bridal Chorus) premières under the direction of Franz Liszt at the Staatskapelle Weimar. Hans von Bülow attends and makes the decision to give up law and pursue music. His mother is convinced by two letters she receives from Liszt and Wagner.
Jenny Lind tours America, with Julius Benedict as her accompanist.
Soprano Wilhelmine Schröder-Devrient marries her third husband, landowner Heinrich von Bock.
Charles Gounod meets the soprano Pauline Viardot in Rome. She convinces him to compose opera.
Johannes Brahms meets the violinist Ede Reményi, whom he will accompany on several tours for the next couple of years.
Wagner, under a pseudonym, writes an antisemitic article on "Jewishness in Music" in Neue Zeitschrift für Musik.
Published popular music
Stephen Foster
"Camptown Races"
"Ah! May the Red Rose Live Alway"
"Molly Do You Love Me?"
"Nelly Bly"
M. S. Pike – "Home Again"
"I Have Got The Blues To Day!" w. Miss Sarah M. Graham, m. Gustave Blessner
"What Are The Wild Waves Saying" w. Joseph Edwards Carpenter m. Stephen Glover
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – La Fuite en Égypte (later incorporated into l'Enfance du Christ)
Carl Czerny – Album élégant des dames pianistes, Op. 804
Louise Farrenc – Sonata for violin and piano in A, Op. 39
Niels Gade – Symphony No. 4
Édouard Lalo – Piano Trio no. 1 in C minor
Franz Liszt – Prometheus
Anton Rubinstein – Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 25
Robert Schumann – Symphony No. 3 op. 97 in E-flat, Cello Concerto Op. 129 in A minor
Louis Spohr – String Quintet No. 7 in G minor (of 7)
Johann Strauss Jr.
Kaiser Franz Josef Marsch, Op. 67
Aeols-Töne Walzer, Op. 68
Die Gemütlichen Walzer, Op. 70
Künstler-Quadrille, Op. 71
Scherz-Polka, Op. 72
Frohsinns-Spenden Walzer, Op. 73
Lava-Ströme Walzer, Op. 74
Sofien-Quadrille, Op. 75
Attaque-Quadrille, Op. 76
Wiener Garnison Marsch, Op. 77
Rendez-vous Polka, Op. 78
Robert Volkmann – Piano Trio No. 2 op. 5 in B-flat minor
Opera
Daniel Auber – L'enfant prodigue
Fromental Halévy – La Tempesta
Robert Schumann – Genoveva
Richard Wagner – Lohengrin
Nicola De Giosa – Don Checco
Births
January 4 – Max Kalbeck, librettist and music critic (died 1921)
January 6 – Xaver Scharwenka, pianist and composer (d. 1924)
January 13 – Leon Francis Victor Caron, French-Australian conductor and composer (d. 1907)
February 18 – Sir George Henschel, Prussia-born singer, conductor, composer, founder of London Symphony Orchestra (d. 1934)
March 5 – Daniel B. Towner, composer (d. 1919)
March 9 – Alexandre Luigini, composer (d. 1906)
March 18 – Olefine Moe, opera singer (d. 1969)
March 26 – Amalia Riégo, opera singer (d. 1926)
April 25 – Luise Adolpha Le Beau, German composer (d. 1927)
July 3 – Alfredo Keil, composer and painter (d. 1907)
July 4 – Ole Olsen, Norwegian composer (d. 1927)
July 5 – Aloÿs Claussmann, French organist (died 1926)
September 9 – Leopoldo Miguez, composer (d. 1902)
September 21 – Hans Sitt, German violinist, teacher and composer (d. 1922)
November 10 – Arthur Goring Thomas, composer (d. 1892)
December 1 – Peter Erasmus Lange-Müller, Danish composer (d. 1926)
December 9 – Emma Abbott, singer (d. 1891)
December 13 – Iver Holter, conductor and composer (d. 1941)
December 20 – Theo Marzials, composer, singer and poet (d. 1920)
December 21 – Zdeněk Fibich, Czech composer (d. 1900)
December 29 – Tomás Bretón, composer (d. 1923)
Deaths
February 15 – Elisabeth Forsselius, actress and singer (b. 1771)
March 19 – Adalbert Gyrowetz, composer (b. 1763)
March 25 – Francesco Basili, conductor and composer (b. 1767)
April 3 – Václav Tomášek, pianist and composer (b. 1774)
May – Ludwig Schuberth, composer (b. 1806)
July 28 – Stefano Pavesi, composer (b. 1779)
August 22 – Nikolaus Lenau, lyricist and poet (born 1802)
October 12 – Luigia Boccabadati, operatic soprano (b. 1800)
October 14 – Alexandrine-Caroline Branchu, operatic soprano (b. 1780)
December 3 – Andrei Sychra, guitarist and composer (b. c. 1773)
References
19th century in music
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] |
256158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londoner | Londoner | Londoner could refer to:
Londoner, a person from or living in London, England
Londoner, a person from or living in London, Ontario, Canada
The Londoner, a former newspaper in London, England
The Londoners, or Londyńczycy, a Polish TV drama series set in London
Londoner v. City and County of Denver, an important case in United States administrative law
See also
Londoni, a term for British Bangladeshis
List of people from London, England
List of people from London, Ontario | [
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256159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1849%20in%20music | 1849 in music |
Events
April 16 – Giacomo Meyerbeer's grand opera Le prophète is premièred (after a decade in preparation) by the Paris Opera at the Salle Le Peletier with Pauline Viardot (who has collaborated extensively in the production) in the mezzo-soprano role, her first with the Opera. Stage effects include electric light, ballet on roller skates and the use of saxhorns. The audience includes Napoleon III (new Emperor of France), Berlioz, the terminally ill Chopin, and Turgenev. Its world tour begins on July 24 in London.
May 3–9 – Richard Wagner is an active participant in the May Uprising in Dresden, suppressed by the Kingdom of Saxony, and is forced to flee to Zürich.
September 22 – Johann Strauss I fails to turn up to a banquet in honour of Field Marshal Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, where he is expected to perform a new work. His absence is explained by the fact that he had contracted scarlet fever from one of his illegitimate children while working on the new composition; he dies a few days later in Vienna aged 45.
October 30 – Funeral of Frédéric Chopin (who has died aged 39, probably of pericarditis aggravated by tuberculosis) at La Madeleine, Paris, followed by burial of his body at Père Lachaise Cemetery.
November – Hungarian pianist and composer Stephen Heller makes his first visit to London on a concert tour.
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – Te Deum
Jakob Dont – 24 Etudes or Caprices, Op. 35
Stephen Heller – 25 Etudes, Op. 47
Karol Lipinski – Fantaisie sur des airs napolitains nationaux, Op. 31
Franz Liszt
Tasso
Totentanz
Funérailles
Hans Christian Lumbye
Amalia Vals
Caroline Polka Mazurka
Ludvig Norman – Piano Trio No. 1 in D major, Op. 4
Robert Schumann
Fantasiestücke, Op. 73
Manfred Op. 115, overture and Incidental music
Johann Strauss, Jr.
Annika-Quadrille, Op. 53
Burschen-Lieder Walzer, Op. 55
Einheits-Klänge Walzer, Op. 62
Fantasiebilder Walzer, Op. 64
D'Woaldbuama, Op. 66
Opera
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Le prophète
Otto Nicolai – The Merry Wives of Windsor
Lauro Rossi – Il domino nero
Ambrose Thomas – Le caïd
Giuseppe Verdi – La battaglia di Legnano
Popular music
"Dolcy Jones" by Stephen Foster
"Nelly Was a Lady" by Stephen Foster
"Once in Royal David's City", words: Cecil Frances Alexander, music: Henry Gauntlett. The words were written as a poem by Mrs Alexander in 1848.
"Santa Lucia" (first published version)
Births
May 25 – Thomas "Blind Tom" Wiggins, composer and pianist (d. 1908)
May 26 – Hubert von Herkomer, artist and composer (d. 1914)
July 4 – Antonina Miliukova, wife of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (d. 1917)
July 18 – Anna Judic, entertainer (d. 1911)
July 22 – Géza Zichy, disabled pianist (d. 1924)
August 18 – Benjamin Godard, violinist and composer (d. 1895)
August 20 – Selina Dolaro, actress and singer (d. 1889)
September 22 – Olena Falkman, concert vocalist (d. 1928)
December 4 – Ernesto Köhler, flautist and composer (d. 1907)
December 14 – François Cellier, conductor and composer (d. 1914)
Deaths
February 8 – François Antoine Habeneck, violinist and conductor (b. 1781)
May 11 – Otto Nicolai, composer (b. 1810)
June 3 – François de Fossa, guitarist and composer (b. 1775)
June 10 – Friedrich Kalkbrenner, pianist and composer (b. 1785)
September 25 – Johann Strauss I, composer (b. 1804)
October 17 – Frédéric Chopin, pianist and composer (b. 1810)
December 14 – Conradin Kreutzer, conductor and composer (b. 1780)
December 29 – Dionisio Aguado, guitarist and composer (b. 1784)
References
Music-related lists
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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] |
256160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1848%20in%20music | 1848 in music |
Events
January – Franz Liszt takes up the full-time post of conductor to the Weimar court orchestra.
March 18 – The premiere of Fry's Leonora in Philadelphia is the first known performance of an grand opera by an American composer.
March – Five Days of Milan: Uprising causes temporary closure of La Scala and postponement of the première of Mercadante's opera La schiava saracena.
April 1 – Der Ring des Nibelungen: Composition of the poem: Richard Wagner first records his intention to write the music drama that becomes Der Ring des Nibelungen ("The Ring of the Nibelung").
May 13 – "Maamme", the national anthem of Finland, written by German-born composer Fredrik Pacius and Swedish-speaking Finnish poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg, is performed for the first time.
July 25 – The National Anthem of Uruguay is officially declared.
April 21 – November 23 – Frédéric Chopin visits London and Scotland.
October – Chopin writes his last will and testament at a friend's house in Edinburgh.
November 16 – Chopin makes his last public appearance on a concert platform, at the Guildhall, London.
Charles Hallé moves from Paris to Britain due to the French Revolution of 1848 and is invited to Manchester in September.
Returning from exile, Cuban dance band leader Claudio Brindis de Salas is imprisoned for two years by the island's authorities.
Giuseppe Verdi wishes to replace soprano Eugenia Tadolini as Lady Macbeth for the first Naples performance of his opera Macbeth on the grounds that her voice and appearance are too beautiful. This year she creates two new rôles, Giovanna in Carlo Boniforti's Giovanna di Fiandra (February 8 at La Scala, Milan) and Paolina in Donizetti's Poliuto (November 30 at the Teatro di San Carlo, Naples) and makes her London debut as a lead singer in the title role of Donizetti's Linda di Chamounix opposite Sims Reeves at Her Majesty's Theatre (March).
Richard Wagner completes Lohengrin.
Classical music
Ida Henriette da Fonseca – Aly og Gulhyndy
George Onslow – Quintet for Piano and Strings No. 2 in G major
Jules Perrot – Faust, ballet
Alfredo Piatti – Air Baskyrs, Op. 8
Pietro Raimondi – Putifar-Giuseppe-Giacobbe (oratorio)
Adrien Francois Servais – Le Barbier de Séville, Op. 6
Robert Schumann – Bilder aus Osten, Op. 66
Johann Strauss I – Radetzky March
Opera
Giuseppe Verdi – Il corsaro
William Henry Fry - Leonora (the first known performance of an opera by an American composer on March 18, 1845)
Popular music
"Give Me My Arrows And Give Me My Bow" by Samuel Lover
"Oh! Susanna!" by Stephen Foster
Musical theater
Maritana New York production opened at the Bowery Theatre on May 4 and ran for 3 performances
Births
January 21 – Henri Duparc, composer (died 1933)
February 27 – Hubert Parry, composer, teacher and music historian (died 1918)
March 15 – William J. McCoy, composer (died 1926)
April 28 – Ludvig Schytte, Danish composer, pianist, and teacher
June 1 – Otto Malling, organist and composer (died 1915)
July 11 – Joaquim Antônio da Silva Calado, choro composer and flautist (died 1880)
July 31 – Robert Planquette, composer and songwriter (died 1903)
August 1 – František Kmoch, conductor and composer (died 1912)
September 15 – Wilhelm Fitzenhagen, cellist and composer (died 1890)
October 8 – Pierre De Geyter, composer (died 1932)
November 11 – William Seidel, band instrument manufacturer (died 1922)
November 26 – Mark Warshawsky, Yiddish-language folk poet and composer. (died 1907)
December 27 – George Ratcliffe Woodward, composer (died 1934)
December 30
Frances Allitsen, composer (died 1912)
David Jenkins, composer (died 1915)
Deaths
January 5 – Ferdinando Orlandi, opera composer (b. 1774)
January 23 – Márk Rózsavölgyi, violinist and composer (b. 1789)
January 31 – Thomas Welsh, singer and composer (b. c. 1780)
February 16 – Sophie Stebnowska, singer, actress and harpsichordist (b. 1753)
March 29 – Hugo Staehle, composer (b. 1826)
April 8
Louis Adam, pianist and composer (b. 1758)
Gaetano Donizetti, composer (b. 1797) (syphilis)
April 24 – François van Campenhout, opera singer, conductor and composer (b. 1779)
May 10 – Eliodoro Bianchi, Italian opera singer (b. 1773)
August 5 (or 6) – Nicola Vaccai, opera composer (b. 1790)
October 27 – Alexander Egorovich Varlamov, composer, early exponent of the Russian art song (b. 1801)
date unknown – Timothy Olmstead, psalmodist (b. 1759)
References
19th century in music
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256161 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20H.%20Ball | Joseph H. Ball | Joseph Hurst Ball (November 3, 1905December 18, 1993) was an American journalist, politician and businessman. Ball served as a Republican senator from Minnesota from 1940 to 1949. He was a conservative in domestic policy and a leading foe of labor unions. He helped draft the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. Ball was best known for his internationalism and his support for a postwar world organization, that became the United Nations. However, after 1945, he was an opponent of the Marshall Plan.
Pre-Senate career
Ball was born in Crookston, Minnesota, on November 3, 1905, and graduated from high school in 1922. He financed his education at Antioch College by planting corn on borrowed land and held jobs during his two years there as a telephone linesman, a construction worker, and a factory employee. In 1925, he transferred to Eau Claire Normal, and then to the University of Minnesota, but never earned a degree. In 1927, he got a reporting job at the Minneapolis Journal. When he sold a story to a pulp magazine for $50, he quit to become a freelance writer, and spent a year writing paperback fiction before returning to journalism, this time for the St. Paul Pioneer Press. In 1934, he became the paper's state political reporter, and befriended assistant county attorney Harold Stassen, a fellow Republican. As a columnist in the Pioneer Press, Ball was critical of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Democratic-majority in Congress, but he also opposed isolationism in foreign policy. In the meantime, Stassen was elected governor of Minnesota.
United States Senator
When Senator Ernest Lundeen, an isolationist, was killed in a plane crash, Stassen appointed Ball to fill the remaining two years of Lundeen's term. One of the youngest persons ever to become a U.S. senator, Ball, at thirty-five, was also the first senator to be required to register for conscription. After being sworn in on October 14, 1940, Ball stunned isolationist Republicans in his first speech on the Senate floor, calling for the United States to aid Britain as "a barrier between us and whatever designs Hitler and his allies may have on this continent".
He opposed the liberalism of the New Deal, but he supported Franklin Roosevelt's foreign policy and supported the Lend-Lease program on March 8, 1941, in spite of overwhelmingly negative letters from his constituents. The change in sentiment was best illustrated by the editorial pages of the Fairmont Daily Sentinel, as quoted in an article in The New Republic. When he had first been appointed, the Sentinel ran an editorial with the headline, "Joe Ball for U.S. Senator! Good God!"; upon Ball's re-election, the Sentinel ran another editorial entitled "Joe Ball for U.S. Senator! Thank God!"
Ball was elected to the Senate in the 1942 election, receiving 47% of the vote against Farmer-Labor, Independent and Democratic opposition. Because Ball's 1940 appointment had been set to expire on the day of the next senatorial election rather than the expiration of Lundeen's term, Ball ceased being senator on the day that he won a six-year term. Ball then took office again, as a freshman senator on January 3, 1943, and served until January 3, 1949. In 1943, he was one of four Senate sponsors of the bill to establish what would become the United Nations.
In the 1944 U.S. presidential election, Ball refused to support Republican nominee Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York, and instead crossed party lines to endorse Franklin Roosevelt. Ball denounced Dewey for making his position on foreign policy so unclear that both isolationists and internationalists "could find comfort and support in what he said". Ball's support for Roosevelt, which may have proved critical to victory in Minnesota, won praise from his senatorial colleague Carl Hatch, a New Mexico Democrat, who said that Ball had "placed his country above his party".
In 1948, Ball was soundly defeated for Senate reelection by Mayor Hubert H. Humphrey of Minneapolis, a 37-year-old liberal Democrat and civil rights advocate.
During the 1950s, Ball came to the public defense of several people whom Senator Joseph R. McCarthy accused of having Communist leanings.
Ball had never stopped writing his column for the Pioneer Press, even during his service in the United States Senate. He therefore returned to the news business and continued to comment on American foreign policy in a newsletter. He worked as an executive in the shipping industry until he retired in 1982, four years after the death of Hubert Humphrey. Ball died in Chevy Chase, Maryland, at the age of 88.
References
Further reading
Eleonora W. Schoenebaum, ed. Political Profiles: The Truman Years (1978), p. 22–23.
External links
Joseph H. Ball's personal papers are available for research use at the Minnesota Historical Society.
1905 births
1993 deaths
People from Crookston, Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Republican Party United States senators
United States senators from Minnesota
Antioch College alumni
University of Minnesota alumni
University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire alumni
Writers from Saint Paul, Minnesota
American male journalists
20th-century American journalists
20th-century American businesspeople
Politicians from Saint Paul, Minnesota
People from Chevy Chase, Maryland
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American politicians
Businesspeople from Saint Paul, Minnesota
20th-century American male writers | [
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256162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutrophil | Neutrophil | Neutrophils (also known as neutrocytes or heterophils) are the most abundant type of granulocytes and make up 40% to 70% of all white blood cells in humans. They form an essential part of the innate immune system, with their functions varying in different animals.
They are formed from stem cells in the bone marrow and differentiated into subpopulations of neutrophil-killers and neutrophil-cagers. They are short-lived and highly mobile, as they can enter parts of tissue where other cells/molecules cannot. Neutrophils may be subdivided into segmented neutrophils and banded neutrophils (or bands). They form part of the polymorphonuclear cells family (PMNs) together with basophils and eosinophils.
The name neutrophil derives from staining characteristics on hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) histological or cytological preparations. Whereas basophilic white blood cells stain dark blue and eosinophilic white blood cells stain bright red, neutrophils stain a neutral pink. Normally, neutrophils contain a nucleus divided into 2–5 lobes.
Neutrophils are a type of phagocyte and are normally found in the bloodstream. During the beginning (acute) phase of inflammation, particularly as a result of bacterial infection, environmental exposure, and some cancers, neutrophils are one of the first responders of inflammatory cells to migrate toward the site of inflammation. They migrate through the blood vessels and then through interstitial tissue, following chemical signals such as interleukin-8 (IL-8), C5a, fMLP, Leukotriene B4, and H2O2 in a process called chemotaxis. They are the predominant cells in pus, accounting for its whitish/yellowish appearance.
Neutrophils are recruited to the site of injury within minutes following trauma and are the hallmark of acute inflammation; however, due to some pathogens being indigestible, they might not be able to resolve certain infections without the assistance of other types of immune cells.
Structure
When adhered to a surface, neutrophil granulocytes have an average diameter of 12–15 micrometers (µm) in peripheral blood smears. In suspension, human neutrophils have an average diameter of 8.85 µm.
With the eosinophil and the basophil, they form the class of polymorphonuclear cells, named for the nucleus' multilobulated shape (as compared to lymphocytes and monocytes, the other types of white cells). The nucleus has a characteristic lobed appearance, the separate lobes connected by chromatin. The nucleolus disappears as the neutrophil matures, which is something that happens in only a few other types of nucleated cells. Up to 17% of female human neutrophil nuclei have a drumstick-shaped appendage which contains the inactivated X chromosome. In the cytoplasm, the Golgi apparatus is small, mitochondria and ribosomes are sparse, and the rough endoplasmic reticulum is absent. The cytoplasm also contains about 200 granules, of which a third are azurophilic.
Neutrophils will show increasing segmentation (many segments of the nucleus) as they mature. A normal neutrophil should have 3–5 segments. Hypersegmentation is not normal but occurs in some disorders, most notably vitamin B12 deficiency. This is noted in a manual review of the blood smear and is positive when most or all of the neutrophils have 5 or more segments.
Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cells in humans (approximately 1011 are produced daily); they account for approximately 50–70% of all white blood cells (leukocytes). The stated normal range for human blood counts varies between laboratories, but a neutrophil count of 2.5–7.5 × 109/L is a standard normal range. People of African and Middle Eastern descent may have lower counts, which are still normal. A report may divide neutrophils into segmented neutrophils and bands.
When circulating in the bloodstream and inactivated, neutrophils are spherical. Once activated, they change shape and become more amorphous or amoeba-like and can extend pseudopods as they hunt for antigens.
In 1973, Sanchez et al. found that the capacity of neutrophils to engulf bacteria is reduced when simple sugars like glucose, fructose as well as sucrose, honey and orange juice were ingested, while the ingestion of starches had no effect. Fasting, on the other hand, strengthened the neutrophils' phagocytic capacity to engulf bacteria. It was concluded that the function, and not the number, of phagocytes in engulfing bacteria was altered by the ingestion of sugars. In 2007 researchers at the Whitehead Institute of Biomedical Research found that given a selection of sugars on microbial surfaces, the neutrophils reacted to some types of sugars preferentially. The neutrophils preferentially engulfed and killed beta-1,6-glucan targets compared to beta-1,3-glucan targets.
Development
Life span
The average lifespan of inactivated human neutrophils in the circulation has been reported by different approaches to be between 5 and 135 hours.
Upon activation, they marginate (position themselves adjacent to the blood vessel endothelium) and undergo selectin-dependent capture followed by integrin-dependent adhesion in most cases, after which they migrate into tissues, where they survive for 1–2 days. Neutrophils have also been demonstrated to be released into the blood from a splenic reserve following myocardial infarction.
Neutrophils are much more numerous than the longer-lived monocyte/macrophage phagocytes. A pathogen (disease-causing microorganism or virus) is likely to first encounter a neutrophil. Some experts hypothesize that the short lifetime of neutrophils is an evolutionary adaptation. The short lifetime of neutrophils minimizes propagation of those pathogens that parasitize phagocytes because the more time such parasites spend outside a host cell, the more likely they will be destroyed by some component of the body's defenses. Also, because neutrophil antimicrobial products can also damage host tissues, their short life limits damage to the host during inflammation.
Neutrophils will be removed after phagocytosis of pathogens by macrophages. PECAM-1 and phosphatidylserine on the cell surface are involved in this process.
Function
Chemotaxis
Neutrophils undergo a process called chemotaxis via amoeboid movement, which allows them to migrate toward sites of infection or inflammation. Cell surface receptors allow neutrophils to detect chemical gradients of molecules such as interleukin-8 (IL-8), interferon gamma (IFN-γ), C3a, C5a, and Leukotriene B4, which these cells use to direct the path of their migration.
Neutrophils have a variety of specific receptors, including ones for complement, cytokines like interleukins and IFN-γ, chemokines, lectins, and other proteins. They also express receptors to detect and adhere to endothelium and Fc receptors for opsonin.
In leukocytes responding to a chemoattractant, the cellular polarity is regulated by activities of small Rho guanosine triphosphatases (Rho GTPases) and the phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3Ks). In neutrophils, lipid products of PI3Ks regulate activation of Rac1, hematopoietic Rac2, and RhoG GTPases of the Rho family and are required for cell motility. Rac-GTPases regulate cytoskeletal dynamics and facilitate neutrophils adhesion, migration, and spreading. They accumulate asymmetrically to the plasma membrane at the leading edge of polarized cells. Spatially regulating Rho GTPases and organizing the leading edge of the cell, PI3Ks and their lipid products could play pivotal roles in establishing leukocyte polarity, as compass molecules that tell the cell where to crawl.
It has been shown in mice that in certain conditions neutrophils have a specific type of migration behaviour referred to as neutrophil swarming during which they migrate in a highly coordinated manner and accumulate and cluster to sites of inflammation.
Anti-microbial function
Being highly motile, neutrophils quickly congregate at a focus of infection, attracted by cytokines expressed by activated endothelium, mast cells, and macrophages. Neutrophils express and release cytokines, which in turn amplify inflammatory reactions by several other cell types.
In addition to recruiting and activating other cells of the immune system, neutrophils play a key role in the front-line defense against invading pathogens. Neutrophils have three methods for directly attacking micro-organisms: phagocytosis (ingestion), degranulation (release of soluble anti-microbials), and generation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs).
Phagocytosis
Neutrophils are phagocytes, capable of ingesting microorganisms or particles. For targets to be recognized, they must be coated in opsonins—a process known as antibody opsonization. They can internalize and kill many microbes, each phagocytic event resulting in the formation of a phagosome into which reactive oxygen species and hydrolytic enzymes are secreted. The consumption of oxygen during the generation of reactive oxygen species has been termed the "respiratory burst", although unrelated to respiration or energy production.
The respiratory burst involves the activation of the enzyme NADPH oxidase, which produces large quantities of superoxide, a reactive oxygen species. Superoxide decays spontaneously or is broken down via enzymes known as superoxide dismutases (Cu/ZnSOD and MnSOD), to hydrogen peroxide, which is then converted to hypochlorous acid (HClO), by the green heme enzyme myeloperoxidase. It is thought that the bactericidal properties of HClO are enough to kill bacteria phagocytosed by the neutrophil, but this may instead be a step necessary for the activation of proteases.
Though neutrophils can kill many microbes, the interaction of neutrophils with microbes and molecules produced by microbes often alters neutrophil turnover. The ability of microbes to alter the fate of neutrophils is highly varied, can be microbe-specific, and ranges from prolonging the neutrophil lifespan to causing rapid neutrophil lysis after phagocytosis. Chlamydia pneumoniae and Neisseria gonorrhoeae have been reported to delay neutrophil apoptosis. Thus, some bacteria—and those that are predominantly intracellular pathogens—can extend the neutrophil lifespan by disrupting the normal process of spontaneous apoptosis and/or PICD (phagocytosis-induced cell death). On the other end of the spectrum, some pathogens such as Streptococcus pyogenes are capable of altering neutrophil fate after phagocytosis by promoting rapid cell lysis and/or accelerating apoptosis to the point of secondary necrosis.
Degranulation
Neutrophils also release an assortment of proteins in three types of granules by a process called degranulation. The contents of these granules have antimicrobial properties, and help combat infection.
Neutrophil extracellular traps
In 2004, Brinkmann and colleagues described a striking observation that activation of neutrophils causes the release of web-like structures of DNA; this represents a third mechanism for killing bacteria. These neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) comprise a web of fibers composed of chromatin and serine proteases that trap and kill extracellular microbes. It is suggested that NETs provide a high local concentration of antimicrobial components and bind, disarm, and kill microbes independent of phagocytic uptake. In addition to their possible antimicrobial properties, NETs may serve as a physical barrier that prevents further spread of pathogens. Trapping of bacteria may be a particularly important role for NETs in sepsis, where NETs are formed within blood vessels. Finally, NET formation has been demonstrated to augment macrophage bactericidal activity during infection. Recently, NETs have been shown to play a role in inflammatory diseases, as NETs could be detected in preeclampsia, a pregnancy-related inflammatory disorder in which neutrophils are known to be activated. Neutrophil NET formation may also impact cardiovascular disease, as NETs may influence thrombus formation in coronary arteries.
NETs are now known to exhibit pro-thrombotic effects both in vitro and in vivo. More recently, in 2020 NETs were implicated in the formation of blood clots in cases of severe COVID-19.
Clinical significance
Low neutrophil counts are termed neutropenia. This can be congenital (developed at or before birth) or it can develop later, as in the case of aplastic anemia or some kinds of leukemia. It can also be a side-effect of medication, most prominently chemotherapy. Neutropenia makes an individual highly susceptible to infections. It can also be the result of colonization by intracellular neutrophilic parasites.
In alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency, the important neutrophil elastase is not adequately inhibited by alpha 1-antitrypsin, leading to excessive tissue damage in the presence of inflammation – the most prominent one being emphysema. Negative effects of elastase has been also shown in cases when the neutrophils are excessively activated (in otherwise healthy individual) and release the enzyme in extracellular space. Unregulated activity of neutrophil elastase can lead to disruption of pulmonary barrier showing symptoms corresponding with acute lung injury. The enzyme also influences activity of macrophages by cleaving their toll-like receptors (TLRs) and downregulating cytokine expression by inhibiting nuclear translocation of NF-κB.
In Familial Mediterranean fever (FMF), a mutation in the pyrin (or marenostrin) gene, which is expressed mainly in neutrophil granulocytes, leads to a constitutively active acute-phase response and causes attacks of fever, arthralgia, peritonitis, and – eventually – amyloidosis.
Decreases in neutrophil function have been linked to hyperglycemia. Dysfunction in the neutrophil biochemical pathway myeloperoxidase as well as reduced degranulation are associated with hyperglycemia.
The Absolute neutrophil count (ANC) is also used in diagnosis and prognosis. ANC is the gold standard for determining severity of neutropenia, and thus neutropenic fever. Any ANC < 1500 cells / mm3 is considered neutropenia, but <500 cells / mm3 is considered severe. There is also new research tying ANC to myocardial infarction as an aid in early diagnosis.
In autopsy, the presence of neutrophils in the heart or brain is one of the first signs of infarction, and is therefore useful the diagnosis of myocardial infarction and stroke, and the timing thereof.
Neutrophil antigens
There are five (HNA 1–5) sets of neutrophil antigens recognized. The three HNA-1 antigens (a-c) are located on the low affinity Fc-γ receptor IIIb (FCGR3B :CD16b) The single known HNA-2a antigen is located on CD177. The HNA-3 antigen system has two antigens (3a and 3b) which are located on the seventh exon of the CLT2 gene (SLC44A2). The HNA-4 and HNA-5 antigen systems each have two known antigens (a and b) and are located in the β2 integrin. HNA-4 is located on the αM chain (CD11b) and HNA-5 is located on the αL integrin unit (CD11a).
Subpopulations
Two functionally unequal subpopulations of neutrophils were identified on the basis of different levels of their reactive oxygen metabolite generation, membrane permeability, activity of enzyme system, and ability to be inactivated. The cells of one subpopulation with high membrane permeability (neutrophil-killers) intensively generate reactive oxygen metabolites and are inactivated in consequence of interaction with the substrate, whereas cells of another subpopulation (neutrophil-cagers) produce reactive oxygen species less intensively, don't adhere to substrate and preserve their activity. Additional studies have shown that lung tumors can be infiltrated by various populations of neutrophils.
Video
Neutrophils display highly directional amoeboid motility in infected footpad and phalanges. Intravital imaging was performed in the footpad path of LysM-eGFP mice 20 minutes after infection with Listeria monocytogenes.
Additional images
References
External links
Neutropenia Information
Absolute Neutrophil Count Calculator
Neutrophil Trace Element Content and Distribution
Cell biology
Granulocytes
Phagocytes
Human cells
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256164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1847%20in%20music | 1847 in music |
Events
February 28 – Fire breaks out during a performance and destroys the Großherzoglichen Hoftheater in Baden. Most of the audience perishes because the theatre doors cannot be opened from the inside.
March 3 – I Lombardi alla prima crociata is performed at Palmo's Opera House in New York City, the first presentation of a Verdi opera in the United States.
March 14 – Verdi's Macbeth is premiėred at the Teatro della Pergola in Florence, Italy.
Franz Liszt gives up performing in public.
Vladimir Stasov publishes a monograph on Mikhail Glinka's use of folk motifs in his music.
Popular music
"Cantique de Noël" ("O Holy Night") w. (Fr) Placide Cappeau (Eng) John Sullivan Dwight m. Adolphe Adam
"Dinah Dear" by Philip Klitz
"Miss Ginger" by Philip Klitz
"Roll On Silver Moon" by Joseph W. Turner
Classical music
Franz Liszt
Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2
Glanes de Woronince
Most of the Harmonies poétiques et religieuses
Felix Mendelssohn – String Quartet No. 6
Robert Schumann
Symphony No. 2
Piano Trio No. 1
Jacques Offenbach – Concerto Militaire for cello and orchestra
Frederic Chopin
Waltz Opus 64 No.1 (Minute)
Waltz Op. 64. No. 2
Henryk Wieniawski – Grand Caprice Fantastique Op. 1
Opera
Francisco Asenjo Barbieri – Il Buontemponi
Giovanni Bottesini – Cristoforo Colombo
Friedrich von Flotow – Martha
Ivar Hallstrom – Hvita frun på Drottningholm (libretto by Frans Hedberg)
Karel Miry – Brigitta (opera in 3 acts, libretto by Hippoliet van Peene, premiered on June 27 in Ghent)
Giuseppe Verdi – Macbeth
William Vincent Wallace – Matilda of Hungary
Births
January 1 – Rudolf Tillmetz, flute virtuoso, music teacher and composer (d. 1915)
February 15 – Robert Fuchs, composer and music teacher (d. 1927)
March 2 – Richard Temple, singer, actor and theatre director (d. 1912)
March 9 – Axel Grandjean, conductor and composer (d. 1932)
June 28 – Sveinbjörn Sveinbjörnsson, composer (d. 1927)
July 12 – Karl Heinrich Barth, pianist and music teacher (d. 1922)
July 21 – Víctor Mirecki Larramat, cellist and music teacher (d. 1921)
October 21 – Giuseppe Giacosa, librettist for some of Puccini's operas (d. 1906)
November 1 – Emma Albani, soprano (d. 1930)
November 30 – August Klughardt, conductor and composer (d. 1902)
December 1 – Agathe Backer Grøndahl, pianist and composer (d. 1907)
December 9 – George Grossmith, comic writer and performer (d. 1912)
December 18 – Augusta Holmès, composer (d. 1903)
date unknown – Emma Fursch-Madi, operatic soprano (d. 1894)
Deaths
January 6 – Tyagaraja, Carnatic music composer (b. 1767)
April 23 – Erik Gustaf Geijer, writer and composer (b. 1783)
May 14 – Fanny Mendelssohn, pianist and composer (b. 1805; stroke)
June 11 – Heinrich Bärmann, clarinet virtuoso (b. 1784)
June 18 – Lisette Stenberg, actress and musician (b. 1770)
July 19 – Johann Wilhelm Wilms, composer (b. 1772)
September 4 – František Vladislav Hek, writer and composer (b. 1769)
September 25 – Emma Albertazzi, English contralto (b. 1814)
November 4 – Felix Mendelssohn, pianist, conductor and composer (b. 1809)
date unknown – Cyrill Demian, piano and organ maker (b. 1772)
date unknown – Francesco Molino, guitarist and composer (b. 1775)
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1846%20in%20music | 1846 in music |
Events
June 28 – Adolphe Sax patents the saxophone.
August 16 – Gioachino Rossini marries artist's model Olympe Pélissier.
Electric spotlighting is installed at the Paris Opera.
Published popular music
"Lijepa naša domovino" Croatian national anthem m. Josip Runjanin w. Antun Mihanović (written in 1835)
"The Indian's Prayer" w. Anonymous, m. I.B. Woodbury
"Well-A-Day" by George Linley
"When the Swallows Homeward Fly" w.m. Franz Abt
Oratorio
Felix Mendelssohn – Elijah
César Franck – Ruth
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – La damnation de Faust
Anton Bruckner
Tantum ergo, WAB 41, 42
"Ständchen", WAB 84.2
Henry Litolff – Concerto Symphonique No 3 in E-flat, Op. 45 (approximately 1846)
Felix Mendelssohn – Lauda Sion, Op. 73
Jules Perrot – Catarina or La Fille du Bandit (ballet)
Frederic Chopin
Polonaise-Fantaisie
Barcarolle
Cello Sonata
Opera
Julius Benedict – The Crusaders
Albert Lortzing – Der Waffenschmied
Saverio Mercadante – Orazi e Curiazi
Karel Miry – Wit en zwart (opera in 1 act, with libretto by Hippoliet van Peene, premièred on January 18 in Ghent)
Franz von Suppé – Poet and Peasant (24 August, Theater an der Wien, Vienna)
Births
January 2 – Sándor Erkel, Hungarian composer, son of Ferenc Erkel
February 24 – Luigi Denza, composer (d. 1922)
February 26 – Amanda Forsberg, ballerina (date of death unknown)
February 27 – Joaquín Valverde Durán, flautist, conductor and composer (d. 1910)
March 7 – Peppino Turco, songwriter (d. 1907)
March 29 – Louise Pyk, Swedish opera singer (d. 1929)
April 2 – Albert Périlhou, organist, pianist and composer (d. 1936)
May 2 – Zygmunt Noskowski, conductor and composer (d. 1909)
May 22 – Francis Hueffer, music critic (d. 1889)
July 2 – Rosina Brandram, opera singer and actress (d. 1907)
July 29 – Sophie Menter, pianist and composer (d. 1918)
August 24 – Paul Rougnon, pianist and composer (d. 1934)
September 21
Catherine Chislova, ballerina (d. 1889)
Juliana Walanika, the "Hawaiian Nightingale", court singer (d. 1931)
October 20 – Johan Amberg, composer (d. 1928)
November 7 – Ignaz Brüll, pianist and composer (d. 1907)
November 23 – Ernst von Schuch, conductor (d. 1914)
date unknown – Valentina Serova, composer (d. 1924)
Deaths
February 3 – Joseph Weigl the younger, composer and conductor (b. 1766)
February 13 – Johann Bernhard Logier, music teacher (b. 1777)
February 18 – William Hawes, choirmaster (b. 1785)
February 22 – Carel Anton Fodor, Dutch pianist and conductor (b. 1768)
April 16 – Domenico Dragonetti, double-bass player (b. 1763)
April 24 – Girolamo Crescentini, castrato singer (b. 1766)
July 23 – Christian Heinrich Rinck, organist and composer (b. 1770)
August 10 – Johann Simon Hermstedt, clarinettist (b. 1778)
September 14 – Carl Almenräder, bassoonist and composer (b. 1786)
November 1 – Franz Anton Ries, violinist (b. 1755)
November 30 – Maria Severa Onofriana, Portuguese singer and guitarist, considered the founder of fado (b. 1820)
December 12 – Eliza Flower, musician and composer (b. 1803)
December 25 – Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, Maharajah of Travancore, musician, composer and patron of the arts (b. 1813)
date unknown
Dede Efendi, composer (b. 1778)
Mykola Ovsianiko-Kulikovsky, subject of a famous musical hoax
Sophie Weber, singer (b. c. 1763)
References
19th century in music
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256167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1844%20in%20music | 1844 in music |
Events
May 27 – Joseph Joachim plays the solo part in Beethoven's violin concerto with Mendelssohn conducting the London Philharmonic. Later this year he meets Robert and Clara Schumann.
October 15 – Johann Strauss Jr. makes his performance debut at Dommayer's Casino in Hietzing.
November 25 – Seth Gingras music by Michael William Balfe and libretto by Alfred Bunn has its American premiere at the Park Theatre, New York City.
Thomas Tellefsen becomes a pupil of Frédéric Chopin.
Jacques Offenbach converts to Catholicism and marries Herminie d'Alcain.
Popular music
"Buffalo Gals" w. The Ethiopian Serenaders (published 1848), m. John Hodges originally entitled "Lubly Fan"
"The Blue Juniata" Marion Dix Sullivan (w. & m.)
"Open Thy Lattice, Love" w. George Pope Morris, m. Stephen Collins Foster
"Skip To My Lou" Trad. US
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – Roman Carnival Overture
Henry Litolff – Concerto Symphonique No 2 in B minor, Op. 22
Felix Mendelssohn
Spring Song m.
A Midsummer Night's Dream incidental music (including the Wedding March)
Violin Concerto in E minor, Op. 64
Johann Strauss Jr.
Sinngedichte
Gunstwerber
Herzenslust
Opera
Georges Bousquet – L'Hôtesse de Lyon
Friedrich Flotow – Alessandro Stradella
Giuseppe Verdi
I due Foscari
Ernani
Births
January 14 – Clara Kathleen Rogers, American singer and composer (d. 1931)
January 29 – Charles G. Conn, instrument manufacturer (d. 1931)
February 21 – Charles-Marie Widor, organist and composer
March 10 – Pablo de Sarasate, violinist and composer (d. 1908)
March 18 – Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, composer
April 9 – László Erkel, Hungarian composer, son of Ferenc Erkel
May 8 – Hermann Graedener, conductor and composer (d. 1929)
June 3 – Émile Paladilhe, composer (d. 1926)
September 11 - Carl Bohm, pianist and composer (d. 1920)
December 5 – Sir Frederick Bridge, organist and composer (d. 1924)
Date unknown – Olga Sandberg, Swedish ballerina
Deaths
January 15 – Joseph Mazzinghi, composer (b. 1765)
January 30 – John Addison, double-bass player and composer (b. 1765)
April 6 – Francis Johnson, black composer and band-leader
May 21 – Giuseppe Baini, church composer and music critic (b. 1775)
July 13 – Johann Baptist Gänsbacher, composer (b. 1778)
July 29 – Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart, pianist and composer, son of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
September 4 – Oliver Holden, composer and hymn-writer (b. 1765)
November 9 – Uri Keeler Hill, composer (b. 1780)
December 9 – Franz Seraph von Destouches, composer
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1843%20in%20music | 1843 in music |
Events
February 6 – The Virginia Minstrels perform the first minstrel show (Bowery Amphitheatre, New York City).
May 22 – Gottfried Kinkel marries fellow musician Johanna Mockel.
November 13 – Gaetano Donizetti's final opera Dom Sébastien is premiered at the Paris Opera.
December 26 – Following the première of his last opera, Hernani, Alberto Mazzucato retires from composing in order to become a full-time music teacher.
Approximate date – Euphonium invented.
August Conradi becomes organist of the Invalidenhaus, Berlin.
Hector Berlioz writes Grand traité d'instrumentation et d'orchestration modernes, Op. 10
Popular music
"Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean" by Thomas Becket
"I Dreamt I Dwelt in Marble Halls" w. Alfred Bunn m. Michael William Balfe from the light opera The Bohemian Girl
"Old Dan Tucker", usually attributed to Dan Emmett
"Then You'll Remember Me" w. Alfred Bunn m. Michael William Balfe from the light opera The Bohemian Girl
Classical music
Dionisio Aguado – Nuevo método para guitarra, Op. 6
Frédéric Chopin
Impromptu No. 3 in G-flat major, opus 51
Ballade No. 4 in F minor, opus 52
August Conradi – Symphony No. 1
Niels Gade – Symphony No. 2
Franz Liszt – Album Leaf in E major (S. 166a)
Felix Mendelssohn
Cello Sonata No. 2 in D major, Op. 58
Die erste Walpurgisnacht, secular cantata, opus 60 (première in Leipzig, February 2)
Robert Schumann − Paradise and the Peri, secular oratorio, opus 50 (premiere in Leipzig, December)
Johann Strauss – Lorelei Rhein Klänge op. 154 ("Echoes of the Rhine Loreley")
Opera
27 November – Michael William Balfe's The Bohemian Girl debuts in London at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane
Julius Benedict – The Bride of Venice
Gaetano Donizetti – Don Pasquale
Giovanni Pacini – Medea
Giuseppe Verdi – I Lombardi
Richard Wagner – The Flying Dutchman
Fromental Halévy – Charles VI
Births
February 10 – Adelina Patti, soprano (died 1919)
March 6 – Arthur Napoleão dos Santos, Brazilian pianist and composer, instrument dealer and music publisher (died 1925)
March 16 – Louis Gregh, composer and publisher (died 1915)
April 8 – Asger Hamerik, composer (died 1923)
May 2 – Karl Michael Ziehrer, Austrian composer and bandmaster (died 1922)
May 20 – Miguel Marqués, Spanish composer and violinist (died 1918)
May 29 – Émile Pessard, French composer (died 1917)
June 13 – Adolf Neuendorff, German-American composer, conductor, pianist and violinist (died 1897)
June 15 – Edvard Grieg, Norwegian composer (died 1907)
June 16 – David Popper, cellist and composer (died 1913)
June 19 – Charles Edouard Lefebvre, French composer (died 1917)
June 20 – Fyodor Stravinsky, opera singer and father of Igor Stravinsky (died 1902)
August 4 – Flor van Duyse, Belgian composer and musicologist (died 1910)
August 5 – James Scott Skinner, Scottish dancing master, violinist, fiddler, and composer (died 1927)
August 20 – Christina Nilsson, operatic soprano (died 1921)
August 26 – Georg August Lumbye, Danish composer, son of Hans Christian Lumbye (died 1922)
September 4 – Ján Levoslav Bella, Slovak composer (died 1936)
November 2 – Elek Erkel, Hungarian composer, son of Ferenc Erkel (died 1893)
November 28 – Émile Bernard, French composer and organist (died 1902)
December 3 – Franz Xaver Neruda, Danish cellist and composer (died 1915)
December 13 – George Stephanescu, Romanian composer (died 1925)
December 22 – Julius Bechgaard, Danish composer (died 1917)
date unknown – Eduard Holst, Danish composer
Deaths
January 11
Antoine Bournonville, dancer, singer and actor, 82
Francis Scott Key, poet and songwriter, 63
March 9 – Christian August Pohlenz, conductor and composer, 52
April 14 – Josef Lanner, Viennese composer, 42 (typhoid)
May 3 – Franz Xaver Gebel, conductor, composer and music teacher, 55 or 56
May 4 – Eduard Rottmanner, organist and composer, 33
May 12 – Johann Georg Lickl, composer and piano teacher, 74
July – Nehemiah Shumway, composer of sacred music, 81
July 29 – Domenico Reina, operatic and bel canto tenor, 47
August 29 – Charles Jane Ashley, cellist and secretary of the Royal Society of Musicians, 70
date unknown
Therese Jansen Bartolozzi, pianist (born c.1770)
Knut Luraas, Hardingfele fiddler (born 1782)
19th century in music
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