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256362 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille%20Lemonnier | Camille Lemonnier | Antoine Louis Camille Lemonnier (24 March 1844 – 13 June 1913) was a Belgian writer, poet and journalist. He was a member of the Symbolist La Jeune Belgique group, but his best known works are realist. His first work was Salon de Bruxelles (1863), a collection of art criticism. His best known novel is Un Mâle (1881).
Biography
Lemonnier was born in Ixelles, Brussels.
He studied law, and then took a clerkship in a government office, which he resigned after three years. Lemonnier inherited Flemish blood from both parents, and with it the animal force and pictorial energy of the Flemish temperament. He published a Salon de Bruxelles in 1863, and again in 1866. His early friendships were chiefly with artists; and he wrote art criticisms with recognized discernment. In 1868 he was a founding member of the Société Libre des Beaux-Arts, an avant-gardist group whose ideals he championed. Taking a house in the hills near Namur, he devoted himself to sport, and developed the intimate sympathy with nature which informs his best work. Nos Flamands (1869) and Croquis d'automne (1870) date from this time. Paris-Berlin (1870), a pamphlet pleading the cause of France, and full of the author's horror of war, had a great success.
His capacity as a novelist, in the fresh, humorous description of peasant life, was revealed in Un Coin de village (1879). In Un Mâle (1881) he achieved a different kind of success. It deals with the amours of a poacher and a farmer's daughter, with the forest as a background. Cachaprès, the poacher, seems the very embodiment of the wild life around him. The rejection of Un Mâle by the judges for the quinquennial prize of literature in 1883 made Lemonnier the centre of a school, inaugurated at a banquet given in his honour on 27 May 1883. Le Mort (1882), which describes the remorse of two peasants for a murder they have committed, provides a vivid representation of terror. It was remodelled as a tragedy in five acts (1899) by its author. Ceux de la glèbe (1889), dedicated to the "children of the soil", was written in 1885.
He turned aside from local subjects for some time to produce a series of psychological novels, books of art criticism, etc., of considerable value, but assimilating more closely to French contemporary literature. The most striking of his later novels include Happe-chair (1886), often compared with Zola's Germinal, L'Arche, journal d'une maman (1894) and Le Vent dans les moulins (1901), which returns to Flemish subjects.
In 1888 Lemonnier was prosecuted in Paris for offending against public morals by a story in Gil Blas, and was condemned to a fine. In a later prosecution at Brussels he was defended by Edmond Picard, and acquitted; and he was arraigned for a third time, at Bruges, for his L'Homme en amour, but again acquitted. He represented his own case in Les Deux consciences (1902). L'Ile vierge (1897) was the first of a trilogy to be called La Légende de la vie, which was to trace, under the fortunes of the hero, the pilgrimage of man through sorrow and sacrifice to the conception of the divinity within him. In Adam et Eve (1899) and Au Cœur frais de la forêt (1900), he preached the return to nature as the salvation not only of the individual but of the community. Among his other more important works are G. Courbet, et ses œuvres (1878); L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique 1830–1887 (1887); En Allemagne (1888), dealing especially with the Pinakothek at Munich; La Belgique (1888), an elaborate descriptive work with many illustrations; La Vie belge (1905); and Alfred Stevens et son œuvre (1906).
Lemonnier spent much time in Paris, and was one of the early contributors to the Mercure de France. He began to write at a time when Belgian letters lacked style; and with much toil, and some initial extravagances, he created a medium for the expression of his ideas. He explained something of the process in a preface contributed to Gustave Abel's Labeur de la prose (1902). His prose is magnificent and sonorous, but abounds in neologisms and strange metaphors.
Rue Camille Lemonnier/Camille Lemonnierstraat in western Ixelles, is named in his honor.
Works
Salon de Bruxelles (1863)
Nos Flamands (1869)
Croquis d'automne (1870)
Paris-Berlin (1870)
G. Courbet, et ses œuvres (1878)
Un Coin de village (1879)
Un Mâle (1881)
Le Mort (1882)
L'Hystérique (1885)
Happe-chair (1886)
L'Histoire des Beaux-Arts en Belgique 1830–1887 (1887)
En Allemagne (1888)
La Belgique (1888)
Ceux de la glèbe (1889)
Le Possédé (1890)
La fin des bourgeois (1892)
L'Arche, journal d'une maman (1894)
La Faute de Mme Charvet (1895)
L'Ile vierge (1897)
L'Homme en amour (1897)
Adam et Eve (1899)
Au Cœur frais de la forêt (1900)
C'était l'été (1900)
Le Vent dans les moulins (1901)
Le Petit Homme de Dieu (1902)
Comme va le ruisseau (1903)
Alfred Stevens et son œuvre (1906)
References
Sources
External links
1844 births
1913 deaths
People from Ixelles
Belgian poets in French
Burials at Ixelles Cemetery | [
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256363 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experimental%20mathematics | Experimental mathematics | Experimental mathematics is an approach to mathematics in which computation is used to investigate mathematical objects and identify properties and patterns. It has been defined as "that branch of mathematics that concerns itself ultimately with the codification and transmission of insights within the mathematical community through the use of experimental (in either the Galilean, Baconian, Aristotelian or Kantian sense) exploration of conjectures and more informal beliefs and a careful analysis of the data acquired in this pursuit."
As expressed by Paul Halmos: "Mathematics is not a deductive science—that's a cliché. When you try to prove a theorem, you don't just list the hypotheses, and then start to reason. What you do is trial and error, experimentation, guesswork. You want to find out what the facts are, and what you do is in that respect similar to what a laboratory technician does."
History
Mathematicians have always practised experimental mathematics. Existing records of early mathematics, such as Babylonian mathematics, typically consist of lists of numerical examples illustrating algebraic identities. However, modern mathematics, beginning in the 17th century, developed a tradition of publishing results in a final, formal and abstract presentation. The numerical examples that may have led a mathematician to originally formulate a general theorem were not published, and were generally forgotten.
Experimental mathematics as a separate area of study re-emerged in the twentieth century, when the invention of the electronic computer vastly increased the range of feasible calculations, with a speed and precision far greater than anything available to previous generations of mathematicians. A significant milestone and achievement of experimental mathematics was the discovery in 1995 of the Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula for the binary digits of π. This formula was discovered not by formal reasoning, but instead
by numerical searches on a computer; only afterwards was a rigorous proof found.
Objectives and uses
The objectives of experimental mathematics are "to generate understanding and insight; to generate and confirm or confront conjectures; and generally to make mathematics more tangible, lively and fun for both the professional researcher and the novice".
The uses of experimental mathematics have been defined as follows:
Gaining insight and intuition.
Discovering new patterns and relationships.
Using graphical displays to suggest underlying mathematical principles.
Testing and especially falsifying conjectures.
Exploring a possible result to see if it is worth formal proof.
Suggesting approaches for formal proof.
Replacing lengthy hand derivations with computer-based derivations.
Confirming analytically derived results.
Tools and techniques
Experimental mathematics makes use of numerical methods to calculate approximate values for integrals and infinite series. Arbitrary precision arithmetic is often used to establish these values to a high degree of precision – typically 100 significant figures or more. Integer relation algorithms are then used to search for relations between these values and mathematical constants. Working with high precision values reduces the possibility of mistaking a mathematical coincidence for a true relation. A formal proof of a conjectured relation will then be sought – it is often easier to find a formal proof once the form of a conjectured relation is known.
If a counterexample is being sought or a large-scale proof by exhaustion is being attempted, distributed computing techniques may be used to divide the calculations between multiple computers.
Frequent use is made of general mathematical software or domain-specific software written for attacks on problems that require high efficiency. Experimental mathematics software usually includes error detection and correction mechanisms, integrity checks and redundant calculations designed to minimise the possibility of results being invalidated by a hardware or software error.
Applications and examples
Applications and examples of experimental mathematics include:
Searching for a counterexample to a conjecture
Roger Frye used experimental mathematics techniques to find the smallest counterexample to Euler's sum of powers conjecture.
The ZetaGrid project was set up to search for a counterexample to the Riemann hypothesis.
Tomás Oliveira e Silva searched for a counterexample to the Collatz conjecture.
Finding new examples of numbers or objects with particular properties
The Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search is searching for new Mersenne primes.
The Great Periodic Path Hunt is searching for new periodic paths.
The distributed.net's OGR project is searching for optimal Golomb rulers.
The Riesel Sieve project is searching for the smallest Riesel number.
The Seventeen or Bust project is searching for the smallest Sierpinski number.
Finding serendipitous numerical patterns
Edward Lorenz found the Lorenz attractor, an early example of a chaotic dynamical system, by investigating anomalous behaviours in a numerical weather model.
The Ulam spiral was discovered by accident.
The pattern in the Ulam numbers was discovered by accident.
Mitchell Feigenbaum's discovery of the Feigenbaum constant was based initially on numerical observations, followed by a rigorous proof.
Use of computer programs to check a large but finite number of cases to complete a computer-assisted proof by exhaustion
Thomas Hales's proof of the Kepler conjecture.
Various proofs of the four colour theorem.
Clement Lam's proof of the non-existence of a finite projective plane of order 10.
Gary McGuire proved a minimum uniquely solvable Sudoku requires 17 clues.
Symbolic validation (via computer algebra) of conjectures to motivate the search for an analytical proof
Solutions to a special case of the quantum three-body problem known as the hydrogen molecule-ion were found standard quantum chemistry basis sets before realizing they all lead to the same unique analytical solution in terms of a generalization of the Lambert W function. Related to this work is the isolation of a previously unknown link between gravity theory and quantum mechanics in lower dimensions (see quantum gravity and references therein).
In the realm of relativistic many-bodied mechanics, namely the time-symmetric Wheeler–Feynman absorber theory: the equivalence between an advanced Liénard–Wiechert potential of particle j acting on particle i and the corresponding potential for particle i acting on particle j was demonstrated exhaustively to order before being proved mathematically. The Wheeler-Feynman theory has regained interest because of quantum nonlocality.
In the realm of linear optics, verification of the series expansion of the envelope of the electric field for ultrashort light pulses travelling in non isotropic media. Previous expansions had been incomplete: the outcome revealed an extra term vindicated by experiment.
Evaluation of infinite series, infinite products and integrals (also see symbolic integration), typically by carrying out a high precision numerical calculation, and then using an integer relation algorithm (such as the Inverse Symbolic Calculator) to find a linear combination of mathematical constants that matches this value. For example, the following identity was rediscovered by Enrico Au-Yeung, a student of Jonathan Borwein using computer search and PSLQ algorithm in 1993:
Visual investigations
In Indra's Pearls, David Mumford and others investigated various properties of Möbius transformation and the Schottky group using computer generated images of the groups which: furnished convincing evidence for many conjectures and lures to further exploration.
Plausible but false examples
Some plausible relations hold to a high degree of accuracy, but are still not true. One example is:
The two sides of this expression actually differ after the 42nd decimal place.
Another example is that the maximum height (maximum absolute value of coefficients) of all the factors of xn − 1 appears to be the same as the height of the nth cyclotomic polynomial. This was shown by computer to be true for n < 10000 and was expected to be true for all n. However, a larger computer search showed that this equality fails to hold for n = 14235, when the height of the nth cyclotomic polynomial is 2, but maximum height of the factors is 3.
Practitioners
The following mathematicians and computer scientists have made significant contributions to the field of experimental mathematics:
Fabrice Bellard
David H. Bailey
Jonathan Borwein
David Epstein
Helaman Ferguson
Ronald Graham
Thomas Callister Hales
Donald Knuth
Clement Lam
Oren Patashnik
Simon Plouffe
Eric Weisstein
Stephen Wolfram
Doron Zeilberger
A.J. Han Vinck
See also
Borwein integral
Computer-aided proof
Proofs and Refutations
Experimental Mathematics (journal)
Institute for Experimental Mathematics
References
External links
Experimental Mathematics (Journal)
Centre for Experimental and Constructive Mathematics (CECM) at Simon Fraser University
Collaborative Group for Research in Mathematics Education at University of Southampton
Recognizing Numerical Constants by David H. Bailey and Simon Plouffe
Psychology of Experimental Mathematics
Experimental Mathematics Website (Links and resources)
The Great Periodic Path Hunt Website (Links and resources)
An Algorithm for the Ages: PSLQ, A Better Way to Find Integer Relations (Alternative link)
Experimental Algorithmic Information Theory
Sample Problems of Experimental Mathematics by David H. Bailey and Jonathan M. Borwein
Ten Problems in Experimental Mathematics by David H. Bailey, Jonathan M. Borwein, Vishaal Kapoor, and Eric W. Weisstein
Institute for Experimental Mathematics at University of Duisburg-Essen | [
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256369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakeem%20Olajuwon | Hakeem Olajuwon | Hakeem Abdul Olajuwon (; ; born January 21, 1963), nicknamed "the Dream", is a Nigerian-American former professional basketball player. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest centers and one of the greatest basketball players of all time. From 1984 to 2002, he played the center position in the National Basketball Association (NBA) for the Houston Rockets and eventually the Toronto Raptors. He led the Rockets to back-to-back NBA championships in 1994 and 1995. In 2008, he was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame, and in 2016, he was inducted into the FIBA Hall of Fame.
Born in Lagos, Nigeria, Olajuwon traveled from his home country to play for the University of Houston under head coach Guy Lewis. His college career for the Cougars included three trips to the Final Four. Olajuwon was drafted by the Houston Rockets with the first overall selection of the 1984 NBA draft, a draft that included Michael Jordan, Charles Barkley, and John Stockton. He combined with the Ralph Sampson to form a duo dubbed the "Twin Towers". The two led the Rockets to the 1986 NBA Finals, where they lost in six games to the Boston Celtics. After Sampson was traded to the Warriors in 1988, Olajuwon became the Rockets' undisputed leader. He led the league in rebounding twice (1989, 1990) and blocks three times (1990, 1991, 1993).
Despite very nearly being traded during a bitter contract dispute before the 1992–93 season, he remained in Houston. He became the first non-American to be an All-Star and start in an All-Star Game, the first non-American to win NBA MVP, the first non-American to win NBA Defensive Player of the Year, and in the 1993–94 season, he became the only player in NBA history to win the NBA MVP, Defensive Player of the Year, and Finals MVP awards in the same season. His Rockets won back-to-back championships against the New York Knicks—avenging his college championship loss to Patrick Ewing—and Shaquille O'Neal's Orlando Magic. In 1996, Olajuwon was a member of the Olympic gold medal-winning United States national team, and he was selected as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History. In October 2021, Olajuwon was honored as one of the league’s greatest players of all-time by being named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. He ended his career as the league's all-time leader in blocks (3,830) and is one of four NBA players to record a quadruple-double.
Early life
Hakeem Olajuwon was born to Salim and Abike Olajuwon, working-class Yoruba owners of a cement business in Lagos, Nigeria. He was the third of eight children. He credits his parents with instilling virtues of hard work and discipline into him and his siblings: "They taught us to be honest, work hard, respect our elders, and believe in ourselves." Olajuwon has expressed displeasure at his childhood in Nigeria being characterized as backward. "Lagos is a very cosmopolitan city ... There are many ethnic groups. I grew up in an environment at schools where there were all different types of people."
During his youth, Olajuwon was a soccer goalkeeper, which helped give him the footwork and agility to balance his size and strength in basketball, and also contributed to his shot-blocking ability. Olajuwon did not play basketball until the age of 15 in high school, when he entered a local tournament while at the Muslim Teachers College in Lagos, Nigeria. It has been said that a coach in Nigeria once asked him to dunk and demonstrated while standing on a chair. Olajuwon then tried to stand on the chair himself. When redirected by staff not to use the chair, Hakeem could initially not dunk the basketball.
Despite early struggles, Olajuwon said: "Basketball is something that is so unique. That immediately I pick up the game and, you know, realize that this is the life for me. All the other sports just become obsolete."
College career
Olajuwon emigrated from Nigeria to play basketball at the University of Houston under Cougars coach Guy Lewis. Olajuwon was not highly recruited and was merely offered a visit to the university to work out for the coaching staff, based on a recommendation from a friend of Lewis who had seen Olajuwon play. He later recalled that when he originally arrived at the airport in 1980 for the visit, no representative of the school was there to greet him. When he called the staff, they told him to take a taxi out to the university.
After redshirting his freshman year in 1980–81 because he could not yet get clearance from the NCAA to play, Olajuwon came mostly off the bench and served as the Cougars' sixth man as a redshirt freshman in 1981–82, averaging 8.3 points, 6.2 rebounds and 2.5 blocks, shooting 60% from the field in 18 minutes per game as Houston was eliminated in the Final Four by the eventual NCAA champion, North Carolina. Olajuwon sought advice from the coaching staff about how to increase his playing time, and they advised him to work out with local Houston resident and multiple NBA MVP winner, Moses Malone. Malone, who was then a center on the NBA's Houston Rockets, played games every off-season with several NBA players at the Fonde Recreation Center. Olajuwon joined the workouts and went head to head with Malone in several games throughout the summer. Olajuwon credited this experience with rapidly improving his game: "The way Moses helped me is by being out there playing and allowing me to go against that level of competition. He was the best center in the NBA at the time, so I was trying to improve my game against the best."
Olajuwon returned from that summer a different player. He was nicknamed "the Dream" during his basketball career after he dunked so effortlessly that his college coach said it "looked like a dream." He and his teammates (including Clyde Drexler) formed what was dubbed "Phi Slama Jama", the first slam-dunking "fraternity", so named because of its above-the-rim prowess. In his sophomore and junior years he helped the Cougars advance to consecutive NCAA championship games, where they lost to North Carolina State on a last-second tip-in in 1983 and a Patrick Ewing-led Georgetown team in 1984. He averaged 13.9 points, 11.4 rebounds, and 5.1 blocks in 1982–83 and 16.8 points, 13.5 rebounds, and 5.6 blocks in 1983–84. Olajuwon won the 1983 NCAA Tournament Player of the Year award, even though he played for the losing team in the final game. To date, he is the last player from a losing side to be granted this honor. Drexler departed for the NBA in 1983, leaving Olajuwon the lone star on the team.
After the 1983–84 season, Olajuwon debated whether to stay in college or declare early for the NBA draft. At that time, before the NBA Draft Lottery was introduced in 1985, the first pick was awarded by coin flip. Olajuwon recalled: "I really believed that Houston was going to win the coin flip and pick the first draft choice, and I really wanted to play in Houston so I had to make that decision (to leave early)." His intuition proved correct, and a lucky toss placed Houston ahead of the Portland Trail Blazers. Olajuwon was considered the top amateur prospect in the summer of 1984 over fellow collegians and future NBA stars Michael Jordan, Charles Barkley, and John Stockton, and was selected first overall by the Rockets in the 1984 NBA draft.
In his autobiography Living the Dream, Olajuwon mentions an intriguing draft trade offered to the Rockets that would have sent Clyde Drexler and the number two pick in the 1984 NBA draft from Portland in exchange for Ralph Sampson. Had the Rockets made the deal, Olajuwon states the Rockets could have selected Jordan with the number two pick to play alongside Olajuwon and Drexler, who had established chemistry playing together during their Phi Slama Jama days in college. Sportswriter Sam Smith speculates that such a trade "would have changed league history and maybe the entire Michael Jordan legend." From 1991 to 1998, every NBA championship team included either Jordan or Olajuwon; furthermore, at least one of Drexler, Jordan, and Olajuwon was involved in every NBA Finals from 1990 to 1998.
Professional career
Houston Rockets (1984–2001)
Rookie and second years (1984–1987)
The Rockets had immediate success during Olajuwon's rookie season, as their win-loss record improved from 29 to 53 in 1983–84 to 48–34 in 1984–85. He teamed with the 1984 Rookie of the Year, 7 ft 4 in (2.24 m) Ralph Sampson to form the original NBA "Twin Towers" duo. Olajuwon averaged 20.6 points, 11.9 rebounds and 2.68 blocks in his rookie season. He finished as runner-up to Michael Jordan in the 1985 Rookie of the Year voting, and was the only other rookie to receive any votes.
Olajuwon averaged 23.5 points, 11.5 rebounds, and 3.4 blocks per game during his second pro season (1985–86). The Rockets finished 51–31, and advanced all the way to the Western Conference Finals where they faced the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers. The Rockets won the series fairly easily, four games to one, shocking the sports world and landing Olajuwon on the cover of Sports Illustrated. Olajuwon scored 75 points in victories in games three and four, and after the series Lakers coach Pat Riley remarked "We tried everything. We put four bodies on him. We helped from different angles. He's just a great player." The Rockets advanced to the 1986 NBA Finals where they lost in six games to the Boston Celtics, whose 1986 team is often considered one of the best teams in NBA history.
Mid-career years (1987–1993)
During the 1987–88 season, Sampson (who was struggling with knee injuries that would eventually end his career prematurely) was traded to the Golden State Warriors. The 1988–89 season was Olajuwon's first full season as the Rockets' undisputed leader. This change also coincided with the hiring of new coach Don Chaney. The Rockets ended the regular season with a record of 45–37, and Olajuwon finished the season as the league leader in rebounds (13.5 per game) by a full rebound per game over Charles Barkley. This performance was consistent with his averages of 24.8 points and 3.4 blocks. Olajuwon posted exceptional playoff numbers of 37.5 ppg and 16.8 rpg, plus a record for points in a four-game playoff series (150). Nevertheless, the Rockets were eliminated in the first round by the Seattle SuperSonics, 3 games to 1.
The 1989–90 season was a disappointment for the Rockets. They finished the season with a 41–41 record, and though they made the playoffs, were eliminated in four games by Los Angeles. Olajuwon put up one of the most productive defensive seasons by an interior player in the history of the NBA. He won the NBA rebounding crown (14.0 per game) again, this time by an even larger margin; a full two rebounds per game over David Robinson, and led the league in blocks by averaging 4.6 per game. He is the only player since the NBA started recording blocked shots in 1973–74 to average 14+ rebounds and 4.5+ blocked shots per game in the same season. In doing so he joined Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Bill Walton as the only players in NBA history (at that point) to lead the league in rebounding and shot-blocking in the same season. Olajuwon also recorded a quadruple-double during the season, becoming only the third player in NBA history to do so.
The Rockets finished the 1990–91 season with a record of 52–30 under NBA Coach of the Year Chaney. Olajuwon averaged 21.8 points per game in 1990–91, but due to an injury to his eyesocket caused by an elbow from Bill Cartwright, did not play in enough games (56) to qualify for the rebounding title. Otherwise, he would have won it for a third consecutive year, averaging 13.8 a game (league leader Robinson averaged 13.0 rpg). He also averaged a league-leading 3.95 blocks per game. However, the Rockets were swept in the playoffs by the LA Lakers.
The following season was a low point for the Rockets during Olajuwon's tenure. They finished 42–40, and missed the playoffs for the first time in Olajuwon's career. He missed two weeks early in the season due to an accelerated heartbeat. Despite his usual strong numbers, he could not lift his team out of mediocrity. Since making the Finals in 1986, the Rockets had made the playoffs five times, but their record in those playoff series was 1–5 and they were eliminated in the first round four times. Following the season, Olajuwon requested a trade in part because of his bad contract; his salary was considerably low for a top center, and his contract specifically forbade re-negotiation. He also expressed displeasure with the organization's efforts to surround him with quality players. He felt the Rockets had cut corners at every turn, and were more concerned with the bottom line than winning. Management had also infuriated Olajuwon during the season when they accused of him of faking a hamstring injury because of his unhappiness over his contract situation. His agent cited his differences with the organization as being "irreconcilable", and Olajuwon publicly insulted owner Charlie Thomas and the team's front office. With the 1992–93 season approaching, a reporter for the Houston Chronicle said that Olajuwon being dealt was "as close to a sure thing as there is."
Nonetheless, he was not traded and the Rockets began the season with a new coach, Rudy Tomjanovich. Olajuwon improved his passing in 1992–93, setting a new career-high of 3.5 assists per game. This willingness to pass the ball increased his scoring, making it more difficult for opposing teams to double and triple-team him. Olajuwon set a new career-high with 26.1 points per game. The Rockets set a new franchise record with 55 wins, and advanced to the second round of the playoffs, pushing the Seattle SuperSonics to a seventh game before losing in overtime, 103–100. He finished second in the MVP race to Charles Barkley with 22 votes to Barkley's 59. The team rewarded him with a four-year contract extension toward the end of the regular season. In stark contrast to the previous year, the Rockets entered the 1993–94 season as a team on the rise. They had a solid core of young players and veterans, with a leader in Olajuwon who was entering his prime.
Championship years (1993–1995)
Olajuwon gained a reputation as a clutch performer and also as one of the top centers in history based on his performances in the 1993–94 and 1994–95 seasons. He outplayed centers such as Patrick Ewing, David Robinson, Shaquille O'Neal, and Dikembe Mutombo, and other defensive stalwarts such as Dennis Rodman and Karl Malone. Many of his battles were with his fellow Texas-based rival David Robinson of the San Antonio Spurs. In the 30 head–to–head match-ups during the seven seasons from the 1989 to 1996, when both Olajuwon and Robinson were in their prime, Olajuwon averaged 26.3 points per game, shooting 47.6% from the field, while Robinson averaged 22.1 and 46.8%.
Olajuwon led the Rockets to a championship in the 1994 NBA Finals in a seven-game series against the New York Knicks, the team of one of Olajuwon's perennial rivals since his collegiate days, Patrick Ewing. After being down 2–1, the Knicks took a 3–2 lead into Game 6. The Rockets were defending an 86–84 lead when in the last second, Knicks guard John Starks (who had already scored 27 points) went up for what would have been a Finals-winning three. Olajuwon pulled off a clutch play by blocking the shot as time expired. In Game 7, Olajuwon posted a game–high 25 points and 10 rebounds, which helped defeat the Knicks, bringing the first professional sports championship to Houston since the Houston Oilers won the American Football League championship in 1961. Olajuwon dominated Ewing in their head–to–head match-up, outscoring him in every game of the series and averaging 26.9 points per game on 50% shooting, compared to Ewing's 18.9 and 36.3%. For his efforts Olajuwon was named NBA Finals Most Valuable Player.
Olajuwon was at the pinnacle of his career. In 1994, he became the only player in NBA history to win the MVP, the Championship, the Finals MVP and Defensive Player of the Year awards in the same season. He was also the first foreign-born player to win the league's MVP award.
On December 1, 1994, Olajuwon recorded a triple-double 37 points, 13 rebounds and 12 assists in a 113–109 win over the Golden State Warriors. But despite a slow start by the team, and Olajuwon missing eight games toward the end of the season with anemia, the Rockets repeated as champions in 1995. They were bolstered in part by the acquisition of Clyde Drexler, Olajuwon's former University of Houston "Phi Slama Jama" teammate, in a mid-season trade from the Portland Trail Blazers. Olajuwon averaged 27.8 points, 10.8 rebounds, and 3.4 blocks per game during the regular season. Olajuwon displayed perhaps the most impressive moments of his career during the playoffs. San Antonio Spurs center David Robinson, recently crowned league MVP, was outplayed by Olajuwon in the Conference Finals: Olajuwon averaged 35.3 points on .560 shooting (Robinson's numbers were 23.8 and .449) and outscored Robinson 81–41 in the final two games. In the series-clinching game, Olajuwon recorded 39 points, 17 rebounds and 5 blocks. When asked later what a team could do to "solve" Olajuwon, Robinson told LIFE magazine: "Hakeem? You don't solve Hakeem." The Rockets won every road game that series. In the NBA Finals, the Rockets swept the Orlando Magic, who were led by a young Shaquille O'Neal. Olajuwon outscored O'Neal in every game, scoring more than 30 points in each and raising his regular-season rate by five while O'Neal's production dropped by one. Olajuwon was again named Finals MVP. He averaged 33.0 points on .531 shooting, 10.3 rebounds, and 2.81 blocks in the 1995 Playoffs. As in 1994, Olajuwon was the only Rockets All-Star.
Post-championship period (1995–2001)
The Rockets' two-year championship run ended when they were eliminated in the second round of the 1996 NBA Playoffs by the eventual Western Conference Champion Seattle SuperSonics. Michael Jordan had returned from an 18-month hiatus in March 1995, and his Chicago Bulls dominated the league for the next three years (1996–98). The Bulls and Rockets never met in the NBA Playoffs. The Rockets posted a 57–win season in 1996–97 season when they added Charles Barkley to their roster. They started the season 21–2, but lost the Western Conference Finals in six games to the Utah Jazz. After averaging 26.9 and 23.2 points in 1995–96 and 1996–97 respectively, Olajuwon's point production dipped to 16.4 in 1997–98. After the Rockets lost in the first round in five games to the Jazz in 1998, Drexler retired. In 1998–99 the Rockets acquired veteran All-Star Scottie Pippen and finished 31–19 in the lockout-shortened regular season. Olajuwon's scoring production rose to 18.9 points per game, and he made his twelfth and final All-NBA Team. However, they lost in the first round again, this time to the Lakers. After the season, Pippen was traded to the Portland Trail Blazers.
Toronto Raptors (2001–2002)
Houston began to rebuild, bringing in young guards Cuttino Mobley and 2000 NBA co-Rookie of the Year Steve Francis. On August 2, 2001, after refusing a $13 million deal with the Rockets, Olajuwon was traded to the Toronto Raptors for draft picks (the highest of which was used by Houston to draft Boštjan Nachbar at #15 in the 2002 NBA draft), with the player having a three-year contract that would give him $18 million. In his first game with the Raptors, he scored 11 points in just 22 minutes of playing time against the Magic. Olajuwon averaged career lows of 7.1 points and 6.0 rebounds per game in what would be his final season in the NBA, as he decided to retire in the fall of 2002, due to a back injury. Olajuwon retired as the all–time league leader in total blocked shots with 3,830, although shot-blocking did not become an official statistic until the 1973–74 NBA season.
Shortly after his retirement, his #34 jersey was retired by the Rockets.
For his NBA career, Olajuwon averaged 21.8 points on 51% shooting, 11.1 rebounds, 2.5 assists and 3.1 blocks in 1238 career games.
National team career
In 1980, before arriving in the US, Olajuwon played for a Nigerian junior team in the All-Africa Games. This created some problems when he tried to play for the United States men's national basketball team initially. FIBA rules prohibit players from representing more than one country in international competition, and players must go through a three-year waiting period for any nationality change. Olajuwon was ineligible for selection to the "Dream Team" as he hadn't become a US citizen.
Olajuwon became a naturalized American citizen on April 2, 1993. For the 1996 Olympics, he received a FIBA exemption and was eligible to play for Dream Team II. The team went on to win the gold medal in Atlanta. During the tournament, he shared his minutes with Shaquille O'Neal and David Robinson. He played 7 out of the 8 games and started 2. He averaged 5 points and 3.1 rebounds and had 8 assists and 6 steals in seven games.
Player profile
Olajuwon was highly skilled as both an offensive and defensive player. On defense, his rare combination of quickness and strength allowed him to guard a wide range of players effectively. He was noted for both his outstanding shot-blocking ability and his unique talent (for a frontcourt player) for stealing the ball. Olajuwon is the only player in NBA history to record more than 200 blocks and 200 steals in the same season. He averaged 3.09 blocks and 1.75 steals per game for his career. He is the only center to rank among the top ten all-time in steals. Olajuwon was also an outstanding rebounder, with a career average of 11.1 rebounds per game. He led the NBA in rebounding twice, during the 1989 and 1990 seasons. He was twice named the NBA Defensive Player of the Year, and was a five-time NBA All-Defensive First Team selection.
On offense, Olajuwon was famous for his deft shooting touch around the basket and his nimble footwork in the low post. With the ball, Hakeem displayed a vast array of fakes and spin moves, highlighted in his signature "Dream Shake" (see below). He was a prolific scorer, averaging 21.8 points per game for his career, and an above-average offensive rebounder, averaging 3.3 offensive rebounds per game. Additionally, Olajuwon became a skilled dribbler with an ability to score in "face-up" situations like a perimeter player. He is one of only four players to have recorded a quadruple-double in the NBA, which have only been possible since the 1973–74 season, when blocked shots and steals were first kept as statistics in the NBA.
Dream Shake
Olajuwon established himself as an unusually skilled offensive player for a big man, perfecting a set of fakes and spin moves that became known as his trademark Dream Shake. Executed with uncanny speed and power, they are still regarded as the pinnacle of "big man" footwork. Shaquille O'Neal stated: "Hakeem has five moves, then four countermoves – that gives him 20 moves." Olajuwon himself traced the move back to the soccer-playing days of his youth. "The Dream Shake was actually one of my soccer moves which I translated to basketball. It would accomplish one of three things: one, to misdirect the opponent and make him go the opposite way; two, to freeze the opponent and leave him devastated in his tracks; three, to shake off the opponent and giving him no chance to contest the shot." The Dream Shake was very difficult to defend, much like Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's sky-hook.
One notable Dream Shake happened in Game 2 of the 1995 Western Conference Finals against the Spurs. With David Robinson guarding him, Olajuwon performed a cross-over, drove to the basket and faked a layup. Robinson, an excellent defender, kept up with Olajuwon and remained planted. Olajuwon spun counterclockwise and faked a jump shot. Robinson, who was voted the 1995 NBA MVP, fell for the fake and jumped to block the shot. With Robinson in the air, Olajuwon performed an up-and-under move and made an easy layup.
Olajuwon has referred to basketball as a science, and described his signature move in vivid detail: "When the point guard throws me the ball, I jump to get the ball. But this jump is the set-up for the second move, the baseline move. I call it the 'touch landing.' The defender is waiting for me to come down because I jumped but I'm gone before I land. Defenders say 'Wow, he's quick,' but they don't know that where I'm going is predetermined. He's basing it on quickness, but the jump is to set him up. Before I come down, I make my move. When you jump, you turn as you land. Boom! The defender can't react because he's waiting for you to come down to defend you. Now, the first time when you showed that quickness, he has to react to that quickness, so you can fake baseline and go the other way with your jump hook. All this is part of the Dream Shake. The Dream Shake is you dribble and then you jump; now you don't have a pivot foot. When I dribble I move it so when I come here, I jump. By jumping, I don't have a pivot foot now. I dribble so now I can use either foot. I can go this way or this way. So he's frozen, he doesn't know which way I'm going to go. That is the shake. You put him in the mix and you jump stop and now you have choice of pivot foot. He doesn't know where you're gonna turn and when."
Personal life
Olajuwon married his current wife, Dalia Asafi, on August 8, 1996, in Houston. The couple have four children together; two daughters, Rahmah and Aisha and two sons, Abdullah and Abdul. Olajuwon also has an older daughter, Abisola from a previous relationship with Lita Spencer, whom he met in college. Abisola represented the West Girls in the McDonald's All-American Game and played in the WNBA.
In addition to English, Olajuwon is fluent in French, Arabic, and the Nigerian languages of Yoruba and Ekiti. He wrote his autobiography, Living the Dream, with co-author Peter Knobler in 1996. During his 18-year NBA career, Olajuwon earned more than $110 million in salary.
Olajuwon, who earlier in his career signed a shoe endorsement deal with LA Gear, later became the face of Spalding's athletic shoe line and endorsed The Dream, a sneaker that retailed in various outlets (such as Payless ShoeSource) for $34.99. This made him one of the very few well-known players in any professional sport to endorse a sneaker not from Nike, Reebok, Adidas, or other high-visibility retail brands. As Olajuwon declared: "How can a poor working mother with three boys buy Nikes or Reeboks that cost $120? ... She can't. So kids steal these shoes from stores and from other kids. Sometimes they kill for them."
Higher education
Attending college was also an important priority to Olajuwon. At the University of Houston, Olajuwon was a physical education major.
Muslim faith
In Olajuwon's college career and early years in the NBA, he was often undisciplined, talking back to officials, getting in minor fights with other players and amassing technical fouls. Later, Olajuwon took an active interest in spirituality, becoming a more devout Muslim. On March 9, 1991, he altered his name from Akeem to the more conventional spelling of Hakeem, saying, "I'm not changing the spelling of my name, I'm correcting it". He later recalled, "I studied the Qur'an every day. At home, at the mosque ... I would read it in airplanes, before games and after them. I was soaking up the faith and learning new meanings each time I turned a page. I didn't dabble in the faith, I gave myself over to it." "His religion dominates his life", Drexler said in 1995. Olajuwon was still recognized as one of the league's elite centers despite his strict observance of Ramadan (i.e., abstaining from food and drink during daylight hours for about a month), which occurred during the playing season throughout his career. Olajuwon was noted as sometimes playing better during the month of Ramadan, and in 1995 he was named NBA Player of the Month in February, even though Ramadan began on February 1 of that year.
Post-NBA life
Olajuwon played for 20 consecutive seasons in Houston, first collegiately for the University of Houston Cougars and then professionally with the Houston Rockets. He is considered a Houston icon and one of the city's most beloved citizens. Olajuwon has had great success in the Houston real estate market, with his estimated profits exceeding $100 million. He buys in cash-only purchases, as it is against Islamic law to pay interest. Olajuwon splits his time between Jordan, where he moved with his family to pursue Islamic studies, and his ranch near Houston.
In the 2006 NBA offseason, Olajuwon opened his first Big Man Camp, where he teaches young frontcourt players the finer points of playing in the post. While Olajuwon never expressed an interest in coaching a team, he wishes to give back to the game by helping younger players. When asked whether the league was becoming more guard-oriented and big men were being de-emphasized, Olajuwon responded, "For a big man who is just big, maybe. But not if you play with speed, with agility. It will always be a big man's game if the big man plays the right way. On defense, the big man can rebound and block shots. On offense, he draws double-teams and creates opportunities. He can add so much, make it easier for the entire team." He runs the camp for free. Olajuwon has worked with several NBA players, including power forward Emeka Okafor, and center Yao Ming. In September 2009, he also worked with Kobe Bryant on the post moves and the Dream Shake. More recently he has been working with Dwight Howard, helping him diversify his post moves and encouraging more mental focus. In the 2011 offseason, LeBron James flew to Houston and spent time working with Olajuwon. Olajuwon has also worked with Ömer Aşık, Donatas Motiejūnas, Amar'e Stoudemire, Carmelo Anthony, JaVale McGee and Kenneth Faried. In an interview with the Sporting News in April 2016, Olajuwon said that Kobe Bryant was his best low-post student. He stated, "I’ve worked with a lot of players, but the one who really capitalized on it the most is Kobe Bryant. When I watch him play, he’ll go down in the post comfortably, naturally, and he’ll execute it perfectly."
Olajuwon was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a member of the class of 2008. On April 10, 2008, the Rockets unveiled a sculpture in honor of him outside the Toyota Center.
Olajuwon attended the 2013 NBA Draft to bid farewell to retiring commissioner David Stern as Stern made his announcement for the final pick of the first round. Olajuwon was the first pick announced by Stern back in 1984.
On August 1, 2015, Olajuwon made a special appearance for Team Africa at the 2015 NBA Africa exhibition game. He became a member of the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2016.
Awards and achievements
2× NBA champion (1994, 1995)
2× NBA Finals MVP (1994, 1995)
1× NBA MVP (1994)
2× NBA Defensive Player of the Year (1993, 1994)
6× All-NBA First Team (1987, 1988, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1997)
3× All-NBA Second Team (1986, 1990, 1996)
3× All-NBA Third Team (1991, 1995, 1999)
5× NBA All-Defensive First Team (1987, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1994)
4× NBA All-Defensive Second Team (1985, 1991, 1996, 1997)
12× NBA All-Star
Olympic gold medalist (1996)
Named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History (1996).
Named to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team
Olajuwon ended his career in the top eleven all-time in blocks, scoring, rebounding, and steals. He is the only player in NBA history to retire in the top eleven for all four categories (he is now 13th all-time in rebounding).
Olajuwon was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame as a member of the class of 2008, as well as to the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2016.
Ranked #10 in ESPN'''s All-Time #NBArank: Counting down the greatest players ever (published in 2016)
Ranked #12 in SLAM Magazines 2018 revision of the top 100 greatest players of all time (published in the January 2018 issue)
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || 35.5 || .538 || || .613 || 11.9 || 1.4 || 1.2 || 2.7 || 20.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 68 || 68 || 36.3 || .526 || || .645 || 11.5 || 2.0 || 2.0 || 3.4 || 23.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 75 || 75 || 36.8 || .508 || .200 || .702 || 11.4 || 2.9 || 1.9 || 3.4 || 23.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 79 || 79 || 35.8 || .514 || .000 || .695 || 12.1 || 2.1 || 2.1 || 2.7 || 22.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || 36.9 || .508 || .000 || .696 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|13.5* || 1.8 || 2.6 || 3.4 || 24.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || 38.1 || .501 || .167 || .713 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|14.0* || 2.9 || 2.1 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|4.6* || 24.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 56 || 50 || 36.8 || .508 || .000 || .769 || 13.8 || 2.3 || 2.2 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|3.9* || 21.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 70 || 69 || 37.7 || .502 || .000 || .766 || 12.1 || 2.2 || 1.8 || 4.3 || 21.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 82 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|82* || 39.5 || .529 || .000 || .779 || 13.0 || 3.5 || 1.8 || style="background:#CFECEC;"|4.2* || 26.1
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#AFE6BA;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 80 || 80 || 41.0 || .528 || .421 || .716 || 11.9 || 3.6 || 1.6 || 3.7 || 27.3
|-
| style="text-align:left; background:#AFE6BA;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 72 || 72 || 39.6 || .517 || .188 || .756 || 10.8 || 3.5 || 1.8 || 3.4 || 27.8|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 72 || 72 || 38.8 || .514 || .214 || .724 || 10.9 || 3.6 || 1.6 || 2.9 || 26.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 78 || 78 || 36.6 || .510 || .313 || .787' || 9.2 || 3.0 || 1.5 || 2.2 || 23.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 47 || 45 || 34.7 || .483 || .000 || .755 || 9.8 || 3.0 || 1.8 || 2.0 || 16.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| style="background:#CFECEC;"|50* || style="background:#CFECEC;"|50* || 35.7 || .514 || .308 || .717 || 9.6 || 1.8 || 1.6 || 2.5 || 18.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 44 || 28 || 23.8 || .458 || .000 || .616 || 6.2 || 1.4 || .9 || 1.6 || 10.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Houston
| 58 || 55 || 26.6 || .498 || .000 || .621 || 7.4 || 1.2 || 1.2 || 1.5 || 11.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Toronto
| 61 || 37 || 22.6 || .464 || .000 || .560 || 6.0 || 1.1 || 1.2 || 1.5 || 7.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 1,238 || 1,186 || 35.7 || .512 || .202 || .712 || 11.1 || 2.5 || 1.7 || 3.1 || 21.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 12 || 8 || 23.2 || .409 || 1.000 || .520 || 7.8 || 1.4 || 1.3 || 1.9 || 9.8
Playoffs
See also
List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association annual blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association players with most blocks in a game
List of NCAA Division I men's basketball season rebounding leaders
Islam in Houston
References
Sources
Harris, Othello, Nolte, Claire Elaine, and Kirsch, George B. Encyclopedia of Ethnicity and Sports in the United States, Greenwood Press. 2000
Heisler, Mark. Big Men Who Shook the NBA. Triumph Books. 2003
Olajuwon, Hakeem with Knobler, Peter. Living the Dream: My Life and Basketball. Little, Brown and Company. 1996
Simmons, Bill, The Book of Basketball: The NBA According to the Sports Guy'', ESPN 2009
External links
Hakeem Olajuwon entry at NBA Encyclopedia
Hakeem Olajuwon player profile at NBA.com
1963 births
Living people
African-American Muslims
All-American college men's basketball players
American expatriate basketball people in Canada
American men's basketball players
American people of Yoruba descent
Basketball players at the 1982 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four
Basketball players at the 1983 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four
Basketball players at the 1984 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four
Basketball players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Centers (basketball)
FIBA Hall of Fame inductees
Houston Cougars men's basketball players
Houston Rockets draft picks
Houston Rockets players
Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players from Nigeria
National Basketball Association players with retired numbers
Nigerian emigrants to the United States
Nigerian expatriate basketball people in Canada
Nigerian expatriate basketball people in the United States
Nigerian men's basketball players
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
People from Sugar Land, Texas
People with acquired American citizenship
Basketball players from Houston
Sportspeople from Lagos
Toronto Raptors players
United States men's national basketball team players
Yoruba sportspeople | [
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256383 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandy%20Area%20Metro | Sandy Area Metro | Sandy Area Metro (called SAM) is a public transit system operated by the city government of Sandy, Oregon. SAM was created after the city successfully petitioned to be removed from the TriMet district in the late 1990s. The name was chosen in July 1999, and service began operating on January 4, 2000. The local transit provider gave its one-millionth ride on November 21, 2006 and began its twentieth year in January 2019. SAM maintains three routes, a dial-a-ride service called Sandy Transit Area Rides (STAR), and an Elderly and Disabled (ED) medical rides program.
The SAM-Gresham route provides service seven days a week, to the Gresham Transit Center, where riders can use TriMet to travel to the Portland metropolitan area. SAM-Estacada, a Monday-Saturday service, runs four times a day to and from Estacada. These routes also connect to the Mount Hood Express bus service from Sandy to Government Camp and Timberline. The in-town Shopping Shuttle operates Monday-Friday circulating the business corridor enabling citizens greater access to goods and services. STAR operates Monday-Saturday and ED is available weekdays. To reduce congestion and increase access to city events special routes are occasionally added. All vehicles are ADA accessible with low floors, ramps and wheelchair lifts.
All SAM service within the city limits is free and out of town rides are $1.00 each way. Rides on the STAR on-demand route are $1.00 each way. ED rides are $2.00 each way and one caregiver may ride free. 24-Trip passes may be purchased for $20.00 and monthly passes, providing unlimited rides, can be purchased for $30.00. SAM and Mt. Hood Express have a combination all day pass for $5.00. SAM bus services are funded by state and federal grants as well as a modest business tax. HB217 has provided an additional source of revenue that will allow for expansion of service.
SAM has a Transit Advisory Board that meets quarterly and is open to the public. Residents of Sandy are encouraged to attend meetings as participate as members of the board. The board directs staff on the plans and goals to ensure accountability and transparency. Information on becoming a board member is available on the website along with historical minutes. As of September 2019 all meetings will be broadcast via YouTube.
Routes
Sandy–Gresham Express
Sandy–Estacada
Shopper Shuttle
See also
Transportation in Portland, Oregon
References
External links
City of Sandy - Sandy Transit
Bus transportation in Oregon
1999 establishments in Oregon
Transportation in Clackamas County, Oregon
Transportation in Multnomah County, Oregon | [
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256384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Guess%20Who | The Guess Who | The Guess Who are a Canadian rock band from Winnipeg, Manitoba, best known for their blues rock and psychedelic rock hits from 1968 to 1975.
The band originated in 1962 and achieved an international hit single with a cover of "Shakin' All Over" in 1965 under the name Chad Allan and the Expressions. After changing their name to the Guess Who, they found their greatest success in the late 60s and early 70s, under the leadership of singer/keyboardist Burton Cummings and guitarist Randy Bachman, with hit songs including "American Woman", "These Eyes", "No Time" and many others.
During their most successful period, the Guess Who released eleven studio albums, all of which reached the charts in Canada and the United States. They may be best known for their 1970 album American Woman, which reached no. 1 in Canada and no. 9 in the United States, while five other albums reached the top ten in Canada. The Guess Who charted fourteen Top 40 singles in the United States and more than thirty in Canada.
The Guess Who was disbanded by Cummings in 1975, though bassist Jim Kale and/or drummer Garry Peterson have toured and recorded under the Guess Who name since 1977, frequently with no other original band members involved.
History
Origins (1958–1965)
The origins of the Guess Who date back to 1958, when Winnipeg singer/guitarist Chad Allan formed a local rock band called Allan and the Silvertones. After several lineup changes, the band stabilized in 1962 under the name Chad Allan and the Reflections, which included Allan and keyboardist Bob Ashley, plus future Guess Who mainstays Randy Bachman on guitar, Jim Kale on bass, and Garry Peterson on drums.
The band released their first single, "Tribute To Buddy Holly", on Canadian-American Records in 1962. They then signed with Quality Records and released several singles in 1963–64, which gained some regional notice around Winnipeg but made little impact in the rest of Canada. One single was mis-credited to Bob Ashley and the Reflections.
In 1965, the group changed their name to Chad Allan and the Expressions after an American group called The Reflections released the hit single "(Just Like) Romeo and Juliet". They released the garage rock album Shakin' All Over in January 1965. That album's single, a cover of "Shakin' All Over" by Johnny Kidd & the Pirates, was the band's first major hit, reaching no. 1 in Canada, no. 22 in the United States, and no. 27 in Australia. Their American label, Quality Records, disguised the single by crediting it to Guess Who?, as a publicity stunt to generate speculation that it was by a more famous British Invasion band working incognito.
After Quality Records revealed the band to be Chad Allan and the Expressions, disc jockeys continued to announce the group as Guess Who?, effectively forcing the band to accept the new name. They released their second album, Hey Ho (What You Do to Me!) in late 1965; it was credited to Chad Allan and the Expressions with "Guess Who?" displayed prominently on the cover.
Transitional years (1966–1968)
Keyboardist Bob Ashley left the band in late 1965 due to the rigors of touring. He was replaced by 18 year-old Burton Cummings, formerly of Winnipeg group the Deverons, who also took on lead vocal duties in conjunction with Chad Allan. Just a few months later, Allan departed; he returned to college and then became a media personality with the CBC . This left Cummings as the sole lead singer. With Allan departed, the "Chad Allan and the Expressions" subtitle was dropped from the band's releases, and they were billed solely as The Guess Who?. (The question mark would be dropped in 1968.) After Allan's departure in 1966, guitarist Bruce Decker, a former bandmate of Cummings in the Deverons, joined for a few months. The band then settled as a quartet with Cummings on vocals and keyboards, Bachman on guitar, Kale on bass, and Peterson on drums. This lineup released the album It's Time in the summer of 1966. Decker, despite being pictured on the cover of the album, did not participate in the recording. Conversely, some contributions by Allan (recorded before he left the group) can be heard on the album, though he is not credited.
The band continued to release singles that were moderately successful in Canada, and "His Girl" entered the UK charts in 1967. The band traveled to the United Kingdom to promote the single, but this was a financial mistake as the song quickly dropped off the charts. They were unable to book shows or obtain work visas while in the UK, and returned to Canada heavily in debt. Later in 1967, the Guess Who were hired as the house band for the CBC radio show The Swingers, and as the house band for CBC television program Let's Go, which was hosted by their former bandmate Chad Allan. They initially performed hit singles by other artists, but the CBC producers encouraged them to develop more of their own music as well. This gave the Guess Who greater exposure in Canada and financial stability for the next two years.
After seeing the Guess Who on Let's Go, record producer/sales executive Jack Richardson contacted the band about participating in an advertising project for Coca-Cola. This project became a split album titled A Wild Pair with Ottawa band the Staccatos (soon to rename themselves Five Man Electrical Band). The album could only be purchased by mail order from Coca-Cola. Richardson served as the Guess Who's producer until their classic-era dissolution in 1975, and they were managed during that entire period by Don Hunter.
The beginning of the classic era (1968–1970)
Richardson signed the Guess Who to his Nimbus 9 label and production company, and personally financed the recording of a new album in late 1968. They were also signed to RCA for distribution outside of Canada. The band transitioned from their original garage rock roots to a more mature pop-rock sound with soul and jazz influences. Wheatfield Soul was released in early 1969 and achieved success in both Canada and the United States. The single "These Eyes" reached the top ten in the United States and became a gold record with sales of more than one million copies. The follow-up album Canned Wheat was released in September 1969, and featured the double-sided hit single "Laughing"/"Undun".
For their next album, the band adopted more hard rock influences. American Woman was released in January 1970 and became a substantial worldwide hit. It was their first album to top the Canadian albums chart, and their first to reach the top ten on the American albums chart. The title track reached no. 1 in both countries and was also a substantial hit in the United Kingdom. This made the Guess Who the first Canadian band to achieve a chart-topping single in the United States during the Billboard Hot 100 era. (Canadian doo-wop group The Crew Cuts had a number one single in 1954, before that chart was instituted.) "No Time" and "No Sugar Tonight/New Mother Nature" also reached high on the singles charts in both Canada and the United States.
Personnel changes and continued success (1970–1975)
While American Woman became a success in the early months of 1970, Bachman recorded an all-instrumental solo album titled Axe with Peterson on drums. The Guess Who began recording a follow up to American Woman, completing seven tracks. (The tracks were withheld and were not released until 1976 under the title The Way They Were.) Bachman then took a break from touring with the Guess Who due to illness, with American guitarist Bobby Sabellico filling in temporarily. Bachman played a final show with the band and then quit in May 1970; his relations with Cummings had deteriorated and his recent conversion to Mormonism caused dissatisfaction with the band's rock n' roll lifestyle. Bachman later formed the successful hard rock band Bachman-Turner Overdrive.
Indicating a move into more intricate arrangements and vocal harmonies, while shooting for album rock radio, the Guess Who replaced Bachman with two guitarists from the Winnipeg rock scene: Kurt Winter from the band Brother, and Greg Leskiw from the band Wild Rice. Winter brought some songs from his previous band and became one of the Guess Who's primary songwriters. Leskiw occasionally contributed lead vocals. On July 17, 1970, the band was invited to perform at the White House for US President Richard Nixon's family and guests, but they were asked not to play "American Woman" due to its apparent criticism of the United States.
The expanded lineup quickly recorded the album Share the Land, which was released in late 1970 and became another substantial hit in both Canada and the United States. Songs from the albums Wheatfield Soul through Share the Land were compiled for the album The Best of The Guess Who, which became another successful release in both countries in 1971.
The band's commercial fortunes and chart performance then declined in the United States, perhaps due to an inability to be taken seriously by the fans of album rock radio, though they remained very successful in their native Canada. They released the albums So Long, Bannatyne in mid-1971, and Rockin' in early 1972. Both albums displayed more progressive and experimental elements. Shortly after the release of Rockin, Leskiw suddenly left the band in the middle of a US tour after a disagreement with Cummings. Leskiw was replaced on short notice by guitarist/singer Donnie McDougall, a veteran of the Winnipeg rock scene who had most recently played with the Vancouver-based Mother Tucker's Yellow Duck. With McDougall on board, the band recorded the album Live at the Paramount at the Paramount Theatre in Seattle in May 1972; it was released in August and included some songs that had not appeared on previous studio albums.
Just two months after McDougall joined, founding bassist Jim Kale left the band; he then joined Scrubbaloe Caine who achieved some Canadian hit singles in the mid-1970s. The Guess Who replaced Kale with Bill Wallace, who had played with Kurt Winter in their early Winnipeg band Brother. This lineup released the albums Artificial Paradise in early 1973, #10 in late 1973 (the title of which represented their number of original albums with RCA up to that point), and Road Food in early 1974. Road Food included the single "Clap for the Wolfman," which was a substantial hit in both Canada and the United States, and the band's first top ten American single since 1970. The novelty song was a tribute to disc jockey Wolfman Jack, who lent his voice to the recording.
For undisclosed reasons, guitarists Winter and McDougall were dismissed from the band in June 1974. They were replaced by a single guitarist, Domenic Troiano, who had founded the successful Canadian band Bush and had also served briefly with James Gang. Having grown up in Toronto, Troiano was the first member of the Guess Who not to hail from Winnipeg. He had also collaborated with an earlier version of the Guess Who on an aborted movie soundtrack in 1970 and had played on Randy Bachman's album Axe that year. The lineup of Cummings, Troiano, Wallace, and Peterson released the albums Flavours in late 1974 and Power in the Music in mid-1975. Due to Troiano's songwriting influence, these albums moved toward jazz rock; Cummings was unhappy with the stylistic change and disbanded the Guess Who in October 1975.
"The fake Guess Who" (1977-present)
In November 1977, the CBC approached the band about a reunion. Burton Cummings was busy with his solo career, and Randy Bachman had recently left the successful Bachman-Turner Overdrive with plans for a solo career of his own, so neither was interested in reviving the Guess Who. At this time, bassist Jim Kale, who had not been in the band since 1972, discovered that the Guess Who name had never been trademarked in Canada and acquired ownership, using the name to tour extensively on the nostalgia circuit with a wide variety of musicians called "The Guess Who" until the 2010s, sometimes with Peterson. Both Cummings and Bachman have been highly critical of the Kale and Peterson version of the band, comparing it to a cover band, and calling it "the fake Guess Who." Over the decades, this version of the Guess Who has recorded a handful of non-charting albums, supported by a revolving lineup of musicians with no historic connection to the band. As of 2020, drummer Garry Peterson was the only original Guess Who member left in the band using the Guess Who name.
Classic lineup reunions
Members of the classic-era Guess Who reunited a number of times over the years, the first being when Burton Cummings, Randy Bachman, Garry Peterson, and late-classic era bassist Bill Wallace reformed for a CBC television special in November 1979. This was followed by a short tour of notable Canadian cultural venues in 1983, resulting in the live album Together Again! (known as The Best of The Guess Who - Live! in the United States). In May 1997, with their hometown of Winnipeg facing severe floods, Cummings and Bachman reunited for a fundraiser for disaster relief, organized by Canadian actor Tom Jackson. At the request of the Premier of Manitoba, Cummings, Bachman, Kale, and Peterson appeared together at the closing ceremonies of the Pan American Games at Winnipeg Stadium on August 8, 1999. This inspired plans for a reunion tour, though Kale dropped out for health-related reasons. Another lineup featuring classic-era members Cummings, Bachman, Peterson, Donnie McDougall, and Bill Wallace engaged in a lengthy reunion tour from 2000 to 2003, including playing the halftime show at the 2000 Grey Cup. On July 30, 2003, this lineup performed before an estimated audience of 450,000 at the Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto SARS benefit concert. The show was the largest outdoor ticketed event in Canadian history. Unable to use the Guess Who name, Randy Bachman and Burton Cummings have also toured and recorded together as "Bachman-Cummings".
Legacy
The Guess Who were inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame in 1987. In 2001, classic era members of the Guess Who received honorary doctorates from Brandon University in Brandon, Manitoba. For Cummings, this was a special privilege because he had not graduated from high school. That same year, the group was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. The signatures of then-current band members Bachman, Cummings, McDougall, Peterson, and Wallace are engraved into the commemorative stone. In 2002, the same group of former members received the Governor General's Performing Arts Award for Lifetime Artistic Achievement for their contributions to popular music in Canada. In 2018, a number of master tapes of the band's recordings, possibly including unreleased material, were donated to the St. Vital Museum in Winnipeg.
MembersCurrent membersGarry Peterson – drums, percussion, backing vocals
Leonard Shaw – keyboards, saxophones, flute, backing vocals
Derek Sharp – lead vocals, rhythm guitar, piano
Michael Staertow – lead guitar, backing vocals
DiscographyAs Chad Allan and the Expressions (Guess Who?) Shakin' All Over (1965)
Hey Ho (What You Do to Me!) (1965)As The Guess Who?
It's Time (1966)
A Wild Pair (with The Staccatos) (1968)As The Guess Who Wheatfield Soul (1969)
Canned Wheat (1969)
American Woman (1970)
Share the Land (1970)
So Long, Bannatyne (1971)
Rockin' (1972)
Live at the Paramount (1972)
Artificial Paradise (1973)
#10 (1973)
Road Food (1974)
Flavours (1974)
Power in the Music (1975)
Together Again (1984)Post Burton Cummings–era albums credited to 'The Guess Who''''
Guess Who's Back (1978)
All This for a Song (1979)
Now and Not Then (1981)
Liberty (1994; repackaged as Lonely One, 1995)
The Future IS What It Used To Be (2018)
Filmography
1983: Together Again (live concert with interviews)
2002: Running Back Thru Canada (live with bonus tracks)
2003: Molson Canadian Rocks for Toronto (two tracks only) .
2007: Shakin' in Las Vegas (DVD with concert performance and four new songs )
Further reading
1995: American Woman: The Story of The Guess Who by John Einarson; Quarry Press, Ontario, Canada
2020: Wheatfield Empire: The Listeners Guide to The Guess Who'' by Robert Lawson; Friesen Press, Ontario Canada
See also
Canadian rock
List of bands from Canada
References
External links
1965 establishments in Manitoba
Canadian hard rock musical groups
Canadian blues rock musical groups
Canadian Music Hall of Fame inductees
Governor General's Performing Arts Award winners
Juno Award winners
Musical groups established in 1965
Musical groups disestablished in 1975
Musical groups reestablished in 1977
Musical groups from Winnipeg
1975 disestablishments in Canada
1977 establishments in Manitoba | [
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256387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality%20of%20Antioch | Principality of Antioch | The Principality of Antioch was one of the crusader states created during the First Crusade which included parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria. The principality was much smaller than the County of Edessa or the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It extended around the northeastern edge of the Mediterranean, bordering the County of Tripoli to the south, Edessa to the east, and the Byzantine Empire or the Kingdom of Armenia to the northwest, depending on the date.
It had roughly 20,000 inhabitants in the 12th century, most of whom were Armenians and Greek Orthodox Christians, with a few Muslims outside the city itself. Most of the crusaders who settled there were of Norman origin, notably from the Norman Kingdom of southern Italy, as were the first rulers of the principality, who surrounded themselves with loyal subjects. Few of the inhabitants apart from the Crusaders were Roman Catholic even though the city was under the jurisdiction of the Latin Patriarchate of Antioch, established in 1100. This patriarchate would endure as a titular one after the Crusades, until it was dropped in 1964.
History
Foundation
While Baldwin of Boulogne and Tancred headed east from Asia Minor to set up the County of Edessa, the main army of the First Crusade continued south to besiege Antioch. Bohemond of Taranto commanded the siege which commenced in October 1097. With over four hundred towers, the city's defenses were formidable. The siege lasted throughout the winter, with much attrition among the Crusader force, who were often forced to eat their horses, or, as legend has it, the bodies ofall fellow Christians who had not survived.
Bohemond convinced a guard in one of the towers, an Armenian and former Christian named Firouz, to let the Crusaders enter the city. Only four days later, a Muslim army from Mosul, led by Kerbogha, arrived to besiege the Crusaders themselves. Alexios I Komnenos, the Byzantine emperor, was on his way to assist the Crusaders; but upon hearing rumors that the city had fallen to the Muslims, Alexios turned back.
The Crusaders withstood the siege, with help from a mystic named Peter Bartholomew. Peter claimed he had been visited by St. Andrew, who told him that the Holy Lance, which pierced Christ's side as he was on the cross, was located in Antioch. The cathedral of St. Peter was excavated, and the Lance was discovered by Peter himself. Although Peter most likely planted it there himself (even the papal legate Adhemar of Le Puy believed this to be the case), it raised the spirits of the Crusaders. With the relic at the head of the army, Bohemond marched out to meet the besieging Muslim force, which was defeated. According to the Crusaders, an army of saints appeared to help them on the battlefield.
There was a lengthy dispute over who should control the city. Bohemond and the Italian Normans eventually won, and Bohemond named himself prince. Bohemond was already Prince (allodial lord) of Taranto in Italy. He desired to continue such independence in his new lordship, so he did not attempt to receive the title of Duke from the Byzantine Emperor (in whose name he had taken an oath to fight), nor any other title with deep feudal obligations. Meanwhile, an unknown epidemic spread throughout the Crusader camp; Adhemar of Le Puy was one of the victims.
Early history
Following Bohemond's capture in battle with the Danishmends in 1100, his nephew Tancred became regent. Tancred expanded the borders of the Principality, seizing the cities of Tarsus and Latakia from the Byzantine Empire. However those newly captured cities along with other territory were lost after the Battle of Harran when Baldwin II of Edessa was captured. Bohemond was released in 1103 and went to Italy to raise more troops in 1104, during which time Tancred remained regent of Antioch. Bohemond used the troops he raised to attack the Byzantines in 1107. Bohemond was defeated at Dyrrhachium in 1108 and was forced by Alexius I to sign the Treaty of Devol, making Antioch a vassal state of the Byzantine Empire upon Bohemond's death. Bohemond had promised to return any land that was seized from the Muslims when the Crusaders passed through Constantinople in 1097. Bohemond also fought at Aleppo with Baldwin and Joscelin of the County of Edessa; when Baldwin and Joscelin were captured, Tancred became regent in Edessa as well. Bohemond left Tancred as regent once more and returned to Italy, where he died in 1111.
Alexius wanted Tancred to return the Principality in its entirety to Byzantium, but Tancred was supported by the County of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Tancred, in fact, had been the only Crusade leader who did not swear to return conquered land to Alexius (though none of the other leaders, save for Raymond IV of Toulouse, kept their oaths anyway). Tancred died in 1112 and was succeeded by Bohemond II, under the regency of Tancred's nephew Roger of Salerno, who defeated a Seljuk attack in 1113.
On June 27, 1119, Roger was killed at the Ager Sanguinis (the Field of Blood), and Antioch became a vassal state of Jerusalem with King Baldwin II as regent until 1126 (although Baldwin spent much of this time in captivity in Aleppo). Bohemond II, who married Baldwin's daughter Alice, ruled for only four years, and the Principality was inherited by his young daughter Constance; Baldwin II acted as regent again until his death in 1131, when Fulk of Jerusalem took power. In 1136, Constance, still only 10 years old, married Raymond of Poitiers, who was 36.
Raymond, like his predecessors, attacked the Byzantine province of Cilicia. This time, however, Emperor John II Komnenos fought back. He arrived in Antioch in 1138 and forced Raymond to swear fealty to him. There then followed a joint campaign as John led the armies of Byzantium, Antioch and Edessa against Muslim Syria. Aleppo proved too strong to attack, but the fortresses of Balat, Biza'a, Athereb, Maarat al-Numan and Kafartab were taken by assault. Although John fought hard for the Christian cause in the campaign in Syria, his allies, Prince Raymond of Poitiers and Count Joscelin II of Edessa, sat around playing dice instead of helping John to press the Siege of Shaizar. The city was taken, but the citadel defied assault. The Emir of Shaizar offered to pay a large indemnity, become John's vassal and pay yearly tribute; the offer was reluctantly accepted by the emperor. On the return of the army to Antioch, a riot instigated by Joscelin II of Edessa forced the emperor to leave without the citadel being surrendered to him. John had plans to reconquer Antioch and become an effective overlord of the remaining Crusader states, but he died in 1143.
Antioch and the Byzantine Empire
After the fall of Edessa in 1144, Antioch was attacked by Nur ad-Din during the Second Crusade. Much of the eastern part of the Principality was lost, and Raymond was killed at the battle of Inab in 1149. Baldwin III of Jerusalem was technically regent for Raymond's widow Constance until 1153 when she married Raynald of Châtillon. Raynald, too, immediately found himself in conflict with the Byzantines, this time in Cyprus; he made peace with Manuel I Comnenus in 1158, and the next year Manuel arrived to take personal control of the Principality. From thence the Principality of Antioch was to be a vassal of Byzantium until Manuel's death in 1180. Although this arrangement meant that the Principality had to provide a contingent for the Byzantine Army (troops from Antioch participated in an attack on the Seljuk Turks in 1176), it also safeguarded the City against Nur ad-Din at a time when it was in serious danger of being overrun.
Raynald was taken prisoner by the Muslims in 1160, and the regency fell to the Patriarch of Antioch (Raynald was not released until 1176, and never returned to Antioch). Meanwhile, Manuel married Constance's daughter Maria, but as Constance was only nominally in charge of Antioch, she was deposed in 1163 and replaced by her son Bohemond III. Bohemond was taken captive by Nur ad-Din the following year at the Battle of Harim, and the Orontes River became the permanent boundary between Antioch and Aleppo. Bohemond returned to Antioch in 1165, and married one of Manuel's nieces; he was also convinced to install a Greek Orthodox patriarch in the city.
The Byzantine alliance came to an end with the death of the Emperor Manuel in 1180. Antioch was deprived of the Empire's protection, which had been enough to frighten Nur ad-Din away from intervening in the area for the preceding twenty years. Nevertheless, with help from the fleets of the Italian city-states, Antioch survived Saladin's assault on the Kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187. Neither Antioch nor Tripoli participated in the Third Crusade, although the remnants of Frederick Barbarossa's army briefly stopped in Antioch in 1190 to bury their king. Bohemond III's son, also named Bohemond, had become count of Tripoli after the Battle of Hattin, and Bohemond III's eldest son Raymond married an Armenian princess in 1194. Bohemond III died in 1201.
Bohemond's death resulted in a struggle for control between Antioch, represented by Bohemond of Tripoli, and Armenia, represented by Bohemond III's grandson Raymond-Roupen. Bohemond of Tripoli, as Bohemond IV, took control by 1207, but Raymond briefly ruled as a rival from 1216 to 1219. Bohemond died in 1233, and Antioch, ruled by his son Bohemond V, played no important role in the Fifth Crusade, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II's struggles to take back Jerusalem in the Sixth Crusade, or Louis IX of France's Seventh Crusade.
Relations with other Latin settlements in the East
The Principality's relationship with other Latin settlements were based on two factors. The first factor was that the Princes of Antioch wanted to extend their power throughout the Latin east which led to conflict between the County of Edessa and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Secondly, an alliance between the Latin rulers was secured through their shared situation in the East. This alliance was strengthened by feudal ties and marriage alliances among the eastern Latin rulers.
Baldwin of Boulogne, Count of Edessa, and Bohemond I were said to have had a relationship based on equality and brotherhood. For example, they travelled to Jerusalem in 1099 to consolidate their pilgrimage vows together. They also consecrated the Latin clerics as bishops in Antioch, including the County of Edessa. Bohemon I and Baldwin of Le Bourcq also had a close relationship - Baldwin was made commander of Antioch's militia by Bohemond in 1100.
A whole network of confraternities existed at this time. However, there were uneasy relations between the Principality and the region of Tripoli under Raymond, Count of Toulouse. Raymond allied with Emperor Alexius I Commnenus instead of Bohemond. In 1105, Bohemond left the east and he placed his nephew, Tancred, in charge of Antioch. In 1108, Bohemond also put Richard of Salerno in charge of Edessa, but Tancred was reluctant to hand it over because Tancred and Baldwin were fighting each other for possession of Edessa at the time. Tancred's resistance continued into 1109. At the same time, a conflict between Antioch and the Count of Tripoli, William-Jordan, was settled when the latter agreed to surrender Tripoli in exchange for confirmation of his possession of Toulouse. Bertrand of Toulouse then entered an alliance with Baldwin I of Jerusalem. In 1110, a council convened after William-Jordan was killed. After this, Antioch and Edessa appear to have reconciled.
In 1111 when the Muslim army of Maudud of Mosul threatened the Principality, its Latin allies responded by bringing military aid. In 1112, Bertrand of Toulouse died and Roger Salerno took over Edessa. During this period, there was a better relationship between Antioch and Edessa as well as with the Kingdom of Jerusalem. For example, in 1115 in the lead-up to the battle of Tell Danith, the Edessene faction of the army was integral to Antioch's overall army. In 1118 the forces of Jerusalem, Antioch and Tripoli combined to meet an army from Egypt and Damascus that was threatening the Kingdom of Jerusalem.
But in 1119 Roger of Salerno was killed, leaving no adult heir. This shifted the balance of power in northern Syria, as Baldwin II, King of Jerusalem, was appointed Regent. At this time, Joscelin of Courtenay enjoyed a stable rule in Edessa, further weakening Antioch's dominance in Northern Syria. In 1126, Bohemond II arrived in the east and because Baldwin wanted Antioch and Jerusalem to maintain a close relationship, he arranged a marriage between the Prince of Antioch and his daughter, Alice. In 1127, a dispute between Bohemond and Joscelin of Courtenay led to Joscelin conducting raids in the Principality. In 1130, a succession crisis followed Bohemond II's death, signifying the end of Antioch's dominance of northern Syria.
Fall of the Principality
In 1254 Bohemond VI married Sibylla of Armenia, ending the power struggle between the two states, although by this point Armenia was the more powerful of the two and Antioch was essentially a vassal state. Both were swept up by the conflict between the Mameluks and the Mongols. In 1260, under the influence of his father-in-law, the Armenian king Hetoum I, Bohemond VI submitted to the Mongols under Hulagu, making Antioch a tributary state of the Mongol Empire. Bohemond and Hetoum fought on the side of the Mongols during the conquests of Muslim Syria, taking together the city of Aleppo, and later Damascus.
When the Mongols were defeated at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, Baibars, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, began to threaten Antioch, which (as a vassal of the Armenians) had supported the Mongols. Baibars finally took the city in 1268, and all of northern Syria was quickly lost; twenty-three years later, Acre was taken, and the Crusader states ceased to exist.
In the colophons of the Malatia Gospel of 1268 (MS No. 10675), Armenian manuscript illuminator Toros Roslin described the brutal sacking of Antioch by Baibars: "...at this time great Antioch was captured by the wicked king of Egypt, and many were killed and became his prisoners, and a cause of anguish to the holy and famous temples, houses of God, which are in it; the wonderful elegance of the beauty of those that were destroyed by fire is beyond the power of words." The empty title of "Prince of Antioch" passed, with the extinction of the counts of Tripoli, to the kings of Cyprus, and was sometimes granted as a dignity to junior members of the royal house.
Non-Latin population
The native population of the principality was rather diverse. A significant proportion were Miaphysite Armenians, who could be found in Antioch and other urban and rural areas. Based on the rich evidence available, it has even been proposed that they were the most numerous ethnic group. Also important were the so-called suriani, who actually comprised two Christian peoples: the Aramaic-speaking Syriacs (also called "Jacobites") and the Arabic-speaking Melkites. Furthermore, there were also Muslims in the capital, in the south, and probably also the east of the principality. They appear only rarely in Antiochene charters, making an estimation of their numbers difficult. Other minorities were the Greeks (graeci) and Jews.
Vassals of Antioch
Lords of Saône
The Lordship of Saône was centered on the castle of Saône, but included the towns of Sarmada (lost in 1134) and Balatanos. Saône was captured by Saladin from the last lord, Matthew, in 1188.
Robert the Leper (d. 1119)
William of Zardana (1119–1132)
Great Officers of Antioch
Like Jerusalem, Antioch had its share of great offices, including Constable, Marshal, Seneschal, Duc, Vicomte, Butler, Chamberlain, and Chancellor.
References
Further reading
Primary sources
Ibn al-Qalanisi, The Damascus Chronicle of the Crusades, trans. H. A. R. Gibb (London, 1932).
John Kinnamos, Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus, trans. C. M. Brand (New York, 1976).
Matthew of Edessa, The Chronicle of Matthew of Edessa, trans. A. E. Dostourian (Lanham, New York, London, 1993).
Orderic Vitalis, The Ecclesiastical History of Orderic Vitalis, ed. and trans. M. Chibnall, vols V-VI (Oxford, 1975–1978).
Walter the Chancellor, Bella Antiochena, ed. H. Hagenmeyer (Innsbruck, 1896).
Secondary sources
Angold M., The Byzantine Empire 1025–1204, 2nd ed. (London, 1997)
Barlow F., The Feudal King of England 1042–1216 (London, 1988)
Beaumont A. A., "Albert of Aachen and the County of Edessa", The Crusades and other historical essays presented to Dana C. Munro, ed. L. J. Paetow (New York, 1928), pp. 101–38.
Brown, R. A., The Normans (Woolbridge, 1984)
Bella Antiochena, ed. H.
Edbury, P. W., "Feudal Obligations in the Latin East", Byzantion, vol. 47 (1977), pp. 328–56.
Edgington, S. B., "From Aachen: A new perspective on relations between the Crusaders and Byzantium, 1095-1120", Medieval History, vol. 4 (1994)
Hamilton, B., "Ralph of Domfront, patriarch of Antioch (1135–1140)", Nottingham Medieval Studies, vol. 28 (1984), pp. 1–21.
Harris, Jonathan (2014), Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed.
Hill, J. H., Raymond IV Count of Tolouse (New York, 1962)
Holt, P. M., The Age of the Crusades (London, 1986)
External links
1268 disestablishments in Asia
States and territories established in 1098 | [
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256388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dudley%20Do-Right | Dudley Do-Right | Dudley Do-Right, created by Alex Anderson with Chris Hayward, Allan Burns and Jay Ward is the main protagonist of "Dudley Do-Right of the Mounties", a segment on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show that parodied early 20th-century melodrama and silent film (the "northern"), using only a piano as a musical background.
Overview
Dudley Do-Right is a dim-witted, but conscientious and cheerful Canadian Mountie who is always trying to catch his nemesis, Snidely Whiplash, and rescue damsel in distress Nell Fenwick, the daughter of his boss Inspector Fenwick, with whom Dudley is deeply infatuated. He usually succeeds only by pure luck or through the actions of his horse, named "Horse". A running gag throughout the series is Nell's great affection for Horse and her disregard for Dudley.
In the standard intro, Dudley jumps on Horse and rides him backwards until he comes across Whiplash tying Nell to a railroad track. He tips his hat to the two, then quickly realizes what is going on and rights himself in time to save the day.
Dudley Do-Right made a cameo in a "Rocky and Bullwinkle Fan Club" segment as the hero in "She Can't Pay the Rent", a play staged by Boris Badenov. Rocky and Bullwinkle also appeared as cameos in "Mountie Bear".
The Dudley Do-Right Show
The Dudley Do-Right Show is an animated television series assembled by P.A.T. Film Services, consisting of cartoons produced by Jay Ward Productions and Total Television that aired Sunday mornings on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) from April 27, 1969, to September 6, 1970. Each half-hour show included two segments each of "Dudley Do-Right of the Mounties" and "The World of Commander McBragg", along with one segment each of "Tooter Turtle" and "The Hunter". Dudley Do-Right was a Jay Ward production, while the other segments were products of Total Television. Both companies used Gamma Productions, a Mexico-based animation studio.
The U.S. syndicated version of The Dudley Do-Right Show, called Dudley Do Right and Friends, follows the same format but features different episodes. The syndicated package features "Dudley Do-Right of the Mounties", "The World of Commander McBragg", "The King and Odie", and "The Hunter". The latter two originally appeared as part of King Leonardo and His Short Subjects, a series that aired between October 15, 1960, and September 28, 1963, on NBC-TV. Twenty-six new segments of both series were produced for CBS-TV's Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales in 1963, and these later segments are included in the syndicated Dudley Do Right and Friends.
Actors (voice overs) included:
Bill Scott — Dudley Do-Right
June Foray — Nell Fenwick
Hans Conried — Snidely Whiplash
Paul Frees — Inspector Fenwick/Narrator
William Conrad did several (but not all) of the narrations.
Evan Cox - cameo in The Actors Challenge
Segments
Season 1
The Disloyal Canadians
Stokey the Bear
Mortgagin' the Mountie Post
Trap Bait
The Masked Ginny Lynn
Season 2
The Centaur
Railroad Tracks
Fireclosing Mortgages
Snidely Mounted Police
Mother Love
Mountie Bear
Inspector Dudley Do-Right
Recruiting Campaign
Out of Uniform
Lure of the Footlights
Bullet-Proof Suit
Miracle Drug
Elevenworth Prison
Saw Mill
Finding Gold
Mountie Without a Horse
Mother Whiplash's Log Jam
Stolen Art Masterpiece
Season 3
Mechanical Dudley
Flicker Rock
Faithful Dog
Coming-Out Party
Robbing Banks
Skagway Dogsled-Pulling Contest
Canadian Railway's Bridge
Niagara Falls
Snidely's Vic Whiplash Gym
Marigolds
Trading Places
Season 4
Top Secret
The Locket
The Inspector's Nephew
Matinee Idol
Snidely Arrested
One segment originally seen on The Bullwinkle Show, "Stokey the Bear", was withheld from all reissues of the series for several decades because the U.S. Forest Service objected to the image of a bear that started forest fires, even though he had been hypnotized by Snidely to do so. The segment was released on home video by Sony Wonder and Classic Media in 2005.
Film
A live-action film was released in 1999, starring Brendan Fraser, Sarah Jessica Parker, and Alfred Molina. It received negative reviews and was a box-office failure, grossing less than $10 million domestically against a $70-million budget.
Theme park attraction
Dudley Do-Right is the theme of a log flume attraction at the Islands of Adventure theme park titled Dudley Do-Right's Ripsaw Falls. Guests enter a queue themed to resemble a theater, with Dudley, Nell, Snidely, and Horse presented as actors. Riders board cartoon logs and journey "into" the story, where Snidely has cruelly captured Nell Fenwick. Horse and Dudley make their first appearance in front of a cyclorama backdrop, theatrically "charging" to the rescue.
The ride system contains three drops, the last and steepest of which is seventy-five feet. It is a hybrid flume/coaster that utilizes steel track to not only shoot guest-filled logs down the final drop, but under the water's surface and over a bunny hill. The ride system was designed and built by Mack GmbH and opened in 1999.
References
External links
Dudley Do-Right at Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Archived from the original on May 5, 2016.
Television characters introduced in 1961
1969 American television series debuts
1970 American television series endings
1960s American animated television series
1970s American animated television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
Comedy film characters
Fictional Canadian people
Fictional Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers
Jay Ward Productions
Male characters in animation
Police comedies
Rocky and Bullwinkle characters
Television shows adapted into films
General Mills | [
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256389 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acme%20Novelty%20Library | Acme Novelty Library | Acme Novelty Library is a comic book series created by Chicago cartoonist Chris Ware. Its first issue appeared in 1993. Published from 1994 by Fantagraphics Books and later self-published, it is considered a significant work in alternative comics, selling over 20,000 copies per issue.
Format, style and content
Acme Novelty Library has adopted numerous formats in the course of the series and, similarly, doesn't feature a continuous cast of characters. It has showcased early Ware comics, such as Quimby the Mouse from The Daily Texan, and more recent strips from NewCity, a Chicago weekly paper.
Ware's first major graphic novel, Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth, was originally serialized in Acme Novelty Library between 1995 and 2000. Jimmy Corrigan is the saga of a lonely childlike man and his alienated ancestors, partly inspired by Ware's hopeful but unhappy reunion with his absentee father. The collected edition was released to much acclaim, winning the Guardian First Book Award, amongst others.
Rusty Brown and Building Stories began serialization in issue 16. With this issue, Ware also began to self-publish the title, with Fantagraphics and later Drawn & Quarterly acting as distributor. When asked why he chose to self-publish Ware stated:
Well, it's for a complicated variety of reasons, but mostly it was because I realized a year or two ago that I simply wasn’t really inspired to do it any more, and when I imagined taking over every aspect of it myself, I was suddenly inspired, almost anxious, to work on it again. In short, it just feels a little more like "art" to me now, since I’m responsible for everything that goes into it, and there’s no one to blame but myself if it's awful...
Issues are imbued with the defining characteristics of Ware's work; a pervasive sadness and nihilism permeate tales of disappointment, thwarted affection, and the dehumanization of the individual in a modern and mechanized world. Through the use of apparently extraneous novelties, such as cut-outs and flip-books, and prose parodies set in tiny fonts, Ware blurs the boundaries between author/reader/character. These interventions offer complex and simultaneous multilinear readings of the page that serve to thematise Ware's engagement with issues of narrative and continuity.
Acme Novelty Library series
Issues 1–15 were published by Fantagraphics Books. Ware started self-publishing the series starting with #16, which was distributed by Fantagraphics, with subsequent issues distributed by Drawn & Quarterly.
Issue 18 was published in 2007 containing Ware's "Thanksgiving" covers for the November 26, 2006, issue of The New Yorker, plus supplementary material, in portfolio format.
The title has been collected into volumes published by Pantheon Books (US), Fantagraphics Books (US) and Jonathan Cape (UK):
Jimmy Corrigan, the Smartest Kid on Earth (2000), Pantheon / Cape (collects issue 5, 6, 8, 9 and 11–14).
Quimby the Mouse (2003), Fantagraphics / Cape (collects issues 2 and 4 with additional material).
The Acme Novelty Library Final Report to Shareholders and Rainy Day Saturday Afternoon Fun Book (2005), Pantheon / Cape (collects issues 7 and 15 with additional material, including parody ads and the ACME company "tour").
Building Stories (2012), Pantheon Books Pantheon / Cape (collects issue 18 with material from issue 16, other periodicals, and new material).
Rusty Brown (2019), Pantheon Books (collects material from issues 16, 17, 19, 20, as well as new material).
Numbers 1, 3, and 10 are the only issues to remain uncollected at this time.
Awards
The series has been widely recognized in the industry.
The series won the Eisner Award for Best Continuing Series of 1996 and 2000; Best New Graphic Album of 2000; and Best Publication Design of 1995, 1996, 1997, and 2002. Furthermore, an Acme Novelty Library display stand won the Eisner Award for Best Comics-Related Product of 1998. Ware won the Eisner Award for his work in Acme Novelty Library for Best Artist/Writer-Drama of 2008; Best Artist/Writer of 2009; Best Colorist of 1996, 1998, 2001 and 2006; and Best Letterer of 2009.
The series won the Harvey Award for Best New Series of 1995; Best Continuing or Limited Series of 2000 and 2001; Best Single Issue or Story of 1997 and 2000; and Harvey Special Award for Excellence in Presentation every year from 1995 to 2000. Ware won the Harvey Award for his work in Acme Novelty Library for Best Cartoonist of 2006; Best Letterer of 1996, 2000, 2002, and 2006; Best Cover Artist of 2000; and Best Colorist of 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000 and 2002.
The series won Ignatz Awards for Outstanding Series of 1997, 1998; Outstanding Comic of 1998 and 2000; Outstanding Story of 2000 (Jimmy Corrigan); and Outstanding Graphic Novel of 2009.
Other awards won by Acme Novelty Library include 1999 National Cartoonists Society's Award for Best Comic Book and Good Taste Awards for Best New Series of 1994; Best Continuing Series of 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, and 2000; Best Single Issue of 1996, 1999, and 2000; Best Ongoing Serialized Story of 1999 (Jimmy Corrigan); and Best Production Design of 1998, 1999, and 2000.
References
External links
Comics by Chris Ware
Fantagraphics titles
1993 comics debuts
Eisner Award winners for Best Continuing Series
Eisner Award winners for Best Graphic Album: New
Harvey Award winners for Best New Series
Harvey Award winners for Best Continuing or Limited Series
Harvey Award winners for Best Single Issue or Story
Ignatz Award winners for Outstanding Series
Ignatz Award winners for Outstanding Graphic Novel or Collection
Ignatz Award winners for Outstanding Story
Metafictional comics | [
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256390 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crafoord%20Prize | Crafoord Prize | The Crafoord Prize is an annual science prize established in 1980 by Holger Crafoord, a Swedish industrialist, and his wife Anna-Greta Crafoord. The Prize is awarded in partnership between the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and the Crafoord Foundation in Lund. The Academy is responsible for selecting the Crafoord Laureates. The prize is awarded in four categories: astronomy and mathematics; geosciences; biosciences, with particular emphasis on ecology; and polyarthritis, the disease from which Holger severely suffered in his last years.
According to the Academy, "these disciplines are chosen so as to complement those for which the Nobel Prizes are awarded". Only one award is given each year, according to a rotating scheme – astronomy and mathematics; then geosciences; then biosciences. A Crafoord Prize in polyarthritis is only awarded when a special committee decides that substantial progress in the field has been made. The recipient of the Crafoord Prize is announced each year in mid-January; on Crafoord Days in April or May, the prize is presented by the King of Sweden, who also presents the Nobel Prizes at the ceremony in December. the prize money is 6,000,000 kr (or US$700,000).
The inaugural laureates, Vladimir Arnold and Louis Nirenberg, were cited by the Academy for their work in the field of non-linear differential equations. The prize has, so far, almost exclusively been awarded to men. The first woman to be awarded the prize was astronomer Andrea Ghez in 2012.
Laureates
The Crafoord prize has been awarded to the following scientists:
Notes
Nirenberg was born in Canada.
Grothendieck was born in Germany, but spent most of his life in France and was legally stateless. He declined his prize.
Shing-Tung Yau was born in China.
Dziewonski was born in Poland.
Kontsevich was born in Russia.
Eliashberg was born in Russia.
Rudensky was born in Russia.
See also
List of general science and technology awards
The Kyoto Prize
Prizes named after people
References
External links
Crafoord Prize at Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences website
Awards established in 1980
Awards of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | [
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256394 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20kite | Power kite | A power kite or traction kite is a large kite designed to provide significant pull to the user.
Types
The two most common forms are the foil, and the leading edge inflatable. There are also other less common types of power kite including rigid-framed kites and soft single skin kites. There are several different control systems used with these kites which have two to five lines and a bar or handles.
Foil kites consist of a number of cells with cloth ribs in each cell. It is the profile of these ribs that gives the kite its aerofoil shape and enable it to generate lift. The most common type is the ram-air foil, where each cell has a gauze-covered opening at the front, meaning air is forced in during flight, giving the kite its stiffness and enabling it to hold its profile. Some ram-air foils are closed-cell, where a one-way valve locks the air inside the cells, giving some increased water relaunch capability.
Leading edge inflatable kites (LEIs) are made of a single skin of fabric with, as the name suggests, an inflated tubular leading edge and inflated ribs. The leading edge and ribs are inflated by the user with a pump prior to launching the kite. The profile of an LEI type kite comes from the inflatable edge and ribs. LEI kites are primarily used for kitesurfing, as they retain their structure when wet and can be easily relaunched from the water after sitting on the surface for an extended period. Conversely, an open-celled foil kite crashed into the sea immediately becomes saturated with water and unflyable.
Uses
Power kites are generally used in conjunction with a vehicle or board, such as in:
kitesurfing on a kiteboard
kite buggying on a purpose-built 3-wheeled cart
kite landboarding on an all-terrain/mountain/land board
kite skating on all-terrain roller skates
kiteboating, on a boat
snowkiting on skis or snowboards
Power kites can also be used recreationally without a vehicle or board, as in kite jumping or kite man lifting, where a harnessed kite flier is moored to the ground or one or more people to provide tension and lift
Research is also under way in the use of kites to generate electric power to be fed into a power grid. Laddermills are a type of airborne wind turbine. Kites are used to reach high altitude winds such as a jet stream, which are always present, even if ground level winds available to wind turbines are absent.
Kites of related design are used for sailing, including speed sailing. Jacob's Ladder, a kite-powered boat, set the C-Class world sailing speed record with a speed of in 1982, a record that stood for six years. A kiteboard was the first sailing craft to exceed a speed of in October 2008.
Power kites range in size from . All kites are made for specific purposes: some for water, land, power or maneuverability.
Bridle configuration
The lift generated by the kite and other flying characteristics are affected by the kite's angle of attack, which is set by the bridle; the arrangement of lines which terminate the main kite lines and attach to a number of points across the kite's surface. Power kites having 4 or 5 lines come in two variants, fixed bridle and depowerable.
Fixed bridle
Fixed bridle kites have a fixed angle of attack which is set by the bridle. Small adjustments may be possible by adjusting the bridle with the kite on the ground, however the angle of attack is not adjustable whilst the kite is airborne. A high angle of attack setting results in more power from the kite, but at the expense of speed and ability to fly close to the wind. A low angle of attack results in less power, but speed is increased and the kite can fly a lot closer to the edge of the wind window. Fixed bridle kites may be used with handles or a bar, with handles typically being preferable for activities such as kite jumping and kite buggying, and a bar being preferable for kite landboarding.
Depowerable
Depowerable kites are used with a control bar and harness system, with the kite's primary power lines attached to the user's harness through a hole in the centre of the bar. The bar has a few inches of travel along the lines, and the lines are configured such that the user may pull the bar towards themselves to increase the kite's angle of attack, increasing the lift and thus the power delivered through the harness whilst the kite is in flight. Kites used for kitesurfing are almost invariably depowerable, and some modern kites such as bow kites allow power to be reduced by almost 100% for increased safety and versatility.
Safety
Kite safety systems have become more prevalent in recent years, and today almost all 4 and 5 line kites are used with a safety system designed to remove power from the kite in the event that the user becomes overpowered or loses control of the kite. When flying a fixed bridle kite, one or more straps known as 'kite killers' are attached to the user's wrist(s) by bungee cords. When the handles or bar are released, these straps pull on the kite's brake lines at the trailing edge of the kite, allowing the kite to flap in the wind with no structure.
Depowerable kites have safety systems that work in a similar way, but since the kite is semi-permanently attached to the user's harness, a toggle or handle is used to activate the safety system which releases the bar and power lines from the harness.
Some depowerable kites have a 5th line safety system, the 5th line being redundant during normal use until the safety mechanism is activated. Here, all of the usual four lines are slackened, causing the kite to either fold or roll backwards, and lose its profile to the wind and therefore its power. The kite is left attached to the user by the 5th line to allow retrieval.
History
19th century
In the 1800s, George Pocock used kites of increased size to propel carts on land and ships on the water, using a four-line control system—the same system in common use today. Both carts and boats were able to turn and sail upwind. The kites could be flown for sustained periods. The intention was to establish kitepower as an alternative to horsepower, partly to avoid the hated "horse tax" that was levied at that time. Aviation pioneer Samuel Cody developed several "man-lifting kites" and in 1903 succeeded in crossing the English Channel in a small collapsible canvas boat powered by a kite.
20th century
In the late 1970s, the development of Kevlar then Spectra flying lines and more controllable kites with improved efficiency contributed to practical kite traction. In 1978, Ian Day's "FlexiFoil" kite-powered Tornado catamaran exceeded 40 km/h.
In October 1977 Gijsbertus Adrianus Panhuise (Netherlands) received the first patent for KiteSurfing. The patent covers, specifically, a water sport using a floating board of a surf board type where a pilot standing up on it is pulled by a wind catching device of a parachute type tied to his harness on a trapeze type belt. Although this patent did not result in any commercial interest, Gijsbertus Adrianus Panhuise could be considered as the originator of KiteSurfing.
On 28 August 1982 Greg Locke and Simon Carter, from Brighton UK, set the world record for kite traction at sea, travelling nearly 26 miles under wind power alone along the English channel. This followed a successful crossing of the English Channel from Sussex to France by Locke & Carter the previous year.
Through the 1980s, there were occasionally successful attempts to combine kites with canoes, ice skates, snow skis, water skis and roller skates.
Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, Dieter Strasilla from Germany developed parachute-skiing and later perfected a kite-skiing system using self-made paragliders and a ball-socket swivel allowing the pilot to sail upwind and uphill but also to take off into the air at will. Strasilla and his Swiss friend Andrea Kuhn used this invention also in combination with surfboards and snowboards, grasskies and self-made buggies. One of his patents describes in 1979 the first use of an inflatable kite design for kitesurfing.
Two brothers, Bruno Legaignoux and Dominique Legaignoux, from the Atlantic coast of France, developed kites for kitesurfing in the late 1970s and early 1980s and patented an inflatable kite design in November 1984, a design that has been used by companies to develop their own products.
In 1990, practical kite buggying was pioneered by Peter Lynn at Argyle Park in Ashburton, New Zealand. Lynn coupled a three-wheeled buggy with a forerunner of the modern parafoil kite. Kite buggying proved to be popular worldwide, with over 14,000 buggies sold up to 1999.
See also
Kite types
Kite applications
Kite mooring
SkySails - industrial-scale power kites for pulling ships
References
External links
Current traction kites are aerodynamically far from optimal A more efficient traction kite would beat all skate sails, at least in light wind.
Kiteboarding Links - Guide All about Kite Surfing.
Powerkiter (France) - How to use a powerkite (language : French)
Kites
Kitesurfing
Articles containing video clips | [
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256406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Lloyd | Christopher Lloyd | Christopher Allen Lloyd (born October 22, 1938) is an American actor. He has appeared in many theater productions, films, and on television since 1961, and is known for portraying Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy (1985–1990) and Jim Ignatowski in the comedy series Taxi (1978–1983), winning two Emmy Awards for the latter.
Lloyd came to public attention in Northeastern theater productions during the 1960s and early 1970s, earning Drama Desk and Obie awards for his work. He made his cinematic debut in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975), and his television debut in The Adams Chronicles the following year. Lloyd also starred as Commander Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984), Professor Plum in Clue (1985), Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), and Uncle Fester in The Addams Family (1991) and its sequel Addams Family Values (1993).
Lloyd earned a third Emmy for his 1992 guest appearance as Alistair Dimple in Road to Avonlea (1992), and won an Independent Spirit Award for his performance in Twenty Bucks (1993). He has done extensive voice work, including Merlock in DuckTales the Movie: Treasure of the Lost Lamp (1990), Grigori Rasputin in Anastasia (1997), the Woodsman in the Cartoon Network miniseries Over the Garden Wall (2014), and the Hacker in PBS Kids series Cyberchase (2002–present), which earned him two further Emmy nominations. Lloyd has also been nominated for two Saturn Awards and a BIFA Award.
Early life
Lloyd was born on October 22, 1938, in Stamford, Connecticut, the son of Ruth Lloyd (née Lapham; 1896–1984), a singer and sister of San Francisco mayor Roger Lapham, and her lawyer husband Samuel R. Lloyd Jr. He is the youngest of three boys and four girls, one of whom, Samuel Lloyd, was an actor in the 1950s and 1960s. Lloyd's maternal grandfather, Lewis Henry Lapham, was one of the founders of the Texaco oil company, and Lloyd is also a descendant of Mayflower passengers, including John Howland. Lloyd was raised in Westport, Connecticut, where he attended Staples High School and was involved in founding the high school's theater company, the Staples Players.
Career
Lloyd began his career apprenticing at summer theaters in Mount Kisco, New York, and Hyannis, Massachusetts. He took acting classes in New York City at age 19—some at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre with Sanford Meisner—and he recalled making his New York theater debut in a 1961 production of Fernando Arrabal's play And They Put Handcuffs on the Flowers, saying, "I was a replacement and it was my first sort of job in New York." He made his Broadway debut in the short-lived Red, White and Maddox (1969), and went on to Off-Broadway roles in A Midsummer Night's Dream, Kaspar (February 1973), The Harlot and the Hunted, The Seagull (January 1974), Total Eclipse (February 1974), Macbeth, In the Boom Boom Room, Cracks, Professional Resident Company, What Every Woman Knows, The Father, King Lear, Power Failure and, in mid-1972, appeared in a Jean Cocteau double bill, Orphee and The Human Voice, at the Jean Cocteau Theater at 43 Bond Street.
Lloyd returned to Broadway for the musical Happy End. He performed in Andrzej Wajda's adaptation of Fyodor Dostoevsky's The Possessed at Yale Repertory Theater, and in Jay Broad's premiere of White Pelican at the P.A.F. Playhouse in Huntington Station, New York, on Long Island.
In 1977, he said of his training at the Neighborhood Playhouse under Meisner, "My work up to then had been very uneven. I would be good one night, dull the next. Meisner made me aware of how to be consistent in using the best that I have to offer. But I guess nobody can teach you the knack, or whatever it is, that helps you come to life on stage."
His first film role was psychiatric patient Max Taber in One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975), alongside future co-star Danny DeVito. He is known for his work as "Reverend" Jim Ignatowski, the ex-hippie cabbie on the sitcom Taxi, for which he won two Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series; and the eccentric inventor Emmett "Doc" Brown in the Back to the Future trilogy for which he was nominated for a Saturn Award. In 1985, he appeared in the pilot episode of Street Hawk. The following year, he played the reviled Professor B.O. Beanes on the television series Amazing Stories. Other roles include Klingon Commander Kruge in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock (1984) (on suggestion of fellow actor and friend Leonard Nimoy), Professor Plum in Clue (1985), Professor Dimple in an episode of Road to Avonlea (for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series), the villain Judge Doom in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), Merlock in sorcerer DuckTales the Movie (1990), Switchblade Sam in Dennis the Menace (1993), Zoltan in Radioland Murders (1994), and Uncle Fester in The Addams Family (1991) and Addams Family Values (1993).
Lloyd portrayed the star character in the adventure game Toonstruck, released in November 1996. In 1999, he was reunited onscreen with Michael J. Fox in an episode of Spin City entitled "Back to the Future IV — Judgment Day", in which Lloyd plays Owen Kingston, the former mentor of Fox's character, Mike Flaherty, who stopped by City Hall to see Kingston, only to proclaim himself God. That same year, Lloyd starred in the film remake of the 1960s series My Favorite Martian. He starred on the television series Deadly Games in the mid-1990s and was a regular on the sitcom Stacked in the mid-2000s. In 2003, he guest-starred in three of the 13 produced episodes of Tremors: The Series as the character Cletus Poffenburger. In November 2007, Lloyd was reunited onscreen with his former Taxi co-star Judd Hirsch in the season-four episode "Graphic" of the television series Numb3rs as Ross Moore. He then played the role of Ebenezer Scrooge in a 2008 production of A Christmas Carol at the Kodak Theatre with John Goodman and Jane Leeves. In 2009, he appeared in a comedic trailer for a faux horror film version of Willy Wonka and the Chocolate Factory entitled Gobstopper, in which he played Willy Wonka as a horror-film-style villain.
In mid-2010, he starred as Willy Loman in a Weston Playhouse production of Death of a Salesman. That September, he reprised his role as Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown in Back to the Future: The Game, an episodic adventure game series developed by Telltale Games. That same month, the production company 3D Entertainment Films announced Lloyd would star as an eccentric professor who with his lab assistant explore the various dimensions in Time, the Fourth Dimension, an approximately 45-minute Imax 3D film that was planned for release in 2012.
On January 21, 2011, he appeared in "The Firefly" episode of the J. J. Abrams television series Fringe as Roscoe Joyce. That August, he reprised the role of Dr. Emmett Brown (from Back to the Future) as part of an advertising campaign for Garbarino, an Argentine appliance company, and also as part of Nike's "Back For the Future" campaign for the benefit of The Michael J. Fox Foundation. In 2012 and 2013, Lloyd reprised the role of Doc Brown in two episodes of the stopmotion series Robot Chicken. He was a guest star on the 100th episode of the USA Network sitcom Psych as Martin Khan in 2013.
In May 2013, Lloyd appeared as the narrator and the character Azdak in the Bertolt Brecht play The Caucasian Chalk Circle, produced by the Classic Stage Company in New York.
On the October 21, 2015, episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live, Lloyd and Michael J. Fox appeared in a Back to the Future skit to commemorate the date in the second installment of the film trilogy.
In May 2018, Lloyd made a cameo appearance in the episode titled "No Country For Old Women" of Roseanne, where he played the role of Lou, the boyfriend to the mother of Roseanne and Jackie. In late 2019, he provided the voice of Xehanort in the "Re Mind" downloadable content of Kingdom Hearts III, taking over the role from the late Leonard Nimoy and Rutger Hauer, and reprised the role in the 2020 video game Kingdom Hearts: Melody of Memory.
In September 2021, Lloyd portrayed Rick Sanchez in a series of promotional interstitials directed by Paul B. Cummings for the two-part fifth season finale of Rick and Morty, a character inspired by Lloyd's portrayal of Dr. Emmett "Doc" Brown from Back to the Future, alongside Jaeden Martell as Morty Smith. Addressing his own and original voice actor Justin Roiland's portrayals of Sanchez compared to Doc Brown, Lloyd stated that "that he felt like Doc and Rick were like two brothers that took different paths."
Upcoming projects
By July 2020, Lloyd was cast as The Alchemist in Man & Witch, a family-friendly fantasy-adventure film directed by Rob Margolies, with Jim Henson's Creature Shop set to create the puppets for the film.
Personal life
Lloyd first was married to Catharine Dallas Dixon Boyd, on June 6, 1959. The couple divorced in 1971 after 12 years of marriage. He married actress Kay Tornborg in 1974, divorcing her circa 1987. Lloyd's third marriage, to Carol Ann Vanek, had lasted more than two years when they were in the process of divorcing in July 1991. His fourth marriage, to screenwriter Jane Walker Wood, lasted from 1992 to 2005.
In 2016, Lloyd married Lisa Loiacono. Loiacono was Lloyd's real-estate agent when he put his house in Montecito, California, up for sale in 2012. Lloyd's former house on that lot was destroyed in the Tea Fire of November 2008.
Lloyd's philanthropist mother, Ruth Lapham Lloyd, died in 1984 at age 88. Her surviving children at the time, along with Christopher, were Donald L. Mygatt, Antoinette L. Mygatt Lucas, Samuel Lloyd III, Ruth Lloyd Scott, Ax Lloyd, and Adele L. Kinney. Lloyd's nephew, Sam Lloyd (1963–2020), was known for playing lawyer Ted Buckland on Scrubs.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Music videos
Theme park attractions
Awards
References
Further reading
Includes discussion of his early work Off-Broadway, including the production of Happy End at the Chelsea Theater Center, and on Broadway, Kaspar and Total Eclipse.
External links
1938 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male video game actors
American male voice actors
American people of English descent
Audiobook narrators
Darrow School alumni
Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male winners
Male actors from Stamford, Connecticut
Male Western (genre) film actors
Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre alumni
Obie Award recipients
Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Montecito, California | [
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256409 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinarapan | Sinarapan | The sinarapan or tabyos (Mistichthys luzonensis) is a species of fish in the goby subfamily, Gobionellinae, and the only member of the monotypic genus Mistichthys. It is endemic to the Philippines, where it occurs along the Bicol River and in Lakes Buhi, Bato, Lakelets Katugday and Manapao (both in Buhi) in Camarines Sur and in Danao Lake in Polangui, Albay.
The fish grows up to 2.5 centimeters long. It is transparent with a few dark spots and black eyes.
This freshwater fish lives in lakes from the shoreline to 12 meters in depth.
Tabyos is considered a delicacy, and it is of economic importance locally. It has been listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the "smallest commercially-harvested food fish". It is harvested with nets and palm leaves. It tends to school, making it easier to catch. It has been taken in large numbers since the 1940s, when it first became popular as food. It is fried or boiled and served with vegetables.
By the 1990s it had become clear that the sinarapan was overfished and was nearing extinction. It was also negatively affected by introduced species of fish in its native lakes, particularly the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Conservation actions taken include the transfer of thousands of sinarapan to safer lakes where they might reproduce effectively. The transport of the fish was difficult because it is very delicate, and well over half of each load died during the process. By 2001 there was evidence of successful reproduction in the new habitat.
References
External link
Gobionellinae
Freshwater fish of the Philippines
Monotypic fish genera
Fish described in 1902 | [
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256411 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discounts%20and%20allowances | Discounts and allowances | Discounts and allowances are reductions to a basic price of goods or services.
They can occur anywhere in the distribution channel, modifying either the manufacturer's list price (determined by the manufacturer and often printed on the package), the retail price (set by the retailer and often attached to the product with a sticker), or the list price (which is quoted to a potential buyer, usually in written form).
There are many purposes for discounting, including to increase short-term sales, to move out-of-date stock, to reward valuable customers, to encourage distribution channel members to perform a function, or to otherwise reward behaviors that benefit the discount issuer. Some discounts and allowances are forms of sales promotion. Many are price discrimination methods that allow the seller to capture some of the consumer surplus.
Types
The most common types of discounts and allowances are listed below.
Dealing with payment
Prompt payment discount
Trade discounts are deductions in price given by the wholesaler or manufacturer to the retailer at the list price or catalogue price. Cash discounts are reductions in price given to the debtor to motivate the debtor to make payment within specified time. These discounts are intended to speed payment and thereby provide cash flow to the firm. They are sometimes used as a promotional device.
Examples
2/10 net 30 - this means the buyer must pay within 30 days of the invoice date, but will receive a 2% discount if they pay within 10 days of the invoice date.
3/7 EOM - this means the buyer will receive a cash discount of 3% if the bill is paid within 7 days after the end of the month indicated on the invoice date. If an invoice is received on or before the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the next calendar month. If a proper invoice is received after the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the second calendar month.
3/7 EOM net 30 - this means the buyer must pay within 30 days of the invoice date, but will receive a 3% discount if they pay within 7 days after the end of the month indicated on the invoice date. If an invoice is received on or before the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the next calendar month. If a proper invoice is received after the 25th day of the month, payment is due on the 7th day of the second calendar month.
2/15 net 40 ROG - this means the buyer must pay within 40 days of receipt of goods, but will receive a 2% discount if paid in 15 days of the invoice date. (ROG is short for "receipt of goods.")
Preferred payment method discount
Some retailers (particularly small retailers with low margins) offer discounts to customers paying with cash, to avoid paying fees on credit card transactions.
Partial payment discount
Similar to the Trade discount, this is used when the seller wishes to improve cash flow or liquidity, but finds that the buyer typically is unable to meet the desired discount deadline. A partial discount for whatever payment the buyer makes helps the seller's cash flow partially.
Sliding scale
A discount offered based on one's ability to pay. More common with non-profit organizations than with for-profit retail.
Forward dating
This is where the purchaser doesn’t pay for the goods until well after they arrive. The date on the invoice is moved forward - example: purchase goods in November for sale during the December holiday season, but the payment date on the invoice is January 27.
Seasonal discount
These are price reductions given when an order is placed in a slack period (example: purchasing skis in April in the northern hemisphere, or in September in the southern hemisphere). On a shorter time scale, a happy hour may fall in this category. Generally, this discount is referred to as "X-Dating" or "Ex-Dating". An example of X-Dating would be:
3/7 net 30 extra 10 - this means the buyer must pay within 30 days of the invoice date, but will receive a 3% discount if they pay within 7 days after the end of the month indicated on the invoice date plus an extra 10 days.
Dealing with trade
Bargaining
Bargaining is where the seller and the buyer negotiate a price below the original selling price.
Trade discount
Trade discounts, also called functional discounts, are payments to distribution channel members for performing some function. Examples of these functions are warehousing and shelf stocking. Trade discounts are often combined to include a series of functions, for example 20/12/5 could indicate a 20% discount for warehousing the product, an additional 12% discount for shipping the product, and an additional 5% discount for keeping the shelves stocked. Trade discounts are most frequent in industries where retailers hold the majority of the power in the distribution channel (referred to as channel captains).
Trade discounts are given to try to increase the volume of sales being made by the supplier.
The discount described as trade rate discount is sometimes called "trade discount".
Trade discount is the discount allowed on retail price of a product or something.
for e.g. Retail price of a cream is 25 and trade discount is 2% on 25.
Trade rate discount
A trade rate discount, sometimes also called "trade discount", is offered by a seller to a buyer for purposes of trade or reselling, rather than to an end user. For example, a pharmacist might offer a discount for over-the-counter drugs to physicians who are purchasing them for dispensing to the physicians' own patients. A seller supplying both trade or resellers, and the general public will have a general list price for anybody, and will offer a trade discount to bona-fide trade customers.
Trade-in credit
Trade-in credit, also called trade-up credit, is a discount or credit granted for the return of something. The returned item may have little monetary value, as an old version of newer item being bought, or may be worth reselling as second-hand. The idea from a seller's viewpoint is to offer some discount but have the buyer showing some "counter action" to earn this special discount. Sellers like this as the discount granted is not just "given for free" and makes future price/value negotiations easier. Buyers have the advantage of getting some value for something no longer used. Examples can be found in many industries.
Dealing with quantity
These are price reductions given for bulk purchasing. The rationale behind them is to obtain economies of scale and pass some (or all) of these savings on to the customer. In some industries, buyer groups and co-ops have formed to take advantage of these discounts. Generally there are two types:
Cumulative quantity discount
Cumulative quantity discounts, also called accumulation discounts, are price reductions based on the quantity purchased over a set period of time. The expectation is that they will impose an implied switching cost and thereby bond the purchaser to the seller.
Non-cumulative quantity discount
These are price reductions based on the quantity of a single order. The expectation is that they will encourage larger orders, thus reducing billing, order filling, shipping, and sales personnel expenses.
If one has to buy more than one wants, we can distinguish between the surplus just not being used, or the surplus being a nuisance, e.g. because of having to carry a large container.
Dealing with customer characteristics
The following discounts have to do with specific characteristics of the customer.
Disability discount
A discount offered to customers with what is considered to be a disability.
Educational or student discount
These are price reductions given to members of educational institutions, usually students but possibly also to educators and to other institution staff. The provider's purpose is to build brand awareness early in a buyer's life, or build product familiarity so that after graduation the holder is likely to buy the same product, for own use or for an employer, at its normal price. Providers also offer student discounts as means of offering a product within the budget of a student, which would otherwise be too expensive, thus gaining extra sales. Students may be able to get discounts on products, services, entertainment, and more. Educational discounts may be given by merchants directly, or via a student discount program.
Employee discount
A discount offered by a company to employees who buy its products.
In 2005, the American automakers ran an "employee discount" for all customers promotional campaign in order to entice buyers, with some success.
Military discount
A discount offered to customers who are or were members of a military service. Types of military discounts include discounts for active-duty military, veterans, retired military personnel, and military spouses or dependents. In the United States, military discounts frequently require proof of ID to show eligibility such as a DD Form 214, DD Form 215, or DD Form 217 from any branch of the Armed Forces, TRICARE Cards, Veterans Affairs Cards Uniformed Services Privilege and Identification Cards (USPIC) or other official documentation. Eligibility for military discounts can also be verified online or via mobile by verification companies like SheerID.
Age-related discounts
Toddler discount, child discount, kid discount
A discount, or free service, offered to children younger than a certain age, commonly for admission to entertainments and attractions, restaurants, and hotels. There may be a requirement that the child be accompanied by an adult paying full price. Small children often travel free on public transport, and older ones may pay a substantially discounted price; proof of age may be required.
Young person's discount
Discounts are sometimes offered to young people below a certain age who are neither children nor in education.
Senior discount
A discount offered to customers who are above a certain relatively advanced age, typically a round number such as 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, and 75; the exact age varies in different cases. The rationale for a senior discount offered by companies is that the customer is assumed to be retired and living on a limited income, and unlikely to be willing to pay full price; sales at reduced price are better than no sales. Non-commercial organizations may offer concessionary prices as a matter of social policy. Free or reduced-rate travel is often available to older people (see, for example, Freedom Pass).
In the United States, most grocery stores offer senior discounts, starting for those age 50 or older, but most discounts are offered for those over 60.
Special prices offered to friends of the seller
A discounted price offered to friends of the salesperson, an attitude which is parodied in the stereotype of a salesman saying "It costs [such-and such], but for you..." In Australia, New Zealand, and the UK, discounts to friends are known as "mates' rates." In French this discount is known as prix d'ami. In Spain this is known as "precio de amigo" in Spanish, or "preu d'amic" in Catalan. In German the term "Freundschaftspreis" is commonly used.
Special prices offered to local residents
Discounts are common in tourist destinations. In Hawaii, for example, many tourist attractions, hotels, and restaurants charge a deeply discounted price to someone who shows proof that they live in Hawaii; this is known as a "Kama'aina discount," meaning child of the land or a local resident.
It is also known outside of Hawaii but in the Hawaiian islands as a resident discount.
Discount card
Sometimes a document, typically a plastic card similar to a payment card, is issued as proof of eligibility for discounts. In other cases, existing documents proving status (as student, disabled, resident, etc.) are accepted. Documentation may not be required, for example, for people who are obviously young or old enough to qualify for age-related discounts. In some cases, the card may be issued to anyone who asks.
Coupons
A discount, either of a certain specified amount or a percentage to the holder of a voucher, usually with certain terms. Commonly, there are restrictions as for other discounts, such as being valid only if a certain quantity is bought or only if the customer is older than a specified age. Coupons are often printed in newspapers, brochures, and magazines, or can be downloaded from the Internet.
Rebates
A refund of part or sometimes the full price of the product following purchase, though some rebates are offered at the time of purchase. A particular case is the promise of a refund in full if applied for in a restricted date range some years in the future; the hope is that the promise will lure customers and increase sales, but that the majority will fail to meet the conditions for a valid claim.
Other
Promotional allowances (Trade-in allowances) - These are price reductions given to the buyer for performing some promotional activity. These include an allowance for creating and maintaining an in-store display or a co-op advertising allowance. Trade-in allowances are most common in the automobile industry, but they are also given for other durable goods.
Brokerage allowance - From the point of view of the manufacturer, any brokerage fee paid is similar to a promotional allowance. It is usually based on a percentage of the sales generated by the broker.
See also
Net 30
Ticket systems
References
Further reading
Shell, Ellen Ruppel, Cheap: The High Cost of Discount Culture, New York : Penguin Press, 2009.
Pricing
Payment terms
Distribution (marketing)
Sales promotion | [
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256420 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asuka%20period | Asuka period | The was a period in the history of Japan lasting from 538 to 710 (or 592 to 645), although its beginning could be said to overlap with the preceding Kofun period. The Yamato polity evolved greatly during the Asuka period, which is named after the Asuka region, about south of the modern city of Nara.
The Asuka period is characterized by its significant artistic, social, and political transformations, having their origins in the late Kofun period. The introduction of Buddhism marked a change in Japanese society. The Asuka period is also distinguished by the change in the name of the country from to .
Naming
The term "Asuka period" was first used to describe a period in the history of Japanese fine-arts and architecture. It was proposed by fine-arts scholars and Okakura Kakuzō around 1900. Sekino dated the Asuka period as ending with the Taika Reform of 646. Okakura, however, saw it as ending with the transfer of the capital to the Heijō Palace of Nara. Although historians generally use Okakura's dating, many historians of art and architecture prefer Sekino's dating and use the term "" to refer to the successive period.
Yamato Imperial Court
From the Asuka period in the 6th century, as a sub-division of the , is the first time in Japanese history when the Emperor of Japan ruled relatively uncontested from modern-day Nara Prefecture, then known as Yamato Province.
The second half of the Kofun period, exercised power over clans in Kyūshū and Honshū, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed other clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit of the system was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; others were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.
Soga clan and Shōtoku Taishi
The Soga clan intermarried with the imperial family, and by 587 Soga no Umako, the Soga chieftain, was powerful enough to install his nephew as emperor and later to assassinate him and replace him with the Empress Suiko (r. 593–628). Suiko, the first of eight sovereign empresses, is sometimes considered a mere figurehead for Umako and Prince Regent Shōtoku Taishi (574–622). However she wielded power in her own right, and the role of Shōtoku Taishi is often exaggerated to the point of legend.
Shōtoku, recognized as a great intellectual of this period of reform, was a devout Buddhist and was well-read in Chinese literature. He was influenced by Confucian principles, including the Mandate of Heaven, which suggested that the sovereign ruled at the will of a supreme force. Under Shōtoku's direction, Confucian models of rank and etiquette were adopted, and his Seventeen-article constitution prescribed ways to bring harmony to a chaotic society in Confucian terms.
In addition, Shōtoku adopted the Chinese calendar, developed a system of trade roads (the aforementioned Gokishichidō), built numerous Buddhist temples, had court chronicles compiled, sent students to China to study Buddhism and Confucianism, and sent Ono no Imoko to China as an .
Six official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. The sending of such scholars to learn Chinese political systems showed significant change from envoys in the Kofun period, in which the five kings of Wa sent envoys for the approval of their domains.
In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shōtoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence that was addressed, "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun."
Some would argue that Shōtoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a "subordinate" status in its relations with China, except for Ashikaga Yoshimitsu, who accepted such a relationship with China in the 15th century.
As a result, Japan in this period received no title from Chinese dynasties, while they did send . From the Chinese point of view, the class or position of Japan was demoted from previous centuries in which the kings received titles. On the other hand, Japan loosened its political relationships with China and consequently established extraordinary cultural and intellectual relationships.
Taika Reform and the ritsuryō system
Taika Reform
About twenty years after the deaths of Shōtoku Taishi (in 622), Soga no Umako (in 626), and Empress Suiko (in 628), court intrigues over succession led to a palace coup in 645 against the Soga clan's monopolized control of the government. The revolt was led by Prince Naka no Ōe and Nakatomi no Kamatari, who seized control of the court from the Soga family and introduced the Taika Reform. The Japanese era corresponding to the years 645–649 was thus named , meaning "great change" in reference to the Reform. The revolt leading to the Taika Reform is commonly called the Isshi Incident, referring to the Chinese zodiac year in which the coup took place, 645.
Although it did not constitute a legal code, the Taika Reform mandated a series of reforms that established the ritsuryō system of social, fiscal, and administrative mechanisms of the seventh to tenth centuries. was a code of penal laws, while was an administrative code. Combined, the two terms came to describe a system of patrimonial rule based on an elaborate legal code that emerged from the Taika Reform.
The Taika Reform, influenced by Chinese practices, started with land redistribution aimed at ending the existing landholding system of the great clans and their control over domains and occupational groups. What were once called became , as the court now sought to assert its control over all of Japan and to make the people direct subjects of the throne. Land was no longer hereditary but reverted to the state at the death of the owner. Taxes were levied on harvests and on silk, cotton, cloth, thread, and other products. A corvée (labor) tax was established for military conscription and building public works. The hereditary titles of clan chieftains were abolished, and three ministries were established to advise the throne:
the Minister of the Left
the Minister of the Right
the Chancellor of the Realm
The country was divided into provinces headed by governors appointed by the court, and the provinces were further divided into districts and villages.
Naka no Ōe assumed the title of Crown Prince, and Kamatari was granted a new family name—Fujiwara—in recognition of his great service to the imperial family. Fujiwara no Kamatari became the first in a long line of court aristocrats. Another, long-lasting change was the use of the name , or sometimes in diplomatic documents and chronicles. In 662, following the reigns of Naka no Ōe's uncle and mother, Naka no Ōe assumed the throne as Emperor Tenji, taking the additional title Emperor of Japan. This new title was intended to improve the Yamato clan's image and to emphasize the divine origins of the imperial family in the hope of keeping it above political frays, such as those precipitated by the Soga clan. Within the imperial family, however, power struggles continued as the emperor's brother and son vied for the throne in the Jinshin War. The brother, who later reigned as Emperor Tenmu, consolidated Tenji's reforms and state power in the imperial court.
Ritsuryō system
The ritsuryō system was codified in several stages. The Ōmi Code, named after the provincial site of Emperor Tenji's court, was completed in about 668. Further codification took place with the promulgation by Empress Jitō in 689 of the Asuka Kiyomihara Code, named for the location of the late Emperor Temmu's court. The ritsuryō system was further consolidated and codified in 701 under the Taihō Code, which, except for a few modifications and being relegated to primarily ceremonial functions, remained in force until 1868.
Though the ritsu of the code was adopted from the Chinese system, the ryō was arranged in a local style. Some scholars argue that it was to a certain extent based on Chinese models.
The Taihō Code provided for Confucian-model penal provisions (light rather than harsh punishments) and Chinese-style central administration through the , which was devoted to Shinto and court rituals, and the , with its eight ministries (for central administration, ceremonies, civil affairs, the imperial household, justice, military affairs, people's affairs, and the treasury). Although the Chinese-style civil service examination system was not adopted, was founded for training future bureaucrats based on the Confucian classics. Tradition circumvented the system, however, as aristocratic birth continued to be the main qualification for higher position, and titles were soon hereditary again. The Taihō Code did not address the selection of the sovereign. Several empresses reigned from the fifth to the eighth centuries, but after 770 succession was restricted to males, usually from father to son, although sometimes from ruler to brother or uncle.
Fujiwara no Fuhito, son of Nakatomi no Kamatari, was among those who produced the Taihō Ritsuryō. According to history book , two of the 19 members of the committee drafting the Taihō Code were Chinese priests (Shoku Shugen and Satsu Koukaku). Chinese priests also took an active part as linguistic specialists, and received rewards two times from Empress Jitō.
Foreign relations
Chinese culture had been introduced to Japan by the Three Kingdoms of Korea before the imperial Japanese embassies to China were established. Although the missions continued, the transformation of Japan through Chinese influences declined, despite the close connections that had existed during the early Kofun period. Meanwhile, the kingdoms of the Korean peninsula, often at odds with each other, frequently sent diplomatic missions with gifts to Japan, probably with the aim of securing Japanese neutrality or diplomatic/military support in their rivalries; ultimately, this proved to be of the greatest benefit to Baekje, as Japanese military support for that kingdom increased. People, many of them artisans and skilled workers, also emigrated to Japan from the Korean peninsula, including two high priests who arrived in Japan in 595: Eji from Goguryeo and Esō from Baekje. Kanroku also came from Baekje, and was a tutor to Prince Shōtoku, counseling him politically. When Japan allied with Baekje, the Goguryeo priests left Japan.
The Yamato court, concentrated in the Asuka region, exercised power over clans in Kyushu and Honshu, bestowing titles, some hereditary, on clan chieftains. The Yamato name became synonymous with all of Japan as the Yamato rulers suppressed the clans and acquired agricultural lands. Based on Chinese models (including the adoption of the Chinese written language), they developed a central administration and an imperial court attended by subordinate clan chieftains but with no permanent capital. By the mid-seventh century, the agricultural lands had grown to a substantial public domain, subject to central policy. The basic administrative unit was the county, and society was organized into occupation groups. Most people were farmers; other were fishers, weavers, potters, artisans, armorers, and ritual specialists.
From 600 to 659, Japan sent seven emissaries to Tang China. But for the next 32 years, during a period when Japan was formulating its laws based on Chinese texts, none were sent. Though Japan cut off diplomatic relations with China, Japan sent 11 emissaries to Silla, and Silla is also recorded in Nihon Shoki as sending embassies to Japan 17 times during the reigns of Emperor Tenmu and Empress Jitō. The ruling classes of Yamato and Baekje were on amicable terms, and Yamato deployed its navy to aid Baekje, in 660–663, against an invasion by Silla and Tang China (see battle of Baekgang).
Numerous official missions of envoys, priests, and students were sent to China in the seventh century. Some remained twenty years or more; many of those who returned became prominent reformers. In a move greatly resented by the Chinese, Shotoku sought equality with the Chinese emperor by sending official correspondence addressed "From the Son of Heaven in the Land of the Rising Sun to the Son of Heaven of the Land of the Setting Sun." Shotoku's bold step set a precedent: Japan never again accepted a subordinate status in its relations with China.
Introduction of Buddhism
The introduction of Buddhism to Japan is attributed to the Baekje king Seong in 538, exposing Japan to a new body of religious doctrine. The Soga clan, a Japanese court family that rose to prominence with the ascension of the Emperor Kinmei about 531, favored the adoption of Buddhism and of governmental and cultural models based on Chinese Confucianism. But some at the Yamato court—such as the Nakatomi family, which was responsible for performing Shinto rituals at court, and the Mononobe, a military clan—were set on maintaining their prerogatives and resisted the alien religious influence of Buddhism. The Soga introduced Chinese-modeled fiscal policies, established the first national treasury, and considered the kingdoms of Korea as trade partners rather than as objects of territorial expansion. Acrimony continued between the Soga and the Nakatomi and Mononobe clans for more than a century, during which the Soga temporarily emerged ascendant.
In the Taika Reform, the Funeral Simplification Edict was proclaimed, and the building of large kofun (tumuli) was banned. The edict also regulated size and shape of kofun by classes. As a result, later kofun, though much smaller, were distinguished by elaborate frescoes. Paintings and decorations in those kofun indicate the spread of Taoism and Buddhism in this period; the Takamatsuzuka Kofun and Kitora Kofun are notable for their wall paintings.
The use of elaborate kofun tombs by the imperial family and other elite thus fell out of use amidst the rise of prevailing new Buddhist beliefs, which put greater emphasis on the transience of human life. Commoners and the elite in outlying regions, however, continued to use kofun until the late seventh century, and simpler but distinctive tombs continued in use throughout the following period.
In 675 the use of livestock and the consumption of some wild animals (horse, cattle, dogs, monkeys, birds) was banned by Emperor Tenmu due to the influence of Buddhism. This ban was renewed throughout the Asuka period, but ended with the Heian period. The pest animals, deer and wild boar, were not affected by this ban.
Influence of Taoism
Taoism was also introduced during the Asuka period. The octagonal shape of monarchs' tombs of this age and the celestial maps drawn in the Kitora and Takamatsuzuka kofun reflect the Taoist cosmology.
Taoist belief was eventually amalgamated with Shintō and Buddhism to establish new styles of rituals. , a sort of Japanese geomancy and cosmology, is one of the fruits of these religious mixtures. While the Asuka period started with conflicts between clans over religious beliefs, later in the period, the imported religions became syncretized with Japan's native folk beliefs.
Art and architecture
Asuka culture
Some architectural structures built in the period still remain today. Wooden buildings at Hōryū-ji, built in the seventh century, show some influence from Chinese and west Asian countries. For instance, the pillars at Hōryū-ji are similar to the pillars of the Parthenon of ancient Greece, as seen in their entasis. The is a transformation from the Indian mound-like reliquary structure called a stupa. In addition, mural paintings in the Takamatsuzuka and Kitora kofun dating from the fifth century show strong influence from Tang dynasty and Goguryeo wall painting.
The Japanese Buddhist sculpture art of this period is believed to have followed the style of the Six Dynasties of China. The characteristics of the sculptures of this age are also referred to as Tori Style, taken from the name of prominent sculptor Kuratsukuri Tori, grandson of Chinese immigrant Shiba Tatto. Some of the characteristics of the style include marked, almond-shaped eyes, and symmetrically arranged folds in the clothing. The most striking and distinguishing feature of these sculptures is an expression of the smile that is called the "archaic smile". Kudara Kannon at Hōryū-ji is the most prominent Buddhist sculpture from this period.
Hakuhō culture
The second stage of Buddhist art, coming after the Asuka (cultural) period, is known as the , and is generally dated from the Taika Reform (646) until the moving of the capital to Nara in 710. During the latter half of the 8th century, a large number of songs and poems were composed and performed by various ranked people from warriors to the Emperor. The earliest collection of these poems is known as the . This includes works by several remarkable poets such as Princess Nukata and Kakinomoto no Hitomaro. also emerged as a new form of poetry at this time. This term was coined to distinguish native styles from those imported from China; within the umbrella of waka poetry, one of the more popular forms is known as . It consists of a total of 31 Japanese syllables (morae) divided over five lines, in the syllabic pattern 5/7/5/7/7.
Events
538: The Korean kingdom of Baekje dispatches a delegation to introduce Buddhism to the Japanese Emperor.
592: Introduction of Buddhism to the Imperial court, according to the Nihon Shoki
593: Prince Shōtoku is assigned as regent of Empress Suiko and promotes Buddhism with the Soga clan.
600: Yamato Imperial Court sends the first official Japanese mission to China since 478.
604: Prince Shōtoku issues a Chinese-style constitution (Seventeen-article constitution), based on Confucian principles, which de facto inaugurated the Japanese Empire.
607: Prince Shōtoku builds the Buddhist temple Hōryūji in Ikaruga.
645: Soga no Iruka and his father Emishi are killed in the Isshi Incident.
Emperor Kōtoku ascends to the throne and strengthens imperial power over the aristocratic clans (see Taika Reform), turning their states into provinces.
663: The Japanese navy was defeated by the Silla-Tang alliance in Battle of Baekgang, failing to restore Baekje.
670: was compiled.
672: Prince Ōama, later Emperor Tenmu usurped the throne by winning the civil war against Emperor Kōbun.
689: The Asuka Kiyomihara Code was proclaimed.
694: The imperial capital is moved to Fujiwara-kyō, in present-day Kashihara city.
701: The Taihō Code was proclaimed.
705: The Nishiyama Onsen Keiunkan is founded. It survives to become the oldest known hotel business still in operation, as of 2019.
708: was minted.
See also
Tanzan Shrine
Notes
References
6th century in Japan
6th-century establishments in Japan
7th century in Japan
8th century in Japan
8th-century disestablishments in Japan | [
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256421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo%20Azeglio%20Ciampi | Carlo Azeglio Ciampi | Carlo Azeglio Ciampi (; 9 December 1920 – 16 September 2016) was an Italian politician and banker who was the prime minister of Italy from 1993 to 1994 and the president of Italy from 1999 to 2006.
Biography
Education
Ciampi was born in Livorno (Province of Livorno).
He received a B.A. in ancient Greek literature and classical philology in 1941 from the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, one of the country's most prestigious universities, defending a thesis entitled Favorino d'Arelate e la consolazione Περὶ φυγῆς under the direction of the Hellenist Augusto Mancini. Then he was called to military duty in Albania as a lieutenant. On 8 September 1943, on the date of the armistice with the Allies, he refused to remain in the Fascist Italian Social Republic, and took refuge in Abruzzo, in Scanno. He subsequently managed to pass the lines and reach Bari, where he joined the Partito d'Azione (and thus the Italian resistance movement).
In 1946 he married Franca Pilla. That same year, he obtained a B.A. in law from the University of Pisa and began working at the Banca d'Italia. He also joined the CGIL (Trade Union), which he left in 1980.
Bank of Italy
In 1960, he was called to work in the central administration of the Bank of Italy, where he became Secretary General in 1973, Vice Director General in 1976, and Director General in 1978. In October 1979, he was nominated Governor of the Bank of Italy and President of the national Bureau de Change, positions he filled until 1993.
Political career
Ciampi was the first non-parliamentarian prime minister of Italy in more than 100 years. From April 1993 to May 1994 he oversaw a technical government. Later, as treasury minister from 1996 to May 1999 in the governments of Romano Prodi and Massimo D'Alema, he was credited with adopting the euro currency. He personally chose the Italian design for the 1-euro coin, whereas all others were left to a television vote among some candidates the ministry had prepared (see also: Italian euro coins).
Ciampi chose the Vitruvian man of Leonardo da Vinci, on the symbolic grounds that it represented man as a measure of all things, and in particular of the coin: in this perspective, money was at the service of man, instead of its opposite. The design also fitted very well on the bimetallic material of the coin.
According to the Italian weekly Famiglia Cristiana, in 1993 Ciampi was a member of the regular Masonic Lodge "Hermes" of Livorno which was affiliated to the Grand Orient of Italy and linked the socalled Rito Filosofico Italiano.
President (1999–2006)
Ciampi was elected with a broad majority, and was the second president ever to be elected at the first ballot (when there is a requirement of a two-thirds majority) in a joint session of the Chamber of Deputies, the Italian Senate and representatives of the Regions.
He usually refrained from intervening directly into the political debate while serving as president. However, he often addressed general issues, without mentioning their connection to the current political debate, in order to state his opinion without being too intrusive. His interventions have frequently stressed the need for all parties to respect the constitution and observe the proprieties of political debate. He was generally held in high regard by all political forces represented in the parliament. The possibility of persuading Ciampi to stand for a second term as president by the election 2006 – the so-called Ciampi-bis – was widely discussed, despite his advancing age, but it was officially dismissed by Ciampi himself on 3 May 2006: "None of the past nine presidents of the Republic has been re-elected. I think this has become a meaningful rule. It is better not to infringe it". Ciampi, whose mandate was due to expired on the 18th, resigned on the 15th. His successor, Giorgio Napolitano took the oath on the same day.
As head of state of the host country, he officially declared the 2006 Winter Olympics open, on 10 February 2006. As president, Ciampi was not considered to be close to the positions of the Vatican and the Catholic Church, in a sort of alternance after the devout Oscar Luigi Scalfaro. He often praised patriotism, not always a common feeling because of its abuse by the Italian Fascist regime.
Death
He died in Rome on 16 September 2016 at the age of 95.
Awards and honours
As President of the Italian Republic between 18 May 1999 and 15 May 2006, Ciampi held the roles of:
Head of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Chief of the Military Order of Italy
Head of the Order of Merit for Labour
Head of the Order of the Star of Italian Solidarity
Head of the Order of Vittorio Veneto
Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
Collar of the Order of Pius IX (Papal Order)
1982: Great Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
1985: – Commander of the Legion of Honour (France)
1986: – Great Cross of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
1991: Honorary degree, University of Pavia
1993: – Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (Japan)
1995: Freeman of the City of Naples
1999: – Collar of the Order of the White Rose (Finland)
2000: Gold Medal of the Jean Monnet Foundation for Europe
2000: – Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (United Kingdom, 16 October 2000)
2000: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)
2001: – Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav
2001: Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay.
2001: Grand Cross of the Grand Order of King Tomislav ("For outstanding contribution to the promotion of friendship and development co-operation between the Republic of Croatia and the Italian Republic." – Croatia, 19 October 2001)
2001: Honorary doctorate from the University of Leipzig Faculty of Economics
2002: – Grand Star of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria
2002: – Grand Cross (or 1st Class) of the Order of the White Double Cross (Slovakia)
2002: – Grand Collar of the Order of Prince Henry (Portugal, 22 February 2002)
2002: – Grand Cross with Collar of the Order of Merit of the Hungarian Republic
2002: – Collar Pro Merito Melitensi of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta
2003: – Collar of the Order of the Star of Romania
2003: – Honorary Recipient of the Order of the Crown of the Realm (Malaysia)
2004: – Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana (Estonia)
2004: – Commander Grand Cross with Chain of the Order of Three Stars (Latvia)
(Malta, 19 May 2005) Honorary Member of the Xirka Ġieħ ir-Repubblika
2005: Charlemagne Prize
2005: – Grand Cross of the Order of Saint-Charles (Monaco, 13 December 2005)
March 2005: honorary Doctor of Civil Law degree form the Oxford University
– Grand Cross of the Order of the Southern Cross (Brazil)
2008: Honorary doctorate from the Economics Faculty of the University of Augsburg
15 June 2005: honorary doctorate by the École Normale Supérieure of Paris.
References
|-
|-
External links
1920 births
2016 deaths
Action Party (Italy) politicians
Central bankers
Italian bankers
Italian life senators
Italian military personnel of World War II
Italian resistance movement members
Italian Roman Catholics
People from Livorno
Presidents of Italy
Prime Ministers of Italy
University of Pisa alumni
20th-century Italian politicians
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Knights of the Order of Pope Pius IX
Knights of the Order of Vittorio Veneto
Governors of the Bank of Italy
Grand Collars of the Order of Prince Henry
Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Grand Crosses Special Class of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany
Grand Crosses with Chain of the Order of Merit of the Republic of Hungary (civil)
Recipients of the Collar of the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana
Recipients of the Grand Star of the Decoration for Services to the Republic of Austria
Recipients of the Military Order of Italy
Recipients of the Order of Merit for Labour
Recipients of the Order of Saint-Charles
Recipients of the Medal of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay
First Class of the Order of the Star of Romania
Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland) | [
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256425 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scow | Scow | A scow is a type of flat-bottomed barge. Some scows are rigged as sailing scows. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, scows carried cargo in coastal waters and inland waterways, having an advantage for navigating shallow water or small harbours. Scows were in common use in the American Great Lakes and other parts of the U.S., in southern England, and in New Zealand. In Canada, scows have traditionally been used to transport cattle to the islands of New Brunswick's Saint John River. In modern times their main purpose is for recreation and racing.
Scows
The name "scow" derives from the Dutch , ultimately from the German for a punt pole and subsequently transferred to mean the boat. Old Saxon has a similar word which means to push from the shore, clearly related to punting.
The basic scow was developed as a flat-bottomed barge ( a large punt) capable of navigating shallow rivers and sitting comfortably on the bottom when the tide was out. By 1848 scows were being rigged for sailing using leeboards or sliding keels. They were also used as dumb barges towed by steamers. Dumb scows were used for a variety of purposes: garbage (see The Adventures of Tugboat Annie), dredging (see Niagara Scow) as well as general esturine cargos.
Sailing scows
Sailing scows have significant advantages over traditional deep-keel sailing vessels that were common at the time the sailing scow was popular. Keelboats, while stable and capable in open water, were incapable of sailing into shallow bays and rivers, which meant that to ship cargo on a keelboat required a suitable harbour and docking facilities, or else the cargo had to be loaded and unloaded with smaller boats. Flat-bottomed scows, on the other hand, could navigate shallow waters, and could even be beached for loading and unloading. This made them useful for moving cargo from inland regions unreachable by keelboat to deeper waters where keelboats could reach. The cost of this shallow water advantage was the loss of the seaworthiness of flat-bottomed scow boats in open water and bad weather.
The squared-off shape and simple lines of a scow make it a popular choice for simple home-built boats made from plywood. Phil Bolger and Jim Michalak, for example, have designed a number of small sailing scows, and the PD Racer and the John Spencer designed Firebug are growing classes of home-built sailing scow. Generally these designs are created to minimize waste when using standard 4-foot by 8-foot sheets of plywood.
The scow hull is also the basis for the shantyboat or, on the Chesapeake, the ark, a cabin houseboat once common on American rivers. The ark was used as portable housing by Chesapeake watermen, who followed, for example, shad runs seasonally.
The Thames sailing barge and the Norfolk wherry are two British equivalents to the scow schooner. The Thames sailing barges, while used for similar tasks, used significantly different hull shapes and rigging.
The term scow is used in and around the west Solent for a traditional class of sailing dinghy. Various towns and villages claim their own variants (Lymington, Keyhaven, Yarmouth, West Wight, Chichester), they are all around in length and share a lug sail, pivoting centre board, small foredeck and a square transom with a transom-hung rudder.
Scow schooners
An American design that reached its zenith of size on the American Great Lakes, and was also used widely in New Zealand, the schooner-rigged scow was used for coastal and inland transport, from colonial days to the early 1900s. Scow schooners had a broad, shallow hull, and used centreboards, bilgeboards or leeboards rather than a deep keel. The broad hull gave them stability, and the retractable foils allowed them to move even heavy loads of cargo in waters far too shallow for keelboats to enter. The squared-off bow and stern accommodated a large cargo. The smallest sailing scows were sloop-rigged (making them technically a scow sloop), but were otherwise similar in design. The scow sloop eventually evolved into the inland lake scow, a type of fast racing boat.
Sailing scows were popular in the American South for economic reasons, because the pine planks found there were difficult to bend, and because inlets along the Gulf Coast and Florida were often shallow.
New Zealand trading scows
The American scow design was copied and modified in New Zealand by early immigrant settlers to Auckland in the 1870s. In 1873, a sea captain named George Spencer, who had once lived and worked on the American Great Lakes and had gained a first-hand knowledge of the practical working capabilities of the sailing barges that plied their trade on the lakes, recognised the potential use of similar craft in the protected waters of the Hauraki Gulf, Auckland. He commissioned a local shipbuilder, Septimus Meiklejohn, to construct a small flat-bottomed sailing barge named the Lake Erie, which was built at Omaha, not far from Mahurangi. An account of the launching of this vessel appeared in 1873 in the Auckland newspaper, The Daily Southern Cross, which gave its readers a good idea of the distinctive construction and advantages over other vessels.
The Lake Erie was 60 feet 6 inches in length, seventeen feet 3 inches in breadth and had a draught of three feet 4 inches. It was fitted with lee boards (a type of keel slotted onto the sides of the vessel), but these were highly impracticable in rough weather on the New Zealand coast. Later scows were constructed with the much safer slab-sided centre board, which crews raised and lowered as required. This one small craft spawned a fleet of sailing scows that became associated with the gum trade and the flax and kauri industries of northern New Zealand.
Scows came in all manner of shape and sizes and all manner of sailing rigs, but the "true" sailing scow displayed no fine lines or fancy rigging. They were designed for hard work and heavy haulage and they did their job remarkably well. They took cattle north from the stockyards of Auckland and returned with a cargo of kauri logs, sacks of kauri gum, shingle, firewood, flax or sand. With their flat bottoms they could be sailed or poled much further up the many tributaries and rivers where the bushmen and bullock teams had the freshly sawn kauri logs amassed, thereby saving a great deal of time and energy on the part of the bushmen. Flat-bottomed scows were also capable of grounding on a beach for loading and unloading. Over the side went duckboards, wheelbarrows, and banjo shovels. The crew then filled the vessel with sand, racing against the turn of the tide. When the tide did turn, they loaded the equipment back on board and put off to sea. Occasionally an inexperienced skipper overloaded the scow. Then, as the water rose against the outside of the hull (diminishing the amount of safe "free board"), the crew had to shovel rapidly to reduce the contents in the hold to a safe level.
Logs when hauled were always carried above deck, secured by heavy chain, the space between decks being left empty to give added buoyancy. The logs were taken to Auckland and unloaded into floating "booms" to await breaking down in the sawmills of the Kauri Timber Company and other such mills that operated right on the edge of Auckland Harbour.
The golden age of scows and schooners lasted from the 1890s to the end of the First World War, when schooners were superseded by steamers and scows were gradually replaced with tugs.
The Subritzky family of Northland operated the scows Jane Gifford and Owhiti as the last fleet of working scows, operating between the Port of Auckland and the Island communities of the Hauraki Gulf. The Jane Gifford was gifted to the Waiuku Historical Society by Captain Bert Subritzky and his wife Moana in 1985, where it was re-masted and re-rigged to its original splendour. The Owhiti was sold to Captain Dave Skyme and fully restored to its 1924 sea worthiness, and it subsequently starred in the 1983 movie Savage Islands (starring Tommy Lee Jones and amongst others Kiwi icon and singer Prince Tui Teka as King Ponapa). Unfortunately the Owhiti was not maintained for a period of time, during which teredo shipworms destroyed much of her structure. She remains in a deteriorating condition at Opua. Her rig may see use in another scow when restored.
The main differences from American scows were sharper bows and favouring the ketch rig instead of the schooner rig, although a great many schooner- and topsail schooner-rigged vessels were built.
Some 130 scows were built in the north of New Zealand between 1873 and 1925; they ranged from 45 to 130 ft (14–40 m). New Zealand trading scows travelled all around New Zealand as well as to Australia and to the west coast of America although the majority were based in the Hauraki Gulf of New Zealand.
Notable sailing scows
The scow schooner Alma of San Francisco, built in 1891, restored in the 1960s, and designated a National Historic Landmark (NHL) in 1988, was one of the last scow schooners in operation. She is a small example, 59 feet in length, 22.6 feet in beam, with a draft of 4 feet and a loaded displacement of 41 tons.
Elsie was the last scow sloop operated on the Chesapeake Bay. Although sailing scows were once numerous around the Bay, they are poorly documented.
The Ted Ashby is a ketch-rigged scow built in 1993 and based at the New Zealand National Maritime Museum in Auckland, it regularly sails the Auckland harbour as a tourist attraction. It was named after an old-time New Zealand seafarer and scowman, Ted Ashby, who had the foresight to document much of the history of these coastal work horses in his book Phantom Fleet - The Scows and Scowmen of Auckland, which was published by A. H. & A. W. Reed, Wellington, in 1976.
The Jane Gifford is a ketch-rigged deck scow built in 1908 by Davey Darroch, Big Omaha, New Zealand. The vessel was re-launched at Waiuku on the 28 November 1992, with Captain Basil Subritzky, the son of the late Captain Bert Subritzky and his family as guests of honour. The Jane Gifford then commenced sailings and tours on the Manukau Harbour between Waiuku and the Onehunga Wharf. In 1999 she was pulled out of the water for a rebuild, which commenced at Okahu Bay on the Waitemata Harbour. She then sat rotting until 2005, when she was moved to Warkworth for rebuilding. A full rebuild, using modern materials has been done at Warkworth, and the vessel was relaunched on 16 May 2009. She returned to sail later, and has been occasionally under sail in the Hauraki Gulf. She is the only original New Zealand scow still afloat to carry sail.
The Echo was built in 1905 of Kauri in New Zealand. She is 104 feet (32 m) long, with two masts and topsail rigged. Twin diesel engines were installed in 1920. In 1942–44 she was used by US forces in the Pacific, see USS Echo (IX-95). Her story was the basis for the 1960 film with Jack Lemon, The Wackiest Ship in the Army and the 1965 TV series. She was nearly broken up in 1990, but is now preserved at Picton, New Zealand
Howard I. Chapelle documented a number of scows in his book American Small Sailing Craft.
Racing boats: the inland lake scows
In the early 20th century, smaller sloop and cat rigged scows became popular sailboats on inland lakes throughout the midwestern United States. First popularized by Johnson Boat Works in Minnesota, these boats were distinguished by their larger sail plans, retractable bilgeboards, and (in some classes) twin rudders. There are many active racing classes throughout the Midwest, Western New York, the New Jersey Shore and parts of the South. These boats are traditionally identified by their class letters:
A: The largest inland lake scow at 38 feet long, the A normally requires a crew of six or seven. The sail plan includes a mainsail, a jib, and a large asymmetrical spinnaker. It has twin rudders. A new A scow (with sails and a trailer) cost $200,000 in 2020. Once the fastest monohull sailboat in the world, has been clocked in at 33 knots (38 mph). It is possible to waterski behind these sailboats, as demonstrated by Buddy Melges.
E: This is essentially a smaller version of the A scow. Only 28 feet long, it requires a crew of three or four. In 2007, the class association NCESA voted to make the asymmetrical spinnaker the class legal standard.
M-16: This 16-foot scow crews two, and has a mainsail and jib but no spinnaker. It has tiny dual rudders like the A and the E.
M-20: A 20-foot version of the M-16, with the addition of a backstay, a tunnel hull, twin bilgeboards and rudders, and a spinnaker. Modern boats are built with both the symmetrical spinnaker, or the I-20 version with an asymmetrical spinnaker. Because of the hull configuration, at a substantial angle of heel, it is similar to having a catamaran on one hull: the ratio of waterline length to breadth increases dramatically, along with a geometric increase in speed.
C: This is a 20-foot catboat with one large sail set far forward on the hull. It requires a crew of two or three. Unlike the A and E, the C-scow has a large, efficient single rudder. It has no permanent backstay, so jibing the boat requires the quick use of running backstays.
MC: The MC is a "mini-C" of sorts, a 16-foot cat-rigged boat with a higher and narrower sailplan. It also has a large efficient single rudder. It can be sailed competitively by 1 person. This is a growing class, especially popular in the midwest and southern USA.
17: Introduced in 2005 by Melges Performance Sailboats, the 17 is a departure from traditional scow design. It has an asymmetrical spinnaker and retractable bowsprit, a high-roach full-battened mainsail, and unusually long and thin rudder and bilgeboards.
Butterfly: This small scow is meant to be sailed by one person. It features a cat rig, and unlike the boats above, it has a daggerboard.
Contrary to the connotations of the old definition of "scow" (large and slow), the inland lake scows are extremely fast—the wide, flat bottom hull allows them to plane easily. As a consequence of this, the A scow is the highest rated centerboard boat according to the US Portsmouth yardstick numbers.
Scows on American canals
Historic 19th-century canals used work scows for canal construction and maintenance, as well as ice breaker scows, filled with iron or heavy objects, to clear ice from canals.
Niagara Scow
Niagara Scow is a former dredging scow stuck on the rocks in the Niagara River upstream from the brink of Niagara Falls Horseshoe Falls since 1918. After being stuck in place for more than 100 years, in November 2019, the scow broke loose during a wind storm and moved 50 m closer to the edge of the Horseshoe Falls.
Alternative design
A 'semi-flying' scow that uses a host of design tricks, including wings/foils and a telescopic canting keel, a retractable bowsprit and an asymmetrical spinnaker, has been designed in France.
References
Citations
General bibliography
Chapelle, ASSC Chapter 3, Scow and Bateau
Flipper Scow (in Swedish) The Danish constructed (Peer Bruun) dinghy class.
History of the Inland Lake Yachting Assn. Excerpts from Dr. Thomas Hodgson's History of the Inland Lake Yachting Association, 1998.
National Register Nomination for Alma with overview of San Francisco Bay scow schooners and extensive bibliography.
External links
Preserved scow Jane Gifford, Warkworth, New Zealand
A new look at scows!
David Raison's Magnum scow won the 2011 Mini Transat.
Boat types
Dinghies
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256428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20of%20Tripoli | County of Tripoli | The County of Tripoli (1102–1289) was the last of the Crusader states. It was founded in the Levant in the modern-day region of Tripoli, northern Lebanon and parts of western Syria which supported an indigenous population of Christians, Druze and Muslims.
When the Frankish Crusaders – mostly southern French forces – captured the region in 1109, Bertrand of Toulouse became the first count of Tripoli as a vassal of King Baldwin I of Jerusalem. From that time, the rule of the county was decided not strictly by inheritance but by factors such as military force (external and civil war), favour and negotiation. In 1289 the County of Tripoli fell to Sultan Qalawun of the Muslim Mamluks of Cairo. The county was absorbed into Mamluk Egypt.
Capture by Christian forces
Raymond IV of Toulouse was one of the wealthiest and most powerful of the crusaders. Even so, after the First Crusade, he had failed to secure any land holdings in the Near East. Meanwhile, the County of Edessa, the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the Principality of Antioch had been established. Tripoli was an important strategic goal as it linked the French in the south with the Normans in the north. It was a fertile and well populated area. In 1102, Raymond IV occupied Tortosa (now Tartus) and in 1103, he prepared, together with veterans of the 1101 crusade, to take Tripoli.
Citadel of Raymond de Saint-Gilles
On a natural ridge, which he named "Mons Peregrinus" (, ), from Tripoli, Raymond IV (also known as Raymond de Saint-Gilles) began the construction of a large castle, known in Arabic as Qal'at Sanjil. Despite this new fortress and seasoned troops, Raymond IV's siege of Tripoli failed to secure the port. He died on 25 February 1105.
Succession
Count William of Cerdagne, Raymond IV's cousin and comrade, was supported by Tancred, Prince of Galilee, but his succession in the Tripoli campaign was challenged by Raymond IV's illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse. Bertrand of Toulouse, who was supported by Baldwin I of Jerusalem, arrived in the Near East with a substantial army and a large Genoese fleet.
In order to resolve the succession issue, Baldwin I created a partition treaty. It specified that William was to hold northern Tripoli and pay homage to Tancred while Bertrand was to hold south Tripoli as a vassal of Baldwin. Under a united Christian onslaught, Tripoli fell on 12 July 1109, completing the Kingdom of Jerusalem. When William died of an arrow through the heart (some claim it was murder), Bertrand became the first count of Tripoli.
Structure and devolution of power
Holdings and vassals
The extent of the County of Tripoli was determined in part by pre-existing Byzantine borders and in part by victory in battle, tempered by the demands of neighbouring crusader states. At its height, the county controlled the coastline from Maraclea in the north to Beirut in the south. Inland, the county's control extended to the Krac des Chevaliers fortress. The rich inland agricultural land of the Homs Gap was known as La Bocquée.
The county was divided into 'lordships'; areas based roughly around its coastal ports. The Count of Tripoli himself held the port of Tripoli and its surrounds. He also controlled the hostile region of Montferrand, now modern-day Bar'in, Syria, lying to the east. Approximately one quarter of the land seized around Tripoli was given to the Genoese as payment for military aid. The Genoese admiral Guglielmo Embriaco was awarded the city of Byblos.
Homage to the king
Despite his contribution to its establishment, Baldwin I did not directly control the County of Tripoli. Nevertheless, the County of Tripoli owed fealty (allegiance) and homage (declarations of allegiance) to him, and he, in return, provided support to the county in times of trouble.
Defence
Although occupying a narrow coastal plain, the mountain range beyond was a natural defensive line for Tripoli. Several castle forts were built to defend the mountain passes.
Muslim forces (Turk and Egyptian) attacked the County of Tripoli along its borders, especially those to the east. In 1137, Raymond II, the reigning count, lost control of Montferrand. The Muslim position strengthened when the Hashshashin (Nazari Ismailis) forces formed in the Nosairi mountains to the north. In 1144, in order to increase the county's defences, particularly against Zangi of Mosul, Raymond II gave the Knights Hospitaller large stretches of frontier land along the Buqai'ah plain. This included the castles of Krak des Chevaliers, Anaz, Tell Kalakh, Qalaat el Felis and Mardabech. In the 1150s, the defences were further strengthened by the presence of the Knights Templar at Tartus on the seashore.
Religion
In religious matters, the counties of the Kingdom of Jerusalem were expected to follow the lead of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. However, one of the Counts of Tripoli, Pons of Tripoli, had formed an alliance with Antioch, and acknowledged the Latin Patriarch of Antioch. This was so even after a Papal edict to the contrary.
War with the Seljuk Empire
Shaizar
As a vassal of the Kings of Jerusalem, Bertrand of Tripoli was drawn into war with the Seljuk Turks. In 1111, Mawdud ibn Altuntash, a Turkish military leader, campaigned against Antioch and Edessa. Bertrand of Tripoli and Baldwin I marched to defend the Christians in the north. In joining Tancred and the Count of Edessa at the Battle of Shaizar, their defence of the kingdom was successful.
Hab
In 1119, the Seljuk Empire again attacked Antioch, winning the Battle of Ager Sanguinis. However, Count Pons of Tripoli and Baldwin II defended Antioch and, at the Battle of Hab, successfully defended the flank of the Christian forces.
Azaz
In 1125, Count Pons of Tripoli marched against the Turks who had again attacked Edessa, this time besieging the town of Azaz. Pons of Tripoli, Baldwin II and the Count of Edessa lured the Turks from Azaz and into an ambush on the plains, where the Turkish forces were defeated.
Earthquake of 1170
On 29 June 1170, an earthquake struck the region. The defensive forts of Krac des Chevaliers, Chastel Blanc and al-'Ariymah were damaged. The cathedral of St Mary in Tripoli township was destroyed. The earthquake of 1170 resulted in a brief truce between Nur al-Din and the county (unlike a previous less severe earthquake of 1157 where fighting continued).
Contenders
Bertrand of Toulouse, son of Alphonso-Jordan
Alfonso-Jordan (1103–1148) was the son of Raymond IV and his third wife, Elvira of Castile. Although he was born in Tripoli, Alphonso-Jordan was raised in France. In 1147, he joined the Second Crusade, which was launched in response to the loss of the County of Edessa to Turkish forces. Alphonso died, possibly poisoned, in Caesarea, in 1148. He had an illegitimate son, Bertrand of Toulouse, who continued his progress towards Tripoli.
Count Raymond II (1115–1152), the grandson of Bertrand, Count of Tripoli, engaged his enemies, Nur al-Din and Unur of Damascus, to confront his cousin, Bertrand. The Turkish forces, having only recently battled Raymond II at the Siege of Damascus, attacked the castle of Arima (al-Ariymah). They captured Bertrand of Toulouse, who spent the following decade in Muslim prisons. He was released in 1159 following the intervention of Manuel Comnenus, emperor of Byzantium. Raymond II later regained Arima. In 1152, Raymond II was killed by the Assassins. He was the first recorded non-Muslim victim of this sect.
Guy II Embriaco
Bohemond VII of Tripoli (1261 – 19 October 1287) was Count of Tripoli and the nominal Prince of Antioch from 1275 until his death. From 1275 to 1277, Bartholomew, Bishop of Tortosa, was Bohemond VII's regent. Paul of Segni, Bishop of Tripoli, who was a friend of the Templar Grandmaster, William of Beaujeu, opposed the succession of Bohemond VII. Ernoul wrote, "This was the beginning of war between Bohemond VII and the Templars."
Guy II Embriaco of Giblet (1277–1282) was a former vassal of Bohemond VII in Byblos. Grievances between them had led to enmity and this was part of a larger trade war between Genoa and the Venetians.
The Templars sought to unseat Bohemond VII by supporting Guy II Embriaco. Bohemond VII responded by sacking the Templar house in Tripoli and forests at Montroque. This action led to indecisive fighting over the following months at Botron, Fort Nephin, Sidon and at sea. In 1282, Guy II Embriaco and the Templars were ambushed in Tripoli. Guy, his brothers, and cousins were imprisoned at Fort Nephin and left to starve; his followers were blinded and the Templars were summarily executed.
Benedetto I Zaccaria
After the death of Bohemond VII in 1287, the resulting power vacuum moved the lords of the County of Tripoli to offer Benedetto I Zaccaria (1235–1307), a powerful Genoese merchant, control of the county. In Tripoli, a special non-aristocratic social status had been granted to people from the great mercantile cities of Europe, especially those from the maritime republics of Italy (e.g., Venice). The communes elected Bartholomew Embriaco to the role of Mayor of Tripoli. He also promoted trade with the Genoese.
Bohemond VII had no issue. His mother, Sibylla of Armenia, was discounted in the succession because she was the friend of Bishop Bartholomew of Tortosa, considered an enemy of Tripoli. Bohemond VII's younger sister, Lucie, established herself at Fort Nephin with the support of the Knights Hospitaller. Eventually, Bartholomew Embriaco and the communes decided they could not rule, while Benedetto I Zaccario declined the countship. Thus, after negotiations, Lucie became Lucia, Countess of Tripoli in 1288.
Fall to the Muslims
Constant infighting, lack of resources, a series of poor harvests, changes to trade routes and the local economy and Muslim and Mongol military pressure led to the decline of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By the 1280s, only two crusader states remained; the remnants of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli. Even though the Mamluk government of Egypt had a treaty with the county, in March 1289, Tripoli favoured an alliance with the Mongols and as a result Sultan Qalawun of Egypt attacked Tripoli. Despite desperate defense operations, the county fell and was merged with Qalawun's empire.
Counts of Tripoli
Raymond IV of Toulouse (1102–1105)
Alfonso-Jordan (1105–1109)
William-Jordan, as regent (1105–1109)
Bertrand of Toulouse (1109–1112)
Pons of Tripoli (1112–1137)
Raymond II of Tripoli (1137–1152)
Raymond III of Tripoli (1152–1187)
Raymond IV of Tripoli (1187–1189), son of Bohemond III of Antioch.
Bohemond IV of Antioch-Tripoli (1189 – 1233, also Prince of Antioch 1201 – 1216 and 1219 – 1233)
Bohemond V of Antioch-Tripoli (1233 – 1252, also Prince of Antioch)
Bohemond VI of Antioch-Tripoli (1252 – 1275, also Prince of Antioch 1252 – 1268)
Bohemond VII of Antioch-Tripoli (1275–1287)
Lucia of Tripoli (1287–1289)
Tripoli is lost to Egyptian forces:
Lucia of Tripoli (1289 – c.1299)
Philip of Toucy (c.1299 – 1300)
Tripoli passes to the Kings of Cyprus and Jerusalem:
Peter I of Cyprus (1345–1359)
Peter II of Cyprus (1359–1369)
James of Lusignan (? – c. 1396), cousin
John of Lusignan (c. 1396 – c. 1430), son
Peter of Lusignan (c. 1430 – 1451), brother, Regent of Cyprus
Juan Tafures (1469–1473)
Great officers of Tripoli
References
1289 disestablishments in Asia
States and territories established in 1102
Counties of the Crusader states
1100s establishments in the Kingdom of Jerusalem
12th century in the Kingdom of Jerusalem
13th century in the Kingdom of Jerusalem
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256431 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungusic%20languages | Tungusic languages | The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus and Tungus) form a language family spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria by Tungusic peoples. Many Tungusic languages are endangered, and the long-term future of the family is uncertain. There are approximately 75,000 native speakers of the dozen living languages of the Tungusic language family. Some linguists consider Tungusic to be part of the highly controversial Altaic language family, along with Turkic, Mongolic, and sometimes Koreanic and Japonic.
The term "Tungusic" is from an exonym for the Evenk people (Ewenki) used by the Yakuts ("tongus"). It was borrowed into Russian as "тунгус", and ultimately trasliterated into English as "Tungus".
Classification
Linguists working on Tungusic have proposed a number of different classifications based on different criteria, including morphological, lexical, and phonological characteristics. Some scholars have criticized the tree-based model of Tungusic classification, arguing the long history of contact among the Tungusic languages makes them better treated as a dialect continuum.
The main classification is into a northern branch and a southern branch (Georg 2004), although the two branches have no clear division and the classification of intermediate groups is debatable.
Four mid-level subgroups are recognized by Hölzl (2018), namely Ewenic, Udegheic, Nanaic, and Jurchenic.
Alexander Vovin notes that Manchu and Jurchen are aberrant languages within South Tungusic but nevertheless still belong in it, and that this aberrancy is perhaps due to influences from the Para-Mongolic Khitan language, from Old Korean, and perhaps also from Chukotko-Kamchatkan and unknown languages of uncertain linguistic affiliation.
Southern Tungusic (Jurchenic-Nanaic)
Jurchenic (Southwestern Tungusic) ("Manchu group")
Jurchen (extinct, developed into Manchu in the 17th century)
Manchu: speakers originated from the Sungari Ula River area (they founded the Jin and Qing or Manchu dynasties of China)
Xibe: spoken in Qapqal Xibe Autonomous County, Sinkiang/Xinjiang. (Developed separately since 1764 from a Qing military garrison)
Chinese Kyakala (恰喀拉)
Bala (巴拉)
Alchuka (阿勒楚喀)
Nanaic (Southeastern Tungusic) ("Nanai group" / "Amur group")
Nanai (Gold, Goldi, Hezhen) (Akani, Birar, Samagir)
Upper Amur
Right-bank Amur
Sungari
Bikin (Ussuri)
Central Amur
Sakachi-Alyan
Naykhin (basis of standard Nanai but not identical)
Dzhuen
Lower Amur
Bolon
Ekon
Gorin
Orok (Uilta)
Northern (East Sakhalin)
Southern (South Sakhalin, Poronaysky)
Ulch / Olcha
Transitional Southern-Northern Tungus (Udegheic)
Udegheic (Oroch–Udege; strongly influenced by Southern Tungusic)
Oroch
Tumninsky dialect
Khadinsky dialect
Hungarisky dialect
Udege / Udihe
Northern Tungusic (Ewenic)
Ewenic
Even (Lamut) (in eastern Siberia)
Arman
Indigirka
Kamchatka
Kolyma-Omolon
Okhotsk
Ola
Tompon
Upper Kolyma
Sakkyryr
Lamunkhin
Evenki
Evenki (obsolete: Tungus), spoken by Evenks in central Siberia and Manchuria
Solon (Solon Ewenki)
Hihue/Hoy (basis of the standard, but not identical)
Haila’er
Aoluguya (Olguya)
Chenba’erhu (Old Bargu)
Morigele (Mergel)
Siberian Ewenki / Ewenki of Siberia
Northern (spirant)
Ilimpeya (subdialects: Ilimpeya, Agata and Bol'shoi, Porog, Tura, Tutonchany, Dudinka/Khantai)
Yerbogachen (subdialects: Yerbogachen, Nakanno)
Southern (sibilant)
Hushing
Sym (subdialects: Tokma/Upper Nepa, Upper Lena/Kachug, Angara)
Northern Baikal (subdialects: Northern Baikal, Upper Lena)
Hissing
Stony Tunguska (subdialects: Vanavara, Kuyumba, Poligus, Surinda, Taimura/Chirinda, Uchami, Chemdal'sk)
Nepa (subdialects: Nepa, Kirensk)
Vitim-Nercha/Baunt-Talocha (subdialects: Baunt, Talocha, Tungukochan, Nercha)
Eastern (sibilant-spirant)
Vitim-Olyokma (subdialects: Barguzin, Vitim/Kalar, Olyokma, Tungir, Tokko)
Upper Aldan (subdialects: Aldan, Upper Amur, Amga, Dzheltulak, Timpton, Tommot, Khingan, Chul'man, Chul'man-Gilyui)
Uchur-Zeya (subdialects: Uchur, Zeya)
Selemdzha-Bureya-Urmi (subdialects: Selemdzha, Bureya, Urmi)
Ayan-Mai (subdialects: Ayan, Aim, Mai, Nel'kan, Totti)
Tugur-Chumikan (subdialects: Tugur, Chumikan)
Sakhalin (no subdialects)
Negidal
Lower Negidal (close to Evenki) (extinct)
Upper Negidal
Oroqen
Gankui (basis of standard Oroqen but not identical)
Heilongjiang (Heihe)
Kili (traditionally considered Nanai) (Kur-Urmi or Hezhen - probably not Nanai or even Southern Tungusic but a northern Tungusic language)
Zimin (2020)
Zimin (2020) proposes a Tungus–Manchu family with two primary branches, namely the Jurchenic and Tungusic (proper) branches.
Tungus–Manchu
Jurchenic
Xi Yeren Jurchen
Bala
Alchuka
Jurchen proper
Haixi Jurchen
spoken Sibo
Guanwai
Ilanbou
Tailai
Aigun
Niŋgutan, Girinese
Jianzhou Jurchen
Hebei, Mukdenese Manchu
written Manchu; Sibo
Tungusic (proper)
Nanic
Uilta
Nanai
Nani
Lower Amur Nanai
Ussuri–Bikin Nanai
Middle Amur Nanai
Oroch–Ewonic
Ewonic
Southern
Northern
Eastern
Oroch–Udyhe
Oroch
Kur–Urmi Udyhe
Siȟotə–Aliň Udyhe
History
Proto-Tungusic
Some linguists estimate the divergence of the Tungusic languages from a common ancestor spoken somewhere in Manchuria around 500 BC to 500 AD. (Janhunen 2012, Pevnov 2012) Other theories favor a homeland closer to Lake Baikal. (Menges 1968, Khelimskii 1985) While the general form of the protolanguage is clear from the similarities in the daughter languages, there is no consensus on detailed reconstructions. As of 2012, scholars are still trying to establish a shared vocabulary to do such a reconstruction.
There are some proposed sound correspondences for Tungusic languages. For example, Norman (1977) supports a Proto-Tungusic *t > Manchu s when followed by *j in the same stem, with any exceptions arising from loanwords. Some linguists believe there are connections between the vowel harmony of Proto-Tungusic and some of the neighboring non-Tungusic languages. For example, there are proposals for an areal or genetic correspondence between the vowel harmonies of Proto-Korean, Proto-Mongolian, and Proto-Tungusic based on an original RTR harmony. This is one of several competing proposals, and on the other hand, some reconstruct Proto-Tungusic without RTR harmony.
Some sources describe the Donghu people of 7th century BC to 2nd century BC Manchuria as Proto-Tungusic. Other sources sharply criticize this as a random similarity in pronunciation with "Tungus" that has no real basis in fact.
The historical records of the Korean kingdoms of Baekje and Silla note battles with the Mohe (Chinese: 靺鞨) in Manchuria during the 1st and 2nd centuries. Some scholars suggest these Mohe are closely connected to the later Jurchens, but this is controversial.
Alexander Vovin (2015) notes that Northern Tungusic languages have Eskimo–Aleut loanwords that are not found in Southern Tungusic, implying that Eskimo–Aleut was once much more widely spoken in eastern Siberia. Vovin (2015) estimates that the Eskimo–Aleut loanwords in Northern Tungusic had been borrowed no more than 2,000 years ago, which was when Tungusic was spreading northwards from its homeland in the middle reaches of the Amur River.
Wang and Robbeets (2020) place the Proto-Tungusic homeland in the Lake Khanka region.
Liu et al. (2020) revealed that Haplogroup C-F5484 and its subclades are the genetic markers of Tungusic-speaking peoples. C-F5484 was emerged 3,300 years ago and begun to diverge 1,900 years ago, indicating the approximate age of differentiation of Tungusic languages.
Jurchen-Manchu language
The earliest written attestation of the language family is in the Jurchen language, which was spoken by the rulers of the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). The Jurchens invented a Jurchen script to write their language based on the Khitan scripts. During this time, several stelae were put up in Manchuria and Korea. One of these, among the most important extant texts in Jurchen, is the inscription on the back of "the Jin Victory Memorial Stele" (Da Jin deshengtuo songbei), which was erected in 1185, during the Dading period (1161–1189). It is apparently an abbreviated translation of the Chinese text on the front of the stele. The last known example of the Jurchen script was written in 1526.
The Tungusic languages appear in the historical record again after the unification of the Jurchen tribes under Nurhaci, who ruled 1616-1626. He commissioned a new Manchu alphabet based on the Mongolian alphabet, and his successors went on to found the Qing dynasty. In 1636, Emperor Hong Taiji decreed that the ethnonym "Manchu" would replace "Jurchen". Modern scholarship usually treats Jurchen and Manchu as different stages of the same language.
Currently, Manchu proper is a dying language spoken by a dozen or so elderly people in Qiqihar, China. However, the closely related Xibe language spoken in Xinjiang, which historically was treated as a divergent dialect of Jurchen-Manchu, maintains the literary tradition of the script, and has around 30,000 speakers. As the only language in the Tungustic family with a long written tradition, Jurchen-Manchu is a very important language for the reconstruction of Proto-Tungusic.
Other Tungusic languages
Other Tungusic languages have relatively short or no written traditions. Since around the 20th century, some of these other languages can be written in a Russian-based Cyrillic script, but the languages remain primarily spoken languages only.
Tungusic research
The earliest Western accounts of Tungusic languages came from the Dutch traveler Nicolaes Witsen, who published in the Dutch language a book titled Noord en Oost Tartarye (literally 'North and East Tartary'), which described a variety of peoples in the Russian Far East and included some brief word lists for many languages. Following his travel to Russia, his collected findings were published in three editions, 1692, 1705, and 1785. The book includes some words and sentences from the Evenki language, then called "Tungus".
The German linguist Wilhelm Grube (1855–1908) published an early dictionary of the Nanai language (Gold language) in 1900, as well as deciphering the Jurchen language for modern audiences using a Chinese source.
Common characteristics
The Tungusic languages are of an agglutinative morphological type, and some of them have complex case systems and elaborate patterns of tense and aspect marking.
The normal word order for all of the languages is subject–object–verb.
Phonology
Tungusic languages exhibit a complex pattern of vowel harmony, based on two parameters: vowel roundedness and vowel tenseness (in Evenki, the contrast is back and front, rather). Tense and lax vowels do not occur in the same word; all vowels in a word, including suffixes, are either one or the other. Rounded vowels in the root of a word cause all the following vowels in the word to become rounded, but not those before the rounded vowel. Those rules are not absolute, and there are many individual exceptions.
Vowel length is phonemic, with many words distinguished based on the distinction between short vowel and long vowel.
Tungusic words have simple word codas, and usually have simple word onsets, with consonant clusters forbidden at the end of words and rare at the beginning.
Below are Proto-Tungusic consonants as reconstructed by Tsintsius (1949) and the vowels according to Benzing (1955):
{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants
! !! labial !! dental !! palatal !! velar
|-
! voiceless stop
| p || t || || k
|-
! voiced stop
| b || d || || g
|-
! voiceless affricate
| || || č ||
|-
! voiced affricate
| || || ǯ ||
|-
! voiceless fricative
| || s || š || x
|-
! nasal
| m || n || ń || ŋ
|-
! liquid
| || l, r || ||
|-
! glide
| w || || j ||
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels
! !! front !! central !! back
|-
! high
| i, ü || || ï, u
|-
! mid
| e || ö || o
|-
! low
| || a ||
|}
Lexicon
Some Proto-Tungusic lexical reconstructions:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Proto-Tungusic !! Meaning
|-
| *pajī || grass
|-
| *xilŋü || tongue
|-
| *teja || meat cooked in its own juices
|-
| *tuńga || five
|-
| *teb- || to place, put
|-
| *sube- || end, edge, top
|-
| *baka- || to find, obtain
|-
| *šikēn || urine
|-
| *togo || fire
|-
| *tuge || winter
|-
| *palŋa || palm of the hand
|-
| *peli- || to walk
|-
| *pulńe || ashes
|-
| *dili || head
|-
| *tügde || rain
|-
| *üse- || to grow
|-
| *lümŋe- || to swallow
|-
| *aduli || net
|-
| *lelu || gusset
|-
| *maltu- || to bend
|-
| *dulbu || stupid
|}
Relationships with other languages
Tungusic is today considered a primary language family. Especially in the past, some linguists have linked Tungusic with Turkic and Mongolic languages in the Altaic language family. However, a genetic, as opposed to an areal, link remains unproven. Others have suggested that the Tungusic languages may be related (perhaps as a paraphyletic outgroup) to the Koreanic, Japonic, or Ainu languages as well (see Macro-Tungusic).
In 2017, Tungusic was again linked to Turkic and Mongolic languages by Martine Robbeets in her "Transeurasian family" (another name for Macro-Altaic). According to Robbeets, Tungusic is closest to Mongolic languages.
Despite some similarities between the Tungusic and Koreanic languages, Alexander Vovin (2013) considers Tungusic and Koreanic to be separate, unrelated language groups that share areal rather than genetic commonalities through mutual influence of Goguryeo and Jurchen on each other.
The language of the Avars in Europe which created the Avar Khaganate is believed by some scholars to be of Tungusic origin.
See also
Lists of endangered languages
Language death
References
Citations
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Stefan Georg. "Unreclassifying Tungusic", in: Carsten Naeher (ed.): Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies (Bonn, August 28 – September 1, 2000), Volume 2: Trends in Tungusic and Siberian Linguistics, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 45–57.
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Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2018. Past tenses, diminutives and expressive palatalization: Typology and the limits of internal reconstruction in Tungusic. In Bela Kempf, Ákos Bertalan Apatóczky & Christopher P. Atwood (eds.), Philology of the Grasslands: Essays in Mongolic, Turkic, and Tungusic Studies, 112-137. Leiden: Brill.
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External links
Monumenta Altaica—Altaic Linguistics. Grammars, Texts, Dictionaries, Bibliographies of Mongolian and other Altaic languages
Tungusic Research Group at Dartmouth College
Tungusic languages
Vergleich der Reziproken des Ewenischen mit verwandten Sprachen
http://www.siberianlanguages.surrey.ac.uk/summary/
Agglutinative languages
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256434 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint%20George%20%28disambiguation%29 | Saint George (disambiguation) | Saint George was a soldier in the Roman army in the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, venerated as a Christian martyr.
Saint George or Saint George's may also refer to:
Film and television
Saint George (film), a 2016 Portuguese film
Saint George (TV series), an American television comedy
Honors
Cross of St. George, a military honor in Russia
Order of St. George, a military honor in Russia
Ribbon of Saint George, a Russian patriotic ribbon
Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George, a Roman Catholic order of chivalry
Monasteries
Saint George Monastery, al-Khader, a Greek Orthodox monastery in al-Khader, West Bank
St. George's Monastery, Wadi Qelt, an ancient monastery in Waldi Qilt, in the West Bank
People
St George of Choziba, seventh-century saint
St George I of Antioch, Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch (died 790)
St George the Confessor, Bishop of Antioch in Pisidia (died 814)
St George, Archbishop of Develtos, one of the Martyrs of Adrianople (died 815)
St George the Standard-Bearer, Archbishop of Mytilene (776–821)
St George of Amastris, Bishop of Amastris (died 825)
St George of Mytilene (or Militene), also called George the Younger; Archbishop of Mytilene (753–846), brother of St Symeon Stylites of Lesbos
St George, one of the Martyrs of Córdoba (died 852)
St George the Hagiorite (1009–1065)
St George of Kratovo (died 1515)
St George Preca (1880–1962), Maltese Roman Catholic priest
St George (Karslidis) of Drama (1901–1959)
Places
Australia
Parish of St George, a parish in Sydney.
St George (Sydney), a region of Sydney
St George, Queensland
St Georges, South Australia, Adelaide
Division of St George, proclaimed 1949, abolished 1993, electoral district in New South Wales, Australia
Electoral district of St George, created 1894, abolished 1930, electoral district in New South Wales, Australia
Bermuda
St. George's, Bermuda, an UNESCO World Heritage Site
St. George's Parish, Bermuda, one of Bermuda's parishes, containing the above town
St. George's Island, Bermuda, an island of the archipelago of Bermuda, contained within the above parish
Canada
St. George (Manitoba provincial electoral district), established 1914, eliminated 1981
St. George, New Brunswick, a town in Charlotte County
Saint George Parish, New Brunswick
St. George's, Newfoundland and Labrador
St. George's Bay (Newfoundland and Labrador), a bay in Newfoundland and Labrador
St. George's Bay (Nova Scotia), a bay in Nova Scotia
St. George, Ontario, a village near Brantford
St. George (TTC), a subway station in Toronto, Ontario
St. George (Ontario provincial electoral district), created 1926, abolished 1987
Saint-Georges, Quebec, a city in the Chaudière-Appalaches region of Quebec
Grenada
St. George's, Grenada, the capital city
Saint George Parish, Grenada
Greenland
Saint George Fjord
Romania
Sfântu Gheorghe, a Székely city north of Braşov
Sfântu Gheorghe, Tulcea, a commune in Tulcea County
Sfântu Gheorghe, Ialomița, a commune in Ialomița County
United Kingdom
St George, Bristol
St. George, Conwy
St George Hanover Square, London
St George in the East, London
St George in the East (parish), London
St George, former name of Easton in Gordano, North Somerset
St. Georges, North Somerset, near Weston-super-Mare
St George's, Preston, an electoral ward in Preston, Lancashire
St. Georges, Telford
St George's Channel, connecting the Irish Sea and the Atlantic Ocean
Saint George's Hill, Weybridge
St George (UK Parliament constituency)
United States
St. George, Alaska
St. George's Hundred, Delaware, an unincorporated subdivision of New Castle County
St. George, Broward County, Florida, a former census-designated place, now a neighborhood of Lauderhill
St. George, Pinellas County, Florida, a place in Pinellas County, Florida
St. George Island (Florida) in Franklin County
Saint George, Georgia
Saint George, Illinois
St. George, Kansas
St. George, Louisiana
St. George, Maine
St. George, Minnesota
St. George Township, Benton County, Minnesota
St. George, Missouri
St. George, Wright County, Missouri
St. George, Staten Island, New York
St. George, South Carolina
St. George, Utah
St. George, Vermont, a New England town
St. George (CDP), Vermont, census-designated place within the town
Saint George, Virginia
St. George, West Virginia
Other places
St Georges Strand, a coastal village near Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Saint George Parish, Antigua and Barbuda
Saint George, Barbados
Saint George's Memorial Church, Ypres, Belgium
Saint George Parish, Dominica
St. Georg, Hamburg, a quarter of Hamburg, Germany
Saint George Bay, Beirut, Lebanon
Saint George's Channel (Papua New Guinea)
St. George's Caye, an island in the Caribbean Sea
Saint George Parish, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Saint-George, Switzerland
São Jorge do Ivaí, a municipality in the state of Paraná, Brazil
Schools
St. George Campus, University of Toronto, Canada
St George's, University of London, a medical college
St. George's Girls' School (Penang, Malaysia)
St. George's University, Grenada
Sports
Birmingham St George's F.C., a defunct English association football club
Saint George S.C., an Ethiopian association football club
St George FC, an Australian association football club
St Georges A.F.C., an association football club in Douglas, Isle of Man
St. George Dragons, an Australian rugby league club
St. George Illawarra Dragons, Australian Rugby League team in the NRL
St. George's F.C., a Maltese association football club
Other uses
St. George (name)
St George (advertisement), a commercial for the UK soft drink Blackcurrant Tango
Saint George (Donatello), a c. 1415–1417 sculpture by Donatello
Saint George (icon, 1130), a Russian Saint George icon
Saint George the Victorious (coin), Russian coin
St. George Bank, an Australian bank
St. George Defence, an uncommon chess opening
St. George Records, a record label
Saint George's Day, the feast day of Saint George
St. George's mushroom or Calocybe gambosa
St George's Park National Football Centre
See also
Agios Georgios (disambiguation)
Battle of Cape St. George, a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II
Battle of St. George's Caye, a 1798 battle during Anglo-Spanish War
Order of Saint George (disambiguation)
Reial Acadèmia Catalana de Belles Arts de Sant Jordi, Spain
Russian battleship Georgii Pobedonosets ("Saint George the victorious"), an 1892 Russian battleship involved in the Potemkin mutiny
Saint George and the Dragon
St. George Island (disambiguation)
Saint George Parish (disambiguation)
St George's Castle (disambiguation)
St. George's Cathedral (disambiguation)
St George's Church (disambiguation)
St. George's College (disambiguation)
St George's Cross subway station, an underground station in Glasgow, Scotland
St. George's Episcopal Church (disambiguation)
St George's Hospital (disambiguation)
St. George's School (disambiguation)
Saint-Georges (disambiguation)
San Giorgio (disambiguation)
San Jorge (disambiguation)
Sankt Georgen (disambiguation)
São Jorge (disambiguation)
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256439 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuickDraw | QuickDraw | QuickDraw is the 2D graphics library and associated Application Programming Interface (API) which is a core part of the classic Mac OS operating system. It was initially written by Bill Atkinson and Andy Hertzfeld. QuickDraw still existed as part of the libraries of Mac OS X, but had been largely superseded by the more modern Quartz graphics system. In Mac OS X v10.4, QuickDraw has been officially deprecated. In Mac OS X v10.5 applications using QuickDraw cannot make use of the added 64-bit support. In Mac OS X v10.8, QuickDraw header support was removed from the operating system. Applications using QuickDraw will still run under OS X 10.8 through macOS 10.13; however, the current versions of Xcode and the macOS SDK do not contain the header files to compile such programs.
Principles of QuickDraw
QuickDraw was grounded in the Apple Lisa's LisaGraf of the early 1980s and was designed to fit well with the Pascal-based interfaces and development environments of the early Apple systems. In addition, QuickDraw was a raster graphics system, which defines the pixel as its basic unit of graphical information. This is in contrast to vector graphics systems, where graphics primitives are defined in mathematical terms and rasterized as required to the display resolution. A raster system requires much less processing power however, and was the prevailing paradigm at the time that QuickDraw was developed.
QuickDraw defined a key data structure, the graphics port, or GrafPort. This was a logical drawing area where graphics could be drawn. The most obvious on-screen "object" corresponding to a GrafPort was a window, but the entire desktop view could be a GrafPort, and off-screen ports could also exist.
The GrafPort defined a coordinate system. In QuickDraw, this had a resolution of 16 bits, giving 65,536 unique vertical and horizontal locations. These are numbered from -32,767 on the extreme left (or top), to +32,767 on the extreme right (or bottom). A window was usually set up so that the top, left corner of its content area was located at 0,0 in the associated GrafPort. A window's content area did not include the window's frame, drop shadow or title bar (if any).
QuickDraw coordinates referred to the infinitely thin lines between pixel locations. An actual pixel was drawn in the space to the immediate right and below the coordinate. This made it easier for programmers to avoid graphical glitches caused by off-by-one errors.
On the Macintosh, pixels were square, and a GrafPort had a default resolution of 72 pixels per inch, chosen to match conventions established by the printing industry of having 72 points per inch.
QuickDraw also contained a number of scaling and mapping functions.
QuickDraw maintained a number of global variables per process, chief among these being the current port. This originally simplified the API, since all operations pertained to "the current port," but as the OS developed, this use of global state has also made QuickDraw much harder to integrate with modern design approaches such as multi-threading and pre-emptive multitasking. To address these problems, the Carbon API (a bridge between Mac OS 9 and Mac OS X) added additional parameters to some of the routines, allowing for the (opaque) storage of thread information and a new (non-polled) event structure.
Graphics primitives
Everything seen on a classic Mac OS screen is drawn by QuickDraw, but the library itself is quite low level. The primitive objects it can draw are:
Lines
Rectangles
Rounded (and oval) cornered rectangles
Ovals (including circles and ellipses)
Arcs (and wedges), both circular and oval
Polygons (arbitrary closed shapes built from a list of points joined by lines)
Regions (arbitrary sets of pixels—see below)
Bitmaps and Pixmaps
Text
Each of these objects (except text) may be drawn using a "pen", which can have any rectangular dimensions, pattern or color. Note that, because the pen is rectangular and axis-aligned, diagonal lines will end up thicker than horizontal or vertical ones. Shapes may be drawn filled or framed, using any pattern or color. A filled Arc forms a wedge. Text may be drawn in any installed font, in a variety of stylistic variations, and at any size and color. Depending on how the selected font is stored, text can be scaled in a variety of ways - TrueType fonts will scale smoothly to any size, whereas bitmap fonts do not usually scale well.
An important feature of QuickDraw was support for transfer modes, which governed how a destination pixel value was related to its previous value and the color of the object being drawn.
The set of attributes of the pen and text drawing are associated with the GrafPort.
Regions are a key data structure in QuickDraw. They define an arbitrary set of pixels, rather like a bitmap, but in a compressed form which can be very rapidly manipulated in complex ways. Regions can be combined (union), subtracted (difference), and XORed to form other Regions. They can be used within a GrafPort for clipping, or drawn filled or framed like any other shape. A series of framed shapes and connected lines may be combined into a Region. A Region need not consist of a contiguous set of pixels - disconnected regions are possible and common. Although regions could allow powerful graphic manipulations they are limited by the current implementation that restricts the maximum region data storage size to a sixteen bit value and so are not practical as a general-purpose drawing composition tool and practical use at high resolution is also restricted. Regions underpin the rest of QuickDraw, permitting clipping to arbitrary shapes, essential for the implementation of multiple overlapping windows. Invented by Bill Atkinson, Regions were patented as a separate invention by Apple.
A region is specified (after initial creation) by an opening of the region, drawing various QuickDraw shapes, and closing the region. Hidden routines construct the region as the QuickDraw commands are executed. Bitmaps may also be converted to regions, and bitmaps may be made from regions by "painting" or "filling" the region into a graphics port.
The internal structure of a region, other than the storage length and its bounding rectangle, is opaque - there are no Apple-published documents available, though the mechanism is outlined in the patent. Regions are implemented using both vertical and horizontal compression. A region is stored as a series of horizontal scan lines ("rasters"), each of which contains a vertical coordinate followed by a list of horizontal inversion coordinates. Each inversion point can be thought of as toggling inclusion in the region for all the points after it: the first point turns the region on, the second turns it off, and so on. Further compression is achieved by storing each line differentially: each line contains only the differences from the previous line rather than a full set of inversion points. Finally, identical adjacent scan lines are efficiently encoded by simply skipping them. In this way, a commonly used region, the rounded corner rectangle, is efficiently encoded, and complex operations such as region composition and image clipping may be done without requiring either extensive processor cycles or large amounts of memory. (The original systems executing QuickDraw code used processors operating at 8 megahertz clock rates and systems had but 128 kilobytes of writable memory.)
Because regions are bound to a specific orientation, a ninety degree rotation of a region would require both detailed reverse engineering of the structure and extensive coding. A general rotation is impractical when compared to rotating the original source boundary description and simply creating a new region. However, the API includes conversion routines to and from BitMaps. (Bitmaps may also be rotated using well known methods, but with various degrees of image degradation depending upon angle chosen, the storage and processor cycles available to the operation, and the complexity of the algorithm.)
Apple has recently (in the Carbon API) defined regions as an opaque structure under some program compilation options.
Higher level operations
Any series of graphics calls to QuickDraw can be recorded in a structure called a Picture. This can then be saved in memory and "played back" at any time, reproducing the graphics sequence. At playback time the picture may be placed at new coordinates or scaled without the loss of resolution commonly encountered in bitmap scaling. A picture can be saved to disk in which form it defines the Apple PICT format.
An entire BitMap (or PixMap, when referring to color images) may be copied from one GrafPort to another, with scaling and clipping. Known as blitting, or CopyBits, after the name of the function, this operation is the basis for most animation and sprite-like effects on the Mac.
QuickDraw provides a similar blitting function which is designed to implement scrolling within a GrafPort - the image in the port can be shifted to a new location without scaling (but with clipping if desired).
Each graphics primitive operation is vectored through the StdProcs, a series of function pointers stored in the GrafPort. This limited polymorphism permits individual operations to be overridden or replaced by custom functions, allowing printer drivers to intercept graphics commands and translate them to suitable printer operations. In this way, QuickDraw can be rendered using PostScript, a fact that enabled the Macintosh to practically invent desktop publishing.
Similar to a subclass, the Window data structure began with the associated GrafPort, thus basically making windows exchangeable with any GrafPort. While convenient, this made it easy to write erroneous code that passed an offscreen graphics port into API that expected a full-blown window.
History
QuickDraw started life as Lisa Graf as part of the Apple Lisa development. For the Macintosh it was initially simplified, but then later extended. Originally, QuickDraw GrafPorts only supported a bit depth of 1, that is one bit per pixel, or black and white. This suited the built-in screen of the early Macintosh, with its fixed size of 512×342 pixels. Limited color was supported using a crude planar model, allowing QuickDraw to drive some types of dot-matrix printer that used multi-colored ribbons, but very few applications supported this feature.
In 1987, the Macintosh II was developed and launched, which was designed as a more conventional three-box design - Computer, monitor and keyboard all separate. Because the monitor was separate, and larger than the original Mac, the video architecture had to necessarily change. In addition, the Mac II took the Macintosh from black-and-white to full color. Apple also decided at this time to support a seamless desktop spanning multiple monitors, an industry first. Thus Color QuickDraw, a significant extension of the original QuickDraw, was created. The original architecture lacked much provision for expandability, but using a series of hacks, the Apple developers managed to make the addition of color and the new video architecture virtually seamless to both developers and end users.
Color QuickDraw introduced new data structures, including GDevices to represent each attached video card/monitor, and a new color GrafPort (CGrafPort) structure to handle color, as well as PixMaps instead of BitMaps for multiple bits-per-pixel images. One of the hacks for compatibility used here was that the new structure was exactly the same size as the old one, with most data members in the same place, but with additional handles and pointers to color structures in place of the BitMap fields. The upper two bits of the rowBytes field were pressed into use as flags to distinguish a GrafPort from a CGrafPort (they were always zero on old-style GrafPorts because a BitMap could never feasibly be so wide as to ever set these bits). The use of these two high bits would come back to haunt QuickDraw later, as it forced a maximum row width of just 4,095 on 32-bit PixMaps, which became problematic for high-resolution graphics work. Later development (Carbon) eliminated this limitation but was not fully backward compatible. A Palette Manager was also added in Color QuickDraw which managed the arbitration of colors on indexed video devices. Most graphics primitives operations remained either unchanged (but would operate in color), or else new color versions of the black and white APIs were added.
Initially, Color QuickDraw was only capable of operating with 1, 2, 4 and 8-bit video cards, which were all that was available at the time. Soon after however, 24-bit video cards appeared (so-called true color), and QuickDraw was updated again to support up to 32 bits per pixel (in reality, 24 bits, with 8 unused) of color data ("32-Bit QuickDraw"). The architecture always allowed for this, however, so no new APIs were necessary. The color data structures themselves allowed a color depth of 1, 2, 4, 8, 15 and 24 bits, yielding 2, 4, 16, 256, 32,768 and 16,777,216 colors respectively, or 4, 16 and 256 scales of grey. QuickDraw took care of managing the resampling of colors to the available color depths of the actual video hardware, or transfer between offscreen image buffers, including optionally dithering images down to a lower depth to improve image quality. A set of color sampling utilities were also added so that programmers could generate optimal color palettes for use with indexed video devices.
The architecture of QuickDraw had always allowed the creation of GrafPorts and their associated BitMaps or PixMaps "offscreen", where graphics could be composed in memory without it being visible immediately on the screen. Pixels could be transferred between these offscreen ports and the screen using the QuickDraw blitting function CopyBits. Such offscreen compositing is the workhorse for games and graphics-intensive applications. However, until the advent of 32-Bit QuickDraw, such offscreen worlds had to be created and set up by hand by programmers within their applications. This could be error-prone, as it involved three or more separate and fairly complex data structures (CGrafPort, PixMap and GDevice, and for indexed devices, the color look-up table and its inverse). With 32-Bit QuickDraw, OS support for handling this was added, with the "Offscreen Graphics World" or GWorld. The video buffer (PixMap) of a GWorld could be stored in main memory, or when available in unused parts of video ram where copying to the screen could be optimized for speed by avoiding the need to transfer a large amount of pixel data across the main memory bus.
With the advent of QuickTime, QuickDraw gained the ability to deal with compressed raster data, such as JPEG. The QuickTime Image Compression Manager integrated closely with QuickDraw: in particular, image decompression calls were full-fledged QuickDraw drawing calls, and if a picture was being recorded, the compressed data would be saved as part of the picture, for display when the picture was later drawn. The Image Compression Manager also added integration with ColorSync color matching.
After this, apart from back-end changes to optimize for new processor architectures (PowerPC), QuickDraw remained largely unchanged throughout the rest of the life of the classic Mac OS. QuickDraw GX and QuickDraw 3D shared the QuickDraw name and were able to interoperate with QuickDraw PixMap and picture data structures, but were otherwise completely separate in functionality.
With Mac OS X, QuickDraw became part of the Carbon API. In 2005, with the release of Mac OS X 10.4, QuickDraw was officially deprecated.
In 2010 with MacPaint 1.3's source code release through the Computer History Museum, a historical version of QuickDraw source code became available too.
See also
Bresenham's line algorithm
References
External links
- original QuickDraw documentation from developer.apple.com
- later QuickDraw documentation from developer.apple.com
QuickDraw - list of QuickDraw resources from developer.apple.com
Folklore.org: Macintosh Stories: Round Rects Are Everywhere!, May 1981, story about creating QuickDraw
MacPaint and QuickDraw source code, Computer History Museum
-2000 Lines Of Code
Graphics libraries
Apple Inc. software
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256440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moro%20Gulf | Moro Gulf | The Moro Gulf is the largest gulf in the Philippines. It is located off the coast of Mindanao Island, and is part of the Celebes Sea. The gulf is one of the country's tuna fishing grounds.
Geography
The gulf stretches between and is surrounded by the main section of Mindanao on the east, and the Zamboanga Peninsula of Mindanao on the west. The peninsula's major drainage goes towards the gulf.
Sibuguey Bay and Illana Bay are its major bays.
Zamboanga City, which is an international port, is bound by the Gulf and Celebes Sea in the East. Cotabato City, on the eastern coast, is another major port.
Earthquakes
The Moro Gulf is also an area of significant tectonic activity with several fault zones in the region capable of producing major earthquakes and destructive local tsunamis, such as the devastating 1976 Moro Gulf earthquake which killed over 5,000 people and left over 90,000 people homeless as it hit the west coast of Mindanao.
See also
Celebes Sea
List of earthquakes in the Philippines
Port of Zamboanga
References
Moro
Bodies of water of the Celebes Sea
Landforms of Maguindanao
Landforms of Sultan Kudarat
Landforms of Lanao del Sur
Landforms of Lanao del Norte
Landforms of Zamboanga del Sur
Landforms of Zamboanga Sibugay | [
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256441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Alliance | USS Alliance | Two United States Navy ships have been named Alliance.
, was a sailing frigate of the Continental Navy, and notable for firing the last shots of the Revolutionary War.
, was a screw gunboat commissioned in 1877 and in service until 1911.
Sources
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256447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedipalp | Pedipalp | Pedipalps (commonly shortened to palps or palpi) are the second pair of appendages of chelicerates – a group of arthropods including spiders, scorpions, horseshoe crabs, and sea spiders. The pedipalps are lateral to the chelicerae ("jaws") and anterior to the first pair of walking legs.
Overview
Pedipalps are composed of six segments or articles: the coxa, the trochanter, the femur, the short patella, the tibia, and the tarsus. In spiders, the coxae frequently have extensions called maxillae or gnathobases, which function as mouth parts with or without some contribution from the coxae of the anterior legs. The limbs themselves may be simple tactile organs outwardly resembling the legs, as in spiders, or chelate weapons (pincers) of great size, as in scorpions. The pedipalps of Solifugae are covered in setae, but have not been studied in detail.
Comparative studies of pedipalpal morphology may suggest that leg-like pedipalps are primitive in arachnids. At present, the only reasonable alternative to this view is to assume that Xiphosurans reflect the morphology of the primitive arachnid pedipalp and to conclude that this appendage is primitively chelate. Pedipalps are traditionally thought to be homologous with mandibles in crustaceans and insects, although more recent studies (e.g. using Hox genes) suggest they are probably homologous with the crustacean second antennae.
Chelate pedipalps
Chelate or sub-chelate (pincer-like) pedipalps are found in several arachnid groups (Ricinulei, Thelyphonida, scorpions and pseudoscorpions) but the chelae in most of these groups may not be homologous with those found in Xiphosura. The pedipalps are distinctly raptorial (i.e., modified for seizing prey) in the Amblypygi, Thelyphonida, Schizomida, and some Opiliones belonging to the laniatorid group.
Spider pedipalps
Pedipalps of spiders have the same segmentation as the legs, but the tarsus is undivided, and the pretarsus has no lateral claws. Pedipalps contain sensitive chemical detectors and function as taste and smell organs, supplementing those on the legs. In sexually mature male spiders, the final segment of the pedipalp, the tarsus, develops a complicated structure (sometimes called the palpal bulb or palpal organ) that is used to transfer sperm to the female seminal receptacles during mating. The details of this structure vary considerably between different groups of spiders and are useful for identifying species. The pedipalps are also used by male spiders in courtship displays, contributing to vibratory patterns in web-shaking, acoustic signals, or visual displays.
The cymbium is a spoon-shaped structure located at the end of the spider pedipalp that supports the palpal organ. The cymbium may also be used as a stridulatory organ in spider courtship.
The embolus is a narrow whip-like or leaf-like extension of the palpal bulb.
References
Further reading
compiled by Stephen W. Nichols; including Supplement A by George S. Tulloch. Published by The New York Entomological Society in cooperation with the American Museum of Natural History.
External links
Several close-up photos of a tarantula creating a sperm web - Brachypelma vagans (Mexican red-rump)
Phrynus longipes#Pedipalps
Arachnid anatomy
Sex organs
Spider anatomy | [
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256448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasig%20River | Pasig River | The Pasig River () is a river in the Philippines that connects Laguna de Bay to Manila Bay. Stretching for , it bisects the Philippine capital of Manila and its surrounding urban area into northern and southern halves. Its major tributaries are the Marikina River and San Juan River. The total drainage basin of Pasig River, including the basin of Laguna de Bay, covers .
The Pasig River is technically a tidal estuary, as the flow direction depends upon the water level difference between Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay. During the dry season, the water level in Laguna de Bay is low with the river's flow direction dependent on the tides. During the wet season, when the water level of Laguna de Bay is high, the flow is reversed towards Manila Bay.
The Pasig River used to be an important transport route and source of water for Spanish Manila. Due to negligence and industrial development, the river suffered a rapid decline in the second half of the 20th century and was declared biologically dead in 1990. Two decades later after that declaration, however, a renaturation program designed to revive the river has seen the return of life to the river, including eight fish species, 39 species of birds, and 118 species of trees and other vegetation. As a result, the Pasig River received the Asian River Prize by the International River Foundation (IRF) in 2019
The Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission (PRRC), a Philippine government agency established to oversee rehabilitation efforts for the river, is supported by private sector organisations such as the Clean and Green Foundation, Inc. which ran the Piso para sa Pasig (Filipino: "A peso for Pasig") campaign in the 1990s.
Geography
The Pasig River winds generally northwestward for some from the Laguna de Bay, the largest lake in the Philippines, to Manila Bay, in the southern part of the island of Luzon. From the lake, the river runs between Taguig and Taytay, Rizal, before entering Pasig. This portion of the Pasig River, to the confluence with the Marikina River tributary, is known as the Napindan River or Napindan Channel.
From there, the Pasig forms flows through Pasig until its confluence with the Taguig River, From here, it forms the border between Mandaluyong to the north and Makati to the south.. The river then sharply turns northeast, where it has become the border between Mandaluyong and Manila before turning again westward, joining its other major tributary, the San Juan River, and then following a sinuous path through the center of Manila before emptying into the bay.
The whole river and most portions of its tributaries lie entirely within Metro Manila, the metropolitan region of the capital. Isla de Convalecencia, the only island dividing the Pasig River, can be found in Manila and it is where the Hospicio de San Jose is located.
Tributaries and canals
One major river that drains Laguna de Bay is the Taguig River, which enters into Taguig before becoming the Pateros River; it is the border between the municipalities of Pateros and Makati. Pateros River then enters the confluence where the Napindan Channel and Marikina River meet. The Marikina River is the larger of the two major tributaries of the Pasig River, and it flows southward from the mountains of Rizal and cuts through the Marikina Valley. The San Juan River drains the plateau on which Quezon City stands; its major tributary is Diliman Creek.
Within the city of Manila, various esteros (canals) criss-cross through the city and connect with the Tullahan River in the north and the Parañaque River to the west.
Crossings
A total of 21 bridges currently cross the Pasig. The first bridge from the source at Laguna de Bay is the Napindan Bridge, followed by the Arsenio Jimenez Bridge to its west. Crossing the Napindan Channel in Pasig is the Bambang Bridge. The newest bridge, opened in February 2015, is the Kaunlaran Bridge that connects barangays and Sumilang in Pasig.
The next bridge downstream is the C.P. Garcia Bridge carrying C-5 Road and connecting the cities of Makati and Pasig. It is followed by the Sta. Monica–Lawton Bridge, the newest bridge opened in June 2021 that connects Lawton Avenue in Makati to Fairlane Street in Pineda, Pasig as part of the Bonifacio Global City–Ortigas Link Road project approved in 2015.
The Guadalupe Bridge between Makati and Mandaluyong carries Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, the major artery of Metro Manila, as well as the MRT Line 3 from Guadalupe station to Boni station. The Estrella–Pantaleon and Makati-Mandaluyong Bridges likewise connect the two cities downstream, with the latter forming the end of Makati Avenue.
The easternmost crossing in Manila is Lambingan Bridge in the district of Santa Ana. It is then followed by the Padre Zamora (Pandacan) Bridge connecting Pandacan and Santa Mesa districts, and carries the southern line of the Philippine National Railways. The expressway bridge of Skyway Stage 3, serving as a connection road between the North Luzon Expressway and the South Luzon Expressway, is built near the mouth of the San Juan River where most parts of it is built and another bridge parallel to Padre Zamora and PNR bridges will be built to merge with NLEX Connector in Santa Mesa; it will thus serve as a solution to heavy traffic along EDSA. The Mabini Bridge (formerly Nagtahan Bridge) provides a crossing for Nagtahan Street, part of C-2 Road. Ayala Bridge carries Ayala Boulevard, and connects the Isla de Convalecencia to both banks of the Pasig.
Further downstream are the Quezon Bridge from Quiapo to Ermita, the Line 1 bridge from Central Terminal station to Carriedo station, MacArthur Bridge from Santa Cruz to Ermita, and the Jones Bridge from Binondo to Ermita. The last bridge near the mouth of the Pasig is the Roxas Bridge (also known as M. Lopez Bridge and formerly called Del Pan Bridge) from San Nicolas to the Port Area and Intramuros.
Landmarks
The growth of Manila along the banks of the Pasig River has made it a focal point for development and historical events. The foremost landmark on the banks of the river is the walled district of Intramuros, located near the mouth of the river on its southern bank. It was built by the Spanish colonial government in the 16th century. Further upstream is the Hospicio de San Jose, an orphanage located on Pasig's sole island, the Isla de Convalescencia. On the northern bank stands the Quinta Market in Quiapo, Manila's central market, and Malacañan Palace, the official residence of the President of the Philippines.
Also on Pasig River's northern bank and within the Manila district of Sta. Mesa is the main campus of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines.
In Makati, along the southern bank of Pasig, is Circuit Makati (the former Sta. Ana Race Track) and the Rockwell Center, a high-end office and commercial area containing the Power Plant Mall. At the confluence of the Pasig and Marikina rivers is the Napindan Hydraulic Control Structure, which regulates the flow of water from the Napindan Channel.
Geology
The Pasig River's main watershed is concentrated in the plains between Manila Bay and Laguna de Bay. The watershed of the Marikina River tributary mostly occupies the Marikina Valley, which was formed by the Marikina Fault Line. The Manggahan Floodway is an artificially constructed waterway that aims to reduce the flooding in the Marikina Valley during the rainy season, by bringing excess water to the Laguna de Bay.
Tidal flows
The Pasig River is technically considered a tidal estuary. Toward the end of the summer or dry season (April and May), the water level in Laguna de Bay reaches to a minimum of 10.5 meters. During times of high tide, the water level in the lake may drop below that of Manila Bay's, resulting in a reverse flow of seawater from the bay into the lake. This results in increased pollution and salinity levels in Laguna de Bay at this time of the year.
Flooding
The Pasig River is vulnerable to flooding in times of very heavy rainfall, with the Marikina River tributary the main source of the floodwater. The Manggahan Floodway was constructed to divert excess floodwater from the Marikina River into the Laguna de Bay, which serves as a temporary reservoir. By design, the Manggahan Floodway is capable of handling 2,400 cubic meters per second of water flow, with the actual flow being about 2,000 cubic meters per second. To complement the floodway, the Napindan Hydraulic Control System (NHCS) was built in 1983 at the confluence of the Marikina River and the Napindan Channel to regulate the flow of water between the Pasig River and the lake.
History
The Pasig River served as an important means of transport; it was Manila's lifeline and center of economic activity. Some of the most prominent kingdoms in early Philippine history, including the kingdoms of Namayan, Maynila, and Tondo grew up along the banks of the river, drawing their life and source of wealth from it. When the Spanish established Manila as the capital of their colonial properties in the Far East, they built the walled city of Intramuros on the southern bank of Pasig River near its mouth.
The commonly accepted origin for the endonym "Tagalog" is the term tagá-ilog, which means "people from [along] the river". An alternative theory states that the name is derived from tagá-alog, which means "people from the ford" (the prefix tagá- meaning "coming from" or "native of"). In 1821, American diplomat Edmund Roberts called the Tagalog Tagalor in his memoirs about his trips to the Philippines.
The earliest written record of the Tagalog is a 9th-century document known as the Laguna Copperplate Inscription which is about a remission of debt on behalf of the ruler of Tondo. Inscribed on it is year 822 of the Saka Era, the month of Waisaka, and the fourth day of the waning moon, which corresponds to Monday, April 21, 900 CE in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. The writing system used is the Kawi Script, while the language is a variety of Old Malay, and contains numerous loanwords from Sanskrit and a few non-Malay vocabulary elements whose origin may be Old Javanese. Some contend it is between Old Tagalog and Old Javanese.
Pollution
After World War II, massive population growth, infrastructure construction, and the dispersal of economic activities to Manila's suburbs left the river neglected. The banks of the river attracted informal settlers and the remaining factories dumped their wastes into the river, making it effectively a huge sewer system. Industrialization had already polluted the river.
In the 1930s, observers noticed the increasing pollution of the river, as fish migration from Laguna de Bay diminished. People ceased using the river's water for laundering in the 1960s, and ferry transport declined. By the 1970s, the river started to emanate offensive smells, and in the 1980s, fishing in the river was prohibited. By the 1990s, the Pasig River was considered biologically dead.
It is estimated that about 60-65 percent of the pollution in Pasig River comes from household waste disposed into the tributaries of the river. Increasing poverty in the rural areas in Philippines has driven migration to Metro Manila in search of better opportunities. This resulted in rapid urban growth, congestion and overcrowding of land and along the riverbanks, making the river and its tributaries a dumping ground for informal settlers living there.
About 30-35 percent of the river pollution is generated from industries locating close to the river (such as tanneries, textile mills, food processing plants, distilleries, and chemical and metal plants), some of which do not have water treatment facilities which are capable of removing heavy metal pollutants. The rest of the pollutants consist of solid waste dumped into the rivers. Metro Manila has been reported to produce as much as 7,000 tons of garbage per day. In a study conducted by the researchers from Polytechnic University of the Philippines, the river is also contaminated with microplastics.
Rehabilitation efforts
Efforts to revive the river began in December 1989 with the help of Danish authorities. The Pasig River Rehabilitation Program (PRRP) was established, with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources as the main agency with the coordination of the Danish International Development Assistance (DANIDA).
In 1999, President Joseph Estrada signed Executive Order No. 54 establishing the PRRC to replace the old PRRP with additional expanded powers such as managing of wastes and resettling of squatters.
In 2010, the TV network ABS-CBN and Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission headed by ABS-CBN Foundation-Bantay Kalikasan Director Gina Lopez – currently serving as a chairperson of PRRC – launched a fun run fund-raising activity called "Run for the Pasig River" held every month of October. The proceeds from the fun run will serve as a fund for the "Kapit-bisig para sa Ilog Pasig" (Collaborate for Pasig River) rehabilitation project of Pasig River.
In October 2018, the PRRC won the first Asia Riverprize, in recognition of its efforts to rehabilitate the Pasig River. According to the PRRC, aquatic life has returned to the river.
On April 20, 2021, San Miguel Corporation announced that the river cleanup will begin in May 2021. SMC will also work with the Department of Environment and Natural Resources and the Department of Public Works and Highways in this river cleanup. The river cleanup is part of San Miguel Corporation's ₱95-billion Pasig River Expressway project.
Gallery
See also
List of rivers and esteros in Manila
1968 Casiguran earthquake
Laguna de Bay
Manila Bay
Marikina River
Pasig River Ferry Service
References
External links
Philippine Information Agency article on Pasig River
Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission
Iloilo River
Rivers of Metro Manila
Rivers of the Philippines
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256453 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonarchia%20Daemonum | Pseudomonarchia Daemonum | Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, or False Monarchy of Demons, first appears as an Appendix to De praestigiis daemonum (1577) by Johann Weyer. An abridgment of a grimoire similar in nature to the Ars Goetia (first book of The Lesser Key of Solomon), it contains a list of demons, and the appropriate hours and rituals to conjure them.
The Pseudomonarchia predates, and differs somewhat from, Ars Goetia. The Pseudomonarchia lists sixty-nine demons (in contrast to the later seventy-two), and their sequence varies, along with some of their characteristics. The demon Pruflas appears only in Pseudomonarchia, and Pseudomonarchia does not attribute any sigils to the demons.
Weyer referred to his source manuscript as Liber officiorum spirituum, seu Liber dictus Empto. Salomonis, de principibus et regibus daemoniorum. (Book of the offices of spirits, or the book called 'Empto'. Solomon, concerning the princes and kings of demons.) This work is likely related to a very similar 1583 manuscript titled The Office of Spirits, both of which appear ultimately be an elaboration on a fifteenth-century manuscript titled Le Livre des Esperitz (of which 30 of its 47 spirits are nearly identical to spirits in the Ars Goetia).
The 69 demons
King Baël
Duke Aguarès
President Barbas
Prince/Duke Pruflas
Marquess Amon
Duke/Count Barbatos
President Buer
Duke Gusoyn
Count/President Botis
Duke Bathym
King Pursan
Duke Eligos
Marquess Loray
Duke Valefor
Count/President Morax
Prince/Count Ipes
President Glasya labolas
Marquess Naberius
Duke Zepar
King Byleth
Prince Sytry
King Paimon
King Bélial
Duke Bune
Marquess Forneus
Marquess/Count Roneve
Duke Berith
Duke Astaroth
President Forras
Count Furfur
Marquess Marchocias
President Malphas
Duke Vepar
Marquess Sabnac
King Sidonay
Prince/President Gaap
Duke/Marquess Chax
Duke Pucel
Knight Furcas
Duke/Count Murmur
President Caym
Count Raum
Count Halphas
Duke Focalor
King/Count Vine
Count Bifrons
Marquess Samigina
King/President Zagan
Marquess Orias
President Volac
Duke Gomory
King/Count Decarabia
Duke Amduscias
Marquess Andras
Marquess Andrealphus
President Oze
Duke Aym
Prince Orobas
Duke Vapula
Marquess Cimeries
President Amy
Duke Flauros
King Balam
Duke Alocer
Count Saleos
Duke Vuall
President Haagenti
Marquess Phoenix
Prince Stolas
Notes
References
External links
Pseudomonarchia Daemonum
1577 books
Demonological literature
Goetia
Grimoires | [
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256459 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babuyan%20Islands | Babuyan Islands | The Babuyan Islands ( ), also known as the Babuyan Group of Islands, is an archipelago in the Philippines, located in the Luzon Strait north of the main island of Luzon and south of Taiwan via Bashi Channel to Luzon Strait. The archipelago consists of five major islands and their surrounding smaller islands. These main islands are, counterclockwise starting from northeast, Babuyan, Calayan, Dalupiri, Fuga, and Camiguin. The Babuyan Islands are separated from Luzon by the Babuyan Channel, and from the province of Batanes to the north by the Balintang Channel.
Geography
The archipelago, comprising 24 volcanic-coralline islands, has a total area of about . The largest of
these is Calayan with an area of , while the highest peak in the island group is Mount Pangasun () on Babuyan Claro.
Islands
The following are the islands of Babuyan and their adjoining islets and rocks, along with land areas and highest elevation:
Geology
The eastern islands of the archipelago are part of the Luzon Volcanic Arc. Three volcanoes from two of the islands have erupted in historical times - Camiguin de Babuyanes on Camiguin Island, Babuyan Claro Volcano and Smith Volcano (also known as Mount Babuyan) on Babuyan Island.
Another small volcanic island located just NE of Camiguin Island, Didicas Volcano on Didicas Island, became a permanent island only after emerging and rising to over above sea level in 1952.
Flora and fauna
All of the islands within the island group are classified by Haribon Foundation and BirdLife International as key biodiversity areas, or sites with outstanding universal value due to its geographic and biologic importance. All of the islands within the island group have never been part of any large landmass, and thus have unique flora and fauna, most of which are found nowhere else. A research conducted by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources have found at least 5 faunal regions in the area, one of the highest density of separate faunal regions in the world. The islands is also home to the most critically endangered bird species in the Philippines, the Calayan rail (found only on the small island of Calayan), and the most critically endangered snake species in the Philippines, the Ross' wolf snake (found only on the small island of Dalupiri). The island group is also a congregation site for endangered humpback whales, one of the only few of its kind in Southeast Asia. Due to its immense value to the natural world and Philippine biological diversity, various scientific and conservation groups have been lobbying for its declaration as a national park and its inclusion in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
Humpback whales have re-colonized into the area and the Babuyan became the only wintering ground for the species in the Philippines although historical records among Babuyan Islands have not been confirmed.
Demographics
List of islands by population (as of 2020):
Calayan Island - 9,648
Camiguin Island - 5,231
Fuga Island - 1,939
Babuyan Island - 1,910
Dalupiri Island - 621
Barit Island - 14
Government
The whole archipelago is administered under the province of Cagayan with Babuyan, Calayan, Camiguin, and Dalupiri comprising the municipality of Calayan while Fuga is under the jurisdiction of Aparri.
Babuyan and Dalupiri are themselves individual barangays in Calayan municipality, respectively named Babuyan Claro and Dalupiri, while Fuga Island is also an individual barangay, also named Fuga Island, in Aparri.
References
External links
Information on Fuga Island
Babuyan language wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database
Islands of Cagayan
Archipelagoes of the Philippines
Archipelagoes of the Pacific Ocean | [
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256460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick%20III%2C%20Elector%20of%20Saxony | Frederick III, Elector of Saxony | Frederick III (17 January 1463 – 5 May 1525), also known as Frederick the Wise (German Friedrich der Weise), was Elector of Saxony from 1486 to 1525, who is mostly remembered for the worldly protection of his subject Martin Luther.
Frederick was the son of Ernest, Elector of Saxony and his wife Elisabeth, daughter of Albert III, Duke of Bavaria. He is notable as being one of the most powerful early defenders of Martin Luther. He successfully protected Luther from the Holy Roman Emperor, the Pope and other hostile figures. He was led not by religious conviction but rather by his personal belief in a fair trial for any of his subjects (a privilege guaranteed by the imperial statutory law) and the rule of law. The elector had little personal contact with Luther himself. Frederick's treasurer Degenhart Pfaffinger (Pfaffinger being a German dynasty) spoke on his behalf to Luther. Pfaffinger had supported Frederick since their pilgrimage to the holy land together. Frederick is considered to have remained a Roman Catholic all his life, yet gradually inclining toward doctrines of the Reformation and supposedly converting on his deathbed.
Frederick III is commemorated as a Christian ruler in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod on 5 May.
Biography
Born in Torgau, he succeeded his father as elector in 1486; in 1502, he founded the University of Wittenberg, where Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon taught.
Frederick was among the princes who pressed the need of reform upon Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, and in 1500, he became president of the newly formed council of regency (Reichsregiment).
His court painter from 1504 was Lucas Cranach the Elder.
Frederick was Pope Leo X's candidate for Holy Roman Emperor in 1519; the Pope had awarded him the Golden Rose of virtue on 3 September 1518 in an effort to persuade him to accept the throne. However, Frederick helped secure the election of Charles V by agreeing to support Charles and to convince his fellow electors to do the same if Charles repaid an outstanding debt to the Saxons dating to 1497.
Frederick ensured that Martin Luther would be heard before the Diet of Worms in 1521 and secured an exemption from the Edict of Worms for Saxony.
Frederick collected many relics in his castle church; his inventory of 1518 listed 17,443 items, including a thumb from St. Anne, a twig from Moses' burning bush, hay of the holy manger, and milk from the Virgin Mary. Money was paid in order to venerate these relics and thus escape years in purgatory. A diligent and pious person who rendered appropriate devotion to each of these relics could merit 1,902,202 years worth of penance (an earthly equivalent of time otherwise spent in Purgatory, removed by indulgences). Two years later, the collection exceeded 19,000 pieces.
He protected Luther from the Pope's enforcement of the edict by faking a highway attack on Luther's way back to Wittenberg, abducting and then hiding him at Wartburg Castle after the Diet of Worms.
Frederick died unmarried at Lochau, a hunting castle near Annaburg (30 km southeast of Wittenberg), in 1525 and was buried in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg with a grave by Peter Vischer the Younger. He was succeeded by his brother Duke John the Steadfast as Elector of Saxony.
Issue of conversion in 1525
Frederick III was a lifelong Roman Catholic, but he might have converted to Lutheranism on his deathbed in 1525 depending on how his receiving of a Protestant communion is viewed. He leaned heavily towards Lutheranism throughout his later years, guaranteeing safety for his subject and Protestant reformer Martin Luther when he was tried for heresy and excommunicated by the Pope.
Frederick III took communion as outlined in Lutheranism on his deathbed. That can be seen as a conversion to Lutheranism, although he never officially or clearly indicated that he converted. By the time of his death, he was proclaimed to have "converted to the evangelical faith" and Saxony was now "evangelical". He protected Martin Luther and allowed Lutheranism to flourish in his realm, protecting him from the Holy Roman Emperor.
His successor, John, Elector of Saxony, had been Lutheran even before he became elector. John made the Lutheran church the official state church in Saxony in 1527.
Ancestry
See also
Portrait of Frederick III of Saxony
Luther (2003 film)
References
Sources
1463 births
1525 deaths
People from Torgau
Prince-electors of Saxony
House of Wettin
People celebrated in the Lutheran liturgical calendar
Medieval child rulers
Burials at All Saints' Church, Wittenberg
16th-century German people
Saxon princes
Imperial vicars
Medieval Knights of the Holy Sepulchre | [
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256461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20heart | Artificial heart | An artificial heart is a device that replaces the heart. Artificial hearts are typically used to bridge the time to heart transplantation, or to permanently replace the heart in the case that a heart transplant (from a deceased human or, experimentally, from a deceased genetically engineered pig) is impossible. Although other similar inventions preceded it from the late 1940s, the first artificial heart to be successfully implanted in a human was the Jarvik-7 in 1982, designed by a team including Willem Johan Kolff, William DeVries and Robert Jarvik.
An artificial heart is distinct from a ventricular assist device (VAD; for either one or both of the ventricles, the heart's lower chambers), which can be a permanent solution also, or the intra-aortic balloon pump- both devices are designed to support a failing heart. It is also distinct from a cardiopulmonary bypass machine, which is an external device used to provide the functions of both the heart and lungs, used only for a few hours at a time, most commonly during cardiac surgery. It is also distinct from a ventilator, used to support failing lungs, or the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), which is used to support those with both inadequate heart and lung function for up to days or weeks, unlike the bypass machine.
History
Origins
A synthetic replacement for a heart remains a long-sought "holy grail" of modern medicine. The obvious benefit of a functional artificial heart would be to lower the need for heart transplants because the demand for organs always greatly exceeds supply.
Although the heart is conceptually a pump, it embodies subtleties that defy straightforward emulation with synthetic materials and power supplies. Consequences of these issues include severe foreign-body rejection and external batteries that limit mobility. These complications limited the lifespan of early human recipients from hours to days.
Early development
The first artificial heart was made by the Soviet scientist Vladimir Demikhov in 1937. It was implanted in a dog.
On 2 July 1952, 41-year-old Henry Opitek, suffering from shortness of breath, made medical history at Harper University Hospital at Wayne State University in Michigan. The Dodrill-GMR heart machine, considered to be the first operational mechanical heart, was successfully used while performing heart surgery.
Ongoing research was done on calves at Hershey Medical Center, Animal Research Facility, in Hershey, Pennsylvania, during the 1970s.
Forest Dewey Dodrill, working closely with Matthew Dudley, used the machine in 1952 to bypass Henry Opitek's left ventricle for 50 minutes while he opened the patient's left atrium and worked to repair the mitral valve. In Dodrill's post-operative report, he notes, "To our knowledge, this is the first instance of survival of a patient when a mechanical heart mechanism was used to take over the complete body function of maintaining the blood supply of the body while the heart was open and operated on."
A heart–lung machine was first used in 1953 during a successful open heart surgery. John Heysham Gibbon, the inventor of the machine, performed the operation and developed the heart–lung substitute himself.
Following these advances, scientific interest for the development of a solution for heart disease developed in numerous research groups worldwide.
Early designs of total artificial hearts
In 1949, a precursor to the modern artificial heart pump was built by doctors William Sewell and William Glenn of the Yale School of Medicine using an Erector Set, assorted odds and ends, and dime-store toys. The external pump successfully bypassed the heart of a dog for more than an hour.
Paul Winchell invented an artificial heart with the assistance of Henry Heimlich (the inventor of the Heimlich maneuver) and held the first patent for such a device. The University of Utah developed a similar apparatus around the same time, but when they tried to patent it, Winchell's heart was cited as prior art. The university requested that Winchell donate the heart to the University of Utah, which he did.
There is some debate as to how much of Winchell's design Robert Jarvik used in creating Jarvik's artificial heart. Heimlich states, "I saw the heart, I saw the patent and I saw the letters. The basic principle used in Winchell's heart and Jarvik's heart is exactly the same." Jarvik denies that any of Winchell's design elements were incorporated into the device he fabricated for humans which was successfully implanted into Barney Clark in 1982.
On 12 December 1957, Willem Johan Kolff, the world's most prolific inventor of artificial organs, implanted an artificial heart into a dog at Cleveland Clinic. The dog lived for 90 minutes.
In 1958, Domingo Liotta initiated the studies of TAH replacement at Lyon, France, and in 1959–60 at the National University of Córdoba, Argentina. He presented his work at the meeting of the American Society for Artificial Internal Organs held in Atlantic City in March 1961. At that meeting, Liotta described the implantation of three types of orthotopic (inside the pericardial sac) TAHs in dogs, each of which used a different source of external energy: an implantable electric motor, an implantable rotating pump with an external electric motor, and a pneumatic pump.
In 1964, the National Institutes of Health started the Artificial Heart Program, with the goal of putting an artificial heart into a human by the end of the decade. The purpose of the program was to develop an implantable artificial heart, including the power source, to replace a failing heart.
In February 1966, Adrian Kantrowitz rose to international prominence when he performed the world's first permanent implantation of a partial mechanical heart (left ventricular assist device) at Maimonides Medical Center.
In 1967, Kolff left Cleveland Clinic to start the Division of Artificial Organs at the University of Utah and pursue his work on the artificial heart.
In 1973, a calf named Tony survived for 30 days on an early Kolff heart.
In 1975, a bull named Burk survived 90 days on the artificial heart.
In 1976, a calf named Abebe lived for 184 days on the Jarvik 5 artificial heart.
In 1981, a calf named Alfred Lord Tennyson lived for 268 days on the Jarvik 5.
Over the years, more than 200 physicians, engineers, students and faculty developed, tested and improved Kolff's artificial heart. To help manage his many endeavors, Kolff assigned project managers. Each project was named after its manager. Graduate student Robert Jarvik was the project manager for the artificial heart, which was subsequently renamed the Jarvik 7.
In 1981, William DeVries submitted a request to the FDA for permission to implant the Jarvik 7 into a human being. On 2 December 1982, William DeVries implanted the Jarvik 7 artificial heart into Barney Clark, a dentist from Seattle who was suffering from severe congestive heart failure. Clark lived for 112 days tethered to an external pneumatic compressor, a device weighing some , but during that time he suffered prolonged periods of confusion and a number of instances of bleeding, and asked several times to be allowed to die.
First clinical implantation of a total artificial heart
On 4 April 1969, Domingo Liotta and Denton A. Cooley replaced a dying man's heart with a mechanical heart inside the chest at The Texas Heart Institute in Houston as a bridge for a transplant. The man woke up and began to recover. After 64 hours, the pneumatic-powered artificial heart was removed and replaced by a donor heart. However thirty-two hours after transplantation, the man died of what was later proved to be an acute pulmonary infection, extended to both lungs, caused by fungi, most likely caused by an immunosuppressive drug complication.
The original prototype of Liotta-Cooley artificial heart used in this historic operation is prominently displayed in the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of American History "Treasures of American History" exhibit in Washington, D.C.
First clinical applications of a permanent pneumatic total artificial heart
The first clinical use of an artificial heart designed for permanent implantation rather than a bridge to transplant occurred in 1982 at the University of Utah. Artificial kidney pioneer Willem Johan Kolff started the Utah artificial organs program in 1967. There, physician-engineer Clifford Kwan-Gett invented two components of an integrated pneumatic artificial heart system: a ventricle with hemispherical diaphragms that did not crush red blood cells (a problem with previous artificial hearts) and an external heart driver that inherently regulated blood flow without needing complex control systems. Independently, Paul Winchell designed and patented a similarly shaped ventricle and donated the patent to the Utah program. Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, veterinarian Donald Olsen led a series of calf experiments that refined the artificial heart and its surgical care. During that time, as a student at the University of Utah, Robert Jarvik combined several modifications: an ovoid shape to fit inside the human chest, a more blood-compatible polyurethane developed by biomedical engineer Donald Lyman, and a fabrication method by Kwan-Gett that made the inside of the ventricles smooth and seamless to reduce dangerous stroke-causing blood clots. On 2 December 1982, William DeVries implanted the artificial heart into retired dentist Barney Bailey Clark (born 21 January 1921), who survived 112 days with the device, dying on 23 March 1983. Bill Schroeder became the second recipient and lived for a record 620 days.
Contrary to popular belief and erroneous articles in several periodicals, the Jarvik heart was not banned for permanent use. Today, the modern version of the Jarvik 7 is known as the SynCardia temporary Total Artificial Heart. It has been implanted in more than 1,350 people as a bridge to transplantation.
In the mid-1980s, artificial hearts were powered by dishwasher-sized pneumatic power sources whose lineage went back to Alfa Laval milking machines. Moreover, two sizable catheters had to cross the body wall to carry the pneumatic pulses to the implanted heart, greatly increasing the risk of infection. To speed development of a new generation of technologies, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute opened a competition for implantable electrically powered artificial hearts. Three groups received funding: Cleveland Clinic in Cleveland, Ohio; the College of Medicine of Pennsylvania State University (Penn State Hershey Medical Center) in Hershey, Pennsylvania; and AbioMed, Inc. of Danvers, Massachusetts. Despite considerable progress, the Cleveland program was discontinued after the first five years.
First clinical application of an intrathoracic pump
On 19 July 1963, E. Stanley Crawford and Domingo Liotta implanted the first clinical Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD) at The Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas, in a patient who had a cardiac arrest after surgery. The patient survived for four days under mechanical support but did not recover from the complications of the cardiac arrest; finally, the pump was discontinued, and the patient died.
First clinical application of a paracorporeal pump
On 21 April 1966, Michael DeBakey and Liotta implanted the first clinical LVAD in a paracorporeal position (where the external pump rests at the side of the patient) at The Methodist Hospital in Houston, in a patient experiencing cardiogenic shock after heart surgery. The patient developed neurological and pulmonary complications and died after few days of LVAD mechanical support. In October 1966, DeBakey and Liotta implanted the paracorporeal Liotta-DeBakey LVAD in a new patient who recovered well and was discharged from the hospital after 10 days of mechanical support, thus constituting the first successful use of an LVAD for postcardiotomy shock.
First VAD patient with FDA approved hospital discharge
In 1990 Brian Williams was discharged from the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center (UPMC), becoming the first VAD patient to be discharged with Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval. The patient was supported in part by bioengineers from the University of Pittsburgh's McGowan Institute.
Total artificial hearts
Approved medical devices
SynCardia
SynCardia is a company based in Tucson, Arizona, which currently has two separate models available. It is available in a 70cc and 50cc size. The 70cc model is used for biventricular heart failure in adult men, while the 50cc is for children and women. As good results with the TAH as a bridge to heart transplant accumulated, a trial of the CardioWest TAH (developed from the Jarvik 7 and now marketed as the Syncardia TAH) was initiated in 1993 and completed in 2002. The SynCardia was first approved for use in 2004 by the US Food and Drug Administration.
As of 2014, more than 1,250 patients have received SynCardia artificial hearts. The device requires the use of the Companion 2 in-hospital driver, approved by the FDA in 2012, or the Freedom Driver System, approved in 2014, which allows some patients to return home, to power the heart with pulses of air. The drivers also monitor blood flow for each ventricle.
In 2016, Syncardia filed for bankruptcy protection and was later acquired by the private equity firm Versa Capital Management.
Carmat bioprosthetic heart
On 27 October 2008, French professor and leading heart transplant specialist Alain F. Carpentier announced that a fully implantable artificial heart would be ready for clinical trial by 2011 and for alternative transplant in 2013. It was developed and would be manufactured by him, biomedical firm CARMAT SA, and venture capital firm Truffle Capital. The prototype used embedded electronic sensors and was made from chemically treated animal tissues, called "biomaterials", or a "pseudo-skin" of biosynthetic, microporous materials.
According to a press-release by Carmat dated 20 December 2013, the first implantation of its artificial heart in a 75-year-old patient was performed on 18 December 2013 by the Georges Pompidou European Hospital team in Paris (France). The patient died 75 days after the operation.
In Carmat's design, two chambers are each divided by a membrane that holds hydraulic fluid on one side. A motorized pump moves hydraulic fluid in and out of the chambers, and that fluid causes the membrane to move; blood flows through the other side of each membrane. The blood-facing side of the membrane is made of tissue obtained from a sac that surrounds a cow's heart, to make the device more biocompatible. The Carmat device also uses valves made from cow heart tissue and has sensors to detect increased pressure within the device. That information is sent to an internal control system that can adjust the flow rate in response to increased demand, such as when a patient is exercising. This distinguishes it from previous designs that maintain a constant flow rate.
The Carmat device, unlike previous designs, is meant to be used in cases of terminal heart failure, instead of being used as a bridge device while the patient awaits a transplant. At 900 grams it weighs nearly three times the typical heart and is targeted primarily towards obese men. It also requires the patient to carry around an additional Li-Ion battery. The projected lifetime of the artificial heart is around 5 years (230 million beats).
In 2016, trials for the Carmat "fully artificial heart" were banned by the National Agency for Security and Medicine in Europe after short survival rates were confirmed. The ban was lifted in May 2017. At that time, a European report stated that Celyad's C-Cure cell therapy for ischemic heart failure "could only help a subpopulation of Phase III study participants, and Carmat will hope that its artificial heart will be able to treat a higher proportion of heart failure patients".
The Carmat artificial heart was approved for sale in the European Union, receiving a CE marking on December 22, 2020. Its stock price increased over a third upon the announcement of the news.
Historical prototypes
Total artificial heart pump
The U.S. Army artificial heart pump was a compact, air-powered unit developed by Kenneth Woodward at Harry Diamond Laboratories in the early to mid-1960s. The Army's heart pump was partially made of plexiglass, and consisted of two valves, a chamber, and a suction flapper. The pump operated without any moving parts under the principle of fluid amplification – providing a pulsating air pressure source resembling a heartbeat.
POLVAD
Since 1991, the Foundation for Cardiac Surgery Development (FRK) in Zabrze, Poland, has been working on developing an artificial heart. Nowadays, the Polish system for heart support POLCAS consists of the artificial ventricle POLVAD-MEV and the three controllers POLPDU-401, POLPDU-402 and POLPDU-501. Presented devices are designed to handle only one patient. The control units of the 401 and 402 series may be used only in hospital due to its big size, method of control and type of power supply. The control unit of 501 series is the latest product of FRK. Due to its much smaller size and weight, it is significantly more mobile solution. For this reason, it can be also used during supervised treatment conducted outside the hospital.
Phoenix-7
In June 1996, a 46-year-old man received a total artificial heart implantation done by Jeng Wei at Cheng-Hsin General Hospital in Taiwan. This technologically advanced pneumatic Phoenix-7 Total Artificial Heart was manufactured by Taiwanese dentist Kelvin K. Cheng, Chinese physician T. M. Kao, and colleagues at the Taiwan TAH Research Center in Tainan, Taiwan. With this experimental artificial heart, the patient's BP was maintained at 90–100/40–55 mmHg and cardiac output at 4.2–5.8 L/min. The patient then received the world's first successful combined heart and kidney transplantation after bridging with a total artificial heart.
Abiomed hearts
The first AbioCor to be surgically implanted in a patient was on 3 July 2001. The AbioCor is made of titanium and plastic with a weight of 0,9 kg (two pounds), and its internal battery can be recharged with a transduction device that sends power through the skin. The internal battery lasts for half an hour, and a wearable external battery pack lasts for four hours. The FDA announced on 5 September 2006, that the AbioCor could be implanted for humanitarian uses after the device had been tested on 15 patients. It is intended for critically ill patients who cannot receive a heart transplant. Some limitations of the current AbioCor are that its size makes it suitable for less than 50% of the female population and only about 50% of the male population, and its useful life is only 1–2 years.
By combining its valved ventricles with the control technology and roller screw developed at Penn State, AbioMed designed a smaller, more stable heart, the AbioCor II. This pump, which should be implantable in most men and 50% of women with a life span of up to five years, had animal trials in 2005, and the company hoped to get FDA approval for human use in 2008. After a great deal of experimentation, Abiomed has abandoned development of total official hearts as of 2015. Abiomed as of 2019 only markets heart pumps, "intended to help pump blood in patients who need short-term support (up to 6 days)", which are not total artificial hearts.
Frazier-Cohn
On 12 March 2011, an experimental artificial heart was implanted in 55-year-old Craig Lewis at The Texas Heart Institute in Houston by O. H. Frazier and William Cohn. The device is a combination of two modified HeartMate II pumps that is currently undergoing bovine trials.
Frazier and Cohn are on the board of the BiVACOR company that develops an artificial heart. BiVACOR has been tested as a replacement for a heart in a sheep.
So far, only one person has benefited from Frazier and Cohn's artificial heart. Craig Lewis was suffering from amyloidosis in 2011 when his heart gave out and doctors pronounced that he had only 12 to 24 hours to live. After obtaining permission from his family, Frazier and Cohn replaced his heart with their device. Lewis survived for another 5 weeks after the operation; he eventually succumbed to liver and kidney failure due to his amyloidosis, after which his family asked that his artificial heart be unplugged.
Current prototypes
Soft artificial heart
On 10 July 2017, Nicholas Cohrs and colleagues presented a new concept of a soft total artificial heart in the Journal of Artificial Organs. The heart was developed in the Functionals Materials Laboratory at ETH Zurich. (Cohrs was listed as a doctoral student in a group led by Professor Wendelin Stark at ETH Zurich.)
The soft artificial heart (SAH) was created from silicone with the help of 3D printing technology. The SAH is a silicone monoblock. It weighs 390g, has a volume of 679 cm3 and is operated through pressurized air. "Our goal is to develop an artificial heart that is roughly the same size as the patient’s own one and which imitates the human heart as closely as possible in form and function" says Cohrs in an interview. The SAH fundamentally moves and works like a real heart but currently only beats for 3000 beats (which corresponds to a duration of 30 to 50 minutes for an average individual's heart beat)
in a hybrid mock circulation machine. Following which the silicone membrane (2.3 mm thick) between the Left Ventricle and the Air Expansion Chamber ruptured.
The working life of a more recent Cohrs prototype (using various polymers instead of silicone) was still limited, according to reports in early 2018, with that model providing a useful life of 1 million heartbeats, roughly ten days in a human body. At the time, Cohrs and his team were experimenting with CAD software and 3D printing, striving to develop a model that would last up to 15 years. "We cannot really predict when we could have a final working heart which fulfills all requirements and is ready for implantation. This usually takes years", said Cohrs.
Others
A centrifugal pump or an axial-flow pump can be used as an artificial heart, resulting in the patient being alive without a pulse. Other pulse-less artificial heart designs include the HeartMate II from Thoratec, which uses an Archimedes screw; and an experimental artificial heart designed by Bud Frazier and Billy Cohn, using turbines spinning at 8,000 to 12,000 RPMs.
A centrifugal artificial heart which alternately pumps the pulmonary circulation and the systemic circulation, causing a pulse, has been described.
Researchers have constructed a heart out of foam. The heart is made out of flexible silicone and works with an external pump to push air and fluids through the heart. It currently cannot be implanted into humans, but it is a promising start for artificial hearts.
Hybrid assistive devices
Patients who have some remaining heart function but who can no longer live normally may be candidates for ventricular assist devices (VAD), which do not replace the human heart but complement it by taking up much of the function.
The first Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD) system was created by Domingo Liotta at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston in 1962.
Another VAD, the Kantrowitz CardioVad, designed by Adrian Kantrowitz, boosts the native heart by taking up over 50% of its function. Additionally, the VAD can help patients on the wait list for a heart transplant. In a young person, this device could delay the need for a transplant by 10–15 years, or even allow the heart to recover, in which case the VAD can be removed.
The artificial heart is powered by a battery that needs to be changed several times while still working.
The first heart assist device was approved by the FDA in 1994, and two more received approval in 1998.
While the original assist devices emulated the pulsating heart, newer versions, such as the Heartmate II, developed by The Texas Heart Institute of Houston, provide continuous flow. These pumps (which may be centrifugal or axial flow) are smaller and potentially more durable and last longer than the current generation of total heart replacement pumps. Another major advantage of a VAD is that the patient keeps the natural heart, which may still function for temporary back-up support if the mechanical pump were to stop. This may provide enough support to keep the patient alive until a solution to the problem is implemented.
In August 2006, an artificial heart was implanted into a 15-year-old girl at the Stollery Children's Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta. It was intended to act as a temporary fixture until a donor heart could be found. Instead, the artificial heart (called a Berlin Heart) allowed for natural processes to occur and her heart healed on its own. After 146 days, the Berlin Heart was removed, and the girl's heart functioned properly on its own. On 16 December 2011 the Berlin Heart gained U.S. FDA approval. The device has since been successfully implanted in several children including a 4-year-old Honduran girl at Children's Hospital Boston.
Several continuous-flow ventricular assist devices have been approved for use in the European Union, and, as of August 2007, were undergoing clinical trials for FDA approval.
In 2012, Craig Lewis, a 55-year-old Texan, presented at the Texas Heart Institute with a severe case of cardiac amyloidosis. He was given an experiment continuous-flow artificial heart transplant which saved his life. Lewis died 5 weeks later of liver failure after slipping into a coma due to the amyloidosis.
In 2012, a study published in the New England Journal of Medicine compared the Berlin Heart to extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) and concluded that "a ventricular assist device available in several sizes for use in children as a bridge to heart transplantation [such as the Berlin Heart] was associated with a significantly higher rate of survival as compared with ECMO." The study's primary author, Charles D. Fraser Jr., surgeon in chief at Texas Children's Hospital, explained: "With the Berlin Heart, we have a more effective therapy to offer patients earlier in the management of their heart failure. When we sit with parents, we have real data to offer so they can make an informed decision. This is a giant step forward."
Suffering from end-stage heart failure, former Vice President Dick Cheney underwent a procedure in July 2010 to have a VAD implanted at INOVA Fairfax Hospital, in Fairfax Virginia. In 2012, he received a heart transplant at age 71 after 20 months on a waiting list.
See also
Artificial heart valve
Artificial cardiac pacemaker
References
General references
George B. Griffenhagen and Calvin H. Hughes. The History of the Mechanical Heart. Smithsonian Report for 1955, (Pub. 4241): 339–356, 1956.
"Donor saves Detroit pastor living on artificial heart". Fox News. 18 May 2018
Inline citations
External links
Kembrey, Melanie (17 August 2010). "Artificial heart a medical marvel". Fairfield City Champion. Archived 6 July 2011.
American inventions
Implants (medicine)
Cardiology
Heart
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256462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valefar | Valefar | In demonology, Valefar (also Valefor, Malaphar, Malephar, Valafar) is a Duke of Hell. He tempts people to steal and is in charge of a good relationship among thieves. Valefar is considered a good familiar by his associates "till they are caught in the trap". He commands ten legions of demons.
He is represented as a lion with the head of a man, or as a lion with the head of a donkey.
See also
The Lesser Key of Solomon
References
Sources
S. L. MacGregor Mathers, A. Crowley, The Goetia: The Lesser Key of Solomon the King (1904). 1995 reprint: .
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256468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Alliance%20%281778%29 | USS Alliance (1778) | The first Alliance of the United States Navy (which served as part of the Continental Navy) was a 36-gun sailing frigate of the American Revolutionary War.
Originally named Hancock, she was laid down in 1777 on the Merrimack River at Amesbury, Massachusetts, by the partners and cousins, William and James K. Hackett, launched on 28 April 1778, and renamed Alliance on 29 May 1778 by resolution of the Continental Congress. Her first commanding officer was Capt. Pierre Landais, a former officer of the French Navy who had come to the New World hoping to become a naval counterpart of Lafayette. The frigate's first captain was widely accepted as such in America. Massachusetts made him an honorary citizen and the Continental Congress gave him command of Alliance, thought to be the finest warship built to that date on the western side of the Atlantic.
1779
The new frigate's first assignment was to carry Lafayette back to France to petition the French Court for increased support in the American struggle for independence. Manned by a crew composed largely of British and Irish sailors, Alliance departed Boston on 14 January 1779 bound for :Brest, France. During the crossing, a plot to seize the ship, involving 38 members of the crew, was uncovered on 2 February before the mutiny could begin. The disloyal sailors were put in irons, and the remainder of the voyage, in which the frigate captured two prizes, was peaceful. The ship reached Brest safely on the 6th.
After the marquis and his suite had disembarked, Benjamin Franklin, one of the American commissioners in Paris, ordered her to remain in France despite the fact that Landais's original instructions had called for him to load the frigate with munitions and then to sail promptly for America. Instead, Franklin assigned the frigate to a squadron to be commanded by Captain John Paul Jones.
The squadron departed Groix Roads, near Lorient, France, on 19 June to escort a convoy of merchantmen to Bordeaux and other French ports. During a storm that night, Alliance collided with Jones' flagship, , damaging the rigging of both vessels. Nevertheless, each was able to continue, and the squadron successfully completed its mission before returning to L'Orient where the two damaged warships were repaired.
The French planned an invasion of southern England that summer, and asked Jones to carry out a diversionary raid in the northern British Isles. His flotilla sortied from Groix Roads on 14 August and headed for the southwestern corner of Ireland to begin a clockwise circumnavigation of the British Isles.
Not many days passed before Landais – who in Jones' opinion had been the real culprit in the collision two months before – began to show his disinclination toward obeying orders. On the 23rd, he was enraged when the commodore refused to allow him to chase a ship into shallow and unknown waters "... when there was not sufficient wind to govern a ship." The next day, Jones later reported, Alliance's unruly captain came on board the flagship and addressed the commodore "... in the most gross and insulting terms." From that point on, Landais seemed to ignore orders entirely and operated Alliance according to his own whims.
Thus, the only really American warship in Jones' squadron belied her name by refusing to cooperate with the French vessels. She left her consorts during a squall on the night of 26 and 27 August and did not rejoin the squadron until 1 September. Betsy, a letter-of-marque ship she had just taken then accompanied the frigate. About this time, Bonhomme Richard captured a similar ship named Union off Cape Wrath at the northwestern corner of Scotland, and Jones allowed Landais to man both vessels. The latter again showed his complete contempt for the commodore by sending the captured ships (which would become known as the Bergen Prizes) to Bergen, Norway, where the Danish Government turned the ships over to the British consul, depriving their captors of the satisfaction of having hurt the enemy and of any hope of being rewarded for their efforts.
In the next few days, Alliance took two more small ships prompting Jones to signal Landais to board Bonhomme Richard for a conference. The American frigate's commander refused to obey, but instead again sailed off on his own.
For more than two weeks thereafter, Alliance worked her way south independently along the eastern shore of Great Britain while the remainder of the squadron followed a similar course from out of sight. A bit before midnight on 22 September, a lookout in Bonhomme Richard reported seeing two ships. Jones hoisted recognition signals which were unanswered. Landais was continuing to ignore the flagship's efforts to communicate. Nevertheless, at dawn, Jones was able to recognize Alliance and Pallas, a frigate of his squadron which had recently parted from the flagship with the commodore's permission to hunt prizes.
About mid-afternoon on 23 September, the squadron, off Bridlington, sighted ships rounding Flamborough Head to the north. The oncoming vessels were part of a convoy of over 40 British merchantmen which had sailed from the Baltic Sea under the escort of the 44-gun frigate and the 22-gun hired armed ship . The convoy had been warned about the American squadron and turned back northward towards Scarborough, the two escort vessels placing themselves between the merchant ships and the approaching threat.
As the gap closed, Jones signaled his ships to form a line of battle, but Landais ignored the order and sailed off to one side, forcing Countess of Scarborough to do likewise. In the ensuing four-hour Battle of Flamborough Head off England's Yorkshire coast, Landais, after briefly engaging the Countess took little part in the action. On the way to check up on the duel which developed between the Countess and the Pallas, Landais fired a broadside at Serapis, which was by then immobile, and lashed firmly alongside Bonhomme Richard- as a result both ships were damaged. Some time later, with Bonhomme Richard losing its duel, Alliance returned to the main battle, and Jones happily "... thought the battle was at an end ...." But, to his "... utter astonishment", Landais' ship "... discharged a broadside full into the stern of the Bonhomme Richard." Jones and his crew "... called to him [Landais] for God's sake to forbear firing into the Bonhomme Richard, yet he passed along off the side of the ship and continued firing." This, however, was just more collateral damage, resulting from Landais' policy of keeping well out of the line of the guns on the free side of Serapis. Unable to move his ship (either to escape or to aim a broadside at Alliance) Captain Pearson of Serapis surrendered within a short time.
Following the surrender, Alliance stood by during a desperate struggle to save the shattered, burning, leaking hulks. On the evening of the day after the battle, Jones realized that, while his flagship was doomed, her conquered opponent would probably survive. He, therefore, transferred his crew from Bonhomme Richard to Serapis and, the next morning, sadly watched the former sink. All this time, the squadron was simply drifting away from the British coast, but by 29 September, untiring labor had enabled Serapis to get underway, and, following French orders which were somewhat contrary to Jones's wishes, they headed for the coast of the Netherlands. Alliance sighted land on the evening of 2 October and, the following morning, she anchored in Texel Roads, Amsterdam's deep-water harbor, with the rest of the squadron.
When word of the battle reached London, the Admiralty ordered its nearby men-of-war to search for Jones' flotilla; the Royal Navy proceeded to look in all of the wrong places. By the time a merchantman informed London that Jones was at Texel Roads, the victorious allies and their prizes had been safe at anchor there for a week. The Royal Navy then set up a tight blockade off the Dutch port to check any seaward movement that the American squadron might attempt. Meanwhile, the British ambassador pressed the government of the Dutch Republic to return both Serapis and Countess of Scarborough to England. Failing that he demanded that Jones' squadron be expelled from Texel and thus forced to engage with the Royal Navy's blockading squadron.
Indeed, on 12 November, the Netherlands Navy had moved a squadron of ships of the line to Texel, and its commanding officer had ordered Jones to sail with the first favorable wind. Nevertheless, the adroit commodore managed to stall his departure for over six weeks. By that time, he had managed to restore Alliance to top trim and to ready her for sea. Since the other ships in his squadron had by this time, for complex diplomatic and legalistic reasons, shifted to flying French colors Jones decided to leave them behind when he left Holland in Alliance. He had long since relieved Landais in command of that frigate, pending an official inquiry into his conduct during the cruise.
On the morning of 27 December, after foul weather had forced the British blockaders off their stations, an easterly wind sprang up and enabled Alliance to stand out to sea. She dropped the pilot an hour before noon and headed southwest along the Netherlands coast. Less than a day later the frigate transited Dover Strait and entered the English Channel. On the night of 31 December, she was off Ushant, an island off the westernmost tip of Brittany, when 1779 gave way to 1780.
1780
For just over a fortnight thereafter, she cruised to the south looking for British shipping; but, with the exception of one small English brig which she took, the ship encountered only friendly or neutral vessels. On 16 January 1780, Jones decided to visit Corunna, Spain, for provisions and maintenance which entailed shortening the frigate's main yard and scraping her bottom.
On the 27th, she got underway in company with the French frigate Le Sensible. Want of winter clothing then prevented Jones from beginning an extended cruise in quest of prizes; and, instead, the ship struggled across the Bay of Biscay against head winds along a roughly northeasterly course toward L'Orient. En route, she recaptured a wine-laden French barque – a prize which had been taken by an English privateer – and saved the foundering vessel's cargo before the barque sank. She also chanced upon Livingston and escorted that tobacco-laden American merchantman to the French coast.
Alliance anchored in Groix Roads on 10 February and moved into L'Orient harbor on the 19th. That day, Benjamin Franklin suggested that Jones take on a cargo of arms and uniform cloth for the American Army and promptly get underway for home.
Jones agreed with Franklin's suggestion, but was kept in France for many months thereafter, attending to military, diplomatic, and social matters which he felt to be important to his country, to his crew, and to himself. Most of this time, he was away from his ship in Paris.
Meanwhile, the deposed Landais had arrived at L'Orient seeking passage to America where he hoped to be vindicated in a trial by court-martial. There, he met Arthur Lee, a disaffected fellow commissioner of Franklin, who also wanted to return home. Lee – who also hated Jones – persuaded Alliance's former captain that neither Jones nor Franklin had had the authority to relieve him of command since Landais had held a Continental commission. Convinced that he had been wronged, Landais went on board the frigate and assumed command on 12 or 13 June.
Jones arrived at L'Orient, where he heard of this coup. He journeyed to Paris and obtained support from Franklin and Antoine de Sartine, the French Minister of Marine. When Jones returned to L'Orient on 20 June, he found that Alliance had already weighed anchor and moved to Port-Louis, Morbihan, where a recently emplaced boom blocked her path. The batteries that guarded the port, as well as three French warships, had received orders to fire on the frigate if she attempted to stand out to sea.
Surprisingly, Jones then interceded with the French authorities asking them to allow the ship to pass. He justified this action as springing from a desire to avoid wasting lives, losing the fine frigate, and straining Franco-American friendship by having French forces attack an American warship.
The hero of Flamborough may have been rationalizing to conceal less lofty motives. Samuel Eliot Morison strongly endorsed this hypothesis: "The conclusion is inescapable, that Jones was not particularly eager to regain command of Alliance. He had to pretend that he was, of course, but actually he felt well rid of her, and of Landais too".
Alliance was allowed to leave France unmolested. Her homeward voyage proved to be anything but routine. Landais quarreled with his officers, abused his men, and made life miserable for his passengers. The ship had hardly lost sight of land when he locked up Capt. Matthew Parke because the commanding officer of the embarked Marine Corps contingent refused to swear unconditional obedience under all possible circumstances. Any seamen who had joined the frigate after Bonhomme Richard had sunk were suspected of disloyalty, many were shackled and imprisoned in the ship's rat-infested hold. Even Arthur Lee, who had urged the Frenchman to take command, came close to being stabbed with a carving knife for taking the first slice of roast pig at dinner. In operating and navigating the ship Landais gave orders which violated the rules of safe and sensible seamanship.
The fearful and exasperated officers and passengers finally agreed that the commanding officer must be insane, and they forcibly relieved him of command on 11 August. Alliance continued on to America in a happier and more orderly fashion under the command of Lt. James A. Degge. She arrived at Boston on 19 August 1780.
The Navy Board at that port promptly gathered information on the events of the voyage and sent a hasty report to Philadelphia where the Board of Admiralty immediately ordered a thorough investigation of the whole affair. At the same time it appointed Capt. John Barry to take command of the ship and make her ready for sea with great dispatch.
Barry arrived at Boston on 19 September with orders stripping Landais of all claim to command of the frigate. By that point the recalcitrant Landais had shut himself up in the captain's cabin and refused to leave, and he was now forcibly carried off the ship by a party of marines led by his first adversary of the voyage, Capt. Parke. Trials of Landais and Degge resulted in the ousting of both men from the service.
1781
Meanwhile, efforts to restore Alliance to fighting trim progressed slowly – when they moved at all – because of a dearth of both men and money. Funds for the necessary yard work and for provisioning and manning the ship were slow in reaching Boston until Col. John Laurens – a former aide-de-camp to General George Washington, a successful battlefield commander, and an exchanged prisoner of war – appeared there on 25 January 1781. Congress had appointed Laurens as its envoy extraordinary to France because his military experience seemed to fit him to become a convincing spokesman for Washington's needy army. It had also selected Alliance as the speediest and safest ship to carry the dashing young officer to Europe. The urgency of Alliance's new mission made the funds and crew available so that the ship was ready to sail by the end of the first week of February. A favorable wind came up on the 11th enabling her to depart Nantasket Roads and stand out to sea.
Five days later, she entered crowded ice fields and suffered "considerable damage" as she forced her way through. Her crew contained many British sailors, a group of whom plotted to take over the frigate and to kill all her officers but one who would be spared to navigate the vessel to an English port. However, Barry took careful precautions to prevent the mutiny from erupting.
While she sailed eastward Barry followed the orders of the Naval Committee to not pursue any shipping which would delay his progress. Yet, on 4 March, the frigate encountered a ship and a British cruiser.
. One shot brought both vessels to. The cruiser proved to be the English privateer Alert and her consort was Buono Campagnia, a prize which the Britisher had recently taken. Barry took Alert as a prize, but released the merchantman. Five days later, on 9 March, the frigate anchored in Groix Roads and disembarked her important passenger and his three companions: Thomas Paine, whose writings had exerted great influence in persuading the colonies to seek independence, Major William Jackson, a Continental Army officer from South Carolina, and the vicomte de Noailles, a cousin of Lafayette.
After almost three weeks in port, Alliance headed home on the afternoon of 29 March, escorting Marquis De Lafayette, an old, French East Indiaman which an American agent had chartered to carry a valuable cargo of arms and uniforms for the Continental Army. Before the month was out, Barry discovered and investigated a mutiny plot and punished the conspirators.
At dawn on 2 April a lookout sighted two ships to the northwest, Barry headed toward the strangers and ordered the Indiaman to follow. Undaunted, the distant vessels – which proved to be two British brigs – continued to approach the little American convoy and fired a broadside at the frigate as they passed abreast. Two answering salvoes from Alliance robbed the larger of the two English vessels of her rigging and forced her to strike her colors. Barry ordered Marquis De Lafayette to attend to the captured foe while he pursued and took the second brig. The first prize, a new and fast privateer from Guernsey named Mars though badly damaged, was repaired and sent to Philadelphia under an American crew. Marquis De Lafayette provided the prize crew for the smaller vessel, a Jersey privateer named Minerva. Barry ordered the prizemaster of this vessel to head for Philadelphia but Marquis De Lafayette's captain had secretly ordered him to head for France if he had a chance to slip away. On the night of 17 April, foul weather separated Mars from the convoy. Nevertheless, that prize dutifully continued on toward the Delaware capes. Minerva slipped away during the next night and apparently set course for the Bay of Biscay. Marquis De Lafayette dropped out of sight during a fierce storm on the night of the 25th.
After spending two days looking for her lost charge, Alliance continued on toward America alone. On 2 May, she took two sugar-laden Jamaicamen. Off Newfoundland Banks later that day, Alliance sighted but escaped the attention of a large convoy from Jamaica and its Royal Navy escorts. Ironically, a few days before, the missing Marquis De Lafayette and her treacherous master had fallen prey to this same British force.
Almost continuous bad weather plagued Barry's little force in the days that followed until Alliance permanently lost sight of her two prizes on 12 May. During a tempest on the 17th, lightning shattered the frigate's main topmast and carried away her main yard while damaging her foremast and injuring almost a score of men.
Jury-rigged repairs had been completed when Barry observed two vessels approaching him from windward 10 days later but his ship was still far from her best fighting trim. The two strangers kept pace with Alliance roughly a league off her starboard beam. At first dawn, the unknown ships hoisted British colors and prepared for battle. Although all three ships were almost completely becalmed, the American drifted within hailing distance of the largest British vessel about an hour before noon; Barry learned that it was the sloop of war . Her smaller consort proved to be , also a sloop of war. The American captain then identified his own vessel and invited Atalantas commanding officer to surrender. A few moments later, Barry opened the inevitable battle with a broadside. The sloops immediately pulled out of field of fire of the frigate's broadsides and took positions aft of their foe where their guns could pound her with near impunity in the motionless air, Alliance – too large to be propelled by sweeps – was powerless to maneuver.
A grapeshot hit Barry's left shoulder, seriously wounding him, but he continued to direct the fighting until loss of blood almost robbed him of consciousness. Lieutenant Hoystead Hacker, the frigate's executive officer, took command as Barry was carried to the cockpit for treatment. Hacker fought the ship with valor and determination until her inability to maneuver out of her relatively defenseless position prompted him to seek Barry's permission to surrender. Indignantly, Barry refused to allow this and asked to be brought back on deck to resume command.
Inspired by Barry's zeal, Hacker returned to the fray. Then a wind sprang up and restored Alliances steerage way, enabling her to bring her battery back into action. Two devastating broadsides knocked Trepassey out of the fight. Another broadside forced Atalanta to strike, ending the bloody affair. The next day, while carpenters labored to repair all three ships, Barry transferred all of his prisoners to Trepassey which – as a cartel ship – would carry them to St. John's, Newfoundland, to be exchanged for American prisoners. HMS Charlestown recaptured Atalanta in June and sent her into Halifax.
Temporary repairs to Atalanta ended on the last day of May, and the prize got underway for Boston. After more patching her battered hull and rigging, Alliance set out the next day and reached Boston on 6 June. While Barry recuperated, her repairs were again delayed by want of funds. Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army at Yorktown, ending the war's last major action on land, but not the war, well before she was ready for sea. As had happened before, her restoration to service was hastened by decision to use the frigate to carry an important person to France. Lafayette – who had completed his work in America with a major role in the Yorktown campaign – arrived in Boston on 10 December 1781, wanting to return home. Even with the aid of the Marquis' great influence, a full fortnight passed before she could put to sea on Christmas Eve 1781.
1782
The ship arrived off L'Orient on 17 January 1782 and disembarked Lafayette and his party.
Barry wanted to make a cruise in European waters to capture British shipping which would yield crewmen to be used in freeing American prisoners by exchange. Alliance got underway in February and headed for the Bay of Biscay. Accompanying her out was the American letter-of-marque brig Antonio which was bound for home. Three days later, she chased and overhauled an American brigantine which jettisoned her guns in an effort to escape. Antonio's commander offered to escort the unfortunate, and now defenseless, merchantman to Philadelphia and they parted from Barry the next day. Alliance encountered only friendly and neutral shipping before putting in at L'Orient on February.
Barry remained in port more than two weeks awaiting dispatches from Paris containing Franklin's observations on the diplomatic scene and on prospects for England's recognition of American independence and negotiations for peace. The messages arrived on 15 March, and the following day Alliance headed home.
Wretched weather and contrary winds plagued the ship for much of the voyage. The almost incessant northerly blasts forced her south into hot, unhealthful climes. Eight men died before the end of April when she managed to turn north with the trade winds and head for the Delaware River.
The frigate reached Cape Henlopen on 10 May, but found it guarded by a Royal Navy ship of the line which – in company with a tender – gave chase. Fleeing south and eluding her pursuers, Alliance turned north around Montauk Point and across Long Island Sound to New London, Connecticut, where she arrived on 13 May.
Although hopeful of soon beginning another cruise, Barry again was frustrated by the inevitable shortages of men, money, and material. Almost three months passed before Alliance was finally ready for sea. She reentered Long Island Sound on 4 August and almost immediately took Adventure, a Rhode Island brigantine which had fallen prey to an English privateer. Barry sent the prize back to New London and unsuccessfully sought her captor. On the 10th, while sailing toward Bermuda, the frigate captured the schooner Polly and sent her to Boston. On the 25th, she retook Fortune, a Connecticut sloop which the British privateer Hawk had seized on the 16th.
At the end of August, Barry headed north in quest of stragglers from a convoy which had sailed from Jamaica a bit over a month before. A week later he made a prize of Somerset, a Nantucket whaler that had been sailing under a British pass.
On 18 September Alliance captured a damaged British brig and learned that a storm had scattered the Jamaica convoy sinking or crippling both escorts and merchantmen. Making temporary repairs to this prize, Barry sent her to Boston and then began looking for the Jamaicamen. On the 24th he captured Britannia and Anna, carrying coffee, logwood, sugar, and rum. On the 27th the snow Commerce became his prize. The next day he captured the dismasted Kingston.
Though he would have preferred to take his prizes home Barry was now closer to Europe. Prevailing westerly winds clinched the matter, prompting him to head for France. The eastward passage was slow and stormy, but the convoy reached Groix Roads on 17 October.
Alliance got underway again on 9 December 1782 for the West Indies.
1783
At the end of a largely uneventful passage, she anchored off Saint-Pierre, Martinique, on 8 January 1783. There Barry found orders to sail to Havana to pick up a large quantity of gold and to deliver it to Congress at Philadelphia. After brief repairs, Alliance resumed her voyage on the 13th, touched at St. Eustatius and Cape Francois, and reached Havana on the last day of January.
Another American warship, , was already in port on the same mission. The specie had already been loaded on Duc de Lauzun and Barry decided to escort her home. The inevitable delays kept both ships in port until 6 March. The next day, they encountered two Royal Navy frigates that gave chase. Barry chose not to fight these warships rather than risk losing the funds his consort carried, and the American vessels successfully eluded their pursuers. Three days later they encountered the same pair – and – in company with the sloop-of-war HMS Tobago.
Still striving to avoid risk to the desperately needed money he was carrying to Congress, Barry again headed southwest to escape from these unidentified strangers and ordered her consort to follow. Far off in that direction, the rigging of another ship appeared over the horizon, sailing away from the others.
Soon Alliance was noticeably pulling away from the pursuers but Duc de Lauzun – second in line – was losing ground to Alarm. In the distance, the newcomer was seen to change course and head toward Alliance. Alarm evidently gave up the chase and headed away. Sybil pressed on and soon began firing at Duc de Lauzun.
Confident in both Alliance's speed and her fighting ability, Barry maneuvered her between Sybil and Duc De Lauzun to demand the full attention of the former so that the latter might slip away to safety. Sybil then turned her fire toward Alliance and managed to send one shot from her bow chaser into the American frigate's cabin, mortally wounding a junior officer and scattering many splinters. Yet Barry held Alliance's fire until she was within a "pistol's shot" of her opponent. At that point, a broadside from the American warship opened some 40 minutes of close-in fighting which finally forced Sybil to flee in the wake of Alarm and Tobago. Ships' logs indicate that this battle was fought south of Cape Canaveral on 10 March 1783. Captain Vashon, commander HMS Sybil, is recorded as saying "he had never seen a ship so ably fought as the Alliance." Captain Vashon is further quoted as saying of Barry, "every quality of a great commander was brought out with extraordinary brilliancy".
Meanwhile, the Treaty of Paris which ended the war and recognized the independence of the United States had been ratified on 3 February 1783, some five weeks before the battle.
The two American ships again headed home on the day following their brush with the British, 11 March, but separated off Cape Hatteras a week later. On the 19th, Alliance met a British ship of the line as she headed in toward the Delaware capes. She gave chase and forced Alliance back out to sea. This created a diversion which allowed Duc De Lauzun to slip into the Delaware unmolested and ascend the river to Philadelphia.
Alliance continued on northward and arrived at Newport, Rhode Island, at midafternoon on 20 March 1783. Since that port could easily be raided by British men-of-war, she soon proceeded up Narragansett Bay and anchored just below Providence. There, her crew was reduced to peacetime needs, and she was thoroughly overhauled.
Ordered to proceed to Chesapeake Bay to take on a cargo of tobacco for shipment to Europe, the frigate got underway on 20 June, but, headed for sea, she struck a rock and was stranded until high tide. Upon floating free, Alliance still seemed to be tight and resumed her voyage via the Virginia Capes and the lower Chesapeake Bay to the Rappahannock River. She then moved up that river where she began taking on tobacco. When completely loaded, she headed downstream on 21 August and sailed into the Atlantic three days later.
Soon after the ship entered the open sea, water rose rapidly in her hold. A hasty investigation revealed that a leak had developed where she had struck the rock weeks before. The crew's attempts to stem the influx failed, forcing Barry to head for the Delaware.
Further examination of the ship at Philadelphia ruled out any quick remedy and caused Congress to cancel the voyage. Her tobacco was transferred to other ships and her crew was further reduced to the bare minimum necessary to keep her in reasonably satisfactory condition. When the survey board reported that the necessary repairs would be quite expensive, no funds were available for the task.
1785–1788
It seems that the work was never done before Alliance – the last ship left in the Continental Navy – was sold in Philadelphia on 1 August 1785 to John Coburn and a partner named Whitehead. These gentlemen subsequently sold her to Robert Morris who converted the vessel to an East Indiaman. Her new owner – who, as the guiding spirit on naval matters in the Continental Congress and that body's Agent of Marine in the later years of the American struggle for independence, had directed her operations – selected Thomas Read as her master during her first merchant service. That former captain in the Continental Navy took her to China by a new route through the Dutch East Indies and the Solomon Islands. She departed Philadelphia in June 1787 and arrived at Canton on 22 December of that year. While passing through the Carolines on the outward voyage Read found two islands which were not on his chart and named the first – probably Ponape – Morris, and the second, Alliance. At Canton he loaded the ship with tea which he delivered back at Philadelphia on 17 September 1788, ending a record voyage.
"On her voyage to China, she had for her commander, Thomas Reed ; first- mate, the late Commodore Dale ; and for supercargo, the late George Harrison, of Chestnut street.
It is recorded thus: "September 19, 1788, the ship ' Alliance,' Thomas Reed commander, and George Harrison supercargo, arrived from Canton, consigned to Isaac Hazlehurst & Co.," of which Robert Morris was the company.
The ship was seven hundred and twenty-four tons register: a very large ship in those days."
After 1788
An 1860 source states, "Mr. [Robert] Morris bought the United States frigate "Alliance," and fitted her up and out for the East Indies, in which she made but one voyage to China, and was condemned on her return as unseaworthy, dismantled, and drifted to Petty's Island— where 'tis said some of her ribs yet perpetuate the fact of her existence."
At low tide, some of her timbers could be seen in the sands there until her remaining hulk was destroyed during dredging operations in 1901.
References
Bibliography
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External links
The USS Alliance Ledger 1782–1783, which chronicles prize money distributed to the crew in the wake of the capture of Britannia, Anna, Commerce, and Kingston, is available for research use at the Historical Society of Pennsylvania.
Ships of the Continental Navy
Sailing frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Amesbury, Massachusetts
1778 ships | [
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256471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Day%20of%20the%20Jackal | The Day of the Jackal | The Day of the Jackal (1971) is a political thriller novel by English author Frederick Forsyth about a professional assassin who is contracted by the OAS, a French dissident paramilitary organisation, to kill Charles de Gaulle, the President of France.
The novel received admiring reviews and praise when first published in 1971, and it received a 1972 Best Novel Edgar Award from the Mystery Writers of America. The novel remains popular, and in 2003 it was listed on the BBC's survey The Big Read.
The OAS, as described in the novel, did exist and the book opens with an accurate depiction of the attempt to assassinate de Gaulle led by Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry on 22 August 1962. The subsequent plot, however, is fiction.
Plot summary
Part One: Anatomy of a Plot
The book begins in 1962 with the (historical) failed attempt on de Gaulle's life plotted by, among others, Lieutenant-Colonel Jean-Marie Bastien-Thiry in the Paris suburb of Petit-Clamart: Operation Charlotte Corday. Following the apprehension of Bastien-Thiry and various other conspirators, the French security forces wage a short but extremely vicious "underground" war with the terrorists of the OAS, a militant right-wing group who believe de Gaulle to be a traitor to France after his grant of independence to Algeria.
The French secret service, particularly its covert operations directorate (the "Action Service"), is remarkably effective in infiltrating the terrorist organisation with their own informants, allowing them to capture and interrogate the OAS operations commander, Antoine Argoud. The failure of the Petit-Clamart assassination, and a subsequent betrayal of the next attempt on de Gaulle's life at the École Militaire, compounded by Bastien-Thiry's eventual execution by firing squad, likewise demoralise the antagonists.
Argoud's deputy, Lt-Col Marc Rodin, carefully examines what few options they have remaining and establishes that the only way to succeed in killing de Gaulle is to hire a professional mercenary from outside the organisation, someone completely unknown to both the French government and the OAS itself. After extensive inquiries, he contacts an English hitman (whose true identity is always unknown), who meets with Rodin and his two principal deputies in Vienna, and agrees to assassinate de Gaulle, although he demands a total of US$500,000 (roughly US$3.5 million in 2021 dollars). The killer further requires that half of the amount be paid in advance and the rest on completion. They also agree on a code name, "The Jackal". The triumvirate of OAS commanders then take up residency on the top floor of a Rome hotel guarded by a group of ex-legionnaires to avoid the risk of being captured, like Argoud, and subsequently revealing the assassination plot under interrogation.
The remainder of this part describes the Jackal's exhaustive preparations for the forthcoming project. He first acquires a legitimate British passport under a fake name, "Paul Duggan", which he intends to use for the majority of his mission. He then steals the passports of two foreign tourists visiting London who superficially resemble him for use as contingency identities. Masquerading as Duggan, the Jackal travels to Brussels, where he commissions a master gunsmith to build him a special suppressed sniper rifle of extreme slimness with a small supply of mercury-tipped explosive bullets. He also acquires a set of forged French identity papers from a professional forger. The latter makes the mistake of attempting to blackmail him, for which the Jackal kills him and locks his body in a large trunk where he determines it will not be found for a considerable time. After exhaustively researching a series of books and articles by, and about, de Gaulle, the Jackal travels to Paris to reconnoitre the most favourable spot and the best possible day for the assassination.
Following a series of armed robberies in France, the OAS is able to deposit the first half of the Jackal's fee in his Swiss bank account. Meanwhile, the French authorities, suspicious about Rodin and his subordinates being holed up in the hotel, composes and despatches a fake letter that lures Viktor Kowalski, one of Rodin's bodyguards (and a hulking giant) to France, where he is caught and tortured to death. Interpreting his incoherent ramblings, the secret service is able to decipher Rodin's plot, but knows nothing of the assassin himself save for his codename. When informed of the plan, de Gaulle (who was notoriously careless of his personal security) refuses to cancel any public appearances, modify his normal routines, or even allow any kind of public inquiry into the assassin's whereabouts to be made: any investigation, he orders, must be done in absolute secrecy.
Roger Frey, the French Minister of the Interior, organises a conference of the heads of the French security authorities. Because Rodin and his men are in the hotel under heavy guard, the group determines that it is impossible to catch and interrogate them about the assassin (unless it is achieved through a commando-style operation), nor can they be executed. The rest of the meeting is at a loss to suggest how to proceed, until a Commissioner of the Police Judiciaire reasons that their first and most essential priority is to establish the Jackal's true identity, which is something that he insists is "pure detective work". When asked to name the best detective in France, he volunteers his own deputy commissioner: Claude Lebel.
Part Two: Anatomy of a Manhunt
Granted special emergency powers to conduct his investigation, Lebel does everything possible to uncover the Jackal's identity. He first calls upon his old boy network of foreign intelligence and police contacts to inquire if they have any records of a top-class political assassin. Most of the inquiries are fruitless, but in the United Kingdom, the inquiry is eventually passed on to the Special Branch of Scotland Yard, and another veteran detective, Superintendent Bryn Thomas.
A search through Special Branch's records turns up nothing. However, one of Thomas's subordinates suggests that if the assassin were an Englishman, but primarily operated abroad, he would most probably come to the attention of the Secret Intelligence Service. Thomas makes an informal inquiry with a friend of his on the SIS's staff, who mentions hearing a rumour from an officer stationed in the Dominican Republic at the time of President Trujillo's assassination. The rumour states that a hired assassin stopped Trujillo's car with a rifle shot, allowing a gang of partisans to finish him off. Additionally, Thomas also learns that the assassin was an Englishman, whom he is able to identify as Charles Calthrop.
To his surprise, Thomas is summoned in person by the Prime Minister (unnamed, but most probably intended to represent Harold Macmillan), who informs him that word of his inquiries has reached higher circles in the British government. Despite the enmity felt by much of the government against France in general and de Gaulle in particular, the Prime Minister informs Thomas that de Gaulle is his friend, and that the assassin must be identified and stopped, with a limitless amount of resources, manpower or expenses at Thomas' disposal. Thomas is handed a commission similar to Lebel's, with temporary powers allowing him to override almost any other authority in the land. Checking out the name of Charles Calthrop, Thomas finds a match to a man living in London, said to be on holiday. While Thomas confirms that this Calthrop was indeed in the Dominican Republic at the time of Trujillo's death, he does not believe it justifies informing Lebel, until one of his junior detectives realises that the first three letters of his first name and surname form the French word for Jackal (Chacal).
Unknown to any member of the council in France, there is an OAS mole among them: the mistress of an arrogant Air Force colonel attached to de Gaulle's staff. Through pillow talk, the officer unwittingly feeds the Jackal a constant stream of information as to Lebel's progress. The Englishman enters France through Italy, driving a rented Alfa Romeo sports car with his weapon soldered/wired to the chassis. Although he receives word from the OAS agent that the French are on the lookout for him, he assesses that he will succeed whatever happens and decides to take the risk. In London, the Special Branch raids Calthrop's flat, finding his passport, and deduce that he must be travelling on fake papers. When they discover that the Jackal is travelling in the name of Duggan, Lebel and a police force comes close to apprehending him in the south of France, but due to his OAS contact he leaves his hotel early and evades them by only an hour. With the police on the lookout for him, the Jackal seeks refuge in the château of a woman whom he encountered and seduced at the hotel: when she goes through his things and finds the weapon, he kills her and flees after disguising himself as the first of his two emergency identities; he disposes of Duggan's belongings in a ravine in the process. The murder is not reported until much later that day, allowing him to board the train for Paris.
Part Three: Anatomy of a Kill
Lebel becomes suspicious of what the rest of the council label the Jackal's apparent "good luck", and has the telephones of all the members tapped, which leads him to discover the OAS agent. The Air Force colonel withdraws from the meeting in disgrace and subsequently tenders his resignation. When Thomas checks out and identifies reports of stolen or missing passports in London in the preceding months, he closes in on the Jackal's remaining secondary identities.
While meeting the council on 22 August 1963, Lebel deduces that the killer has decided to target de Gaulle on 25 August, the day commemorating the liberation of Paris during World War II. It is, he realises, the one day of the year when de Gaulle can definitely be counted on to be in Paris and to appear in public. Believing the inquiry to be over, the Minister orchestrates a massive, citywide manhunt for the Jackal now that he can be publicly reported as a murderer, dismissing Lebel with hearty congratulations – but the killer eludes them yet again: slipping into a gay bar while in disguise, he gets himself picked up by a local man and taken to his flat, where he kills him and waits.
On the 24th, the Minister summons Lebel yet again and tells him that the Jackal still cannot be found. Lebel listens to the details of the President's schedule and security arrangements, but can suggest nothing more helpful than that everyone "should keep their eyes open", much to Roger Frey's dismay. On the 25th itself, the Jackal, masquerading as a one-legged French war veteran, passes through the security checkpoints carrying his custom gun concealed in the sections of a crutch. He makes his way to an apartment building overlooking the Place du 18 Juin 1940 (in front of the soon-to-be-demolished façade of the Gare Montparnasse), where de Gaulle is presenting medals to a small group of Resistance veterans. As the ceremony begins, Lebel is walking around the street, questioning and re-questioning every police checkpoint. When he hears from one CRS guard about a one-legged veteran with a crutch, he realises what the Jackal's plan is, and rushes into the apartment building, calling for the patrol to follow him.
Having sneaked into a suitable apartment to shoot from, the Jackal prepares his weapon and takes aim at de Gaulle's head, but his first shot misses by a fraction of an inch when the President unexpectedly leans forward to kiss the cheeks of the veteran he is honouring. Outside the apartment, Lebel and the CRS man arrive on the top floor in time to hear the sound of the first, silenced shot. The CRS guard shoots off the door lock and bursts in as the Jackal is reloading: the Englishman turns and fires, killing him with a shot to the chest. At this point, the detective and the assassin, having developed grudging respect for each other during the pursuit, stare at each other briefly. The Jackal scrambles to load his third and last bullet while the unarmed Lebel snatches up the dead policeman's submachine-gun: Lebel is faster and shoots the Jackal with half a magazine-load of 9mm bullets, instantly killing him.
Epilogue
In London, the Special Branch are searching Calthrop's apartment when the real Charles Calthrop storms in and demands to know what they are doing. Once it is established that Calthrop truly has been on holiday in Scotland and is totally unconnected with the killer, the British are left to wonder "if the Jackal wasn't Calthrop, then who the hell was he?"
The Jackal is buried in an unmarked grave in a Paris cemetery, officially recorded as "an unknown foreign tourist, killed in a car accident." Aside from a priest, policeman, registrar and grave-diggers, the only person attending the burial is Police Inspector Claude Lebel, who then leaves the cemetery to return to his family.
Origins
Over the three years immediately prior to his writing The Day of the Jackal, Frederick Forsyth spent most of his time in West Africa covering the Biafran war, first for the BBC in 1967 and then for another eighteen months as a freelance journalist in 1968–1969. Upon his return to Britain his first book, the non-fiction The Biafra Story: The Making of an African Legend about that brutal civil war during which Nigeria fought to prevent the secession of its eastern province, was published as a paperback by Penguin Books in late 1969. To Forsyth's disappointment, however, the book sold very few copies and so with the arrival of the 1970s the then 31 year-old freelance journalist, international adventurer, and onetime youngest (at 19) fighter pilot in the RAF found himself both out of work and "flat broke". To solve his financial problems he thus decided to try his hand at fiction by writing a political thriller as a "one-off" project to "clear his debts". Unlike most novelists, however, Forsyth would employ the same type of research techniques that he had used as an investigative reporter to bring a sense of increased reality to his work of fiction, a story which he first began to consider writing in 1962–1963 while posted to Paris as a young Reuters foreign correspondent.
When Forsyth arrived in 1962, French President Charles de Gaulle had just granted independence to Algeria to end the eight-year Algerian War, a highly controversial act that had incurred the wrath of the anti-decolonisation paramilitary group Organisation Armée Secrète (OAS) which then vowed to assassinate him. Forsyth befriended several of the President's bodyguards and personally reported from the scene of the failed August 1962 assassination attempt along the Avenue de la Libération during which de Gaulle and his wife narrowly escaped death in a fusillade of gunfire in the roadside ambush, the most serious of six overall attempts the OAS would make on his life. Forsyth incorporated an account of that real-life event to open his new novel throughout which he also employed many other aspects and details about France, its politics, the OAS, and international law enforcement that he had learned during his career as an investigative journalist. Forsyth noted that virtually all OAS members and sympathizers were known to, and under surveillance by, French authorities—a key factor in the failure of their assassination attempts. In his 2015 memoir The Outsider, Forsyth wrote that during his time in France he briefly considered that the OAS might assassinate de Gaulle if they hired a man or team who were completely unknown to French authorities — an idea he would later expand upon in Jackal.
Publishing history
Although Forsyth wrote The Day of the Jackal in 35 days in January and February 1970, it remained unpublished for almost a year-and-a-half thereafter as he sought a publisher willing to accept his unsolicited approximately 140,000-word manuscript. Four publishing houses rejected it between February and September because their editors believed a fictional account of the OAS hiring a British assassin in 1963 to kill Charles de Gaulle would not be commercially successful, given the fact that he had never been shot and, when the book was written, de Gaulle was in fact still alive and retired from public life.
The editors told Forsyth that they felt that these well-known facts essentially abrogated the suspense of his fictional assassination plot against de Gaulle as readers would already know it would not and could not possibly have been successful. (De Gaulle subsequently died of natural causes at his country home in Colombey-les-Deux-Églises in November 1970 after peacefully retiring). After these rejections Forsyth took a different strategy and wrote a short summary of the novel to present to publishers, noting that the focus was not on the plausibility of the assassination itself, but rather on the technical details and manhunt. He persuaded London based Hutchinson & Co. to take a chance on publishing his novel, however, they only agreed to a relatively small initial printing of just 8,000 copies for its 358-page red and gold clothbound first edition. Forsyth was signed to a three book contract: a £500 advance for Jackal, followed by another £6,000 advance for the second and third novels. Although the book was not formally reviewed by the press prior to its initial June 1971 UK publication, widespread word of mouth discussion resulted in brisk advance and post-publication sales leading to repeated additional printings (including some prior to its official publication date) being ordered from Hutchinson's longtime printer, Anchor Press Ltd (Tiptree, Essex), to meet booksellers' unexpectedly strong demand.
The book's unexpected success in Britain soon attracted the attention of Viking Press in New York which quickly acquired the US publication rights for $365,000 (£100,000)—a then very substantial sum for such a work and especially for that of a first-time author. These fees (the equivalent of more than $2,000,000 in 2013) were split equally between Hutchinson and Forsyth which led the heretofore self-described "flat broke" author to observe later that he had "never seen money like it and never thought I would." Just two months after its publication in the UK the 380-page clothbound Viking first edition was released in the US at $7.95 and with a distinctive jacket designed by noted American artist Paul Bacon.
The US first edition's launch was considerably aided by two glowing reviews in the New York Times by senior daily book reviewer Christopher Lehmann-Haupt three days before its release, and by the American mystery writer Stanley Bernard Ellin the week after. In mid-October it reached No. 1 on the Times "Best Seller List" for fiction and by mid-December 136,000 copies of Viking's US edition were already in print. Over two-and-a-half million copies were sold worldwide by 1975. As in the UK, over forty years later The Day of the Jackal still remains in print in the US published now by Penguin Books (which acquired Viking in 1975) as a New American Library imprint. Hundreds of other print, electronic, and audio editions have been produced around the world since 1971 with many more millions of copies now in print in both English and the thirty other languages to which it has been translated including Spanish, German, French, Russian, Czech, Polish, Italian, Portuguese, Swedish, Finnish, Danish, Hebrew, Latvian, Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Thai.
The Day of the Jackal was published in serial format in 1971 in both the London Evening Standard and Israel's oldest daily newspaper, Ha'aretz. Earning Forsyth the 1972 Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Novel, in 1973 it was also made into a 143-minute feature film directed by Fred Zinnemann. In 2011 a number of special "40th Anniversary" editions of The Day of the Jackal were released in the UK, US, and elsewhere to commemorate the four decades of continuous success of the book, the first of 18 more Forsyth novels and collections of his short stories published since the 1971 release of his seminal debut thriller.
Film adaptations
The film The Day of the Jackal was released in 1973, directed by Fred Zinnemann and starring Edward Fox as The Jackal, Michael Lonsdale as Lebel, and Derek Jacobi as Caron. It follows the novel rather faithfully although it has several cosmetic changes
An Indian film in Malayalam titled August 1 (1988), directed by Sibi Malayil, is loosely based on the novel. It stars Mammootty, Captain Raju and Sukumaran in pivotal roles.
A film titled The Jackal, directed by Michael Caton-Jones, was released in 1997. The film is loosely based on the plot of the novel and remake of the original film, featuring an unnamed assassin (Bruce Willis) being hired to kill the First Lady of the United States by the Russian mafia. Both Zinnemann and Forsyth lobbied to have the film's name changed to disassociate it from Forsyth's novel.
Influence on later events
The method for acquiring a false identity and UK passport detailed in the book is often referred to as the "Day of the Jackal fraud" and remained a well known security loophole in the UK until 2007. The New Zealand Member of Parliament David Garrett claimed the novel's description of identity theft inspired him to create his own fake passport as a "youthful prank". The incident further inflamed a national controversy over the law and order campaigner's criminal history.
In 1975, the Venezuelan terrorist Carlos was dubbed "The Jackal" by The Guardian after one of its correspondents reportedly spotted the novel near some of the fugitive's belongings.
A copy of the Hebrew translation of The Day of the Jackal was found in possession of Yigal Amir, the Israeli who in 1995 assassinated Yitzhak Rabin, Prime Minister of Israel.
Would-be assassin Vladimir Arutinian, who attempted to kill US President George W. Bush during his 2005 visit to the Republic of Georgia, was an obsessive reader of the novel and kept an annotated version of it during his planning for the assassination.
See also
Citroën DS
Cordite, which the assassin ingests to appear ill
The Jackal
References
Notes
References
External links
Frederick Forsyth discusses The Day of the Jackal on the BBC World Book Club
The Day of the Jackal at FactBehindFiction.com
The Way of the Jackal
1971 British novels
Books with cover art by Paul Bacon
British crime novels
British novels adapted into films
Edgar Award-winning works
Novels by Frederick Forsyth
Novels set in Paris
Novels set in the 1960s
Political thriller novels
Secret histories
Thriller novels
Hutchinson (publisher) books
Novels about secret societies
Organisation armée secrète in fiction
Cultural depictions of Charles de Gaulle
Novels set in London
Novels set in Italy
Novels set in Belgium
British political novels
1971 debut novels | [
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256485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayon | Mayon | Mayon (; , ), also known as Mount Mayon and Mayon Volcano (), is an active stratovolcano in the province of Albay in Bicol Region, on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. A popular tourist spot, it is renowned for its "perfect cone" because of its symmetric conical shape, and is regarded as very sacred in Philippine mythology.
The volcano with its surrounding landscape was declared a national park on July 20, 1938, the first in the nation. It was reclassified as a natural park and renamed the Mayon Volcano Natural Park in 2000. It is the centerpiece of the Albay Biosphere Reserve, declared by UNESCO in 2016, and is currently being nominated as a World Heritage Site.
Mayon is the most active volcano in the Philippines, and its activity is regularly monitored by the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) from their provincial headquarters on Ligñon Hill, about from the summit.
Geography
Mayon is the main landmark and highest point of the province of Albay and the whole Bicol Region in the Philippines, rising from the shores of the Albay Gulf about away. The volcano is geographically shared by the eight cities and municipalities of Legazpi, Daraga, Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Tabaco, Malilipot, and Santo Domingo (clockwise from Legazpi), which divide the cone like slices of a pie when viewing a map of their political boundaries.
Geology
Mayon is a classic stratovolcano with a small central summit crater. The cone is considered the world's most perfectly formed volcano for its symmetry.
The concave profile, a hyperbolic sine curve of the volcano is due to the balance between erosion and eruption, defined by the angle of repose of ash. The steepest upper slopes of the volcano reach an average slope gradient of 75%, while the lower foot slope is only an average of 3%. The volcanic crater is about 250 m in diameter. At least 85 lava flows have been identified, and consist mainly of 'A'ā augite-hypersthene-andesite, generally fed from the crater. Pyroclastic flows, characterized as a St. Vincent nuee' ardente, leave behind block and ash deposits, and breadcrust bombs in an ash and lapilli matrix. The farthest flow reached 8.5 km along Fidel Surtida, Santo Domingo. Mayon lahars were formed by rainstorms during eruptions, or by torrential rain afterwards. Averaging 230 m in height and 710 m in diameter, 7 cinder cones are found on the southern and southwestern lower slopes. Composed of olivine-augite basalt, these cones have an angle of repose of 34%, with Ligñon Hill as an example.
Like other volcanoes around the Pacific Ocean, Mayon is a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. It is on the southeast side of Luzon. The Bicol Arc is one of 7 oceanic trench subduction zones defining the Philippine Mobile Belt. Volcanism in the Bicol Arc is related to the westward subduction of the Philippine Plate along the Philippine Trench. The 12 active and inactive volcanoes within the arc include the Mayon Volcano, Mount Isarog, Mount Iriga, Malinao Volcano, and Mount Masaraga. In general, these are calc-alkali basalts, basaltic andesites, and andesites.
In August 2021, soils from Mayon have been found containing bacterial species with antibiotic and anti-cancer properties.
Recorded eruptions
Mayon is the most active volcano in the Philippines, erupting over 47 times in the past 500 years. Historical observations accounted its first eruption in 1616. The first eruption for which an extended account exists was the six-day event of July 20, 1766.
1814 eruption
Its most destructive recorded eruption occurred on February 1, 1814 (VEI=4). Lava flowed but less than the 1766 eruption. The volcano belched dark ash and eventually bombarded the town of Cagsawa with tephra that buried it. Trees burned, and rivers were certainly damaged. Proximate areas were also devastated by the eruption, with ash accumulating to in depth. In Cagsawa town, about 1,200 locals perished in what is considered to be the most lethal eruption in Mayon's history according to PHIVOLCS. The eruption is believed to have contributed to the accumulation of atmospheric ash together with the catastrophic 1815 eruption of other volcanoes like Indonesia's Mount Tambora, leading to the Year Without a Summer in 1816.
1881–1882 eruption
From July 6, 1881, until approximately August 1882, Mayon underwent a strong (VEI=3) eruption. Samuel Kneeland, a naturalist, professor and geologist, personally observed the volcanic activity on Christmas Day, 1881, about five months after the start of the activity:
At the date of my visit, the volcano had poured out, for five months continuously, a stream of lava on the Legaspi side from the very summit. The viscid mass bubbled quietly but grandly, and overran the border of the crater, descending several hundred feet in a glowing wave, like red-hot iron. Gradually, fading as the upper surface cooled, it changed to a thousand sparkling rills among the crevices, and, as it passed beyond the line of complete vision behind the woods near the base, the fires twinkled like stars or the scintillations of a dying conflagration. More than half of the mountain height was thus illuminated.
1897 eruption
Mayon's longest uninterrupted eruption occurred on June 23, 1897 (VEI=4), which rained fire for seven days. Lava once again flowed down to civilization. Eleven kilometers (7 miles) eastward, the village of Bacacay was buried beneath the lava. In Santo Domingo 100 people were killed by steam and falling debris or hot rocks. Other villages like San Roque, Sta. Misericordia and Santo Niño became deathtraps. Ash was carried in black clouds as far as from the catastrophic event, which killed more than 400 people.
1984 and 1993 eruptions
No casualties were recorded from the 1984 eruption after more than 73,000 people were evacuated from the danger zones as recommended by PHIVOLCS scientists. But in 1993, pyroclastic flows killed 79 people, mainly farmers, during the eruption that also forced 50,000 residents evacuated, according to the Albay provincial government.
1999 eruption
Mayon began its increasing activity in May 1999, with hazard status associated raised to Alert Level 1. On June 22, 1999, Mayon emitted an ash column that rose to approximately 10 km above the vent; the status was later raised to Alert Level 2. The emission was recorded by the seismic network of the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology as an explosion that lasted for 10 minutes. No volcanic earthquakes nor other visible signs of abnormal activity were observed before the explosion.
2000 eruptions
Mayon had experienced continuous emissions since 1999 and followed by a series of eruptions in the next two consecutive years.
On January 5, 2000, a 5-km-high ash column was produced by an explosion. Growth of summit-crater dome and intensifying eruptions later signaled evacuations.
Past emissions had led to the growth of the lava dome beginning on February 12. On February 23, series of eruptions began. PHIVOLCS then recommended evacuation even beyond the permanent danger zone. On February 24, PHIVOLCS raised its status to the highest, Alert Level 5, with at least eight towns and one city warned of possible explosions with ash and lava flows, and several thousands forced to evacuate even outside identified danger zones. The most violent eruptions were occurred from February 28 to March 1, and since then, declining activity was observed until April.
NDCC reported that the 2000 eruption displaced 14,114 families (68,426 persons) and damaged at least ₱89-million worth of property and crops.
2001 eruption
NDCC reported that another eruption in 2001 affected 11,529 families (56,853 persons) and damaged at least ₱48-million worth of property and crops.
2006 eruptions
Mayon's 48th modern-era eruption was on July 13, 2006, followed by quiet effusion of lava that started on July 14, 2006. Nearly 40,000 people were evacuated from the danger zone on the southeast flank of the volcano.
After an ash explosion of September 1, 2006, a general decline in the overall activity of Mayon was established. The decrease in key parameters such as seismicity, sulfur dioxide emission rates and ground inflation all indicated a waning condition. The slowdown in the eruptive activity was also evident from the decrease in intensity of crater glow and the diminishing volume of lava extruded from the summit. PHILVOLCS Alert Level 4 was lowered to Level 3 on September 11, 2006; to Level 2 on October 3, 2006; and to Level 1 on October 25, 2006.
2008 eruption
On August 10, 2008, a small summit explosion ejected ash above the summit, which drifted east-northeast. In the weeks prior to the eruption, a visible glow increased within the crater and increased seismicity.
2009–2010 eruptions
On July 10, 2009, PHIVOLCS raised the status from Alert Level 1 (low level unrest) to Alert Level 2 (moderate unrest) because the number of recorded low frequency volcanic earthquakes rose to the same level as those prior to the 2008 phreatic explosion.
At 5:32 a.m. on October 28, 2009, a minor ash explosion lasting for about one minute occurred in the summit crater. A brown ash column rose about above the crater and drifted northeast. In the prior 24 hours, 13 volcanic earthquakes were recorded. Steam emission was at moderate level, creeping downslope toward the southwest. PHIVOLCS maintained the Alert Status at Level 2, but later warned that with the approach of tropical cyclone international codename Mirinae, the danger of lahars and possible crater wall collapse would greatly increase and all specified precautions should be taken.
After dawn, field investigation showed ashfall had drifted southwest of the volcano. In the 24-hour period, the seismic network recorded 20 volcanic earthquakes. Alert Status was kept at Level 2.
At 8 pm on December 14, 2009, after 83 volcanic quakes in the preceding 24 hours and increased sulfur dioxide emissions, PHIVOLCS raised the Alert status to Level 3.
Early in the morning of December 15, 2009, a moderate ash explosion occurred at the summit crater and "quiet extrusion of lava" resulted in flows down to about from the summit. By evening, Albay Province authorities evacuated about 20,000 residents out of the danger zone and into local evacuation centres. About 50,000 people live within the zone.
On December 17, 2009, five ash ejections occurred, with one reaching above the summit. Sulfur dioxide emission increased to 2,758 tonnes per 24 hours, lava flows reached down to below the summit, and incandescent fragments from the lava pile continuously rolling down Bonga Gully reached a distance of 3–4 km below the summit. By midday, a total of 33,833 people from 7,103 families had been evacuated, 72 percent of the total number of people that needed to be evacuated, according to Albay Governor Joey Salceda.
On December 20, 2009, PHIVOLCS raised Mayon's status level to alert level 4 because of an increasing lava flow in the southern portion of the volcano and an increase in sulfur dioxide emission to 750 tonnes per day. Almost 460 earthquakes in the volcano were monitored. In the border of the danger zone, rumbling sounds like thunder were heard. Over 9,000 families (44,394 people) were evacuated by the Philippine government from the base of the volcano. No civilian was permitted within the 8 km danger zone, which was cordoned off by the Philippine military who actively patrolled to enforce the "no-go" rule and to ensure no damage or loss of property of those evacuated.
Alert level 4 was maintained as the volcano remained restive through December, prompting affected residents to spend Christmas and the New Year in evacuation centers. On December 25, sulfur dioxide emissions peaked at 8,993 tons per day. On December 28, PHIVOLCS director Renato Solidum commented on the status of the volcano, "You might think it is taking a break but the volcano is still swelling." On the next day December 29, a civil aviation warning for the airspace near the summit was included in the volcano bulletins. The ejected volcanic material since the start of the eruption was estimated to have been between 20 million to 23 million cubic meters of rocks and volcanic debris, compared to 50 million to 60 million cubic meters in past eruptions.
On January 2, 2010, PHIVOLCS lowered the alert level of the volcano from level 4 to level 3, citing decreasing activity observed over the prior four days. The state agency noted the absence of ash ejections and relative weakness of steam emissions and the gradual decrease in sulfur dioxide emissions from a maximum of 8,993 tonnes per day to 2,621 tonnes per day. 7,218 families within the 7–8 km danger zones returned to their homes, while 2,728 families residing in the 4–6 km danger zone remained in the evacuation centers pending a decision to further lower the alert level.
On January 13, 2010, PHIVOLCS reduced the Alert Level from 3 to 2 due to a further reduction in the likelihood of hazardous eruption.
Government response
Albay governor Joey Salceda declared the disaster zone an 'open city' area to encourage aid from external groups. Potential donors of relief goods were not required to secure clearance from the Provincial Disaster Coordinating Council, and were coordinated directly with support groups at the local government level.
The restiveness of the volcano also stimulated the tourism industry of the province. Up to 2,400 tourists per day arrived in the area in the two weeks after the volcano started erupting on December 14, filling local hotels, compared to a more modest average of 200 in the days prior. However it was reported that some tourists lured by local "guides" ignored government warnings not to venture into the danger zone. "It's a big problem. I think the first violation of the zero casualty (record) will be a dead tourist," said Salceda.
Speaking about thrill-seekers finding their way into the area, Salceda warned, "At the moment of the eruption, the local guides will have better chance of getting out. The helpless tourist will be left behind."
International response
Following the declaration of alert level 3 for the volcano, the United States issued an advisory cautioning its nationals from traveling to Mayon. Canada and the United Kingdom also posted advisories discouraging their nationals from visiting the volcano.
The United States government committed $100,000 in financial aid for the evacuees of Mayon. In cooperation with the Philippine government the assistance was delivered through the Philippine National Red Cross and other NGOs by USAID.
The Albay provincial government ordered the local military to add more checkpoints, place roadblocks and arrest tourists caught traveling inside the danger zone.
Power and water supply were cut off within the danger zone to further discourage residents from returning. The Commission on Human Rights allowed the use of emergency measures and gave the authorities clearance to forcibly evacuate residents who refused to leave.
When the alert level around the volcano was lowered from alert level 4 to alert level 3 on January 2, 2010, the Albay provincial government ordered a decampment of some 47,000 displaced residents from the evacuation centers. Power and water supply in the danger zones were restored. Military vehicles were used to transport the evacuees back to their homes, while food supplies and temporary employment through the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) were provided to the heads of each family.
As of January 3, 2010, the National Disaster Coordinating Council reported the overall cost of humanitarian aid and other assistance provided by the government and non-government organizations (NGOs) has reached over 61 million pesos since the start of the eruption.
The United Nations World Food Programme (UN-WFP) delivered 20 tons of high energy biscuits to the evacuees to complement supplies provided by the DSWD, with more allocated from emergency food stocks intended for relief from the effects of the 2009 Pacific typhoon season. When the alert level was downgraded to level 3 on January 2, 2010, UN-WFP provided three days worth of food for evacuees returning to their homes who will continue to receive supplies already set aside for them.
2013 phreatic eruption
On May 7, 2013, at 8 a.m. (PST), the volcano produced a surprise phreatic eruption lasting 73 seconds. Ash, steam and rock were produced during this eruption. Ash clouds reached 500 meters above the volcano's summit and drifted west southwest. The event killed five climbers, of whom three were German, one was a Spaniard living in Germany, and one was a Filipino tour guide. Seven others were reported injured. The bodies of the hikers were soon located by the authorities. However, due to rugged and slippery terrain, the hikers' remains were slowly transferred from Camp 2 to Camp 1, the site of the rescue operations at the foot of the volcano. According to Dr. Butch Rivera of Bicol Regional Training and Teaching Hospital, the hikers died due to trauma in their bodies, and suffocation. Authorities were also able to rescue a Thai national who was unable to walk due to fatigue and had suffered a broken arm and burns on the neck and back. Despite the eruption, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology stated that the alert level would remain at 0. No volcanic earthquake activity was detected in the 24 hours prior to the eruption as no indication of further intensification of volcanic activity was observed, and no evacuation was being planned.
International response
The government of the United Kingdom advised its nationals to follow the advisories given by the local authorities, and respect the 6 km permanent danger zone. The advisory was given a day after the May 7, 2013 phreatic explosion.
2014 renewed activity
On August 12, 2014, a new 30m-50m high lava dome appeared in the summit crater. This event was preceded by inflations of the volcano (measured by precise leveling, tilt data, and GPS), and increases in sulfur dioxide gas emissions. On September 14, 2014, rockfall events at the southeastern rim of the crater and heightened seismic activity caused PHIVOLCS to increase the alert level for Mayon from 2 to 3, which indicates relatively high unrest with magma at the crater, and that hazardous eruption is possible within weeks.
The rockfalls and visible incandescence of the crater from molten lava and hot volcanic gas both indicated a possible incipient breaching of the growing summit lava dome. On September 15, 2014, NASA's Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) detected thermal anomalies near Mayon's summit, consistent with magma at the surface. On September 16, 2014, provincial governor Joey Salceda said that the government would begin to "fast-track the preparation to evacuate 12,000 families in the 6–8 km extended danger zone", and soldiers would enforce the no-go areas.
On September 18, 2014, PHIVOLCS reported 142 VT earthquake events and 251 rockfall events. White steam plumes drifted to the south-southwest and rain clouds covered the summit. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) emission was measured at a 757 tonnes after a peak of 2,360 tonnes on September 6. Deformation (precise leveling and tiltmeters) during the 3rd week of August 2014 recorded edifice inflation.
2018 activity
On January 13, 2018, at 4:21 pm (PST), a phreatic eruption occurred that propelled a grayish steam and ash plume approximately 2500 meters high that drifted to the southwest side of the volcano. The activity lasted approximately 1 hour and 47 minutes and traces of ash fell in Barangay Anoling, Daraga, Barangays Sua, Quirangay, Tumpa, Ilawod and Salugan of Camalig and in Barangays Tandarora, Maninila, and Travesia in Guinobatan. Sulfuric odor was noted by residents of Camalig town proper. Rumbling sounds were also heard by residents of Brgy. Anoling, Daraga and rockfall events were intermittently recorded. Faint crater glow was first observed at 10:16 pm. The event prompted PHIVOLCS-DOST to raise the Alert Level of Mayon Volcano from Alert Level 1 (abnormal) to Alert Level 2- (increasing unrest for the people's safety). About 40,000 residents were displaced in the resulting evacuation.
On January 14, 2018, Mayon Volcano's alert status was upgraded to Alert Level 3 (increased tendency towards a hazardous eruption) after 3 phreatic eruptions and 158 rockfall events were recorded. The summit crater also exhibited a bright glow signifying the growth of a new lava dome and the start of lava flows towards its slopes.
On January 16, 2018, the province of Albay declared a state of calamity as lava flows reached the limits of the 6-kilometer evacuation zone.
On January 22, 2018, Alert Level 4 was raised after Mayon spewed a 3-kilometer tall ash column at around 12:45 pm. Classes in all levels in private and public schools were suspended in the whole province of Albay. By evening, lava fountains were spewed from the crater with pyroclastic flows and ash plumes. Lava bombs and rockfalls could also be observed and rumbling sounds from the eruptions could be heard. The eruption type was classified as a Strombolian eruption.
On January 23, 2018, Mayon spewed 300 to 500-meter lava fountains and ash plumes with a 4 to 5-hour interval. Lava bombs and rockfalls could also be observed and sounds from the volcano could be heard. Classes in all levels, both public and private were still suspended, work in some places were suspended as well. The danger zone was expanded up to 9 kilometers despite remaining at Alert Level 4 and residents from the expanded danger zone were evacuated.
On January 24, 2018, column of ashes and lava fountains were spewed again with an interval of 4 to 5 hours. Fire bombs and rockfalls could also be observed and sounds from the eruptions could be heard. Classes remained suspended in some places in Albay.
On January 25, 2018, column of ashes and lava fountains were spewed again. Fire bombs and rockfalls could also be observed and sounds from the eruptions could be heard. The eruptions had an interval of 3 to 5 hours. Classes still remained suspended in some places in Albay.
Alert Level 4 was maintained at the volcano for the rest of January and all throughout the month of February as it remained restive. On March 6, 2018, after observing a decline in volcanic activity, PHIVOLCS-DOST downgraded the alert level back to Alert Level 3. On March 29, 2018, after observing a further decline in activity, PHIVOLCS-DOST lowered the alert level back to Alert Level 2 signifying the end of Mayon's eruptive activity and the volcano's decline to a moderate level of unrest.
On December 26, 2018, Mayon caused two phreatic explosions but maintains Alert Level 2.
2020 crater glow
On the evening of February 4, 2020, the Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) reported to the public that the crater of Mayon Volcano started to glow up which they say is magma which was still present slightly underneath the surface of the volcano. Even though this phenomenon alerted the officials and the public, the Mayon Volcano remained at an Alert Level 2 out of 5. The Alert Level 2 was lowered to Alert Level 1 on July 17, 2020. And on July 30 2021, PHIVOLCS-DOST lifted the alert level status of volcano.
Deadly lahars
On November 30, 2006, strong rainfall which accompanied Typhoon Durian produced lahars from the volcanic ash and boulders of the last eruption killing at least 1,266 people. The precise figure may never be known since many people were buried under the mudslides. A large portion of the village of Padang (an outer suburb of Legazpi City) was covered in mud up to the houses' roofs. Students from Aquinas University (now University of Santo Tomas-Legazpi) in Barangay Rawis, also in Legazpi, were among those killed as mudslides engulfed their dormitory. Central Legazpi escaped the mudslide but suffered from severe flooding and power cuts.
Parts of the town of Daraga were also devastated, including the Cagsawa area, where the ruins from the eruption of 1814 were partially buried once again. Large areas of Guinobatan, Albay were destroyed, particularly Barangay Maipon.
A similar post-eruption lahar occurred in October 1766, months after the July eruption of that year. The heavy rainfall also accompanying a violent typhoon carried down disintegrated fragmental ejecta, burying plantations and whole villages. In 1825, the event was repeated in Cagsawa killing 1,500 people.
Monitoring
Three telemetric units are installed on Mayon's slopes, which send information to the seven seismometers in different locations around the volcano. These instruments relay data to the Ligñon Hill observatory and the PHIVOLCS central headquarters on the University of the Philippines Diliman campus.
PHIVOLCS also deploys electronic distance meters (EDMs), precise leveling benchmarks, and portable fly spectrometers to monitor the volcano's daily activity.
Mythology
It is said that the volcano grew from the burial grounds of lovers Magayon and Panganoron. Thus, the ancient Bicolanos named it after the legendary princess-heroine Daragang Magayon (). After some time, the volcano was chosen as the abode of the supreme god of the Bicolano people, Gugurang, who also chose Mayon as the repository of the sacred fire of Ibalon. Numerous festivals and rituals are associated with the volcano and its landscape.
See also
Cagsawa Ruins
List of volcanoes in the Philippines
List of active volcanoes in the Philippines
List of potentially active volcanoes in the Philippines
List of inactive volcanoes in the Philippines
List of volcanic eruptions by death toll
List of protected areas of the Philippines
List of Southeast Asian mountains
List of mountains in the Philippines
List of Ultras of the Philippines
Geography of the Philippines
References
External links
Climbing Mayon Volcano
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) Mayon Volcano Page
Mayon Volcano Observatory
Majestic Mt. Mayon – Cagsawa Ruin Park – images by Jenny Exconde.
NASA Earth Observatory page
Smithsonian Institution page on Mayon
Mocha Uson apologizes for Mayon location mistake
19th-century volcanic events
2018 natural disasters
20th-century volcanic events
21st-century volcanic events
Active volcanoes of the Philippines
Landforms of Albay
Mountains of the Philippines
Stratovolcanoes of the Philippines
Subduction volcanoes
Quadripoints and higher
VEI-4 volcanoes
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256487 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price%20war | Price war | Price war is "commercial competition characterized by the repeated cutting of prices below those of competitors". One competitor will lower its price, then others will lower their prices to match. If one of them reduces their price again, a new round of reductions starts. In the short term, price wars are good for buyers, who can take advantage of lower prices. Often they are not good for the companies involved because the lower prices reduce profit margins and can threaten their survival.
In the medium to long term, price wars can be good for the dominant firms in the industry. Typically, the smaller, more marginal firms cannot compete and must close. The remaining firms absorb the market share of those that have closed. The real losers, then, are the marginal firms and their investors. In the long term, the consumer may lose too. With fewer firms in the industry, prices tend to increase, sometimes higher than before the price war started.
Causes
The main reasons that price wars occur are:
Product differentiation: Some products are, or at least are seen as, commodities. Because there is little to choose between brands, price is the main competing factor.
Penetration pricing: If a merchant is trying to enter an established market, it may offer lower prices than existing brands.
Oligopoly: If the industry structure is oligopolistic (that is, has few major competitors), the players will closely monitor each other's prices and be prepared to respond to any price cuts.
Process optimization: merchants may incline to lower prices rather than shut down or reduce output if they wish to maintain the economy of scale. Similarly, new processes may make it cheaper to make the same product.
Bankruptcy: Companies near bankruptcy may be forced to reduce their prices to increase sales volume and thereby provide enough liquidity to survive.
Predatory pricing: A merchant with a healthy bank balance may deliberately price new or existing products in an attempt to topple existing merchants in that market.
Competitors: A competitor might target a product and attempt to gain market share by selling its alternative at a lower price. Some argue that it is better to introduce a new rival brand instead of trying to match the prices of those already in the market.
Reactions to price challenges
The first reaction to a price reduction should always be to consider carefully. Has the competitor decided upon a long-term price reduction? Is this just a short-term promotion? If it is the latter, then the reaction should be that relating to short-term promotional activity, and the optimum response is often simply to ignore the challenge. Too often, price wars have been started because simple promotional activities have been misunderstood as major strategic changes.
But if it seems that it is a long-term move then there are many possible reactions:
Reduce price: The most obvious, and most popular, reaction is to match the competitor's move. This maintains the status quo (but reduces profits pro rata). If this route is to be chosen it is as well to make the move rapidly and obviously - not least to send signals to the competitor of the intention to fight.
Maintain price: Another reaction is to hope that the competitor has made a mistake, but if the competitor's action does make inroads into a merchant's share, this can soon mean customers lose confidence and a subsequent a loss of sales.
Split the market: Branch one product into two, selling one as a premium and another as a basic. This effective tactic was notably used by Heublein, the former owner of the Smirnoff brand of vodka.
React with other measures - Reducing price is not the only weapon. Other tactics can be used to great effect: improved quality, increased promotion (perhaps to improve the idea of quality).
Avoiding price wars
Avoidance is by far the best policy, but it is advice which may not always be taken if the benefits seem attractive to others (which they may also be to competitors).
Price stickiness
In oligopoly markets prices can become 'sticky' because if the price rises, competitors will not follow the rise. So the merchant will lose its market share to its competitors on lower prices. But if the price falls, other players will merchants will follow suit if they can. At some point, merchants find that they can not gain profit if they cut the price further— so the sticky price remains.
Price stickiness is extremely common among large supermarket chains and prices, especially for commodities, tend not to vary much between them. Many of the supermarkets monitor price changes in other supermarket chains and vary their prices accordingly until they reach the point where any further decrease in their price will affect profits.
See also
Bidding
Marketing
Monopoly
Monopolistic competition
Oligopoly
Penetration pricing
Pricing
References
Pricing
Business rivalries | [
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256488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond%20of%20Toulouse | Raymond of Toulouse | Raymond of Toulouse may refer to:
Raymond I, Count of Toulouse (died 865), Count of Limoges, Rouergue, Quercy, Toulouse and Albi
Raymond II, Count of Toulouse (died 924), Count of Toulouse, Nîmes, and Albi
Raymond III, Count of Toulouse (died 978), Count of Toulouse, Nîmes, and Albi
Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse, aka Raymond of St Gilles (c. 1041 or 1042 – 1105), Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne, Margrave of Provence and a leader of the First Crusade
Raymond of Toulouse (saint) (died 1118), Saint, native of Toulouse
Raymond V, Count of Toulouse (1134–1194), count of Toulouse
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (1156-1222), count of Toulouse and marquis of Provence
Raymond VII, Count of Toulouse (1197-1249), Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Provence | [
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256503 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Apo | Mount Apo | Mount Apo, also known locally as Apo Sandawa, is a large solfataric, dormant stratovolcano on the island of Mindanao, Philippines. With an elevation of above sea level, it is the highest-mountain in the Philippine Archipelago and 24th-highest peak of an island on Earth. Located between Davao City and Davao del Sur in the Davao Region, and Cotabato in Soccsksargen, Mount Apo is the most-prominent mountain in the Philippines. The peak overlooks from Davao City to the northeast, Digos to the southeast, and Kidapawan to the west. It is a protected area and a Natural Park of the Philippines.
Geology
Mount Apo is a flat-topped, (above sea level) high stratovolcano with three peaks. It is the highest peak of the Philippines. The southwest peak has the highest elevation and is topped by a wide crater that contains a small lake.
The volcanic history of Mount Apo is poorly known but eruptions have produced andesitic-to-dacitic lava. A line of solfataras extend from the southeast flank at an elevation of to the summit. Mount Apo is not known to have had historical eruptions.
Etymology and indigenous peoples
The name of Mt. Apo comes from Apo, a title of respect meaning "revered elder" in various languages of the surrounding Lumad tribes. It is the shortened form of the original Manobo and Kalagan name Apo Sandawa, the name of the spirit of the mountain. Apo Sandawa is also regarded as an ancestor spirit by the various Manobo and Kalagan tribes living in the foothills, including the Obo, Manobo Bagobo, Manobo Apao, Tagabawa, Matigsalug, Ata, Arumanen, Tinananen, Kulamanen, Tagakaulo and Kagan peoples. The mountain itself is considered sacred grounds. Various rituals to Apo Sandawa are conducted by the supreme waylan (shaman) known as the diwata, who also serves as the medium for Apo Sandawa and the ancestor spirits of the Manobo and Kalagan tribes.
Conservation
Mount Apo Natural Park
On May 9, 1936, Mount Apo was declared a National Park with Proclamation No. 59 by President Manuel L. Quezon followed by Proclamation No. 35 of May 8, 1966, then Proclamation No. 882 of September 24, 1996. On February 3, 2004, the approval of Republic Act No. 9237 established Mount Apo as a protected area under the category of Natural Park with an area of ; with two peripheral areas of and as buffer zones, provided for its management and for other purposes.
UNESCO World Heritage list
In 1987, the National Geographic Society based in Washington, DC in the United States, published a book entitled, "Our World's Heritage", where Mount Apo was noted as a 'site of World Heritage caliber'. The cover of the book also featured Mount Apo's iconic Philippine eagle, along with three other heritage sites which have already been designated as "UNESCO World Heritage Sites".
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) submitted Mount Apo on December 12, 2009, for inclusion in the UNESCO world heritage list. The mountain is considered by DENR as the center of endemism in Mindanao. It has one of the highest land-based biological diversity in terms of flora and fauna per unit area. It has three distinct forest formations, from lowland tropical rainforest, to mid-mountain forests, and finally to high mountain forests.
A portion of the eastern slopes are also within the scope of the UNESCO Hydrology Environment Life and Policy (HELP) Network. The Davao HELP Network is focused on building collaboration among watershed stakeholders.
In March 2015, it was taken out from the UNESCO List of Tentative Sites due to the dramatic changes (such as logging, intrusion of companies and urban and agricultural landscape, exploitation, and poaching, among others) it experienced which does not constitute the UNESCO documents that describes the park. Better conservation and a change in the content of documents was recommended by UNESCO.
Climate
The climate at the summit of Mount Apo is alpine (Köppen ETH) as its mean temperature does not exceed in any month. It falls under the Type IV climate under the modified corona's classification wherein rainfall is relatively distributed throughout the year. Mean monthly temperature ranges from a low during January to during April. Monthly relative humidity ranges from 78% during March and April and 82% during June and July. Minima reach in January and February.
In late March–April 2016, due to the extreme effects of El Niño caused by climate change and global warming, massive patches of forest fires and bushfires appeared on the slopes of the mountain, causing hikers on the mountain to halt their ascent. Tourism in the region was threatened due to a massive haze engulfing the slopes of the mountain. The mountain later recovered after the government and local stakeholders initiated a holistic recovery plan for the entire natural park.
Flora and fauna
The mountain is home to over 272 bird species, 111 of which are endemic to the area. It is also home to one of the world's largest eagles, the critically endangered Philippine eagle, which is the country's national bird.
Bodies of water
Lakes
There are four major lakes in Mt. Apo. Popular of these are Lake Agco, used to be called "The Blue Lake" and Lake Venado, a well-known mountaineers camping site and a stopover towards the peak. Lake Macadac and Lake Jordan are found in the summit grassland.
Rivers
Mt. Apo has 19 major rivers and 21 creeks draining its 8 major watersheds (PASAlist.1992). Out of the 19 major rivers, only two has studies as reported by SEA-BMB consultants for the Mt. Apo Geothermal Project Environmental Impact Assessment 1991. According to the report, there are two river ecosystems draining the geothermal site namely: (1) Marbel-Matingao river ecosystem- characterized by narrower river channels at highly elevated areas, much faster water flow, clearer water and rock boulder-rich water beds. The aquatic organisms in the area have expectedly lower biological productivity and species diversity. The report also concluded that this river ecosystem provides much less economic and commercial value for its biological production. The study identified 12 species of fish caught in the area; (2) Kabacan River- Pulangi River ecosystem- characterized by a much wider channels at flat areas, relatively much slower water flow, highly turbid waters and sandy mud river beds.
Waterfalls
The Tudaya Falls Davao del Sur, in Mindanao in the Philippines. At , it is the tallest waterfall in Mt. Apo Natural Park. This waterfall flows into the Sibulan River, which flows to the Davao Gulf.
Biological features
The grasslands are characterized by the dominance of Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) and Saccharum spontaneum. Other grasses and ferns also thrive, especially along banks of creeks, streams, and rivers and on steep slopes.
Geothermal energy
The Mt. Apo 1 and Mt. Apo 2 geothermal plants, each possess a rated capacity of 54.24 megawatts.
Owned and operated by Energy Development Corporation (EDC) the power plants were commissioned in February 1997 (Mt. Apo 1) and June 1999 (Mt. Apo 2) respectively, under a build-operate owner contract arrangement. Located in Barangay Ilomavis, Kidapawan City, North Cotabato is the Mindanao Geothermal Production Field with a power output of 108.48 MW, currently the only power plant of its kind in Mindanao.
The Philippine National Oil Company geothermal plant supplies electricity to Kidapawan and its neighboring provinces, its completion boosted the city's economy.
Watershed and hydroelectric plants
The Tudaya Hydropower Plant
The Tudaya Hydropower Plant, located near the foot of Mount Apo on the Davao side (Sta. Cruz, Davao del Sur), is composed of two run-of-river type plants that will contribute to the energy needs of Mindanao by early 2014.
The Sibulan Hydroelectric Power Plant
The Sibulan Hydroelectric Power Plants have been generating 42.5 MW of clean and renewable energy for Davao since 2010. It is also composed of two run-of the river mini hydro power plants.
Sibulan A was completed and commissioned on December 26, 2010. Local residents who are mainly engaged in abaca and fruit farming have since benefited from the use of of farm-to-market roads which were developed as access to the plants.
Hiking activity
At , Mount Apo is the highest mountain (peak) and volcano in the Philippines. It is one of the country's most popular hiking/climbing destinations.
The first two attempts to reach Mt. Apo's summit ended in failure: that of Jose Oyanguren (1852) and Señor Real (1870). The first recorded successful expedition was led by Don Joaquin Rajal in October 10, 1880. Prior to the climb, Rajal had to secure the permission of the Bagobo chieftain, Datu Manig. It is said that the Datu demanded that human sacrifice be made to please the god Mandarangan. But the datu agreed to waive this demand, and the climb commenced on October 6, 1880, succeeding five days later. Since then, numerous expeditions followed. These and more are described in colorful narrations by Fr. Miguel Bernad, S.J.
Several trails lead to the summit, coming from North Cotabato and Davao provinces. Arguably the easiest route to the Natural Park is through Kidapawan with an average hike taking 3–4 days roundtrip. In the classification system used by local popular mountaineering website PinoyMountaineer.com, the difficulty of the hike is 7 out of 9. Various sights along the trail include Lake Venado, the highest lake in the Philippines, the solfataras and the old crater near its summit.
Hydrological features
Mount Apo is a headwaters catchment area of several major river systems like Marbel River, Matingaw River, connecting with the Kabacan River, part of the Pulangi River, a major tributary of the Mindanao River, the Tudaya Falls, Sibulan River, and Digos River, which flows into Davao Gulf.
See also
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
List of active volcanoes in the Philippines
List of inactive volcanoes in the Philippines
List of potentially active volcanoes in the Philippines
List of geothermal power plants in the Philippines
List of protected areas of the Philippines
List of Southeast Asian mountains
ASEAN Heritage Parks
References
External links
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS) Mount Apo Page
PinoyMountaineer: Mt. Apo Kidapawan-Magpet Trail
PinoyMountaineer: Mt. Apo Kapatagan-Kidapawan Traverse Trail
Mount Apo on Summitpost
UNESCO Tentative World Heritage List
Climbing Mount APO, Our Turn
Mt. APO, the End of an Expedition
Mt. Apo: Hiking Through the Boulders and Sulfur Vents
Mountains of the Philippines
Volcanoes of Mindanao
Landforms of Cotabato
Landforms of Davao del Sur
Two-thousanders of Asia
Volcanic crater lakes
Potentially active volcanoes of the Philippines
Stratovolcanoes of the Philippines
Subduction volcanoes
ASEAN heritage parks
Natural parks of the Philippines
Tourist attractions in Cotabato
Tourist attractions in Davao del Sur | [
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256504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n%20Ramos | Ramón Ramos | Ramón Luis Ramos Manso (born November 20, 1967) is a Puerto Rican former basketball player. He began his career in the early 1980s with Indios de Canóvanas, then played college basketball at Seton Hall University. Ramos was signed as an undrafted free agent by the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association in 1989, but would never play an NBA game after suffering severe injuries in a car crash.
Career in Puerto Rico
Born in the Puerto Rican municipality of Canóvanas, Ramos attended Catholic all-boys school Colegio San José, and played basketball and baseball. He began his basketball career in 1983 as a reserve center on now-defunct hometown team Indios de Canóvanas. He helped the Indios win back to back BSN league titles in 1983 and 1984. In 1987, Ramos played on the national under-21 team that won the gold medal at the Centrobasket Under 21 competition after defeating Cuba 94–78 in Caguas. He played for Puerto Rico at the 1988 Summer Olympics.
College and NBA career
In 1985, Ramos relocated to the United States to attend Seton Hall University and played for the Pirates in the Big East Conference for all four years. He was selected to the All-Big East First Team and awarded the Big East's Scholar athlete during the 1988–89 season and was named to the Big East All-Tournament First Team during the 1988 and 1989 NCAA tournaments. In his senior year, he averaged 11.9 points and 7.6 rebounds per game as Seton Hall reached their first and only Final Four in 1989, and progressed to the championship game. Ramos finished with nine points and five rebounds as the Pirates lost to the Michigan Wolverines 80–79 in overtime.
Ramos went undrafted in the 1989 NBA draft, and signed as a free agent during the 1989–90 preseason with the Portland Trail Blazers and was initially placed on the injured list due to tendinitis in his knee. He was promoted to the active roster shortly after being cleared to resume playing on December 5, filling the roster spot vacated by the waived Robert Reid. However, Ramos would never play in an NBA game, not leaving the bench for the next five games, and then having his career cut short eleven days later in a car crash.
Accident
On December 16, 1989, after a home game against the Golden State Warriors, Ramos lost control of the car he was driving on Portland's Interstate 5 after hitting a patch of ice, causing him to cross the center median and flip several times. Ramos, who was not wearing a seatbelt and was thrown from the vehicle, suffered brain damage and remained in a coma for three months. Though alcohol was not a factor, Ramos had been speeding prior to the crash. The Blazers kept his locker space intact, complete with his game uniform, for the remainder of the 1989–90 season and several seasons to follow. He was paralyzed from the waist down for a year after the crash, while his speech was severely affected.
During the summer of 1991, more than 20,000 fans turned out to help the Trail Blazers raise $130,000 for a trust fund in Ramos' name at Slam ‘N Jam, an outdoor basketball and music event in what is now Providence Park. Players from throughout the NBA came to play in the benefit game. Ramos and his parents were special guests and drew a long, standing ovation when they were introduced.
Ramos has difficulty walking and doing everyday things, and he requires constant supervision by his parents. His story has been shown several times on Puerto Rican and American television.
Ramos was inducted into the Seton Hall University Athletics Hall of Fame in February 2006. This marked Ramos'
first return to New Jersey since his graduation.
See also
List of Puerto Ricans
References
1967 births
Living people
Baloncesto Superior Nacional players
Basketball players at the 1987 Pan American Games
Basketball players at the 1988 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 1989 NCAA Division I Men's Final Four
Basketball players from New Jersey
Centers (basketball)
Colegio San José alumni
Olympic basketball players of Puerto Rico
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Puerto Rico
Pan American Games medalists in basketball
People from Canóvanas, Puerto Rico
Portland Trail Blazers
Power forwards (basketball)
Puerto Rican men's basketball players
Puerto Rico men's national basketball team players
Seton Hall Pirates men's basketball players
Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games | [
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256508 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Michel%20Atlan | Jean-Michel Atlan | Jean-Michel Atlan (January 23, 1913 – February 12, 1960) was a French artist.
Biography
Of Algerian Jewish descent, Atlan was born in Constantine, French Algeria, and moved to Paris in 1930. He studied philosophy at the Sorbonne. He started as a self-taught painter in 1941. He was arrested for being Jewish and for his political activism in 1942. He pleaded insanity and was confined to the Sainte Anne asylum. He published a slim volume of poetry in 1944 and had his first exhibition at the Gallerie Arc en Ciel. In 1946 he met Asger Jorn and got involved with the CoBrA art group. His studio became a meeting place for the group in Paris.
In 1955 he exhibited in the Gallerie Carpenter. Two of the works he is known for include Le Kahena, and Composition.
He died in Paris and is buried in the Cimetière du Montparnasse.
Notes
External links
Biography, pictures at Galerie Birch famous for COBRA
Jean-Michel Atlan
People from Constantine, Algeria
Modern painters
1913 births
1960 deaths
University of Paris alumni
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
20th-century French painters
20th-century French male artists
French male painters
Abstract painters
French watercolourists
Migrants from French Algeria to France
French abstract artists | [
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256510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail%20Qemali | Ismail Qemali | Ismail Qemali (; 16 January 184426 January 1919) was an Albanian diplomat, politician, rilindas, statesman and the Founding Father of modern Albania. The principal author of the Declaration of Independence, he subsequently served as the first Prime and Foreign Minister of Albania during the period from 1912 to 1914.
Born and raised in Vlorë into a wealthy Tosk family, Qemali developed an early interest in languages and mastered French, Greek, Italian and Ottoman Turkish in Ioannina and later studied law in Istanbul. He travelled across Europe, particularly Belgium, France, England and Italy, and returned to Albania after the Young Turk Revolution.
Biography
Life
Ismail Qemali was born on 16 January 1844 into a distinguished and noble Albanian family in the city of Vlorë, then part of the Ottoman Empire.
Well known members of his family include Grand Vizier Mehmed Ferid Pasha and politician Syrja Vlora. He completed his primary education at his hometown. Later he attended the Greek high school Zosimea in Janina and graduated from Ottoman law school in Istanbul. Qemali married a Greek woman and sent his children to receive an education in Greece.
Death
During World War I, Ismail Qemali lived in exile in Paris, where, though short of funds, he maintained a wide range of contacts and collaborated with the correspondent of the continental edition of the Daily Mail, Somerville Story, to write his memoirs. His autobiography, published after his death, is the only memoir of a late Ottoman statesman to be written in English and is a unique record of a liberal, multicultural approach to the problems of the dying Empire. In 1918, Ismail Qemali travelled to Italy to promote support for his movement in Albania, but was prevented by the Italian government from leaving Italy and remained as its involuntary guest at a hotel in Perugia, much to his irritation. He died of an apparent heart attack at dinner there one evening. After his death, his body was brought to Vlorë and buried in the local Tekke (Dervish convent) of the Bektashi Order.
Career
Qemali embarked on a career as an Ottoman civil servant reaching high government positions in European and Asian parts of the empire after he moved to Istanbul in May 1860. He identified with the liberal reform wing of Midhat Pasha, the author of the Ottoman constitution (1876) with whom Qemali was a close collaborator, and he became governor of several towns in the Balkans. During these years he took part in efforts for the standardization of the Albanian alphabet supporting the use of Latin characters for writing Albanian and the establishment of an Albanian cultural association.
By 1877, Ismail seemed to be on the brink of important functions in the Ottoman administration, but when Sultan Abdulhamid II dismissed Midhat as prime minister, Ismail Qemali was sent into exile in western Anatolia, though the Sultan later recalled him and made him governor of Beirut. Qemali in 1892 presented the sultan with a plan for a Balkan Confederation. It involved an entente between Balkan states and the empire eventually bound by mutual defense and economic development of resources agreements within a unified Great Eastern state with Ottoman Empire as its centre and return of old borders. In this framework, Albania like Macedonia was not treated as a separate state but as part of Ottoman state. In time his liberal policy recommendations caused him to fall out of favour with the Sultan again. Qemali was aware that the empire came close to intervention from the Great Powers due to the Armenian crisis of 1895. Abdulhamid II awarded Qemali the position of governor (vali) of Tripoli, however he viewed the high post as exile.
Exile
In May 1900 Ismail Qemali boarded the British ambassador's yacht, claimed asylum and conveyed out of the empire where for the next eight years he lived in exile. Qemali left for Athens and issued proclamations explaining his abandonment of service to the empire while Ottoman authorities were upset with his flight. His interest toward the Albanian question was limited until these events and Qemali's participation in the Albanian national movement was seen as an asset among Albanian circles who would bring prestige and influence Muslim Albanians to support the cause. He also worked to promote constitutional rule in the Ottoman Empire. In Paris he met Faik Konitza and the two leaders worked together for a short time on Albanian issues through newspaper publications where Qemali called for Albanian unity, economic development, progress and to warn of future dangers of subjugation by Balkan states. The pair fell out as Qemali found Konitza difficult to work with while Konitza found his focus of being a politician overwhelming and disapproved of his pro-Greek policy. Qemali went on to found the newspaper Selamet (Salvation) published in Ottoman Turkish, Albanian and Greek which called for cooperation between Albanians and Greeks, due to both peoples having the same geopolitical interests. Some Albanian activists involved in the national movement considered those views as suspicious and an instrument of Greek policy causing his popularity to wane among Albanians.
At first Qemali made overtures to Austria-Hungary as the great power to assist Albanians in developing a more unfified national opinion about their futire, founding of more laik Albanian schools and cultivating their language and attaining autonomy. Later, he became close with Italo-Albanians (Arbëreshë), shifted his leanings toward Italy and supported Italian policy for Albania to counter Austro-Hungarian territorial ambitions in the Balkans. The Ottoman government initiated a crackdown of members and sympathisers of the Young Turk movement (CUP) with Qemali's son Mahmud Bey, a Council of State official being dismissed. In Paris, Qemali participated in the Congress of Ottoman Opposition (1902) organised by Prince Sabahaddin and backed his faction calling for reforms, minority rights, revolution and European intervention in the empire. The 1902 Congress resulted in no organisations being established in the Balkans and an unknown individual impersonating Qemali travelled to various cities in Bulgaria and succeeded in duping many Muslims. The aftermath of the 1902 Congress did result in the formation of the new central committee with attempts for the creation of a "permanent committee", however Qemali and the Ottoman princes Sabahaddin and Lutfullah failed to get support from the Armenians. Later at a gathering of the permanent members of the new committee at the princes' house Qemali was installed as chairman. Control of the official CUP newspaper Osmanli was given by the old members of the central committee to Prince Sabahaddin and Qemali of the new central committee.
The new committee attempted to get Armenian endorsement through niceties about a lack of ethnic differences while Armenian organisations responded favorably toward figures like Qemali. Due to Qemali's prominent role Albanians were targeted by the new committee through articles published in the newspaper Osmanli warning of partition by Balkan and Western countries of Albanian inhabited lands within the empire. These publications were distributed secretly in Albania through known associates such as Xhemil Vlora (Avlonyalı Cemil) who worked for Qemali. Qemali supported the leadership of the Albanian movement such as preparing appeals for Jup Kastrati or creating in Paris an Albanian Council. Journals supported by Qemali promoted Albanian autonomy, however the new committee failed to win support among Albanians to their side. Qemali along with the Ottoman princes compared themselves to the statesmen of the Tanzimat reform era. During this time Qemali's positions swung between overthrow of the sultan and increasingly backing the Albanian national movement. He corresponded over Albania's future with the Prince of Albanian origins, Albert Ghica who had designs on becoming an Albanian monarch and with Preng Doçi about the involvement of Qemali in an administrative role within a future autonomous Albania. Good relations were maintained with Ghica, while Dervish Hima an Albanian politically involved with the Romanian prince was viewed by Ottoman authorities as a pawn of Qemali.
Plot against the sultan
Between 1902 and 1903 a coup de detat plot to overthrow Abdulhamid II was devised by the CUP. Involved were Colonel Shevket Bey and Rexhep Pasha Mati (Recep Pasha) left in charge of organising the military aspects of the plan along with Qemali and Prince Sabaheddin given the task of getting diplomatic and financial support and to buy two ships for the venture. Qemali's task was the most difficult aspect of the plot, he kept a unit in Paris, commenced political activities as a high ranking politician in exile and made many visits to London which annoyed the Ottoman government as they were unable to work out his real aims.
Ottoman authorities paid close attention and in some cases court martialed people they thought were associated with Qemali in attempts that were unsuccessful to find out his intentions. In Paris Qemali established close contacts and good relations with journalists such as Stéphane Lauzanne and William Morton Fullerton. During July 1902, Qemali went to London to get British support for the plot and corresponded with and visited people in the British government such as Edmund Monson and Thomas Sanderson. He received responses from the Foreign Office, however Qemali exaggerated the level of British support, being only moral support and ambiguous for the venture. Qemali's interactions with the British had managed to raise his profile and notability while he also discussed with them the Ottoman exile of his son to Bitlis. The British were aware of the activities of Qemali and his associates.
Qemali also corresponded with London-based Ottoman diplomats on the plan like Reşid Sadi who secretly worked for the Young Turks. Attempts by Qemali were made to convince Lord Cromer that the "Turkish question" was a pressing matter and he agreed with those sentiments and promised to reply to the Foreign office. He also secretly met Abbas II of Egypt in an attempt to secure funds and the khedive placed £4000 in an English bank for the plot, yet later misgivings about Qemali made the Egyptian leader halt funds and fearing scandal he relented. Qemali also sent an Albanian confidant Xhafer Berxhani from Greece to see Rexhep Pasha in Tripoli, Ottoman Libya. Eqrem Vlora, a member of the Vlora family stated that during this time Rexhep Pasha sent £1000 in gold to Qemali and assisted his son Tahir Pasha in exile at Tripoli to escape to Europe. At the end of January 1903, Qemali came back to Paris and found the princes grieving the death of their father Damad Mahmud Pasha, yet they all proceeded to London to make financial arrangements for the plot. Later Qemali and the princes worked to finalise details of their plan. Qemali having the details of tonnage and dimensions left for Athens with £4000 to buy two ships.
While there Qemali was disappointed with the procurement process for the ships and the delay made the central committee members go to Athens. Reşid Sadi arrived and found there was no large ships and that Qemali was residing at the house of an aide-de-camp to the Greek monarch. Qemali informed Reşid Sadi that he was duped and that in Greece it was difficult to find suitable ships. Later Sabaheddin traveled to see the khedive and failed to procure funds and ships where later he returned to Athens and for the last time met with Qemali, Reşid Sadi and Vasileos Musurus Ghikis. Qemali wanted to travel to Naples and get ships from there, however the others decided to abandon the plot. The failure of the plan was put down to different reasons with Qemali blaming prolonged negotiations about obtaining ships, while Rexhep Pasha viewed Qemali's lukewarm attitude for the venture as reason to change his mind. From within Sabaheddin's inner circle the view was that Qemali took the money to profit for his own purposes. Those sentiments were shared by people such as Haydar Midhat who quit the new central committee after he learned that Qemali worked for Greek interests in Albania and was on their payroll. After the 1908 Young Turk revolution some people who opposed the CUP made allegations against Qemali of being uninterested in the plot, worked for his interests and a "crook" that took money from the prince. Qemali broke ties with the Young Turks and on 16 August 1903 he gave an interview to an Italian newspaper in his role as an "Albanian patriot" and pursued his new preoccupation with Albania's future.
Albanian cause
In January 1907 a secret agreement was signed between Qemali, a leader of the then Albanian national movement and the Greek government which concerned the possibility of an alliance against the Ottoman Empire. There is not much information about the meeting but some sources state that the two sides agreed that the future Greek-Albanian boundary should be located on the Ceraunian Mountains with no Albanian armed activity in the area in exchange for Greek backing of Albanian independence. This was not accepted by Albanian nationalists and patriots. The CUP severely criticised Qemali for the agreement with the Greeks. In Rome July 1907, Qemali gave a lengthy interview to Italian media where he called for cooperation between Balkan peoples, a "Greco-Albanian entente" and affirmed Albania as having its own language, literature, history and traditions and a right to liberty and independence. He was also against Albanian cooperation with Bulgarian Macedonians and viewed their support of Albanian insurrectionists as self-serving and strengthening their movement due to depletion of Albanian forces. Qemali's reasons for closer ties with Greeks during this time was to gain support for Albanian independence and thwart Bulgarian ambitions in the wider Balkans region as he viewed them as a threat to Greece and northern Albania in Macedonia along with Austro-Hungarian territorial ambitions.
Throughout this time Qemali living abroad was not the leader of the Albanian movement, due to his strong pro-British and pro-Greek position. As an Albanian leader the CUP was hostile toward Qemali and the organisation shunned him due to his secret understanding with the Greeks to partition the western regions of the Balkan provinces of the empire. During his lifetime Qemali looked upon Greek culture with favour and respect, maintained friendly relations with Greeks and promoted cooperation between them and Albanians. He promoted a diplomatic solution for creating an independent Albania, an approach rejected by some Albanian groups of the era that instead favoured guerilla warfare against the empire. Qemali may have favoured intervention by the Great Powers into Albanian affairs and those were accusations made against him by a minority of opponents. Over time however he became an Albanian nationalist and by 1912 would declare the independence of Albania.
Young Turk Revolution and countercoup
During the events of the Young Turk Revolution (1908), rumors of the time had it that Abdul Hamid II as a last resort asked Qemali for assistance and his response was that only the restoration of the 1878 Ottoman constitution would pacify the Albanians. After the 1908 revolution and constitutional restoration Qemali returned from exile and became a deputy representing Berat in the restored Ottoman Parliament, working with liberal politicians and the British. He contributed to the Young Turk (CUP) newspaper Tanin where Qemali called for government reforms. Qemali became leader of the Albanian deputies in the Ottoman parliament and did not oppose Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia adding that recognition of the move should entail security guarantees for the empire in case of war with Balkan states over territory.
During the 31 March Incident, the leadership of the Liberals (Ahrar) attempted unsuccessfully to get control over events and stop the rebellion from turning toward a reactionary pro-Hamidian and anti-constitutional course. Qemali, a Liberal (Ahrar) deputy managed to get some parliamentarians to attend parliament, they accepted the requests of the mutineering troops and made an official announcement that the constitution and Sharia law would be kept. Uninvolved in the events of the initial countercoup Qemali was briefly made President of the Ottoman National Assembly and led it to recognise a new government by Abdul Hamid II. Qemali wired his constituency in Vlorë telling them to acknowledge the new government and Albanians from his hometown backed him with some raiding the arms depot to support the sultan with weapons if the situation called for it. Qemali left the city prior to the CUP Action Army arriving at Istanbul to suppress the rebellion and he fled to Greece. A government investigation later cleared Qemali of any wrongdoing.
Politics
Nationalism
His political career thereafter concentrated solely on Albanian nationalism. Increasing guerilla activity in Southern Albania led to Qemali coming under suspicion from the Ottoman government during the summer months of 1909. The Athens embassy of the Ottoman Empire reported that Qemali negotiated with organization financed by wealthy Albanian Tosks and Greece about forging a union. Qemali returned from Athens to Istanbul after the parliament cleared him from involvement in the counter-revolutionary movement and he became leader of a group of "modern liberals" who were former members of the Ahrar party. In 1910 Qemali in statements to the Austro-Hungarian ambassador criticized the Young Turk government for promoting Turks above other nationalities in the empire and their divide and rule policies regarding Albanians.
During the Albanian Revolt of 1911 he traveled with Xhemal Bey of Tirana and joined leaders of the revolt at a meeting in Gerče, a village in Montenegro on 23 June. Together they drew up the "Greçë Memorandum" that called for Albanian autonomy, schooling and language rights, recognition of Albanians, electoral freedoms and liberty, military service in Albania and other measures which addressed their requests both to Ottoman Empire and Europe (in particular to the Great Britain). In December 1911, Qemali and Hasan Prishtina convened secret meetings of Albanian political notables in Istanbul that decided to organise a future Albanian uprising. Qemali was given the task of going to Europe to obtain support from sympathetic governments for the Albanian movement in addition to financial support and funds for buying 15,000 guns. He met with Austro-Hungarian officials in Paris and expressed that his previous misgivings regarding them had shifted, viewed Austria-Hungary as the only defender of Albania and could rely on Albanian support if they backed Albanian geopolitical interests within a strong Ottoman state. During the Albanian revolt of 1912, Qemali was part of the leadership faction that backed and advocated for Albanian autonomy within the empire during negotiations with the Ottomans.
Independence of Albania
The Balkan wars marked the end of Ottoman rule in the region. In September 1912, Qemali along with Luigj Gurakuqi traveled to Bucharest to consult with the Albanian community in Romania. Later he departed for Vienna and kept in touch through telegram with Austro-Hungarian officials and supported as a solution their intervention in Albania. On 12 November Qemali met with officials from the Austro-Hungarian foreign ministry and they told him of their sympathies for the Albanians and their situation but could not do much due to the continuing war. Foreign Minister Count Leopold Berchtold supported Qemali's views on the Albanian question and placed a boat at his disposal. From Trieste, Qemali sailed to Durrës by mid November, however his stay was short due to Ottoman authorities objecting to his presence with Serb forces approaching the city and he left for Vlorë arriving there on 26 November. Meanwhile, his son Ethem Bey Vlora had summoned Albanian representatives to Vlorë from all over Albania.
Qemali was a principal figure in the secession of Albania from the Ottoman Empire, in the Albanian Declaration of Independence and the formation of the independent Albania on 28 November 1912. This signaled the end of more than 400 years of "de juro" Ottoman rule in Albania. Together with Gurakuqi, he raised the flag on the balcony of the two-story building in Vlorë where the Declaration of Independence had just been signed. The establishment of the government was postponed for the fourth session of the Assembly of Vlorë, held on 4 December 1912, until representatives of all regions of Albania arrived to Vlorë. The Ottoman Council of Ministers opposed his actions preferring Albanian autonomy and requested that Qemali give military assistance to the Ottoman Third Army trapped in southern Albania. Aware of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, Qemali asked the Great Powers to recognise and support an independent Albania.
Ottoman-Albanian alliance
The Ottoman CUP government sought to restore its control over Albania and sent lieutenant colonel Bekir Fikri in 1913 to raise Albanian support for Ahmed Izzet Pasha, an Ottoman-Albanian officer and CUP member as the candidate for the Albanian throne. Fikri acting as Izzet Pasha's emissary contacted Ismail Qemali and presented him with a plan that envisaged joint Ottoman, Albanian and Bulgarian military action against Greece and Serbia. Albania's reward in the military venture would have been the allocation of Kosovo and Chameria, areas given to Serbia and Greece by the Conference of Ambassadors. Qemali assured Fikri of his loyalty to Izzet Pasha as monarch of Albania and supported a plan from the CUP government in Istanbul to secretly infiltrate troops and weapons into the country to conduct a guerilla war against Serbian and Greek forces. After these negotiations Fikri sent telegrams to Istanbul, and asked the government to send ammunition, weapons and soldiers. The Serbs uncovered the plot and reported the operation to the International Control Commission (ICC). The ICC, an organisation temporarily administering Albania on behalf of the Great Powers allowed their Dutch officers serving as the Albanian Gendarmerie to declare a state of emergency and stop the plot. They raided Vlorë on 7–8 January 1914, discovering more than 200 Ottoman troops and arrested Fikri. During Fikri's trial the plot emerged and an ICC military court under Colonel Willem de Veer condemned him to death and later commuted to life imprisonment, while Qemali and his cabinet resigned. After Qemali left the country, turmoil ensured throughout Albania. Qemali was prime minister of Albania from 1912 to 1914.
Government
Prime Minister: Ismail Qemali
General Secretary: Qemal Karaosmani
Deputy Prime Minister: Dom Nikollë Kaçorri
Minister of Foreign Affairs: Ismail Qemali, then Myfit Libohova
Minister of Internal Affairs: Myfit Libohova, then Essad Pasha Toptani
Minister of War: General Mehmet Pashë Dërralla
Minister of Finance: Abdi Toptani
Minister of Justice: Dr. Petro Poga
Minister of Education: Dr. Luigj Gurakuqi
Minister of Public Services: Mit’hat Frashëri
Minister of Agriculture: Pandeli Cale, then Qemal Karaosmani
Minister of Posts and Telegraphs: Lef Nosi
Honours
Ismail Qemali is depicted on the obverses of the Albanian 200 lekë banknote of 1992–1996, and of the 500 lekë banknote issued since 1996. On 27 June 2012, Albanian President, Bamir Topi decorated Qemali with the Order of the National Flag (Post-mortem).
See also
Albanian Renaissance
Albanian Declaration of Independence
Albania under the Ottoman Empire
Sources
David Barchard, The Man Who Made Albania—Ismail Kemal Bey, Cornucopia Magazine No 34, 2004.
Ismail Kemal Bey and Sommerville Story, ed. The memoirs of Ismail Kemal Bey. London: Constable and company, 1920. (The Internet Archive, full access)
References
1844 births
1919 deaths
Heroes of Albania
19th-century Albanian politicians
20th-century Albanian politicians
Albanian diplomats
Government ministers of Albania
Foreign ministers of Albania
Prime Ministers of Albania
Activists of the Albanian National Awakening
All-Albanian Congress delegates
Signatories of the Albanian Declaration of Independence
Bektashi Order
Albanian Sufis
Vlora family
People from Vlorë
Zosimaia School alumni
Istanbul University Faculty of Law alumni | [
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256511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearded%20reedling | Bearded reedling | The bearded reedling (Panurus biarmicus) is a small, sexually dimorphic reed-bed passerine bird. It is frequently known as the bearded tit, due to some similarities to the long-tailed tit, or the bearded parrotbill. It is the only species in the family Panuridae.
Taxonomy and systematics
The bearded reedling was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. He placed it in the genus Parus with the tits. The species has since been placed with the parrotbills in the family Paradoxornithidae, after they were removed from the true tits in the family. More recent research suggests it is a unique songbird – no other living species seems to be particularly closely related to it. The species is now placed in the monotypic family Panuridae. Molecular phylogenetic studies have shown that the bearded reedling is most closely related to the lark family Alaudidae. The current genus name, Panurus, is from Ancient Greek panu, "exceedingly", and ουρά, "tail". The specific biarmicus is from "Biarmia", a Latinised form of Bjarmaland, formerly part of what is now the Arkhangelsk Oblast area of Russia.
Description
This is a small orange-brown bird, L , with a long tail and an undulating flight. The bill is yellow-orange. The male has a grey head and black moustaches (not a beard); the lower tail coverts are also black. The female is generally paler, with no black moustache. Flocks often betray their presence in a reedbed by their characteristic "ping" call.
Distribution and habitat
This species is a wetland specialist, breeding colonially in large reed beds by lakes or swamps. It eats reed aphids in summer, and reed seeds in winter, its digestive system changing to cope with the very different seasonal diets.
The bearded reedling is a species of temperate Europe and across the Palearctic. It is resident, and most birds do not migrate other than eruptive or cold weather movements. It is vulnerable to hard winters, which may kill many birds. The English population of about 500 pairs is largely confined to the south and east with a small population in Leighton Moss in north Lancashire. In Ireland there is a small but growing population, mainly in County Wexford. The largest single population in Great Britain is to be found in the reedbeds at the mouth of the River Tay in Perth and Kinross, Scotland, where there may be in excess of 250 pairs.
References
External links
Bearded reedling videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Bearded Reedling song/call at xeno-canto.com
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.1 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Passerida
Sylvioidea
Birds of Eurasia
bearded reedling
bearded reedling
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256514 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamaraw | Tamaraw | The tamaraw or Mindoro dwarf buffalo (Bubalus mindorensis) is a small hoofed mammal belonging to the family Bovidae. It is endemic to the island of Mindoro in the Philippines, and is the only endemic Philippine bovine. It is believed, however, to have once also thrived on the larger island of Luzon. The tamaraw was originally found all over Mindoro, from sea level up to the mountains (2000 m above sea level), but because of human habitation, hunting, and logging, it is now restricted to only a few remote grassy plains and is now a critically endangered species.
Contrary to common belief and past classification, the tamaraw is not a subspecies of the local carabao, which is only slightly larger, or the common water buffalo. In contrast to the carabao, it has a number of distinguishing characteristics; it is slightly hairier, has light markings on its face, is not gregarious, and has shorter horns that are somewhat V-shaped. It is the second-largest native terrestrial mammal in the country next only to the carabao.
Anatomy and morphology
B. mindorensis has the appearance of a typical member of its family. It has a compact, heavyset, bovine body, four legs that end in cloven hooves, and a small, horned head at the end of a short neck. It is smaller and stockier compared to the water buffalo (B. bubalis). Little sexual dimorphism is seen in the species, although males are reported to have thicker necks. The tamaraw has a typical shoulder height of . The length of the body is , while the tail adds a further . Reported weights have ranged from .
Adults have a dark brown to grayish color and more hair than B. bubalis. The limbs are short and stocky. White markings are seen in the hooves and the inner lower fore legs. These markings are similar to those of the anoa (B. depressicornis). The face is the same color as the body. Most of the members of the species also have a pair of gray-white strips that begins from the inner corner of the eye to the horns. The nose and lips have black skin. The ears are long from notch to tip with white markings on the insides.
Both sexes grows short, black horns in a V-shaped manner compared to C-shaped horns of B. bubalis. The horns have flat surfaces and are triangular at their base. Due to the regular rubbing, the tamaraw's horns have a worn outer surface, but with rough inner sides. The horns are reported to be long.
Distribution
The tamaraw was first documented in 1888 on the island of Mindoro. Before 1900, most people avoided settling on Mindoro due to a virulent strain of malaria. However, as antimalarial medicine was developed, more people settled on the island. The increase in human activity has drastically reduced tamaraw population. By 1966, the tamaraw's range was reduced to three areas: Mount Iglit, Mount Calavite, and areas near the Sablayan Penal Settlement. By 2000, their range was further reduced to only two areas: the Mounts Iglit–Baco National Park and Aruyan.
Initial estimates of the B. mindorensis population on Mindoro was placed at around 10,000 individuals in the early 1900s. Less than 50 years later in 1949, the population had dwindled to around 1000 individuals. By 1953, fewer than 250 animals were estimated to be alive. These population estimates continually grew smaller until the IUCN publication of their 1969 Red Data Book, where the tamaraw population was noted to be an alarmingly low 100 head. This head count rose to 120 animals in 1975. Current estimates place the wild tamaraw population from 30 to 200 individuals.
Ecology and life history
As a rare, endemic mammal on a relatively secluded island, the ecology of the tamaraw is largely unknown. Individuals of the species are reclusive and shy away from humans. In addition, the small sizes of the species' subpopulations, already spread thin throughout their fragmented range (on 1986, about 51 individuals are found in a 20-km2 area), make contact with any more than a solitary individual a rarity.
Habitat
B. mindorensis prefers tropical highland forested areas. It is typically found in thick brush, near open-canopied glades, where it may feed on grasses. Since human habitation and subsequent forest fragmentation of their home island of Mindoro, the habitat preferences of the tamaraw have somewhat expanded to lower-altitude grassy plains. Within their mountainous environment, tamaraws will usually be found not far from sources of water. They have to live by water so they can drink. They live in moist areas such as marshy areas and grasslands.
Trophic ecology
The tamaraw is a grazer that feeds on grasses and young bamboo shoots, although it is known to prefer cogon grass and wild sugarcane (Saccharum spontaneum). They are naturally diurnal, feeding during the daytime hours; however, daytime human activities have recently forced select B. mindorensis individuals to be nocturnal to avoid human contact.
Life history
The tamaraw is known to live for about 20 years, with an estimated lifespan of about 25. The adult female tamaraw gives birth to one offspring after a gestation period around 300 days. There is an interbirth interval of two years, although one female has been sighted with three juveniles. The calf stays for 2–4 years with its mother before becoming independent.
Behavioral ecology
Unlike the closely related water buffalo, B. mindorensis is a solitary creature. Adults of the species do not occur in herds or smaller packs, and are often encountered alone. Only juveniles exhibit the typical bovine herding behavior and clan hierarchy often seen in water buffalo. Males and females are known to associate all year round, but this interaction lasts only a few hours. This solitary behavior may be an adaptation to its forest environment. Adult males are often solitary and apparently aggressive, while adult females can be alone, accompanied by a bull, or their young of different ages.
Similar to other bovines, the tamaraw wallows in mud pits. This behavior may be employed by the animals to avoid biting insects.
Another distinct behavior in B. mindorensis is its fierceness. Reports have been made concerning their fierceness when cornered, although most are unsubstantiated. Threat posture used by the bovine involves lowering of the head, and shifting its horns into a vertical position. This is accompanied with a lateral shaking of the head.
Evolutionary history
The presence of B. mindorensis on the island of Mindoro, coupled with the discovery of fossil bubalids in other islands around the archipelago, indicates that the family was once widespread throughout the Philippines. In fact, fossil finds in the 20th century have shown that B. mindorensis was once found on the northern Philippine island of Luzon during the Pleistocene.
As a member of the family Bovidae, the tamaraw's close affinity to the water buffalo (B. bubalis) has been validated many times in the past. It was once considered a subspecies of B. bubalis (as Anoa bubalis), Anoa bubalis mindorensis. Recent genetic analysis studies of the family members further strengthen this view.
Etymology and taxonomic history
The tamaraw was originally described as Anoa mindorensis by French zoologist Pierre Marie Heude in 1888. In 1958, it was described as Anoa bubalis mindorensis, a subspecies of the then-water buffalo species (Anoa bubalis). A little over a decade after, the tamaraw was elevated to species status as Anoa mindorensis in 1969.
Later research and analyses of relationships determined the genus Anoa to be a part of the genus Bubalus. The tamaraw's scientific name was updated into its present form, Bubalus mindorensis (sometimes referred to as Bubalus (Bubalus) mindorensis).
The name tamaraw has other variants, such as tamarau, tamarou, and tamarao. The term tamaraw may have comecame from tamadaw, which is a probable alternative name for the banteng (Bos javanicus).
Conservation
Being an entirely endemic and rare land mammal, B. mindorensis stands as an extremely vulnerable species. Currently, it is classified as a critically endangered species and has been so since 2000 by the IUCN on its IUCN Red List of endangered species. Awareness of the conservation status of B. mindorensis began in 1965, when it was classified as status inadequately known by the IUCN. Enough data were gathered on the tamaraw population by 1986, and the IUCN conservation monitoring center declared the species endangered. Throughout succeeding surveys conducted in 1988, 1990, 1994 and 1996, the species remained listed on the Red List as endangered. The relisting of the species in 1996 fulfilled the IUCN criteria B1+2c and D1. Criterion B1 indicated that the species' range was less than 500 km2, and is known to exist in less than five independent locations. A noticed continuing decline in the population fulfilled sub-criterion 2c, given the condition of the population's sole habitat. Criterion D1 essentially required that a population be composed of less than 250 mature individuals; individual counts of the B. mindorensis population at the time figured significantly lower than this. In 2000, the tamaraw was relisted on the Red List under the more severe C1 criteria. This was due to estimates that the population would decline by 20% in five years or within the timespan of two generations.
Many factors have contributed to the decline of the tamaraw population. Over the course of the century, the increase of the human population on Mindoro has exposed the island's sole tamaraw population to severe anthropogenic pressures. In the 1930s, the introduction of non-native cattle on the island caused a severe rinderpest epidemic among the tamaraw population then numbering in the thousands. Hunting of tamaraws for food and sustenance has also taken a toll on the species' numbers. The most major factor threatening survival of B. mindorensis is habitat loss due to infrastructure development, logging, and agriculture. These factors reduced the population of thousands during the early 1900s to less than 300 individuals in 2007.
Due to the decline of the B. mindorensis population, various Philippine laws and organizations have been created towards the conservation of the species. In 1936, Commonwealth Act No. 73 was enacted by the then-Philippine Commonwealth. The act specifically prohibited killing, hunting, and even merely wounding tamaraws, with an exception noted for self-defense (if one were to be attacked by an agitated individual) or for scientific purposes. The penalties were harsh enough to include a hefty fine and imprisonment.
In 1979, an executive order was signed creating a committee specifically geared towards the conservation of the tamaraw; it was referred to as a "source of national pride" in the said order. The Tamaraw Conservation Project was also established in 1979. The organization has successfully bred a tamaraw, nicknamed "Kali", in captivity in 1999. In 2001, Republic Act 9147, or the Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act was enacted to protect the tamaraw and other endemic species from hunting and sale. During the 1970s, a gene pool was established to preserve the tamaraw's numbers. However, the project was not successful, as only one offspring, named "Kali", was produced. As of 2011, Kali is the only surviving animal in the gene pooling project. The project was also not improved as the Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau showed that the tamaraws were already breeding in the wild. Cloning was not implemented for conservation as the Department of Environment and Natural Resource argued that such measures would diminish the genetic diversity of the species.
A small subpopulation of tamaraws has been found within the confines of the Mt. Iglit Game Refuge and Bird Sanctuary on Mindoro.
As of May 2007, B. mindorensis is on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species, where it has been since the species was first put on the list on January 7, 1975. With the listing, CITES recognizes the species as critically endangered and threatened with extinction. Thus, international commercial trade in the species or any derivatives of which, such as meat or horns, is considered illegal. While commercial trade in the species is prohibited, exchange for noncommercial reasons, such as scientific research, is allowed.
In October 2008, the Department of Agriculture's Philippine Carabao Center (DA-PCC) director, Dr. Arnel del Barrio, officially reported that the tamaraw population had increased yearly by an average of 10% from 2001 to 2008. The April 2008 tamaraw expedition reports of the Tamaraw Conservation Program (Mt. Iglit-Baco National Park in Mindoro Occidental), by government and private entities, including Far Eastern University students, revealed that "the tamaraw population was counted at 263 this year compared to only 175 head in 2001. The calving rate estimated by number of yearlings is considerably high... (which could mean that) more than 55% of the tamaraws are giving birth. In Mount Iglit-Baco National Park, the official count of the animal was 263 in 2006, 239 in 2007, and 263 in 2008." Mindoro's indigenous Mangyan people have stopped slaughtering the animal for its blood.
The Haribon Foundation called the animal "Mindoro’s endangered treasure" and later "the Philippines’ endangered flagship species" until 2005. In the 1930s, the tamaraw population declined due to rinderpest, a viral disease affecting cattle. In the 1960s and 1970s, hunters killed tamaraws for sport. More importantly, the rampant deforestation (from 80% habitat forest cover in the 1900s down to 8% in 1988) in the area hastened the animal's decline.
The Bangkok, Thailand International Union for the Conservation of Species (IUCS) has established a 280-hectare gene pool farm in Rizal, Mindoro Occidental. Also, extensive reforestation was implemented to hasten the tamaraws' propagation. The animals are now found only in the mountainous portions of Mt. Iglit-Baco National Park, Mt. Calavite, Mt. Halcon-Eagle Pass, Mt. Aruyan-Sablayan-Mapalad Valley, and Mt. Bansud-Bongabong-Mansalay.
The 2002 Presidential Proclamation 273 set October as a "Special Month for the Conservation and Protection of the Tamaraw in Mindoro.". At least 90% belong to Mount Iglit-Baco.
As of April 2019, according to June Pineda, Tamaraw Conservation Program coordinator of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, the latest count at Mounts Iglit-Baco National Park in Occidental Mindoro showed 466 to 494 tamaraws, lower than 2018’s 523 animals.
Importance to humans
Economical and commercial value
While not as heavily exploited as other large, endangered mammals, the tamaraw population was subject to some harvesting pressure from subsistence hunters before conservation efforts were spurred towards the latter half of the 20th century. The IUCN has described this as still going on in their 2006 Red List report.
In Philippine culture
Though the national animal of the Philippines is the carabao, the tamaraw is also considered a national symbol of the Philippines. An image of the animal is found on the 1980- to early-1990-version of the one-peso coins.
In 2004, Proclamation No. 692 was enacted to make October 1 a special working holiday in the province of Occidental Mindoro. In line with the Tamaraw Conservation Month, the proclamation aimed to remind the people of Mindoro the importance of the conservation of the tamaraw and its environment.
In the 1970s, Toyota Motors, through the defunct local company Delta Motors, built the Tamaraw Asian Utility Vehicle. Because of its ruggedness and simplicity of design, some examples still survive to this day, copied by multinational companies Ford, General Motors, and Nissan, through local subsidiary manufacturers to this day. Because it is an Asian Utility Vehicle, it shares its design with the Kijang, the Indonesian version.
During the wake of the Asian utility popularity in the 1990s, Toyota Motors Philippines released an Asian Utility Vehicle called Tamaraw FX in the Philippines, an evolution of the Tamaraw AUV. It was widely patronized by taxi operators, and was immediately turned into a staple mode of transportation much like a cross of the taxi and the jeepney. The FX eventually evolved into the Revo.
The tamaraw is also the mascot of the varsity teams of the Far Eastern University (FEU Tamaraws) in the University Athletic Association of the Philippines, and of the Toyota Tamaraws of the Philippine Basketball Association.
The Tamaraw Falls in Barangay Villaflor, Puerto Galera, were also named after the bovine.
References
Bibliography
External links
Haribon's tamaraw page
Bovines
Endemic fauna of the Philippines
Mammals of the Philippines
Fauna of Mindoro
Mammals described in 1888
Taxa named by Pierre Marie Heude
Critically endangered biota of Asia | [
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256527 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Vladislav | Stefan Vladislav | Stefan Vladislav (, ; – after 1264) was the King of Serbia from 1234 to 1243. He was the middle son of Stefan the First-Crowned of the Nemanjić dynasty, who ruled Serbia from 1196 to 1228. Radoslav, the eldest son of Stefan the First-Crowned, was ousted by the Serbian nobility due to increasing Epirote influence through his marriage alliance to Theodore Komnenos Doukas; thus Vladislav became his successor. He is celebrated as Saint Vladislav by the Serbian Orthodox Church.
During Vladislav's reign, his uncle Archbishop Sava went on a pilgrimage and died in Bulgaria while on his way home. Vladislav obtained the remains and buried them in the Mileševa monastery, which he had built intended to be his burial place. Serbia was politically aligned with Bulgaria at the time, since Vladislav was married to Beloslava, the daughter of Ivan Asen II. Vladislav secured Hum, a maritime province under attack by Hungarian crusaders.
After the death of Ivan Asen II, there was unrest in Serbia. The Mongols, led by Kadan, invaded Hungary and devastated the Balkans, at which time the Serbian nobility rose up against Vladislav. In 1243, he abdicated in favour of his younger brother, but remained the governor of Zeta. The Serbian Orthodox Church venerates him as a saint on .
Early life
Vladislav was born around 1198. His parents were King Stefan the First-Crowned and Queen Eudokia. He had two full brothers, Stefan Radoslav (b. 1192) and Predislav (b. 1201), and a younger agnate half-brother, Stefan Uroš I (b. 1223). He also had two sisters, Komnena being the only one whose name is known.
King Stefan the First-Crowned, who had become ill, took monastic vows and died in 1227, and Radoslav, the eldest son, became king; he was crowned at Žiča by his uncle, Archbishop Sava. Radoslav's younger brothers, Vladislav and Uroš I, received appanages. Sava II (Predislav) was appointed Bishop of Hum shortly thereafter, later serving as Archbishop of Serbia from 1263 to 1270. The Church and state was thus controlled by the same family, and the ties between the two continued.
Accession
According to monk and biographer Teodosije the Hilandarian, King Radoslav was a good ruler at first, but fell under the influence of his wife, Queen Anna, daughter of the Epirote ruler Theodore Komnenos Doukas (1216–1230). The Serbian nobility most likely disliked Radoslav due to this Greek influence. Radoslav was probably safe from domestic rebellion as long as Theodore remained strong.
In 1230, Theodore was defeated and captured by Emperor Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, after which Radoslav's position seems to have weakened; some of his nobility revolted in the autumn of 1233. Teodosije said that the nobility no longer supported Radoslav, and instead supported Vladislav. Radoslav and his wife fled to Dubrovnik in 1233. He was unable to regain the kingdom, but eventually returned as a monk. There are indications that Radoslav organized rebellions against Vladislav, and that he thought that he would regain the throne. This is evident from a document dated February 4, 1234, which promised Ragusa trading privileges once Radoslav had returned to Serbia and become king again. Because of this, Vladislav began threatening Ragusa, which then turned to Ban Matej Ninoslav of Bosnia for help. The revolt against Vladislav was unsuccessful, and Radoslav joined the court of Epirote ruler Manuel in Dyrrhachium.
Archbishop Sava tried to stop the conflict. He most likely sympathized with Radoslav, as he was the legitimate ruler. However, to stop the conflict, which could become more serious, Vladislav was crowned king upon Radoslav's departure from Serbia. Thanks to Sava, Vladislav married the daughter of Ivan Asen II. Sava then abdicated in favour of his apprentice, Arsenije, at the end of 1233. Radoslav contacted Archbishop Sava, who welcomed him back to Serbia. Radoslav took monastic vows, and took the name Jovan (John). According to Teodosije, Sava did this to protect Radoslav from Vladislav. In 1235, while visiting the Bulgarian court, Sava died while on his way home from a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. He was respectfully buried at the Holy Forty Martyrs Church in Tarnovo. Sava's body was returned to Serbia after a series of requests, and was then buried in the Mileševa monastery, built by Vladislav in 1234. Sava was canonized, and his relics were considered miraculous; his cult remained throughout the Middle Ages and the Ottoman occupation.
After Radoslav had returned to Serbia as a monk, the details of his relationship with Vladislav are not fully known, but he likely did not disturb Vladislav. Some even believe that Radoslav received a part of Serbia to administrate. In any case, Radoslav lived the rest of his life in peace.
Foreign policy
The Bulgarians lost Braničevo and Belgrade to Hungary in the late 1230s, and Hungarian crusaders fought in Bosnia between 1235 and 1241. Serbia was never directly attacked by the Hungarians. However, the Hungarian crusaders did directly threaten Serbian Hum; they may have even occupied parts of it. In 1237, Coloman of Galicia-Lodomeria attacked Hum, but it is unclear whether they attacked Serbian Hum (Eastern), or western Hum, between the Neretva and Cetina rivers, where the Serbs held no territory at the time. The northern part, which was held by Vladislav's relative, Toljen II, fell quickly, but Vladislav dispatched an army to regain the region. The crusaders were pushed to the border, and Vladislav pursued them as far as the Cetina River, but there were no major encounters. After the incident, the Serbs asserted their possession of the Hum region, and Vladislav added "Hum" to his title.
These events threatened Serbia, which had severed ties with Catholicism and was once again fully Orthodox. The marriage alliance between Vladislav and Ivan Asen II may be a result of the Hungarian threat to both of the rulers' countries. Some scholars have speculated that Vladislav accepted Bulgarian suzerainty, but this speculation has no evidence to support it, since no contemporary sources say that Vladislav recognized Asen as overlord of Serbia. However, Asen likely had the largest influence on the politics of Vladislav.
In 1235, Vladislav signed a treaty regarding trading privileges with Giovanni Dandolo, a representative of Ragusa. The treaty gave Ragusa trading privileges under the condition that Ragusa would never allow any preparation of rebellion against Serbia on their territory, as Ragusa had helped Radoslav upon his exile.
Pope Gregory IX's crusade against the Bogumils in Bosnia, who were deemed heretics, did not bring good results. Central Bosnia was not conquered, and Bosnian Ban Matej Ninoslav and his nobility retreated to the Republic of Ragusa in 1240. In an edict issued by Ninoslav on 22 March 1240, Ninoslav promised to protect the city of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) if Vladislav attacked. At the time, Serbian forces in the region of Hum roamed around Dubrovnik. The Ragusans may have feared Vladislav due to the earlier disputes with him, or Vladislav may have posed an actual danger to Ragusa.
Mongol invasion
Ivan Asen II was a powerful support to Vladislav; when Asen died, there was internal unrest, also affected by the Mongols threat. Between 1206 and 1227, the Mongol leader Genghis Khan conquered territories that none before him had been able to conquer; his empire extended all over Asia and to Crimea. By 1240, all of Russia had been captured by the Mongols; Poland, Hungary, and parts of Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia were subsequently taken. In the winter of 1241, the Mongols crossed the Danube and entered western Hungary; Béla IV could not manage to organize any resistance. All of Croatia was burned, and Kadan and Batu Khan (the grandson of Genghis Khan) looked for Béla IV, who was in Split at the time; Béla soon moved to Trogir, as Split was not safe. The Mongols did not attack Split, but instead unsuccessfully attacked Klis, where they had heard that Béla IV was hiding. Béla then fled to the island of Rab. The Mongols attempted to conquer the island, but their forces were hurt in naval battles; they were also forced to hurry back home to choose the new Khan after the death of Ogatay. While returning home, they crossed and devastated Serbia, Bosnia and Bulgaria. Although the Serbian lowland was destroyed, the Mongol attack did not have a large impact, as the population had retreated into inaccessible forests that Mongols had no will to enter. The Serbian cities of Kotor, Drivast and Svač were destroyed. The Mongol invasion brought turmoil and shock, but not any major changes; the real shock came when Asen died, which left Vladislav without significant support.
Ousting
In spring 1243, an uprising ousted Vladislav; Stefan Uroš I, his third brother, was put on the throne. Scholars have argued that Bulgarian influence had been strong and unpopular, causing opposition that led to Vladislav's deposition after the death of Asen.
The revolting nobility had chosen Uroš as their candidate for king; from 1242 to spring 1243, a war for the throne was fought, which ended with Vladislav being forced to give up the crown in favour of Uroš. It seems that Uroš captured Vladislav and held him in prison. The main resistance against Uroš was led by Vladislav's wife Beloslava, who spent some time exiled in Ragusa. The fact that she was the organizer of the resistance against Uroš is known from an edict dated to the summer of 1243, in which the Ragusans swore to King Uroš that they would not support Beloslava's resistance work. The hostilities did not last long, and the brothers quickly settled. Uroš was courteous towards Vladislav, gave him the administration of Zeta, with residence in Skadar. He died around 1269, and was buried in Mileševa monastery.
Regal name and titles
The king's given name was Vladislav, while "Stefan" was a name adopted by all Nemanjić dynasty monarchs. The name is derived from Greek word Stephanos, meaning "crown". The tradition of medieval Serbian rulers taking the name is likely connected with the Byzantine association of the martyrdom of Saint Stephen. The custom began already with Vukanović dynasty and was continued by Stefan Nemanja and his successors, until the last ruler of the Nemanjić dynasty. St. Stephen was the patron saint of the Serbian state and government; he was depicted on the royal seals and coins of the early Nemanjić rulers. The name was more of a title than name in the Serbian rulers, and it had a special symbolical meaning to the Serbian state.
In Serbian medieval biographies, Vladislav was praised as "the Faithful", "the God-Loving", "the Christ-Loving", "the Great", "the World-Loving". In modern historiography, he is sometimes designated as "Stefan Vladislav I" to distinguish him from the later Stefan Vladislav II, son of Stefan Dragutin, who ruled ower Syrmia.
The introduction of Vladislav's charter says: "Stefan Vladislav, with the help and grace of God, crowned King of All Serbian and Maritime Lands", while the signature reads: "Stefan Vladislav, by the grace of God, the King and Autokrator of All Serbian and Maritime Lands". Sometimes, his signature said, "Stefan Vladislav, with the help of God, the Serbian King". In Latin documents, he was called Stephanus Vladislav, Serbiae rex (1238). He also signed himself with the expanded title of his father: "King of All Rascian Lands, and Diocletia, and Dalmatia, and Travunia, and Zachumlia". The style "Rascian lands" was used in the tutelage during the reign of Uroš I (r. 1112–1145).
When Serbian royalty was canonized, the church sometimes used their given names; examples of this include: St. Stefan Vladislav ("Св. Стефан Владислав, краљ српски"), Milutin, Stefan Uroš I, Stefan Uroš II, Urošica, and others.
Flag of Serbia
The son of King Stefan Vladislav, Desa Župan, sent delegates from Kotor to Ragusa (Dubrovnik) to return items from the king's treasury; the inventory list included, among other things, "a flag of red and blue colour" ("vexillum unum de zendato rubeo et blavo" - a flag made of red and blue fabric, zendato or čenda being a type of light, silky fabric). This is the oldest existing information on the colours of the Serbian flag. Thus, the oldest known Serbian flag was red and blue. But already in 1271 the colors of the flag of his son Desa, were red and white. Although the color order is not known, the version with horizontal red and blue is sometimes used in medieval-themed events in modern Serbia, representing the oldest known Serbian flag.
Family
Through his marriage with Beloslava, the daughter of Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria, Stefan Vladislav had the following children:
Stefan, who died before 1281 in Esphigmenou.
Desa župan, Duke of Kotor (fl. 1281–1285).
A daughter, who married Đura Kačić, the count of Omiš (fl. 1276).
See also
Nemanjić family tree
List of Serbian saints
References
Sources
External links
13th-century births
13th-century deaths
13th-century Serbian monarchs
13th-century rulers in Europe
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Nemanjić dynasty
Serbian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Serbian princes
Serbian rebels
Monarchs who abdicated
Medieval Serbian military leaders
Founders of Christian monasteries
Burials at Serbian Orthodox monasteries and churches
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256528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%20Vladislav%20II | Stefan Vladislav II | Vladislav (; 1280–1326) was the King of Syrmia from 1316 to 1325, and claimant to the Serbian Kingdom.
He was the son of Stefan Dragutin, who had ruled Serbia until 1282, when he became ill and abdicated, giving the superior rule to his younger brother Stefan Milutin. Dragutin continued to rule the royal domain of Syrmia, which was later inherited by Vladislav.
Early life
Born around 1270, Vladislav was the eldest son of the Crown Prince of Serbia, Stefan Dragutin, and Catherine of Hungary. Shortly before Vladislav's birth, Dragutin was awarded with the title of "junior king" in token of his right to succeed his father, Stefan Uroš I. Vladislav became the new heir to the Serbian throne after Dragutin dethroned his father with Hungarian assistance in 1276. A riding accident forced Dragutin to abdicate in favor of his younger brother, Milutin, in the spring of 1282, but he could retain the northern regions of Serbia as a separate realm. The Byzantine historian, George Pachymeres, recorded that the right of one of Dragutin's two sons (Vladislav or Urošica) to succeed Milutin was also confirmed.
Vladislav's maternal cousin, Charles Martel of Anjou, who had laid claim to Hungary, awarded Vladislav with Slavonia and granted him the title of duke, implying that Vladislav and his father supported Charles Martel against Andrew III of Hungary in the early 1290s. Charles Martel's father, Charles II of Naples, confirmed the grant on 19 August 1292. Dragutin and Vladislav sought reconciliation with Andrew III. In 1293, Vladislav married Constance who was a granddaughter of the king's maternal uncle, Albertino Morosini.
Milutin made steps to appoint his eldest son, Stefan Konstantin, as his heir from around 1306. He even approached Pope Clement V and offered the union of the Serbian Orthodox Church with Rome in return for the confirmation of Stefan Konstantin's right to succeed him.
Dragutin and Vladislav's support to Charles Martel ended in 1293 after Vladislav married Costanza Morosini, the niece of Andrew III. Andrew III died in 1301 and was succeeded by Charles Martel's son, Charles Robert.
After King Dragutin died in 1316, Vladislav succeeded him as ruler of the Kingdom of Syrmia, but the king of Serbia, Stefan Milutin, his uncle, defeated him and imprisoned him.
When Milutin died in 1321, the newly freed Vladislav got to rule the lands of his father, with the help of the Hungarians, the Bulgarians, the Bosnian Ban and the Šubić family. The rule, according to law, was to be given to Vladislav.
Tsar Michael Asen III of Bulgaria, newly in conflict with Vladislav's cousin Stefan Dečanski, the successor of Milutin, started to support Vladislav as the rightful monarch of whole Serbia, but this support showed insufficient. After having been beaten again by supporters of Stefan Dečanski, he retreated to the Kingdom of Hungary in 1324. Vladislav's sororal nephew Stephen II, Ban of Bosnia, then started to rule Vladislav's lands in Bosnia (Soli and Usora), and around Lower Syrmia where long battles between Serbs and Hungarians were frequent.
Vladislav was married to Constanza Morosini, maternal relative of Andrew III of Hungary.
Annotations
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
1280 births
1325 deaths
13th-century Serbian royalty
14th-century Serbian royalty
14th-century Serbian monarchs
Pretenders to the Serbian throne in the Middle Ages
History of Syrmia
Medieval history of Vojvodina
Medieval Serbia
Eastern Orthodox monarchs
Nemanjić dynasty
Sons of kings | [
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256530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ban | Ban | Ban, or BAN, may refer to:
Law
Ban (law), a decree that prohibits something, sometimes a form of censorship, being denied from entering or using the place/item
Imperial ban (Reichsacht), a form of outlawry in the medieval Holy Roman Empire
Ban (medieval), the sovereign's power to command
King's ban (Königsbann), a royal command or prohibition in the medieval Holy Roman Empire
Herem (disambiguation), a Hebrew word usually translated as "the ban"
A ban could be served on people in apartheid-era South Africa
People
Ban (surname), a Chinese surname
Ban (Korean name), a Korean surname and element in given names
Ban Ki-moon, United Nations Secretary-General
King Ban, a king from the Matter of Britain
Ban (title), a noble title used in Central and Southeastern Europe (Romania, Croatia, Bosnia and Hungary)
Banate of Bosnia
Ban of Croatia
Matija Ban, a Croatian poet
Oana Ban, a Romanian artistic gymnast
Shigeru Ban, a Japanese architect
Y Ban (real name Phạm Thị Xuân Ban), a Vietnamese writer
Places
Ban, Burkina Faso, a town in Burkina Faso
Bans, Jura, a commune in eastern France
Ban, Murree, a village and UC of Rawalpindi District, Pakistan
Ban, an alternate name of Ben, a city in Iran
Ban, Iran, a village in Markazi Province, Iran
Ban, a village in Bănișor Commune, Sălaj County, Romania
Ban (river), a river in Sălaj County, Romania
Ban, habitation in Thai muban
Ban, a settlement in Sarawak, Malaysia
Ban, Kubu, Karangasem, a village in Bali
Bans, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Internet
Ban (Internet), the banning of individual users from websites
Body Area Network, a wireless network of wearable computing devices
IP address blocking, a block set up by a server or website that blocks requests originating from particular IP addresses or ranges of addresses
Stealth banning or shadow banning, a practice used in managing online communities
Codes
Balinese language (ISO 639-2 and -3 code "ban"), spoken in Indonesia
BAN, the National Rail code for Banbury railway station in the county of Oxfordshire, UK
BAN, the Chapman code for Banffshire, historic county in Scotland
BAN, the IOC code for Bangladesh at the Olympics
BAN, the IATA code for Basongo Airport in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Other
An alternate spelling for "bann" as in banns of marriage
Paiban, a clapper used in Chinese music, alternately called BAN)
Ban (unit), a logarithmic unit of information or weight of evidence
Ban (deodorant), a brand name deodorant & antiperspirant
Ban (plural: bani), a coin, the 1/100 part of a Romanian leu or Moldovan leu
"Ban" (song), a 2021 single by Sakurazaka46
Basel Action Network
British Approved Name, for a pharmaceutical substance
Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic, BAN logic, used to analyse authentication protocols
Muban, or Ban for short, the lowest administrative subdivision of Thailand
Fictional characters
Akaza BanBan, nicknamed Ban, a character in Tokusou Sentai Dekaranger
Ban Mido, a main character of the GetBackers series
Ban: Fox's Sin of Greed, a sin from The Seven Deadly Sins (2014 TV series)
See also
Bann (disambiguation)
Banned (disambiguation)
Banning (disambiguation)
Block (disambiguation) | [
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256535 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano%20Arista | Mariano Arista | José Mariano Martín Buenaventura Ignacio Nepomuceno García de Arista Nuez (26 July 1802 – 7 August 1855) was a noted veteran of many of Mexico's nineteenth-century wars. He served as president of Mexico from 15 January 1851 to 6 January 1853. He was the first president of Mexico to be born in the 19th century.
Military
He was born in the state of San Luis Potosí in colonial New Spain. Originally an officer in the Spanish Army, Arista later joined the revolutionary army of Agustín de Iturbide. Later, he served under Antonio López de Santa Anna, Mexico's on-again/off-again dictator during the attempt to put down the 1836 Texas Revolution.
In 1846, Arista was given command of the Army of the North and sent to expel American troops from territory claimed by Mexico in Texas. The resulting engagement ignited the bloody Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Arista was in command of Mexican forces during the Battle of Palo Alto and the Battle of Resaca de la Palma, where he was defeated, due largely to superior U.S. artillery.
Personally quite brave, Arista was a dedicated republican – a member of Mexico's liberal faction, and therefore the natural enemy of his largely conservative general staff. At both the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, Arista was ill-served by the political division among his staff.
After Resaca de la Palma, Mexico's government recalled Arista, and he was removed from command. He requested a court-martial and was absolved of guilt for the defeats at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. Arista spent the rest of the war as a functionary, seeing little combat.
President
In 1851, Arista succeeded José Joaquín de Herrera as president of Mexico. He sought to bring fiscal stability to the nation. Conservative resistance to Arista's rule and an eventual revolt by the conservatives led to his 1853 resignation and exile.
He died on board the English steamer Tagus while traveling from Lisbon, Portugal, to France on 7 August 1855. In 1880, his remains were returned to Mexico, where the Liberal faction named him a national hero.
See also
List of heads of state of Mexico
Battles of the Mexican–American War
History of Mexico
References
Bauer, K. Jack. The Mexican-American War, 1846–1848.
External links
1802 births
1855 deaths
Presidents of Mexico
Mexican generals
Mexican military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of Mexican side in the Texas Revolution
People who were court-martialed
People from San Luis Potosí City
1851 in Mexico
1852 in Mexico
1853 in Mexico
19th-century Mexican people
People who died at sea
19th-century Mexican military personnel | [
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] |
256536 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stairs%20%28disambiguation%29 | Stairs (disambiguation) | Stairs are a set of steps.
Stairs may also refer to:
Stairs (surname), a list of people with the surname
The Stairs, retro rock band
"The Stairs" (song), by INXS
The Stairs (1950 film), a short documentary
The Stairs (2016 film), a Canadian documentary film
The Stairs (2021 film)
IBM STAIRS, IBM "Storage and Information Retrieval System" software
Stairs (video game)
See also
House of Stairs (disambiguation)
Stair (disambiguation) | [
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256547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han%20system | Han system | (, "domain") is a Japanese historical term for the estate of a daimyo in the Edo period (1603–1868) and early Meiji period (1868–1912). or (daimyo domain) served as a system of de facto administrative divisions of Japan alongside the de jure provinces until they were abolished in the 1870s.
History
Pre-Edo period
The concept of originated as the personal estates of prominent warriors after the rise of the Kamakura Shogunate in 1185, which also saw the rise of feudalism and the samurai noble warrior class in Japan. This situation existed for 400 years during the Kamakura Shogunate (1185–1333), the brief Kenmu Restoration (1333–1336), and the Ashikaga Shogunate (1336–1573). became increasingly important as de facto administrative divisions as subsequent Shoguns stripped the Imperial provinces () and their officials of their legal powers.
Edo period
Toyotomi Hideyoshi, the preeminent warlord of the late Sengoku period (1467–1603), caused a transformation of the system during his reforms of the feudal structure of Japan. Hideyoshi's system saw the become an abstraction based on periodic cadastral surveys and projected agricultural yields, rather than delineated territory. Hideyoshi died in 1598 and his young son Toyotomi Hideyori was displaced by Tokugawa Ieyasu after the Battle of Sekigahara in October 1600, but his new feudal system was maintained after Ieyasu established the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1603. The belonged to daimyo, the powerful samurai feudal lords, who governed them as personal property with autonomy as a vassal of the Tokugawa Shogun. Ieyasu's successors further refined the system by introducing methods that ensured control of the daimyo and the imperial court. For instance, relatives and retainers were placed politically and militarily strategic districts while potentially hostile daimyo were transferred to unimportant geographic locations or their estates confiscated. They were also occupied with public works that kept them financially drained as the daimyo paid for the bakufu projects.
Unlike Western feudalism, the value of a Japanese feudal domain was now defined in terms of projected annual income rather than geographic size. were valued for taxation using the system which determined value based on output of rice in , a Japanese unit of volume considered enough rice to feed one person for one year. A daimyo was determined by the Tokugawa as a lord heading a assessed at 10,000 (50,000 bushels) or more, and the output of their contributed to their prestige or how their wealth were assessed. Early Japanologists such as Georges Appert and Edmond Papinot made a point of highlighting the annual yields which were allocated for the Shimazu clan at Satsuma Domain since the 12th century. The Shogunal and the Imperial provinces served as complementary systems which often worked in tandem for administration. When the Shogun ordered the daimyos to make a census of their people or to make maps, the work was organized along the borders of the provinces. As a result, a could overlap multiple provinces which themselves contained sections of multiple . In 1690, the richest was the Kaga Domain, located in the provinces of Kaga, Etchū and Noto, with slightly over 1 million .
Meiji period
In 1868, the Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown in the Meiji Restoration by a coalition of pro-Imperial samurai in reaction to the . One of the main driving forces of the anti-Tokugawa movement was support for modernization and Westernization in Japan. From 1869 to 1871, the new Meiji government sought to abolish feudalism in Japan, and the title of daimyo in the system was altered to or . In 1871, almost all of the domains were disbanded and replaced with a new Meiji system of prefectures which were directly subordinate to the national government in Tokyo.
However, in 1872, the Meiji government created the Ryūkyū Domain after Japan formally annexed the Ryukyu Kingdom, a vassal state of the Shimazu clan of Satsuma since 1609. The Ryūkyū Domain was governed as a headed by the Ryukyuan monarchy until it was finally abolished and became Okinawa Prefecture in March 1879.
See also
List of Han
Han school
Shōen
Fanzhen
Demesne
Notes
References
Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 58053128
Totman, Conrad. (1993). Early Modern Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press. ; OCLC 246872663
Economy of feudal Japan
Edo period
Government of feudal Japan | [
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256550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny%20Everett | Kenny Everett | Maurice James Christopher Cole (25 December 1944 – 4 April 1995), better known as Kenny Everett, was an English comedian, radio disc jockey and television presenter. After spells on pirate radio and Radio Luxembourg in the mid-1960s, he was one of the first DJs to join BBC radio's newly-created BBC Radio 1 in 1967. It was here he developed his trademark voices and surreal characters which he later adapted for television.
Everett was dismissed from the BBC in 1970 after making remarks about a government minister's wife. He joined commercial radio when it became licensed in the UK, and joined Capital Radio. Starting in the late 1970s, he transitioned to television where he made numerous comedy series on ITV and BBC, often appearing with Cleo Rocos, whose glamorous and curvaceous figure was often used to comic effect. Rocos would be his assistant in the 1987 BBC gameshow Brainstorm, often demonstrating electronic gadgets with the contestants then having to guess what each is used for. He was a highly versatile performer, able to write his own scripts, compose jingles and operate advanced recording and mixing equipment. His personality also made him a regular guest on chat shows and on such comedy game shows as Blankety Blank.
Everett openly supported the UK's Conservative Party under Margaret Thatcher and made publicity appearances at conferences and rallies. As a closeted gay man, however, he later faced criticism for supporting the Conservative government after it had enacted Section 28, a clause of the Local Government Act which made it illegal for councils to promote gay rights and issues. He was diagnosed with HIV in 1989 and died in 1995.
Early life
Maurice James Christopher Cole was born in Seaforth, Lancashire, now in Merseyside, on Christmas Day 1944. From a Catholic family, he attended St Bede's, the local secondary modern school, in Crosby (now part of Sacred Heart Catholic College). Cole later attended a junior seminary at Stillington, North Yorkshire, near York, with an Italian missionary order, the Verona Fathers, where he was a choirboy. After he left school, he worked in a bakery and in the advertising department of The Journal of Commerce and Shipping Telegraph.
Radio
Radio London, Radio Luxembourg and BBC Radio 1
Everett's first break (as Maurice Cole) came when he sent a tape to the BBC in 1962. He was interviewed at the BBC and offered a job as a presenter on the BBC Light Programme, the forerunner to BBC Radio 2. He declined, however, in favour of the less constrained world of pirate radio, where he began his career as a DJ for Radio London. It was while working here that he was advised to change his name to avoid legal problems. He adopted the name "Everett" from a childhood hero, the American film comic actor Edward Everett Horton.
Everett teamed with Dave Cash for the Kenny & Cash Show, one of the most popular pirate radio programmes. His offbeat style and likeable personality quickly gained him attention, but in 1965 he was dismissed after some outspoken remarks about religion on air. Like most of the pirate stations, Radio London carried sponsored American evangelical shows and Everett's disparaging remarks about The World Tomorrow caused its producers to threaten to withdraw their lucrative contract with the station. Everett returned six months later, however, before being given his own show by Radio Luxembourg in 1966.
Johnny Beerling, a BBC producer, secretly visited Radio London at this time and observed Everett at work: "I saw this man Everett doing everything. In the old way of doing things, the DJ sat in one room with a script. Someone else played the records and somebody else controlled the sound. Yet I see this man who has control of everything." An audition tape submitted to the BBC was assessed in March 1967 by a panel:
"Member one: 'A pseudo-American voice. Sounds experienced and seems to fancy his luck. Yes.'
Member two: 'By far the most original of the young DJs. I found the stilted bits in bad taste but with suitable restraint and encouragement, Kenny Everett could be one of the BBC's best DJs. Yes.'
Member three: 'Without the hard sell and the occasional phoney American accent, a good pop DJ. Must be made to curb the funnies and the voices. Yes.'
Member four: 'I found the continuous changes of voices irritating and his personality supercilious but he certainly has some talent. Should be available but would need very firm production. Yes.'"
Everett was heard in May 1967 on the BBC's soon-to-be-discontinued BBC Light Programme previewing the Beatles' forthcoming album Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band, and was one of the DJs on the new pop music station Radio 1 from its launch at the end of September 1967. Everett had struck up a friendship with the Beatles and accompanied them on their August 1966 tour of the United States, sending back daily reports for Radio London. He also produced their 1968 and 1969 Christmas records.
At Radio 1 Everett continued to develop his distinctive presentation style, encouraged by producer Angela Bond who had persuaded her superiors to give him his first programme, although he later reacted against her as a representative of the BBC. Everett's Radio 1 show featured zany voices, surreal characters, multi-tracked jingles and trailers, all of his own creation and compilation. It was Everett who had persuaded Johnny Beerling and station controller Robin Scott, at a lunch meeting before his appointment, of the importance of the new station having jingles. Everett's shows on Radio 1 included Midday Spin and in 1968 he took over a Saturday show from 10am to noon.
In 1970, Everett again found himself dismissed, this time after suggesting on air that Mary Peyton, the British Transport Minister's wife, had bribed her driving test examiner. The remark was a spontaneous quip, following a news item describing how Peyton had finally passed after many attempts. The BBC thought the comment "indefensible", although shortly before the incident Everett had given a controversial interview with Melody Maker contrary to a BBC embargo preventing him from giving interviews. In negotiations with the record companies and the Musicians' Union over needle time, a limit on the playing on-air of commercially recorded music, the MU representatives would complain about Everett, the one BBC broadcaster who persistently mocked them. In fact, in the year after Everett's death, it was stated that the bribery quip was merely an excuse and that the real reason was because he threatened to go public on the restrictive practices and deals with the Musicians Union that were not only frustrating him and his listeners, but also making Radio One much less popular than the pirate stations it had been set up to displace.
Following an interview on the BBC Radio Solent children's show Albert's Gang, Everett submitted weekly shows to the station that he had pre-recorded at home. This afforded the BBC the opportunity to vet the shows before broadcast. Everett was then heard on various BBC local radio stations before being reinstated at Radio 1 in April 1973. Here he recorded a weekly show from his home in Wales and it went out at 1:00 on a Sunday afternoon.
Capital Radio
During this time, legislation had been passed allowing the licensing of commercial radio stations in the UK. One of the first, Capital Radio, began broadcasting to London and the Home Counties in October 1973. Everett joined the station and was given a weekend (recorded) show, where he further developed his distinctive ideas. From January 1974, following poor audience figures which in turn followed a difficult start for Capital during a time of industrial strife, the station changed to a more pop based, rather than light music, format, with Everett presenting the breakfast show with his former colleague and friend from the pirate station Radio London (Big L) days, Dave Cash, and so reactivating the "Kenny and Cash" show. When Cash moved to the lunchtime slot in 1975, Everett continued alone on the breakfast show. Everett had a great love of sound recording equipment, in particular using reel-to-reel tape recorders and mixing equipment, often adding sound-on-sound to his recordings and stereo/multi-track recordings of his pseudo-singing voice. These were broadcast on air regularly and he often created his own radio jingles. Everett created many comedy characters on The Breakfast Show with Cash on Capital.
In May 1975, Everett found early mornings too much for his lifestyle and he vacated the breakfast show to Graham Dene and moved to less high-pressure weekend timeslots at Capital on Saturday and Sunday lunchtimes. Here he further developed his style and his cult following, and featured both what he thought the best in music (Queen, Chris Rainbow) and the worst, which led to the popular Kenny Everett's World's Worst Record Show programmes, later released as an album in 1978, with slightly different tracks.
In 1975, Everett played a pivotal role in getting Queen's "Bohemian Rhapsody" released as a single. In 1976, he also presented a pre-recorded programme on Saturday lunch-time for Radio Victory in Portsmouth, later providing Captain Kremmen to the station for transmission in Dave Christian's late show.
BBC Radio and back to Capital
On 5 February 1980, Everett made his only appearance on the BBC Radio 4 show Just a Minute, where he spoke on the subject of marbles for 90 seconds. The extended improvisation was imposed by Nicholas Parsons as a practical joke.
In October 1981, Everett returned to BBC Radio, this time on Radio 2, on Saturdays from 11:00a.m. to 1:00p.m, but the show was cancelled in 1983, after he made a risqué on-air joke about Margaret Thatcher.
Everett returned to Capital Radio in June 1984, reviving his Saturday lunchtime show. In May 1985, he was called in to replace Graeme Garden for one episode of the Radio 4 game show I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue. After Capital split its frequencies in 1988, he returned to daily broadcasting on Capital Gold, as part of a strong presenting line-up including Tony Blackburn and David Hamilton. Everett presented daytime shows on weekdays until 1994, when his health deteriorated to the point he was unable to continue. During that same year, he was awarded the Special Gold Award at Sony's Radio Academy Awards for his contribution to radio.
Timeline
Kenny & Cash Show, Radio London, 196465
Kenny Everett Audio Show, Radio Luxembourg, 1966
Midday Spin, BBC Radio 1, 1967
Foreverett, BBC Radio 1, Monday to Friday 6.45p.m.7.30p.m., 22 July 19686 December 1968
Everett is Here, BBC Radio 1, Saturdays 10a.m.noon, 25 January 196918 July 1970
Kenny Everett Radio Show, BBC Local Radio, 1971
Kenny Everett Radio Show, BBC Radio 1, Sundays 1p.m.3p.m.,1973
Breakfast Show, Capital Radio, 197374
Kenny Everett Audio Show/Cassette, Capital Radio, 19741980
Kenny Everett Audio Show/Cassette, Radio Victory, 197576
Captain Kremmen, Radio Victory, 1976
Kenny Everett Radio Show, BBC Radio 2, Saturdays 11a.m.1p.m., 19811983
Kenny Everett Audio Show, Capital Radio, Saturdays 11a.m.1p.m., 19841988
Weekday afternoons, Capital Gold, 1p.m.4p.m., 19881991
Weekday mid-mornings, Capital Gold, 9a.m.noon, 19911994
Television
Everett's first screen appearance was in the 1965 film Dateline Diamonds, which had a plot based around the pirate ship MV Galaxy. He also appeared in several television series, beginning in 1968 with a production for Granada Television called Nice Time which was co-presented by Germaine Greer and Jonathan Routh. In 1970 he made three series for London Weekend Television (LWT): The Kenny Everett Explosion, Making Whoopee and Ev; and he also took part (along with such talents as Willie Rushton and John Wells) in the 1972 BBC TV series Up Sunday.
In 1973, Everett provided the voice of the cat 'Charley' in the Charley Says animated series of public information films. Everett was the announcer on the original version of ATV's "big box game" Celebrity Squares which ran on ITV from 1975 to 1979.
He was a frequent panel guest on the BBC quiz show Blankety Blank. On his first appearance in 1979, he unexpectedly bent Terry Wogan's microphone, the so-called Wogan's Wand. This became a running joke whenever Everett appeared on the show. He also hosted two short-lived quiz shows late in his career, Brainstorm and Gibberish. He was a team captain on That's Showbusiness.
The Kenny Everett Video Show
In 1978, London's Thames Television offered him a new venture, which became the Kenny Everett Video Show. This was a vehicle for Everett's characters and sketches (his fellow writers were Ray Cameron, Barry Cryer and Dick Vosburgh), interspersed with the latest pop hits, either performed by the artists themselves, or as backing tracks to dance routines by Arlene Phillips' risqué dance troupe Hot Gossip (which featured Sarah Brightman).
Various pop and TV stars made cameo appearances on the show, including Rod Stewart, Elkie Brooks, Billy Connolly, Kate Bush, Cliff Richard, Freddie Mercury, Terry Wogan and Suzi Quatro. Classical musicians such as Julian Lloyd Webber also appeared.
There were also the stories of Captain Kremmen, a science fiction hero voiced by Everett and originally developed for his Capital Radio shows, who travelled the galaxy battling fictional alien menaces, along with his assistant Dr Gitfinger and his voluptuous sidekick Carla. In the first three series these segments were animations created by the Cosgrove-Hall partnership (responsible for the successful children's cartoon series Danger Mouse, among many others). In the fourth series (Video Cassette), Kremmen was featured as live action with Anna Dawson playing Carla; the segments were comedy shorts rather than the earlier stories.
Other characters included: ageing rock-and-roller Sid Snot, unsuccessfully flipping cigarettes into his mouth – at one point Everett managed to catch one in his mouth, to the amusement of the studio crew; Marcel Wave, a lecherous Frenchman played by Everett wearing an absurdly false latex chin; and "Angry of Mayfair", a right-wing upper middle class City gent complaining of the permissive, risqué content of the show, banging the camera's lens hood with his umbrella before storming off, turning his back to the camera to reveal him wearing women's lingerie in lieu of the entire back half of his suit.
He also created the never-seen character of "Lord Thames", supposedly the owner of Thames Television (the company was actually owned by two conglomerates). The character was often the butt of Everett's rants and was said to symbolise his contempt for senior management at the company, claiming they lived behind an ancient, cobweb-covered door marked as the "Office of Saying 'No'". Thames never disciplined him for these comments, unlike prior employers such as the BBC.
The show ran for four series on ITV. The last episode of Series 3 ended with Everett giving a farewell speech as the set and scenery was being stripped down by the crew. The final shot before the closing credits was Everett himself being picked up and placed inside an oversized dustbin.
The fourth series was retitled The Kenny Everett Video Cassette and was more of a comedy programme than the previous three series, which relied more on music acts.
The Kenny Everett Television Show
Everett fell out with Thames regarding the management of his show, including the scheduling against the BBC's top-rated Top of the Pops on Thursday evenings. The BBC offered him a live-audience sketch-format comedy programme, starting with a Christmas special on BBC1 in 1981, followed by five primetime series between 1982 and 1988. The writing team was bolstered by the addition of Andrew Marshall, David Renwick and Neil Shand and the production standards were raised by the heavier investment from the corporation.
Thames Television claimed copyright on Everett's characters and tried to prevent their use by the BBC. Although this action failed, it did lead to the creation of new characters such as General Cheeseburger whose monologues were seen as a satire on US foreign policy, agony aunt Verity Treacle, mime artist Maurice Mimer whose drawings turn into real objects, upper class socialite Jeremy Mince who was perpetually drunk on champagne, orange-haired punk Gizzard Puke (intended to replace Sid Snot) and the spooneristically named Cupid Stunt, a blonde glamorous American B-movie actress with pneumatic breasts. Played in full drag but with no attempt to disguise Everett's beard, she told a chat show host
– implied to be Michael Parkinson (and later Terry Wogan) but depicted as a skeleton in a suit – about her latest trashy film projects, and lurid tales of life on set with Burt Reynolds and other male stars of the era. Her final action in each sketch was to uncross her legs then swing them wildly to recross them (brazenly giving viewers an eyeful of her racy red lingerie) as she uttered the catchphrase "It's all done in the best possible taste!" Inept TV handyman Reg Prescott became another firm viewers' favourite, as each week he managed to visibly injure himself with tools whilst attempting to demonstrate DIY tips. Revived characters from the previous series included Sid Snot, Marcel Wave, Brother Lee Love, Angry of Mayfair and the Constable. Each episode in season 3 featured a version of "Snot Rap - Part II" by one or more of Everett's main characters.
Brazilian-born Cleo Rocos co-starred in the BBC series. She often appeared in nothing more than frilly underwear and high heels.
Timeline
Nice Time, Granada Television, 1968
The Kenny Everett Explosion, LWT, 1970
The Kenny Everett Video Show, Thames Television, 19781980
The Kenny Everett Video Cassette, Thames Television, 1981
The Kenny Everett Television Show, BBC1, 19811988
Brainstorm, BBC1, 1988
That's Showbusiness (team captain), BBC1, 19891991
Gibberish, BBC1, 1992
Video
In 1981, Everett, Cryer and Cameron teamed up with Brothers Music to target the emerging home video market with a VHS release called The Kenny Everett Naughty Joke Box, which was followed a year later by another Brothers Music VHS release called The New Kenny Everett Naughty Video. Produced and directed by co-writer Ray Cameron, this 'too rude for television' production would get a nationwide Freeview broadcast under the name Kenny Everett Naughty Video by That's TV in January 2022. The video was recorded with an audience (in-vision beside Everett for much of the time), whilst co-writer Barry Cryer has an on-screen role, appearing as a guest alongside Lionel Blair and Willie Rushton. Sheila Steafel, Cleo Rocos, Debbie Linden, Linda Lusardi and Jane Score also feature in the cast, while Nikolai Grishanovich turns up at the end to make a comment about the Soviet Union. Characters appearing in the video include Gizzard Puke, Marcel Wave, Sid Snot and a caricature of an Australian called Bris Troop, whilst the video has a running joke about people at a line of urinals.
Film
Everett made one foray into film with 1984's Bloodbath at the House of Death, a spoof of Hammer horror films, which was penned by Everett's usual writing partners Barry Cryer and Ray Cameron (who also directed the film). Vincent Price was featured as the villain, credited only as the "Sinister Man", and a number of other popular comedians and actors also appeared, including Pamela Stephenson, Gareth Hunt and Don Warrington. Several regulars from Everett's television series also appeared.
Music
In 1977, Everett collaborated with Mike Vickers to release the single Captain Kremmen, based on one of his comedy characters. It peaked at number 32 in the UK charts on 12 November.
In 1983 Kenny Everett released the single "Snot Rap", ostensibly sung by two of his TV characters, Sid Snot and Cupid Stunt. This would peak at number 9 in the UK charts for the week ending 16 April. the song peaked at number 91 in Australia. A sequel single, "Snot Rap - Part II", again performed in character, was released in 1985.
Personal life
Everett married the singer and psychic Audrey "Lady Lee" Middleton at Kensington Register Office on 2 June 1969. By September 1979, they had separated, and he stopped publicly denying his homosexuality in the late-1980s. His co-host David Cash, in the documentary Unforgettable Kenny Everett, states that "Once I got to know him socially off the ship, it was very obvious that his sexual tendencies were homosexual and he looked at it as bad and so he fought it all the way." One of his first boyfriends, a waiter called Dave Nealon, was a match found for Everett by his former wife. In 1985 after coming out, he introduced his "two husbands" - Nikolai Grishanovich and Pepe Flores - to the media; Everett contracted HIV from Grishanovich, who died of AIDS in 1991.
Politics
During the 1983 general election campaign, the Young Conservatives invited Everett to their conference in an attempt to attract the youth vote. Egged on by film director Michael Winner, Everett bounded onto the stage, wearing the enormously oversized foam rubber hands familiar from his mock-evangelical character Brother Lee Love. He shouted slogans such as "Let's bomb Russia!" and "Let's kick Michael Foot's stick away!" to loud applause. (Michael Foot was the ageing leader of the Labour Party at the time, who used a walking stick.) Everett later said he regretted the appearance and said that he had taken the foam hands to the rally because the Tories "asked me first".
In an interview on Ireland's The Late Late Show with Gay Byrne and Sinéad O'Connor in February 1989, Everett was challenged by O'Connor about his support for the Conservative Party in the light of his homosexuality and the party's Section 28 addition to the Local Government Act. Everett clarified that he was not a "full Tory", but that he had been appalled by the actions of Arthur Scargill, whom he saw as "inciting violence" and "rabble rousing" and who he thought looked like "Hitler reborn". He had consequently supported the actions of Margaret Thatcher in opposing Scargill. He said he would stand up for gay rights if he were asked providing "it was a jolly occasion", but he also felt that being in a minority and in the public eye, he could do more for gay rights by showing that he was funny and human rather than by marching in the streets.
Freddie Mercury
Everett became close friends with Freddie Mercury, the lead singer of Queen, after they met on Everett's breakfast radio show on Capital Radio in 1974.
In 1988, Middleton, who had subsequently remarried to actor John Alkin, published an autobiography with a foreword from Everett. After its publication and newspaper serialisation, however, Everett denounced the book for outing him. Mercury reportedly sided with Middleton. The fallout resulted in Middleton and Everett communicating only via their lawyers.
A year later, Everett and Mercury were reconciled when both were suffering with health issues due to complications with HIV. Mercury died in November 1991.
Death
Everett was diagnosed as HIV positive in 1989 and he made his condition known to the public in 1993. He died from an AIDS-related illness on 4 April 1995, aged 50. A Catholic requiem mass was held at Church of the Immaculate Conception in Mayfair, London. His body was cremated at Mortlake Crematorium.
Legacy
In 1981 Everett co-wrote a semi-fictitious autobiography entitled The Custard Stops at Hatfield. It was published by Willow Books an imprint of Collins, in September 1982.
Everett is the subject of a 1997 episode of the Thames Television series Heroes of Comedy which covers his life and career from his beginnings on pirate radio until his death. Celebrities such as Steve Wright, Cliff Richard, Cleo Rocos, Barry Cryer, Jeremy Beadle, Terry Wogan and Barry Took appear and talk about their experiences, collaborations and friendships with Everett and his influence on them.
On 18 November 2007, ITV1 broadcast a tribute show to Everett entitled Licence to Laugh. This celebrated the 30 years since he first appeared on ITV with the Kenny Everett Video Show (Thames Television). Friends and colleagues revealed what it was like to know and work with the man they affectionately dubbed "Cuddly Ken". Additionally, contemporary celebrities such as Chris Moyles and Chris Tarrant talked about their love for the funny entertainer and discussed the ways in which Everett had influenced them and their work. It also featured archive footage.
The documentary When Freddie Mercury Met Kenny Everett, broadcast on Channel 4, tells the story of the relationship between the two men from the moment they met in 1974 when Mercury was a guest on Everett's radio show, through lovers and drug taking to when both died of AIDS. It features affectionate interviews by many people who were close to him.
In March 2010 the BBC confirmed that it was producing a 90-minute TV biographical film called Number One in Heaven, to be written by Tim Whitnall and focusing on Everett's unhappiness at secondary school.
On 3 October 2012 the BBC broadcast a 90-minute TV biopic called The Best Possible Taste which focused on the performer's relationship with his wife, singer Lee Middleton. Oliver Lansley played the part of Everett and Katherine Kelly that of Middleton.
Dickie Beau portrayed Everett in the 2018 film Bohemian Rhapsody, a biographical musical drama about the life of Freddie Mercury.
References
Further reading
External links
Screenonline – Kenny Everett
Extract from 'The Custard Stops at Hatfield'
Kenny Everett's World's Worst Wireless Show
Radio Rewind – Kenny Everett
The Radio Academy Hall of Fame – Kenny Everett
Pirate Radio Hall of Fame E to G
Aircheck Legends – Kenny Everett
kennyeverett.co.uk tribute site
Radio London Kenny Everett Tribute Pages
Kenny Everett's World's Worst Wireless Show, complete details of these shows
Kenny Everett's Radio Days on BBC 7 Listen Again
BBC Everett Cult TV site
Kenny Everett Portsmouth recordings found
1944 births
1995 deaths
20th-century English male actors
20th-century English musicians
20th-century English comedians
AIDS-related deaths in England
BBC Radio 1 presenters
BBC Radio 2 presenters
British male comedy actors
Comedians from Liverpool
Conservative Party (UK) people
Copywriters
English radio DJs
English radio people
English Roman Catholics
English television presenters
Gay comedians
LGBT conservatism
LGBT broadcasters from the United Kingdom
LGBT musicians from England
LGBT Roman Catholics
LGBT DJs
Offshore radio broadcasters
People from Seaforth, Merseyside
Actors from Lancashire
Actors from Liverpool
Pirate radio personalities
Radio Luxembourg (English) presenters
Radio presenters from Liverpool
20th-century LGBT people
Top of the Pops presenters | [
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256556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20cowboys%20and%20cowgirls | List of cowboys and cowgirls | The following list of cowboys and cowgirls from the frontier era of the American Old West (circa 1830 to 1910) was compiled to show examples of the cowboy and cowgirl genre.
Cattlemen, ranchers, and cowboys
Earl W. Bascom (1906-1995)
*John Chisum (1824–1884)
Charles Francis Colcord (1859–1934)
*Jesse Lincoln "J.T." Driskill (1824–1890)
Andrew Drumm (1828–1919)
Frank "Pistol Pete" Eaton (1860–1958)
John King Fisher (1854–1884)
Charles Goodnight (1836–1929)
*Richard King (1824–1885)
Pete Kitchen (1822–1895)
Raymond Knight (rodeo organizer) (1872–1947)
George W. Littlefield (1842–1920)
Oliver Loving (1812–1867)
*George W. McJunkin (1851–1922)
Robert Benjamin "Ben" Masterson (1853–1931)
William Mayfield (1810–1862)
Frank H. Maynard (1853–1926)
*Zachary Taylor "Zack" Miller (1878–1952)
Burton C. Mossman (1867–1956)
Thomas O'Connor (1819–1887)
William "Bill" Pickett (1870–1932)
Abel Head "Shanghai" Pierce (1834–1900)
Will Rogers (1879–1935)
Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919)
Charles Angelo "Charlie" Siringo (1855–1928)
John Ware (~1845–1905)
*Nate Champion (1857-1892)
Wild West show and rodeo performers
Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995)
Yakima Canutt (1896–1986)
William Frederick "Buffalo Bill" Cody (1846–1917)
James Butler "Wild Bill" Hickok (1837–1876)
Raymond Knight (1872–1947)
Texas Jack Omohundro (1846–1880)
Texas Jack, Jr. (1860–1905)
Jack Hoxie (1885–1965)
Gordon William "Pawnee Bill" Lillie (1860–1942)
May Lillie, née Manning (1869–1936)
Thomas E. "Tom" Mix (1880–1940)
Lucille Mulhall (1885–1940)
Annie Oakley (1860–1926)
Will Rogers (1879–1935)
Connie Douglas Reeves (1901–2003)
Gabriel Dumont (1837–1906)
Fictional
*Hopalong Cassidy
Cisco Kid
Lucky Luke
Red Ryder
Shane
Tonto
Zorro
Barbarosa
*Pecos Bill and Slue-Foot Sue
*Jesse McCree
Hol Horse
Arthur Morgan
John Marston
Hosea Matthews (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Sadie Adler (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Dutch Van Der linde (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Javier Escuella (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Bill Williamson (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Red Harlow (Red Dead Revolver)
Jack Marston (Red Dead Redemption)
Charles Smith (Red Dead Redemption 2)
Micah Bell (Red Dead Redemption 2)
See also
List of American Old West outlaws
List of Western lawmen
References
Cowboys
Lists of American people by occupation
American Old West-related lists
People of the American Old West | [
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256559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheila%20Copps | Sheila Copps | Sheila Maureen Copps (born November 27, 1952) is a former Canadian politician who also served as the sixth deputy prime minister of Canada from November 4, 1993, to April 30, 1996, and June 19, 1996, to June 11, 1997. Her father, Victor Copps, was once mayor of Hamilton, Ontario.
Considered a prominent left-wing member of the Liberal Party of Canada, Copps was an advocate for legal rights of women, marijuana legalization, minority rights, and protection of the environment. Her combative style and reputation for flamboyance were trademarks of her political career.
Early life
Copps was born in Hamilton, Ontario. She is a second-generation member of a political family that has dominated Hamilton-area politics on the municipal, provincial and federal levels. Her mother, Geraldine Florence (Guthro) Copps, was a Hamilton city councillor. Her father, Victor Kennedy Copps, was one of the most influential mayors of the City of Hamilton. She attended Bishop Ryan Catholic Secondary School. As a child, Copps participated in Girl Guides of Canada youth programs.
She is married to Austin Thorne (her third husband), and has one daughter, Danelle (from her second marriage). She was the first sitting Member of Parliament in Canadian history to give birth.
Copps earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in French and English from King's University College at the University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario, and pursued further studies at McMaster University in Hamilton and the University of Rouen in France. She worked as a newspaper journalist with the Hamilton Spectator and the Ottawa Citizen.
Political career
Copps entered provincial politics in the 1977 provincial election, running for the Ontario Liberal Party in Hamilton Centre. She lost, finishing 14 votes behind incumbent New Democrat Mike Davison. Copps appeared on the ballot for this election as "Sheila Copps Miller", using the surname of her then-husband. In all subsequent campaigns, she would refer to herself as "Sheila Copps."
After working as a constituency assistant to party leader Stuart Smith for the next four years, Copps again ran in Hamilton Centre for the 1981 election. She defeated Davison by 2,804 votes, and joined thirty-three other Liberals in forming the Official Opposition to Premier William Davis's Progressive Conservative government. Copps ran for the leadership of the Ontario Liberal Party in 1982 following Smith's resignation, and despite her lack of experience finished a strong second against David Peterson.
Copps turned to national politics in the 1984 federal election, campaigning for the federal Liberals in the riding of Hamilton East. This election resulted in a landslide victory for Brian Mulroney and his Progressive Conservative Party, which won 211 out of 282 seats. Copps was personally elected, defeating New Democratic Party candidate David Christopherson by 2,661 votes, but had relatively few allies in the House of Commons for the next four years.
Copps proved to be an influential member of the small Liberal opposition. She became a prominent member of the "Rat Pack," a group of young Liberal MPs who made it their business to bring misery to the Mulroney government. Fully bilingual, she earned both praise and scorn for her spirited attacks on Mulroney and his ministers. She released her autobiography, Nobody's Baby, only two years into her federal career, and was by all accounts a rising star in Canadian politics. The book came after Minister of Justice John Crosbie told Copps to "just quieten [sic] down, baby" during a heated debate. Copps retorted, "I am nobody's baby."
In 1987, Copps became the first sitting MP in Canadian history to give birth, when her daughter Danelle was born. Later, Copps commented that she became part of her "entourage," making friends across the country. In 1988, Copps was re-elected without difficulty in the federal election.
Copps was a candidate in the 1990 Liberal leadership race to succeed John Turner. She finished third, behind Jean Chrétien and Paul Martin.
In 1992, Copps supported Murray Elston's unsuccessful bid to succeed David Peterson as leader of the Ontario Liberal Party.
Federal minister
The Liberals came to power in the 1993 election, defeating Kim Campbell's Tories. Chrétien became prime minister following the election, and named Copps as deputy prime minister and minister of the environment. This marked the first time in Canadian history that a woman had been named to the post of deputy prime minister. Following a 1996 cabinet shuffle, she relinquished the Environment portfolio and became Minister of Canadian Heritage.
Copps resigned briefly in the spring of 1996. One of Chrétien's campaign promises had been to abolish Brian Mulroney's highly unpopular Goods and Services Tax, a promise he later reneged on in an effort to avoid decreasing government revenues. During the 1993 election campaign, Copps promised during a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation "town hall" program that she would resign if the GST was not abolished. Copps, after some pressure, vacated her Hamilton East seat in 1996, and promptly ran again in the ensuing by-election.
During the by-election, Reform put up billboards around her riding, one featuring a pig at a trough with "SHEILA" marked on it; and another with her picture and, "Promise to cut the GST: It worked last time!" Copps won handily, though with a significantly reduced percentage of the vote from 1993, and Chrétien reinstated her to her previous cabinet posts. During her victory speech, she noted that the Liberals "kicked butt" in the by-election; a controversial editorial cartoon in the right-wing Toronto Sun tabloid the next day portrayed Hamilton East voters as "buttheads."
Following the 1997 election, Copps was removed from the position of deputy prime minister, which was given to political stalwart Herb Gray. Copps made little upward progress in cabinet after this demotion, and by many accounts came to have relatively little influence over the direction of government policy. Many believe that Anne McLellan surpassed her as the most prominent woman in government during this period.
Following Jean Chrétien's announcement of his intent to retire in February 2004, Copps became the first candidate to officially declare for the party leadership. Despite her efforts to build support among women, minority groups and the party's left-wing, she began and ended the leadership contest well behind the overwhelming favourite, Paul Martin. While her national campaigning saw her sign up over 32,000 new party members, some speculated that she would withdraw prior to the Liberal leadership convention, as John Manley had.
Nomination battle before 2004 federal election
Riding redistribution placed Copps in a serious nomination battle with another Liberal MP, Tony Valeri, who was named to Martin's cabinet as Minister of Transport. With redistribution, part of Valeri's Stoney Creek riding was merged with part of Copps's Hamilton East to create Hamilton East—Stoney Creek, while the remainder was merged with other neighbouring ridings to create Niagara West—Glanbrook. The remaining portion of Hamilton East was merged with parts of Hamilton West to create Hamilton Centre. Of the 115,709 constituents of the riding of Hamilton East—Stoney Creek, a slight majority of constituents (58,462) were from the old Stoney Creek while a minority (57,247) were from the old Hamilton East
Copps's position was that Valeri should have sought the nomination in Niagara West—Glanbrook, where he resided, and where there was a regional airport that would complement his transport portfolio. Valeri's position was that the majority of his former Stoney Creek constituents lived in the new Hamilton East—Stoney Creek riding, Copps no longer lived in Hamilton and he resided less than 100 metres from the riding boundary.
In a December interview with Hamilton's CHCH-TV, Copps complained that Martin was trying to drive her, other women and other Martin opponents out of the Liberal caucus. Beth Phinney, who represented nearby Hamilton Mountain, offered to stand down in favour of Copps, but Copps turned this offer down. On January 14, 2004, she suggested that she could campaign for the New Democratic Party in the upcoming election if Valeri won the Liberal nomination. Copps later retracted this threat.
On March 6, 2004, Valeri defeated Copps by 2,802 votes to 2,491. Copps argued that there were improprieties in the nomination process and in the conduct of the vote, and called on various authorities to investigate (other nomination elections between Chrétien and Martin supporters had similar allegations of tampering). She initially appealed the vote results to the Liberal Party of Canada. Her appeal was late as it was filed beyond the 72-hour deadline after the commencement of the nomination meeting, but the Appeals Commission of the Liberal Party waived the deadline. Nevertheless, Copps dropped the appeal on March 29, alleging a lack of transparency in the process.
In July 2005, Hamilton police announced a formal end to the investigation after finding no evidence to substantiate Copps's allegations including tampering of her telephones on the day of the nomination. As the access codes to her phone system were apparently listed on a bulletin board, the police estimated that at least 40 individuals had access to the phone system.
Post-political career
On May 14, 2004, Copps stood in the House of Commons of Canada and announced she would not run for re-election as an independent. She later suggested in comments to reporters that she might return to politics once Paul Martin was no longer prime minister. In her first public engagement after departing politics, she accepted a role in a Kingston, Ontario dinner theatre production of Steel Magnolias. She also guest-starred on the evening soap opera Train 48.
Her second autobiography, Worth Fighting For, was published by McClelland and Stewart in October 2004, and resulted in further public controversy with Paul Martin and other members of the Liberal Party. Copps alleged that Martin had put a pledge in his 1995 budget to rescind the "outdated" Canada Health Act, and further claimed that her intervention had the offending line removed from the document. Her allegations were denied by Martin and David Dodge (who Copps claims faxed her the draft of the budget), Diane Marleau (who was Health Minister at the time), and others.
After leaving politics, Copps wrote regular commentary for the National Post. In September 2005, concurrent with a redesign, she was introduced as a regular columnist for the Toronto Sun which was also published in various Sun papers across Canada. Copps quit her column in December 2007.
She also hosts a weekly syndicated radio talk show, Weekends with Sheila Copps, focusing on lifestyle issues such as health and financial planning. She succeeded Dini Petty as host of the series. She is also employed by Quebecor, a Canadian media distribution company and then-owner of the Sun newspaper chain for which Copps previously wrote. In this capacity, she has been working on a new series for the History Television channel.
In March 2006, the Saint-Jean-Baptiste Society of Montreal, a prominent sovereigntist group, demanded $100,000 from Copps, claiming that she had defamed them in a television interview on January 6, 2006. Sovereigntists claim that Options Canada illegally spent $3.5 million to promote federalism in Quebec, while Copps claimed that the St-Jean Baptiste Society spent $4.8 million from the Quebec Government to promote sovereignty, which the group denies. Copps claims that she had been unaware of the group's demands until she was approached for comment by reporters on March 5, 2006, and that she has yet to receive any legal notice from the group.
In 2006, subsequent to Paul Martin's resignation as prime minister, Copps decided not to seek the Liberal leadership.
Following the 2006 election, Liberal MP Paul Zed (Liberal, New Brunswick) and former MP Dennis Mills (Liberal, Ontario) organized a gala event to pay tribute to Copps and heal wounds caused by party infighting. Held on March 23, 2006, the event was attended by a host of prominent Liberals, including former Prime Minister John Turner, and Aline Chrétien. The event also served as a fundraiser for Liberal women in Canadian politics.
As the daughter of late Hamilton Mayor Victor Copps, she has long been the object of speculation as to whether or not she would follow in the footsteps of her father, recently stating that, if she were to return to politics, she would do so "it would be in my hometown and nowhere else."
Copps ran to be president of the Liberal Party of Canada in 2012 but lost to Mike Crawley by 26 votes. Following the defeat, Copps announced her retirement from politics stating that while she would continue to volunteer in political campaigns she would not be running for office again. She was appointed an officer of the Order of Canada on December 30, 2012.
On November 10, 2014, Copps stated that she has been sexually assaulted and raped and one of the incidents happened while she was serving in the Provincial Parliament of Ontario. She said she felt compelled to come forward with the allegations after tweeting support for former Q host Jian Ghomeshi.
SNC-Lavalin affair
At the height of the SNC-Lavalin affair during the Premiership of Justin Trudeau, Copps became known for being outspoken and interviewed as an opinion regarding the affair despite no personal involvement in present-day politics.
After Jody Wilson-Raybould and Jane Philpott resigned from their posts citing the government's handling of the matter, Copps repeatedly publicly called for their "firing" in the form of dismissal from the Liberal caucus. Copps argued Wilson-Raybould and Philpott's resignations amounted to a betrayal of Justin Trudeau's leadership and their presence continued to foment internal political divisions within the Liberal caucus. Copps directly pointed the blame on Wilson-Raybould and Philpott for "the public mud-dragging that you've taken the prime minister through."
Despite not serving in any capacity under Trudeau's government, Copps continued to publicly assail the competencies of Wilson-Raybould and Philpott, alleging "while they had policy experience, they lacked political experience" and "when you don’t have a lot of political experience, the pressure gets too hot for you [and] I think that pressure has probably gotten to them, unfortunately." Sought out by CBC News for commentary, she wrote in an email that both "are doing their best to destroy their leader." Unprompted, Copps went as far as to say Wilson-Raybould and Philpott had "gone rogue" and were not "wizened political people." She claimed without providing evidence that Wilson-Raybould “doesn't really like to listen to other people, including the prime minister” and argued both she and Philpott were architects of their own victimization narrative being used for personal gain at the expense of the Prime Minister. Copps again disparaged Wilson-Raybould’s working relationship with her colleagues, alleging “[she] was running her own show, and nobody was going to tell her what to do anywhere.” Indigenous leaders argued the criticisms perpetuated colonial-era, sexist stereotypes that Indigenous women could not be powerful, forthright, and steadfast in positions of power, but rather confrontational, meddling and egotistic.
In a Twitter exchange with Jonathan Kay, Copps implied Wilson-Raybould’s conduct was one of a “bitch.” When concerns were raised that her diction made Indigenous issues sound menacing, Copps was "baffled," since to her "[the aboriginal agenda] only had positive connotations.” Another tweet saw Copps imply Jody Wilson-Raybould, a member of the We Wai Kai Nation, would have cared more about intervening in SNC-Lavalin’s prosecution had the 9000 jobs reportedly at stake in Quebec instead been 9000 jobs held by Aboriginal people. Copps later denied her implication that Wilson-Raybould was working for Indigenous communities more than the general public. When queried about the racial undertones behind her messaging and reasoning, Copps responded: "Anybody who knows me knows I'm not a racist … there is a higher test for women, for minorities, for Indigenous people. For sure. Sadly, it's not fair." When asked if her comment about Wilson-Raybould perpetuated that double standard, Copps said no, that she was rather simply commenting on the former minister's background informing her choices.
Copps’s messages and conduct were condemned by a member of the Haudenosaunee First Nations Confederacy, NDP MP Romeo Saganash, Aboriginal rights activist Cindy Blackstock, and Conservative MP Gérard Deltell, among others.
Writings and publications
Nobody's Baby: A Survival Guide to Politics (1986). Toronto ON : Deneau. 192 p. .
Worth fighting for (2004). Toronto ON : McClelland & Stewart. 213 p. .
La batailleuse (2004). Montreal QC : Boréal. 236 p. .
Chapter contribution
Trish Hennessey and Ed Finn (editors). "Fight for equality is far from being won.", in: "Speaking Truth to Power : A Reader on Canadian Women's Inequality", Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, Ottawa, c.2010. pp. 15–18.
Articles
"Canada's Historic Places Initiative", Heritage/Patrimoine, 6:26, Spring 2003 .
"Canadian Cultural Policy in a Global Economy", Canadian Business Economics, 7(3):40-3, Oct. 1999.
"Celine Dion: Made in Canada", NPQ: New Perspectives Quarterly. 15(5):17, Fall 1998.
"Initiative des Endroits Historiques du Canada", Heritage/Patrimoine. 6:26, Spring 2003 .
"Liberal Flogging of the Government's Green Plan", New Environment. pp. 39ff, Annual, 1990.
"Two Grit Guys and a Cutie?", Bulletin Centre for Investigative Journalism. no. 42:9, Winter 1990.
See also
2004 Liberal Party of Canada infighting
References
Notes
Citations
External links
1952 births
Living people
Canadian autobiographers
Canadian columnists
Canadian radio hosts
Women government ministers of Canada
Women members of the House of Commons of Canada
Deputy Prime Ministers of Canada
Liberal Party of Canada leadership candidates
Liberal Party of Canada MPs
Ontario Liberal Party MPPs
McMaster University alumni
Members of the 26th Canadian Ministry
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Ontario
Members of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Politicians from Hamilton, Ontario
University of Rouen alumni
University of Western Ontario alumni
Women MPPs in Ontario
Canadian monarchists
Canadian women journalists
Officers of the Order of Canada
Canadian people of Irish descent
Royal Canadian Geographical Society fellows
Women autobiographers
Women columnists
21st-century Canadian women politicians
20th-century Canadian women politicians
Canadian women non-fiction writers
Canadian women radio hosts | [
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256560 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand%20management | Brand management | In marketing, brand management begins with an analysis on how a brand is currently perceived in the market, proceeds to planning how the brand should be perceived if it is to achieve its objectives and continues with ensuring that the brand is perceived as planned and secures its objectives. Developing a good relationship with target markets is essential for brand management. Tangible elements of brand management include the product itself; its look, price, and packaging, etc. The intangible elements are the experiences that the target markets share with the brand, and also the relationships they have with the brand. A brand manager would oversee all aspects of the consumer's brand association as well as relationships with members of the supply chain.
Definitions
In 2001, Hislop defined branding as "the process of creating a relationship or a connection between a company's product and emotional perception of the customer for the purpose of generating segregation among competition and building loyalty among customers". In 2004 and 2008, Kapferer and Keller respectively defined it as a fulfillment in customer expectations and consistent customer satisfaction.
Brand management uses an array of marketing tools and techniques in order to increase the perceived value of a product (see: Brand equity). Based on the aims of the established marketing strategy, brand management enables the price of products to grow and builds loyal customers through positive associations and images or a strong awareness of the brand.
Brand management is the process of identifying the core value of a particular brand and reflecting the core value among the targeted customers. In modern terms, a brand could be corporate, product, service, or person. Brand management builds brand credibility and credible brands only can build brand loyalty, bounce back from circumstantial crisis, and can benefit from price-sensitive customers.
History
The earliest origins of branding can be traced to pre-historic times. The practice may have first begun with the branding of farm animals in the middle East in the neolithic period. Stone Age and Bronze Age cave paintings depict images of branded cattle. Egyptian funerary artwork also depicts branded animals. Over time, the practice was extended to marking personal property such as pottery or tools, and eventually some type of brand or insignia was attached to goods intended for trade.
Around 4,000 years ago, producers began by attaching simple stone seals to products which, over time, were transformed into clay seals bearing impressed images, often associated with the producer's personal identity thus giving the product a personality. Bevan and Wengrow have argued that branding became necessary following the urban revolution in ancient Mesopotamia in the 4th century BCE, when large-scale economies started mass-producing commodities such as alcoholic drinks, cosmetics and textiles. These ancient societies imposed strict forms of quality control over commodities, and also needed to convey value to the consumer through branding. Diana Twede has argued that the "consumer packaging functions of protection, utility and communication have been necessary whenever packages were the object of transactions" (p. 107). She has shown that amphorae used in Mediterranean trade between 1500 and 500 BCE exhibited a wide variety of shapes and markings, which provided information for purchasers during exchange. Systematic use of stamped labels dates appears to date from around the fourth century BCE. In a largely pre-literate society, the shape of the amphora and its pictorial markings functioned as a brand, conveying information about the contents, region of origin and even the identity of the producer which were understood to convey information about product quality.
A number of archaeological research studies have found extensive evidence of branding, packaging and labelling in antiquity. Archaeologists have identified some 1,000 different Roman potters' marks of the early Roman Empire, suggesting that branding was a relatively widespread practice.
In Pompeii (circa 35 CE), Umbricius Scauras, a manufacturer of fish sauce (also known as garum) was branding his amphora which travelled across the entire Mediterranean. Mosaic patterns in the atrium of his house were decorated with images of amphora bearing his personal brand and quality claims. The mosaic comprises four different amphora, one at each corner of the atrium, and bearing labels as follows:
1. G(ari) F(los) SCO[m]/ SCAURI/ EX OFFI[ci]/NA SCAU/RI Translated as "The flower of garum, made of the mackerel, a product of Scaurus, from the shop of Scaurus"
2. LIQU[minis]/ FLOS Translated as: "The flower of Liquamen"
3. G[ari] F[los] SCOM[bri]/ SCAURI Translated as: "The flower of garum, made of the mackerel, a product of Scaurus"
4. LIQUAMEN/ OPTIMUM/ EX OFFICI[n]/A SCAURI Translated as: "The best liquamen, from the shop of Scaurus"
Scauras' fish sauce was known to be of very high quality across the Mediterranean and its reputation travelled as far away as modern France. Curtis has described this mosaic as "an advertisement... and a rare, unequivocal example of a motif inspired by a patron, rather than by the artist".
In Pompeii and nearby Herculaneum, archaeological evidence also points to evidence of branding and labelling in relatively common use. Wine jars, for example, were stamped with names, such as "Lassius" and "L. Eumachius;" probably references to the name of the producer. Carbonized loaves of bread, found at Herculaneum, indicate that some bakers stamped their bread with the producer's name and other information including the use, price or intended recipient. These markings demonstrate the public's need for product information in an increasingly complex marketplace.
In the East, evidence of branding also dates to an early period. Recent research suggests that Chinese merchants made extensive use of branding, packaging, advertising and retail signage. From as early as 200 BCE, Chinese packaging and branding was used to signal family, place names and product quality, and the use of government imposed product branding was used between 600 and 900 AD. Eckhart and Bengtsson have argued that during the Song Dynasty (960–1127), Chinese society developed a consumerist culture, where a high level of consumption was attainable for a wide variety of ordinary consumers rather than just the elite (p. 212). The rise of a consumer culture led to the commercial investment in carefully managed company image, retail signage, symbolic brands, trademark protection and the brand concepts of baoji, hao, lei, gongpin, piazi and pinpai, which roughly equate with Western concepts of family status, quality grading, and upholding traditional Chinese values (p. 219). Eckhardt and Bengtsson's analysis suggests that brands emerged in China as a result of the social needs and tensions implicit in consumer culture, in which brands provide social status and stratification. Thus, the evolution of brands in China stands in sharp contrast to the West where manufacturers pushed brands onto the market in order to differentiate, increase market share and ultimately profits (pp 218–219). In Japan, branding has a long heritage. For many Japanese businesses, a "mon" or seal is an East Asian form of brand or trademark.
Not all historians agree that the distinctive packages and markings used in antiquity can be compared with modern brands or labels. Moore and Reid, for example, have argued that the distinctive shapes and markings in ancient containers should be termed proto-brands rather than seen as modern brands according to our modern understanding. A proto-brand is one that possesses at least one of three characteristics; place – information about the origin of manufacture-expressed by a mark, signature or even by the physical properties of the raw materials including the packaging materials, performs a basic marketing function such as storage, transportation and assortment; and quality attributes- information about the product's quality expressed by the name of the manufacturer, place of origin or ingredients or any other generally accepted indicator of quality.
The impetus for more widespread branding was often provided by government laws, requiring producers to meet minimum quality specifications or to standardize weights and measures, which in turn, was driven by public concerns about quality and fairness in exchange. The use of hallmarks, applied to precious metal objects, was well in place by the 4th century CE in Byzantium. Evidence of marked silver bars dates to around 350 CE, and represents one of the oldest known forms of consumer protection. Hundreds of silver objects, including chalices, cups, plates, rings and bullion, all bearing hallmarks from the early Byzantine period, have been found and documented. Hallmarks for silver and gold were introduced in Britain in 1300.
In Medieval Europe, branding was applied to a broader range of goods and services. Craft guilds, which sprang up across Europe around this time, codified and reinforced, systems of marking products to ensure quality and standards. Bread-makers, silversmiths and goldsmiths all marked their wares during this period. By 1266, English bakers were required by law to put a symbol on each product they sold. Bricui et al. have argued that the number of different forms of brands blossomed from the 14th century following the period of European discovery and expansion. Some individual brand marks have been in continuous use for centuries. The brand, Staffelter Hof, for example, dates to 862 or earlier and the company still produces wine under its name today.
The granting a royal charter to tradesmen, markets and fairs was practiced across Europe from the early Medieval period. At a time when concerns about product quality were major public issues, a royal endorsement provided the public with a signal that the holder supplied goods worthy of use in the Royal household, and by implication inspired public confidence. In the 15th century, a Royal warrant of appointment replaced the royal charter in England. The Lord Chamberlain of England formally appointed tradespeople as suppliers to the Royal household. The printer, William Caxton, for example, was one of the earliest recipients of a Royal Warrant when he became the King's printer in 1476. By the 18th-century, mass market manufacturers such as Josiah Wedgewood and Matthew Boulton, recognized the value of supplying royalty, often at prices well below cost, for the sake of the publicity and kudos it generated. Many manufacturers began actively displaying the royal arms on their premises, packaging and labelling. By 1840, the rules surrounding the display of royal arms were tightened to prevent fraudulent claims. By the early 19th century, the number of Royal Warrants granted rose rapidly when Queen Victoria granted some 2,000 royal warrants during her reign of 64 years.
By the eighteenth century, as standards of living improved and an emerging middle class began to demand more luxury goods and services, the retail landscape underwent major changes. Retailers were tending to specialize in specific goods or services and began to exhibit a variety of modern marketing techniques. Stores not only began to brand themselves, but also displayed branded goods, both in the glazed shop windows to attract passers-by and display counters to appeal to patrons inside the store. Branding was more widely used in the 19th century, following the industrial revolution, and the development of new professions like marketing, manufacturing and business management formalized the study of brands and branding as a key business activity. Branding is a way of differentiating product from mere commodities, and therefore the use of branding expanded with each advance in transportation, communication, and trade. The modern discipline of brand management is considered to have been started by a memo at Procter & Gamble by Neil H. McElroy.
With the rise of mass media in the early 20th century, companies soon adopted techniques that would allow their advertising messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s. Many of the earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a soap opera. Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising.
From the first decades of the 20th century, advertisers began to focus on developing brand personality, brand image and brand identity—concepts. The British advertising agency, W. S. Crawford's Ltd, began to use the concept of 'product personality' and the 'advertising idea' arguing that in order to stimulate sales and create a 'buying habit', advertising had to 'build a definitive association of ideas round the goods'. In the US, advertising agency, J. Walter Thompson company (JWT), was pioneering similar concepts of brand personality and brand image. The notion of a 'brand personality' was developed independently and simultaneously in both the US and Britain. For example, in 1915 JWT acquired the advertising account for Lux soap and recommended that the traditional positioning as a product for woolen garments should be broadened so that consumers would see it as a soap for use on all fine fabrics in the household. To implement, Lux was repositioned with a more up-market posture, and began a long association with expensive clothing and high fashion. Cano has argued that the positioning strategy JWT used for Lux exhibited an insightful understanding of the way that consumers mentally construct brand images. JWT recognized that advertising effectively manipulated socially shared symbols. In the case of Lux, the brand disconnected from images of household drudgery, and connected with images of leisure and fashion.
By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of most enduring campaigns of the 20th century. Esso's "Put a Tiger in Your Tank" campaign was based on a tiger mascot used in Scandinavia at the turn of last century, and first appeared as a global advertising slogan in the 1950s and 60s, and subsequently reappeared in the 1990s. Throughout the late 20th century, brand advertisers began to imbue goods and services with a personality, based on the insight that consumers searched for brands with personalities that matched their own.
Global brands
Interbrand's 2020 top-10 global brands are Apple, Amazon, Microsoft, Google, Samsung, Coca-Cola, Toyota, Mercedes-Benz, McDonald's, and Disney.
The split between commodities/food services and technology is not a matter of chance: both industrial sectors rely heavily on sales to the individual consumer who must be able to rely on cleanliness/quality or reliability/value, respectively. For this reason, industries such as agricultural (which sells to other companies in the food sector), student loans (which have a relationship with universities/schools rather than the individual loan-taker), and electricity (which is generally a controlled monopoly) have less prominent and less recognized branding. Brand value, moreover, is not simply a fuzzy feeling of "consumer appeal," but an actual quantitative value of good will under Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Companies will rigorously defend their brand name, including prosecution of trademark infringement. Occasionally trademarks may differ across countries.
Among the most highly visible and recognizable brands is the script and logo for Coca-Cola products. Despite numerous blind tests indicating that Coke's flavor is not preferred, Coca-Cola continues to enjoy a dominant share of the cola market. Coca-Cola's history is so replete with uncertainty that a folklore has sprung up around the brand, including the (refuted) myth that Coca-Cola invented the red-dressed Santa-Claus which is used to gain market entry in less capitalistic regions in the world such as the former Soviet Union and China, and such brand-management stories as "Coca-Cola's first entry into the Chinese market resulted in their brand being translated as 'bite the wax tadpole'". Brand management science is replete with such stories, including the Chevrolet 'Nova' or "it doesn't go" in Spanish, and proper cultural translation is useful to companies entering new markets.
Modern brand management also intersects with legal issues such as 'genericization of trademark.' The 'Xerox' Company continues to fight heavily in media whenever a reporter or other writer uses 'xerox' as simply a synonym for 'photocopy.' Should usage of 'xerox' be accepted as the standard American English term for 'photocopy,' then Xerox's competitors could successfully argue in court that they are permitted to create 'xerox' machines as well. Yet, in a sense, reaching this stage of market domination is itself a triumph of brand management, in that becoming so dominant typically involves strong profit.
Branding terminology
Brand associations refers to a set of information nodes held in memory that form a network of associations and are linked to a key variable. For example, variables such as brand image, brand personality, brand attitude, brand preference are nodes within a network that describes the sources of brand-self congruity. In another example, the variables brand recognition and brand recall form a linked network that describes the consumer's brand awareness or brand knowledge.
Brand attitude refers to the "buyer's overall evaluation of a brand with respect to its perceived ability to meet a currently relevant motivation".
Brand Trust refers to whether customers expect the brand to do what is right. 81% of consumers from different markets identified this as a deciding factor in their purchases.
Brand awareness refers to the extent to which consumers can identify a brand under various conditions. Marketers typically identify two distinct types of brand awareness; namely brand recognition and brand recall.
Brand Recognition refers to how easily the consumers can associate a brand based on the company's logo, slogan, color scheme, or other visual element, without seeing the company's name.
Brand equity Within the literature, it is possible to identify two distinct definitions of brand equity. Firstly an accounting definition suggests that brand equity is a measure of the financial value of a brand and attempts to measure the net additional inflows as a result of the brand or the value of the intangible asset of the brand. A different definition comes from marketing where brand equity is treated as a measure of the strength of consumers' attachment to a brand; a description of the associations and beliefs the consumer has about the brand.
Brand image refers to an image an organization wants to project; a psychological meaning or meaning profile associated with a brand.
Brand loyalty refers to the feelings of attachment a consumer forms with a brand. It is a tendency of consumers to purchase repeatedly from a specific brand.
Brand personality refers to "the set of human personality traits that are both applicable to and relevant for brands".
Self-brand congruity draws on the notion that consumers prefer brands with personalities that are congruent with their own; consumers tend to form strong attachments with brands where the brand personality matches their own.
Brand preference refers to "consumers' predisposition towards certain brands that summarize their cognitive information processing towards brand stimuli".
Brand orientation
Brand orientation refers to "the degree to which the organization values brands and its practices are oriented towards building brand capabilities". It is a deliberate approach to working with brands, both internally and externally. The most important driving force behind this increased interest in strong brands is the accelerating pace of globalization. This has resulted in an ever-tougher competitive situation on many markets. A product's superiority is in itself no longer sufficient to guarantee its success. The fast pace of technological development and the increased speed with which imitations turn up on the market have dramatically shortened product lifecycles. The consequence is that product-related competitive advantages soon risk being transformed into competitive prerequisites. For this reason, increasing numbers of companies are looking for other, more enduring, competitive tools – such as brands.
Justification
Brand management aims to create an emotional connection between products, companies and their customers and constituents. Brand managers & Marketing managers may try to control the brand image.
Brand managers create strategies to convert a suspect to prospect, prospect to buyer, buyer to customer, and customer to brand advocates.
Approaches
"By Appointment to His Royal Majesty" was a registered and limited list of approved brands suitable for supply to the Royal British family.
Some believe brand managers can be counter-productive, due to their short-term focus.
On the other end of the extreme, luxury and high-end premium brands may create advertisements or sponsor teams merely for the "overall feeling" or goodwill generated. A typical "no-brand" advertisement might simply put up the price (and indeed, brand managers may patrol retail outlets for using their name in discount/clearance sales), whereas on the other end of the extreme a perfume brand might be created that does not show the actual use of the perfume or Breitling may sponsor an aerobatics team purely for the "image" created by such sponsorship. Space travel and brand management for this reason also enjoys a special relationship.
"Nation branding" is a modern term conflating foreign relations and the idea of a brand. An example is Cool Britannia of the 1990s.
Social media
Even though social media has changed the tactics of marketing brands, its primary goals remain the same; to attract and retain customers. However, companies have now experienced a new challenge with the introduction of social media. This change is finding the right balance between empowering customers to spread the word about the brand through viral platforms, while still controlling the company's own core strategic marketing goals. Word-of-mouth marketing via social media, falls under the category of viral marketing, which broadly describes any strategy that encourages individuals to propagate a message, thus, creating the potential for exponential growth in the message's exposure and influence. Basic forms of this are seen when a customer makes a statement about a product or company or endorses a brand. This marketing technique allows users to spread the word on the brand which creates exposure for the company. Because of this, brands have become interested in exploring or using social media for commercial benefit.
Brand heritage
Brands with heritage are not simply associated with antiquated organizations; rather, they actively extol values and position themselves in relation to their heritage. Brands offer multiple benefits to organizations at various market levels, reflecting the entire experiential process afforded to consumers. In the case of voluntary organizations if they can unlock their brand heritage and it will improve volunteer engagement, to the extent that organizations 'with a long history, core values, positive track record, and use of symbols possess, whether consciously or not, an inherent advantage in an increasingly competitive landscape'. In the context of tourism preconceived notions of brand heritage stimulate the increased experience of existential authenticity, increasing satisfaction with the visitor experience. For consumer goods the communication of continuity of the brand promise can increase perceived brand authenticity.
Brand strategies
See also
Advertising management
Brand
Brand ambassador
Brand architecture
Brand awareness
Brand engagement
Brand equity
Brand extension
Brand implementation
Challenger brand
Chief brand officer
Co-branding
Consumer behaviour
Corporate branding
Employer branding
Faith branding
Generic trademark
Hallmark
History of marketing
Individual branding
Internet branding
Nation branding
Personal branding
Place branding
Rebranding
Return on brand
School branding
Silver hallmarks
Social media
Trademark dilution
Visual brand language
References
Bibliography
No Logo. Naomi Klein. Picador USA, 2009.
The Brands Handbook. Wally Olins. Thames & Hudson, 2008.
Wally Olins on B®and. Thames & Hudson, 2005.
Further reading
Demirdjian, Z. S., "Rise and Fall of Marketing in Mesopotamia: A Conundrum in the Cradle of Civilization," In The Future of Marketing's Past: Proceedings of the 12th Annual Conference on Historical Analysis and Research in Marketing, Leighton Neilson (ed.), CA, Longman, Association for Analysis and Research in Marketing, 2005
Petty, R.S., "A History of Brand Identity Protection and Brand Marketing," in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones and Mark Tadajewski (eds), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, pp 97–114
Moore, K. and Reid., S., "The Birth of the Brand: 4000 Years of Branding," Business History, Vol. 50, 2008. p. 5–23
Twede, D., "A History of Packaging," in The Routledge Companion to Marketing History, D.G. Brian Jones and Mark Tadajewski (eds), Oxon, Routledge, 2016, pp 115–130
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256561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20de%20Ampudia | Pedro de Ampudia | Pedro Nolasco Martín José María de la Candelaria Francisco Javier Ampudia y Grimarest (January 30, 1805 – August 7, 1868) was born in Havana, Cuba, and served Mexico as a Northern army officer for most of his life. At various points he was the governor of Tabasco, Yucatán, and Nuevo León. He also served a short term as Secretary of National Defense under President Benito Juárez.
Ampudia began his career in the Spanish army, and emigrated to Mexico following the Mexican War of Independence. In 1836, Ampudia served with the Mexican artillery at the Siege of the Alamo and later saw heavy combat at the Battle of San Jacinto. During border skirmishes with Texas in the early 1840s, Ampudia commanded the 350-man garrison of Ciudad Mier which was attacked on December 26, 1842, by Texan militia. In a bloody two-day battle, over 600 Mexicans were killed but they eventually forced the enemy to surrender, earning the grudging respect of the Texans across the border.
Briefly appointed as commander-in-chief of the Mexican Army of the North in 1846, Ampudia was removed from command following the brutal public execution of a local guerrilla leader on his personal orders. As a conservador (a member of Mexico's conservative faction), Ampudia was quickly relegated to a staff position in favor of his liberal rival, General Mariano Arista. At the Battle of Palo Alto, Ampudia harshly criticized Arista for what he saw as "unacceptable tactical blunders" and continued his criticism at the Battle of Resaca de la Palma – a defeat for which Arista partially blamed him.
During the long retreat south, Ampudia was appointed commander-in-chief of the Army of the North, in time to command Mexican forces at the Battle of Monterrey. Despite orders from Antonio López de Santa Anna that he was to retreat to Saltillo, Ampudia chose to stand at Monterrey instead and informed Santa Anna that:
"The men will brook no further retreat in the face of the enemy."
After a skilled defense of the city, Ampudia found American forces entered from the west and east. Trapped in the city plaza and bombarded by U.S. forces with howitzers, general Ampudia chose to request a flag of truce and retreat his battered army. His arrangement with Zachary Taylor allowed the Army of the North to keep its weapons but march as far south as possible and neglect offensive operations for three months. At Saltillo, Ampudia attempted to throw up a defense similar to that at Monterrey, but the inhabitants of the city would have none of it. His failure to defend that city led to his removal by Santa Anna, and like his former superior, Arista, Ampudia found himself spending most of the rest of the war in administrative duties, though he was in command of portions of the Mexican artillery at the Battle of Buena Vista in 1847.
Despite his controversial retreat at Monterrey, Ampudia remained popular in Mexican folklore as "the only man who could defeat Taylor." After the war, Ampudia's policies became gradually more liberal, so that he supported the government of Benito Juárez during the Maximillian Intervention and served with considerable bravery and skill as commander of the liberal Army of the East, in whose command he was gravely wounded. In 1868, Ampudia died (possibly from complications arising from his wartime injuries) and was buried in the Panteón de San Fernando.
See also
Battles of the Mexican–American War
History of Mexico
History of Nuevo León
Mexican–American War
References
Bauer, K. Jack, "The Mexican–American War, 1846–1848"
Miguel Ángel Peral, ed., "Diccionario Biográfico Mexicano"
External links
Pedro Ampudia at A Continent Divided: The U.S.-Mexico War, Center for Greater Southwestern Studies, the University of Texas at Arlington
1803 births
1868 deaths
People from Havana
People of Mexican side in the Texas Revolution
Mexican military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Cuban emigrants to Mexico
Governors of Nuevo León
People from Monterrey | [
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256562 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1803%20in%20music | 1803 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1803.
Events
5 April – first performance of Beethoven's Third Piano Concerto
26 December – Haydn performs his last public concert, conducting The Seven Last Words of Christ
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Violin Sonata No. 7 published, composed between 1801 and 1802
Violin Sonata No. 9
Trio in E-flat major, Op. 38
3 Marches, Op. 45
Piano Sonata No. 21 "Waldstein" started, Op. 53
Symphony No. 3 "Eroica", Op. 55
Christus am Ölberge, oratorio, Op. 85
Das Glück der Freundschaft, Op. 88
10 Variations on 'Ich bin der Schneider Kakadu', Op. 121a
Minuet, WoO 82
Johann Evangelist Brandl – Symphony in D major, Op. 25
Bernhard Henrik Crusell – Concerto for Clarinet No. 3 in B-flat major
Jan Ladislav Dussek – Piano Quartet in E-flat Major Op. 53 or 56
Anton Eberl – Symphony in E-flat major, Op. 33
Joseph Haydn
unfinished String Quartet in D minor, Op. 103
6 Trios, Liv. 1
Jeremiah Ingalls – "Northfield"
Franz Krommer
Concerto No.1 for 2 Clarinets, Op. 35
Clarinet Concerto No.1, Op. 36
Concerto for Oboe in F Major (Op. 37)
Symphony No. 2, Op. 40
Niccolo Paganini
Sonata concertata, MS 2
Grande sonata, MS 3
Le streghe, Op. 8
Georg von Pasterwitz – 300 Themata und Versetten, Op. 4
Ignaz Pleyel – 3 Keyboard Trios, B.474–476
Pierre Rode – Violin Concerto No.7 in A minor, Op. 9
Bernard Romberg
Cello Concerto No.1, Op. 2
3 Grand Sonatas, Op. 5
Antonio Salieri – Gesù al limbo für Soli, vierstimmigen Chor und Orchester
Giovanni Battista Viotti –
Trio for 2 Violins and Cello in E major
Trio for 2 Violins and Cello in G major
Joseph Wölfl – Symphony in G minor, Op. 40
Opera
Gaetano Andreozzi –
Luigi Cherubini – Anacréon
Anton Fischer –
Ferdinando Paër – Sargino
Giovanni Paisiello – Proserpine
Antonio Salieri – Die Hussiten vor Naumburg
Births
January 1 – Carolina Brunström, ballerina (d. 1855)
January 6 – Henri Herz, pianist and composer (died 1888)
February 17 – Joseph-Philippe Simon, librettist and actor (died 1891)
April 2 – Franz Lachner, Bavarian composer/conductor (died 1890)
April 12 – Anton Wilhelm von Zuccalmaglio, lyricist and composer (died 1869)
May 12 – Alexandre Montfort, French composer (died 1856)
June 24 – George James Webb, composer (died 1887)
June 30 – Thomas Lovell Beddoes, librettist and poet (died 1849)
July 8 – Julius Mosen, librettist and lawyer (died 1867)
July 19 – Franz von Kobell, lyricist and mineralogist (died 1882)
July 20 – Jakob Zeugheer, composer and violininst (died 1865)
July 24 – Adolphe Adam, French composer (died 1856)
July 25 – Ferdinand Beyer, arranger and composer (died 1863)
September 4 – Anna Nielsen, mezzo-soprano (died 1856)
September 12 – Auguste Brizeux lyricist and artist (died 1858)
October 11 – Prosper Mérimée, lyricist and writer (died 1870)
December 5 – Fyodor Tyutchev, lyricist and poet (died 1873)
December 11 – Hector Berlioz, composer (died 1869)
date unknown – Jan z Hvězdy, lyricist and writer (died 1853)
Deaths
January 17 – Franz Ignaz von Beecke, composer (born 1733)
January 18 – Sylvain Maréchal, lyricist and writer (born 1750)
January 28 – Karl von Marinelli, theatre manager (born 1745)
February 5 – Giovanni Battista Casti, librettist and poet (born 1724)
February 6 – Gasparo Angiolini, dancer, choreographer and composer (born 1731)
February 16 – Giovanni Punto, composer and horn player (born 1746)
February 18 – Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, lyricist and poet (born 1719)
March 14 – Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, lyricist and poet (born 1724)
June 6 – Louis Gallodier, dancer and choreographer (born c.1734)
July 5 – William Jackson, composer and organist (born 1730)
July 14 – Esteban Salas y Castro, Cuban composer (born 1725)
August 29 – Giovanni de Gamerra, librettist and cleric (born 1742)
September 5 – François Devienne, composer (born 1759)
September 17 – Franz Xaver Süssmayr, composer (born 1766)
September 21 – John Christopher Moller, composer and music publisher (born 1755)
October 7 – Pierre Vachon, composer (born 1738)
October 8 – Vittorio Alfieri, librettist and dramatist (born 1749)
December 18 – Johann Gottfried Herder, lyricist and philosopher (born 1744)
date unknown
Johann Becker, organist and composer (born 1726)
Johann Christoph Kellner, organist and composer (born 1736)
References
19th century in music
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256566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Comics%20Journal | The Comics Journal | The Comics Journal, often abbreviated TCJ, is an American magazine of news and criticism pertaining to comic books, comic strips and graphic novels. Known for its lengthy interviews with comic creators, pointed editorials and scathing reviews of the products of the mainstream comics industry, the magazine promotes the view that comics are a fine art, meriting broader cultural respect, and thus should be evaluated with higher critical standards.
History
In 1976, Gary Groth and Michael Catron acquired The Nostalgia Journal, a small competitor of the newspaper adzine The Buyer's Guide for Comics Fandom. At the time, Groth and Catron were already publishing Sounds Fine, a similarly formatted adzine for record collectors that they had started after producing Rock 'N Roll Expo '75, held during the July 4 weekend in 1975 in Washington, D.C.
The publication was relaunched as The New Nostalgia Journal with issue No. 27 (July 1976), and with issue No. 32 (January 1977), it became The Comics Journal ("a quality publication for the serious comics fan"). Issue No. 37 (December 1977) adopted a magazine format. With issue #45 (March 1979), the magazine moved to a monthly schedule; at that point it had a circulation of 10,000.
In addition to lengthy interviews with comics industry figures, the Journal has always published criticism—and received it in turn. Starting in the early 2000s, the Journal published a series of annual specials combining its usual critical format with extended samples of comics from specially selected contributors.
With issue No. 300 (November 2009), The Comics Journal ceased its semi-monthly print publication. TCJ shifted from an eight-times a year publishing schedule to a larger, more elaborate, semi-annual format supported by a new website. This format lasted until 2013 with issue #302. The print magazine then went on hiatus, returning to a magazine format in 2019 with issue #303.
Lawsuits
Over the years The Journal has been involved in a handful of lawsuits. Artist Rich Buckler attempted legal action for a review that called him a plagiarist while printing his panels next to earlier and quite similar Jack Kirby art. A Groth interview with science fiction writer Harlan Ellison sparked a lawsuit by writer Michael Fleisher over an informal discussion of Fleisher's work and temperament. Co-defendants Groth and Ellison won the case, but emerged from the suit estranged.
Ellison later became a plaintiff against The Comics Journal, filing suit in part to enjoin The Comics Journal Library: The Writers, a 2006 Fantagraphics book that reprinted the Ellison interview, and which used a cover blurb calling Ellison a "Famous Comics Dilettante". That case was ultimately settled, with Fantagraphics agreeing to omit both the blurb and the interview from any future printings of the book, Ellison agreeing to post a Groth rebuttal statement on Ellison's webpage, and both sides agreeing to avoid future "ad hominem attacks".
The Journal has on occasion published, as cover features, lengthy court transcripts of comics-related civil suits. Notable instances include the Fleisher suit and Marv Wolfman's failed suit against Marvel Comics over ownership of the character Blade.
Content
The Journal features critical essays, articles on comics history and lengthy interviews, conducted by Gary Groth and others. Noteworthy interviews include Gil Kane in No. 38, Steve Gerber in No. 41, Harlan Ellison in No. 53, Dennis O'Neil in No. 64, Robert Crumb in No. 113, and Charles M. Schulz in #200.
According to Rick Cusick, writing in Gauntlet magazine, the Journals combination of forthright news coverage and critical analysis – although the norm for traditional journalistic enterprises – was in sharp contrast to the affectionate and promotional methods of publications like Comics Buyer's Guide and (later) Wizard. In 1995, publisher Gary Groth joked that his magazine occupied "a niche that nobody wants".
Staff members and regular contributors
Gary Groth has been the Journals publisher and nominal editor for almost all of its existence. Staff members and regular contributors have included Kim Thompson, Greg Stump, Eric Millikin, Eric Reynolds, Ng Suat Tong, R. Fiore, R.C. Harvey, Kenneth Smith, Don Phelps, Robert Boyd, Tom Heintjes, Michael Dean, Tom Spurgeon, Robert Rodi, Gene Phillips, Marilyn Bethke, Cat Yronwode, Heidi MacDonald, Lee Wochner, Bhob Stewart, Arn Saba, Ted White, Bob Levin, Carter Scholz, and Noah Berlatsky. Guest contributors have included Dave Sim and Trina Robbins.
Managing editors
1987–1988: Thom Powers
1988–1989: Greg S. Baisden
1989–1990: Robert Boyd
1990–September 1991: Helena Harvilicz
September 1991–1993: Frank M. Young
1993 – September 1993: Carole Sobocinski
September 1993 – September 1994: Scott Nybakken
September 1994–1999: Tom Spurgeon (also executive editor 1998–1999)
1999–2001: Eric Evans and Darren Hick
2001–2002: Anne Elizabeth Moore
2002–2004: Milo George
2004–2006: Dirk Deppey
2006–2011: Michael Dean
2019–2021: RJ Casey and Kristy Valenti
2021: Rachel Miller and Kristy Valenti
Online editors
Kristy Valenti, 2010–2011
Dan Nadel and Tim Hodler, 2011–2017
Tim Hodler and Tucker Stone, 2017–2019
Tucker Stone, 2017–ongoing
The Journals Top 100 Comics list
The Journal published a 20th-century comics canon in its 210th issue (February 1999). To compile the list, eight contributors and editors made eight separate top 100 (or fewer than 100 for some) lists of American works. These eight lists were then informally combined and tweaked into an ordered list. Krazy Kat topped the list, followed by Peanuts, Pogo, and Art Spiegelman's Maus. Harvey Kurtzman had the most entries of any creator, five: his original run on Mad (#8), his "New Trend" EC war comics (#12), the 1959 Jungle Book graphic novel (#26), his Hey Look! gag cartoons (#63), and the Goodman Beaver stories (#64).
The Village Voice cited the survey's ad hoc criteria:
"Putting Bernard Krigstein and Al Feldstein's eight-page story "Master Race", Hal Foster's 34 years of work on Prince Valiant, Al Hirschfeld's theatrical caricatures, all the horror comics EC published in the first half of the '50s and Robert Crumb's sketchbooks in the same category suggests that they've cast their net a bit wide".
Among the controversial omissions to the Top 100 was Dave Sim's Cerebus series. Sim and the Journal had periodically found themselves at odds in the years preceding the list's formulation. Issue #213 included eight pages of responses to, and defenses of the list; Journal columnist R. Fiore wrote "Dave Sim must now think you have a personal vendetta against him", and co-publisher Kim Thompson conceded: "If I had to do it over again, I'd squash together the Hernandez material into two entries [and] put Cerebus and two other things in the vacant spots". Twelve years later, the omission was still being acknowledged by the Journal, which noted that Dave Sim's Cerebus "was conspicuously excluded".
Regarding the inclusion of superhero comics on the list, editor and survey participant Tom Spurgeon wrote: "I voted for most of the men-in-spandex titles that made the list – Spider-Man, Fantastic Four, Plastic Man – despite the sheer lousiness of some of those works' contributing elements". Ultimately, the Top 100 included six superhero works, including the deconstructionist Watchmen. Frank Miller's The Dark Knight Returns was one well-regarded mainstream superhero project that was considered but ultimately not chosen, according to co-publisher Kim Thompson.
Awards
See also
List of Comics Journal interview subjects—provides issue numbers with interview subjects
Comic Art
Sequart Organization
Notes
References
Groth, Gary (editor), Spurgeon, Tom (executive editor). The Comics Journal #210. Fantagraphics Books, February 1999.
Dean, Mike; Moore, Elizabeth Anne. "Timeline". The Comics Journal No. 235 (July 2001), p. 82.
Dean, Mike. "The Comics Journal Examines Its Own Navel," The Comics Journal No. 235 (July 2001).
Groth, Gary, and Robert Fiore, eds. The New Comics: Interviews from the Pages of The Comics Journal. New York : Berkley, 1988. .
Complete collection of The Comics Journal and The Nostalgia Journal held by the Michigan State University Comic Art Collection.
External links
TCJ Covers, Contents and Mastheads at The Comics Reporter
History of The Nostalgia Journal
Biannual magazines published in the United States
Bimonthly magazines published in the United States
Eight times annually magazines published in the United States
English-language magazines
Eisner Award winners for Best Comics-Related Periodical/Journalism
Fantagraphics titles
Magazines about comics
Magazines established in 1977
Magazines published in Seattle
Monthly magazines published in the United States
Visual arts magazines published in the United States | [
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256567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magellan%20%28spacecraft%29 | Magellan (spacecraft) | The Magellan spacecraft was a robotic space probe launched by NASA of the United States, on May 4, 1989, to map the surface of Venus by using synthetic-aperture radar and to measure the planetary gravitational field.
The Magellan probe was the first interplanetary mission to be launched from the Space Shuttle, the first one to use the Inertial Upper Stage booster, and the first spacecraft to test aerobraking as a method for circularizing its orbit. Magellan was the fifth successful NASA mission to Venus, and it ended an eleven-year gap in U.S. interplanetary probe launches.
History
Beginning in the late 1970s, scientists advocated for a radar mapping mission to Venus. They first sought to construct a spacecraft named the Venus Orbiting Imaging Radar (VOIR), but it became clear that the mission would be beyond the budget constraints during the ensuing years. The VOIR mission was canceled in 1982.
A simplified radar mission proposal was recommended by the Solar System Exploration Committee, and this one was submitted and accepted as the Venus Radar Mapper program in 1983. The proposal included a limited focus and a single primary scientific instrument. In 1985, the mission was renamed Magellan, in honor of the sixteenth-century Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan, known for his exploration, mapping, and circumnavigation of the Earth.
The objectives of the mission included:
Obtain near-global radar images of the Venusian surface with a resolution equivalent to optical imaging of 1.0 km per line pair. (primary)
Obtain a near-global topographic map with 50 km spatial and 100 m vertical resolution.
Obtain near-global gravity field data with 700 km resolution and two to three milligals of accuracy.
Develop an understanding of the geological structure of the planet, including its density distribution and dynamics.
Spacecraft design
The spacecraft was designed and built by the Martin Marietta Company, and the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) managed the mission for NASA. Elizabeth Beyer served as the program manager and Joseph Boyce served as the lead program scientist for the NASA headquarters. For JPL, Douglas Griffith served as the Magellan project manager and R. Stephen Saunders served as the lead project scientist.
To save costs, most of the Magellan probe was made up of flight spare parts and reused design elements from other spacecraft:
Reuse Type Legend
The main body of the spacecraft, a spare one from the Voyager missions, was a 10-sided aluminum bus, containing the computers, data recorders, and other subsystems. The spacecraft measured 6.4 meters tall and 4.6 meters in diameter. Overall, the spacecraft weighed 1,035 kilograms and carried 2,141 kilograms of propellant for a total mass of 3,449 kilograms.
Attitude control and propulsion
The spacecraft's attitude control (orientation) was designed to be three-axis stabilized, including during the firing of the Star 48B solid rocket motor (SRM) used to place it into orbit around Venus. Prior to Magellan, all spacecraft SRM firings had involved spinning spacecraft, which made control of the SRM a much easier task. In a typical spin mode, any unwanted forces related to SRM or nozzle mis-alignments are cancelled out. In the case of Magellan, the spacecraft design did not lend itself to spinning, so the resulting propulsion system design had to accommodate the challenging control issues with the large Star 48B SRM. The Star 48B, containing 2,014 kg of solid propellant, developed a thrust of ~89 kN (20,000 lbf) shortly after firing; therefore, even a 0.5% SRM alignment error could generate side forces of 445 N (100 lbf). Final conservative estimates of worst-case side forces resulted in the need for eight 445 N thrusters, two in each quadrant, located out on booms at the maximum radius that the Space Shuttle Orbiter Payload Bay would accommodate (4.4-m or 14.5-ft diameter).
The actual propulsion system design consisted of a total of 24 monopropellant hydrazine thrusters fed from a single 71 cm (28 in) diameter titanium tank. The tank contained 133 kg (293 lb) of purified hydrazine. The design also included a pyrotechnically-isolated external high pressure tank with additional helium that could be connected to the main tank prior to the critical Venus orbit insertion burn to ensure maximum thrust from the 445 N thrusters during the SRM firing. Other hardware regarding orientation of the spacecraft consists of a set of gyroscopes and a star scanner.
Communications
For communications, the spacecraft included a lightweight graphite/aluminum, 3.7-meter high-gain antenna left over from the Voyager Program and a medium-gain antenna spare from the Mariner 9 mission. A low-gain antenna attached to the high-gain antenna was also included for contingencies. When communicating with the Deep Space Network, the spacecraft was able to simultaneously receive commands at 1.2 kilobits/second in the S-band and transmit data at 268.8 kilobits/second in the X-band.
Power
Magellan was powered by two square solar arrays, each measuring 2.5 meters across. Together, the arrays supplied 1,200 watts of power at the beginning of the mission. However, over the course of the mission the solar arrays gradually degraded due to frequent, extreme temperature changes. To power the spacecraft while occulted from the Sun, twin 30 amp-hour, 26-cell, nickel-cadmium batteries were included. The batteries recharged as the spacecraft received direct sunlight.
Computers and data processing
The computing system on the spacecraft was partially modified equipment from the Galileo. There were two ATAC-16 computers forming one redundant system, located in the attitude-control subsystem, and four RCA 1802 microprocessors, as two redundant systems, to control the command and data subsystem (CDS). The CDS was able to store commands for up to three days, and also to autonomously control the spacecraft if problems were to arise while mission operators were not in contact with the spacecraft.
For storing the commands and recorded data, the spacecraft also included two multitrack digital tape recorders, able to store up to 225 megabytes of data until contact with the Earth was restored and the tapes were played back.
Scientific instruments
Thick and opaque, the atmosphere of Venus required a method beyond optical survey, to map the surface of the planet. The resolution of conventional radar depends entirely on the size of the antenna, which is greatly restricted by costs, physical constraints by launch vehicles and the complexity of maneuvering a large apparatus to provide high resolution data. Magellan addressed this problem by using a method known as synthetic aperture, where a large antenna is imitated by processing the information gathered by ground computers.
The Magellan high-gain parabolic antenna, oriented 28°–78° to the right or left of nadir, emitted thousands of microwave pulses per second that passed through the clouds and to the surface of Venus, illuminating a swath of land. The Radar System then recorded the brightness of each pulse as it reflected back off the side surfaces of rocks, cliffs, volcanoes and other geologic features, as a form of backscatter. To increase the imaging resolution, Magellan recorded a series of data bursts for a particular location during multiple instances called, "looks". Each "look" slightly overlapped the previous, returning slightly different information for the same location, as the spacecraft moved in orbit. After transmitting the data back to Earth, Doppler modeling was used to take the overlapping "looks" and combine them into a continuous, high resolution image of the surface.
Other science
In addition to the radar data, Magellan collected several other types of scientific measurements. These included detailed measurements of the Venus gravitational field, measurements of the atmospheric density, and radio occultation data on the atmospheric profile.
Gallery
Mission profile
Launch and trajectory
Magellan was launched on May 4, 1989, at 18:46:59 UTC by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration from KSC Launch Complex 39B at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during mission STS-30. Once in orbit, the Magellan and its attached Inertial Upper Stage booster were deployed from Atlantis and launched on May 5, 1989 01:06:00 UTC, sending the spacecraft into a Type IV heliocentric orbit where it would circle the Sun 1.5 times, before reaching Venus 15 months later on August 10, 1990.
Originally, the Magellan had been scheduled for launch in 1988 with a trajectory lasting six months. However, due to the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster in 1986, several missions, including Galileo and Magellan, were deferred until shuttle flights resumed in September 1988. Magellan was planned to be launched with a liquid-fueled, Centaur G upper-stage booster, carried in the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. However, the entire Centaur G program was canceled after the Challenger disaster, and the Magellan probe had to be modified to be attached to the less-powerful Inertial Upper Stage. The next best opportunity for launching occurred in October 1989.
Further complicating the launch however, was the launching of the Galileo mission to Jupiter, one that included a fly-by of Venus. Intended for launch in 1986, the pressures to ensure a launch for Galileo in 1989, mixed with a short launch-window necessitating a mid-October launch, resulted in replanning the Magellan mission. Wary of rapid shuttle launches, the decision was made to launch Magellan in May, and into an orbit that would require one year, three months, before encountering Venus.
Orbital encounter of Venus
On August 10, 1990, Magellan encountered Venus and began the orbital insertion maneuver which placed the spacecraft into a three-hour, nine minute, elliptical orbit that brought the spacecraft 295-kilometers from the surface at about 10 degrees North during the periapsis and out to 7762-kilometers during apoapsis.
During each orbit, the space probe captured radar data while the spacecraft was closest to the surface, and then transmit it back to Earth as it moved away from Venus. This maneuver required extensive use of the reaction wheels to rotate the spacecraft as it imaged the surface for 37-minutes and as it pointed toward Earth for two hours. The primary mission intended for the spacecraft to return images of at least 70 percent of the surface during one Venusian day, which lasts 243 Earth days as the planet slowly spins. To avoid overly-redundant data at the highest and lowest latitudes, the Magellan probe alternated between a Northern-swath, a region designated as 90 degrees north latitude to 54 degrees south latitude, and a Southern-swath, designated as 76 degrees north latitude to 68 degrees south latitude. However, due to periapsis being 10 degrees north of the equatorial line, imaging the South Pole region was unlikely.
Mapping cycle 1
Goal: Complete primary objective.
September 15, 1990 – May 15, 1991
The primary mission began on September 15, 1990, with the intention to provide a "left-looking" map of 70% of the Venusian surface at a minimum resolution of 1-kilometer/pixel. During cycle 1, the altitude of the spacecraft varied from 2000-kilometers at the north pole, to 290-kilometers near periapsis. Upon completion during May 15, 1991, having made 1,792 orbits, Magellan had mapped approximately 83.7% of the surface with a resolution between 101 and 250-meters/pixel.
Mission extension
Mapping cycle 2
Goal: Image the south pole region and gaps from Cycle 1.
May 15, 1991 – January 14, 1992
Beginning immediately after the end of cycle 1, cycle 2 was intended to provide data for the existing gaps in the map collected during first cycle, including a large portion of the southern hemisphere. To do this, Magellan had to be reoriented, changing the gathering method to "right-looking". Upon completion during mid-January 1992, cycle 2 provided data for 54.5% of the surface, and combined with the previous cycle, a map containing 96% of the surface could be constructed.
Mapping cycle 3
Goal: Fill remaining gaps and collect stereo imagery.
January 15, 1992 – September 13, 1992
Immediately after cycle 2, cycle 3 began collecting data for stereo imagery on the surface that would later allow the ground team to construct, clear, three-dimensional renderings of the surface. Approximately 21.3% of the surface was imaged in stereo by the end of the cycle on September 13, 1992, increasing the overall coverage of the surface to 98%.
Mapping cycle 4
Goal: Measure Venus' gravitational field.
September 14, 1992 – May 23, 1993
Upon completing cycle 3, Magellan ceased imaging the surface. Instead, beginning mid-September 1992, the Magellan maintained pointing of the high-gain antenna toward Earth where the Deep Space Network began recording a constant stream of telemetry. This constant signal allowed the DSN to collect information on the gravitational field of Venus by monitoring the velocity of the spacecraft. Areas of higher gravitation would slightly increase the velocity of the spacecraft, registering as a Doppler shift in the signal. The space craft completed 1,878 orbits until completion of the cycle on May 23, 1993; a loss of data at the beginning of the cycle necessitated an additional 10 days of gravitational study.
Mapping cycle 5
Goal: Aerobraking to circular orbit and global gravity measurements.
May 24, 1993 – August 29, 1994
At the end of the fourth cycle in May 1993, the orbit of Magellan was circularized using a technique known as aerobraking. The circularized orbit allowed a much higher resolution of gravimetric data to be acquired when cycle 5 began on August 3, 1993. The spacecraft performed 2,855 orbits and provided high-resolution gravimetric data for 94% of the planet, before the end of the cycle on August 29, 1994.
Aerobraking
Goal: To enter a circular orbitMay 24, 1993 – August 2, 1993Aerobraking had long been sought as a method for slowing the orbit of interplanetary spacecraft. Previous suggestions included the need for aeroshells that proved too complicated and expensive for most missions. Testing a new approach to the method, a plan was devised to drop the orbit of Magellan into the outermost region of the Venusian atmosphere. Slight friction on the spacecraft slowed the velocity over a period, slightly longer than two months, bringing the spacecraft into an approximately circular orbit with periapse altitude at 180 km and apoapse altitude at 540 km, down from an apoapse altitude at 8467 km. The method has since been used extensively on later interplanetary missions.
Mapping cycle 6Goal: Collect high-resolution gravity data and conduct radio science experiments.April 16, 1994 – October 13, 1994
The sixth and final orbiting cycle was another extension to the two previous gravimetric studies. Toward the end of the cycle, a final experiment was conducted, known as the "Windmill" experiment to provide data on the composition of the upper atmosphere of Venus. Magellan performed 1,783 orbits before the end of the cycle on October 13, 1994, when the spacecraft entered the atmosphere and disintegrated.
Windmill experiment
Goal: Collect data on atmospheric dynamics.
September 6, 1994 – September 14, 1994
In September 1994, the orbit of Magellan was lowered to begin the "Windmill experiment". During the experiment, the spacecraft was oriented with the solar arrays broadly, perpendicular to the orbital path, where they could act as paddles as they impacted molecules of the upper-Venusian atmosphere. Countering this force, the thrusters fired to keep the spacecraft from spinning. This provided data on the basic oxygen gas-surface interaction. This was useful for understanding the impact of upper-atmospheric forces which aided in designing future Earth-orbiting satellites, and methods for aerobraking during future planetary spacecraft missions.
Results
Study of the Magellan high-resolution global images is providing evidence to better understand Venusian geology and the role of impacts, volcanism, and tectonics in the formation of Venusian surface structures.
The surface of Venus is mostly covered by volcanic materials. Volcanic surface features, such as vast lava plains, fields of small lava domes, and large shield volcanoes are common.
There are few impact craters on Venus, suggesting that the surface is, in general, geologically young - less than 800 million years old.
The presence of lava channels over 6,000 kilometers long suggests river-like flows of extremely low-viscosity lava that probably erupted at a high rate.
Large pancake-shaped volcanic domes suggest the presence of a type of lava produced by extensive evolution of crustal rocks.
The typical signs of terrestrial plate tectonics - continental drift and basin floor spreading - are not evident on Venus. The planet's tectonics is dominated by a system of global rift zones and numerous broad, low domical structures called coronae, produced by the upwelling and subsidence of magma from the mantle.
Although Venus has a dense atmosphere, the surface reveals no evidence of substantial wind erosion, and only evidence of limited wind transport of dust and sand. This contrasts with Mars, where there is a thin atmosphere, but substantial evidence of wind erosion and transport of dust and sand.
Magellan created the first (and currently the best) near-photographic quality, high resolution radar mapping of the planet's surface features. Prior Venus missions had created low resolution radar globes of general, continent-sized formations. Magellan, however, finally allowed detailed imaging and analysis of craters, hills, ridges, and other geologic formations, to a degree comparable to the visible-light photographic mapping of other planets. Magellan's global radar map currently remains as the most detailed Venus map in existence, although the upcoming NASA VERITAS and Roskosmos Venera-D probes will carry a radar that can achieve a much higher resolution compared to the radar used by Magellan. Both probes are expected to launch in 2029.
Scientists
The Magellan project was set up so that the initial images and data from the Magellan probe were only for use and study by a team of principal investigators from a variety of universities and institutions, and by the Magellan Project Science Team. These scientists were responsible for validating the data, contributing input for spacecraft acquisition of data, and interpreting the data results for their release to the public. Data was shared with three visiting Soviet scientists (Alexander Basilevsky, Effaim Akim and Alexander Zacharov), a first, and sensitive issue, for NASA at the time considering the Cold War was just coming to a close.
The Magellan Project Science room became notorious for its hanging of long thermal print strips of image data (FBIDRs) along the walls of a spacious room. This was the first form in which the imagery of the surface of Venus was seen due to the long, narrow swathes acquired by the spacecraft. Significant guests during the mission's operation included Margaret Thatcher.
After the initial investigation stage Magellan's full data set was released for public consumption.
Project Science Team
The Magellan Project Science Team consisted of Dr. R. Stephen Saunders, the Project Scientist; Dr. Ellen Stofan, the Deputy Project Scientist; research assistants Tim Parker, Dr. Jeff Plaut, and Annette deCharon; and Project Science Aide, Gregory Michaels.
Other Magellan scientists were involved with the mission's science including principal investigators and three visiting Soviet scientists.
End of mission
On September 9, 1994, a press release outlined the termination of the Magellan mission. Due to the degradation of the power output from the solar arrays and onboard components, and having completed all objectives successfully, the mission was to end in mid-October. The termination sequence began in late August 1994, with a series of orbital trim maneuvers which lowered the spacecraft into the outermost layers of the Venusian atmosphere to allow the Windmill experiment to begin on September 6, 1994. The experiment lasted for two weeks and was followed by subsequent orbital trim maneuvers, further lowering the altitude of the spacecraft for the final termination phase.
On October 11, 1994, moving at a velocity of 7 kilometers/second, the final orbital trim maneuver was performed, placing the spacecraft 139.7 kilometers above the surface, well within the atmosphere. At this altitude the spacecraft encountered sufficient ram pressure to raise temperatures on the solar arrays to 126 degrees Celsius.
On October 13, 1994 at 10:05:00 UTC, communication was lost when the spacecraft entered radio occultation behind Venus. The team continued to listen for another signal from the spacecraft until 18:00:00 UTC, when the mission was determined to have concluded. Although much of Magellan was expected to vaporize due to atmospheric stresses, some amount of wreckage is thought have hit the surface by 20:00:00 UTC.
Quoted from Status Report - October 13, 1994
Communication with the Magellan spacecraft was lost early Wednesday morning, following an aggressive series of five Orbit Trim Maneuvers (OTMs) on Tuesday, October 11, which took the orbit down into the upper atmosphere of Venus. The Termination experiment (extension of September "Windmill" experiment) design was expected to result in final loss of the spacecraft due to a negative power margin. This was not a problem since spacecraft power would have been too low to sustain operations in the next few weeks due to continuing solar cell loss.
Thus, a final controlled experiment was designed to maximize mission return. This final, low altitude was necessary to study the effects of a carbon dioxide atmosphere.
The final OTM took the periapsis to where the sensible drag on the spacecraft was very evident. The solar panel temperatures rose to 126 deg. C. and the attitude control system fired all available Y-axis thrusters to counteract the torques. However, attitude control was maintained to the end.
The main bus voltage dropped to 24.7 volts after five orbits, and it was predicted that attitude control would be lost if the power dropped below 24 volts. It was decided to enhance the Windmill experiment by changing the panel angles for the remaining orbits. This was also a preplanned experiment option.
At this point, the spacecraft was expected to survive only two orbits.
Magellan continued to maintain communication for three more orbits, even though the power continued to drop below 23 volts and eventually reached 20.4 volts. At this time, one battery went off-line, and the spacecraft was defined as power starved.
Communication was lost at 3:02 AM PDT just as Magellan was about to enter an Earth occultation on orbit 15032. Contact was not re-established. Tracking operations were continued to 11:00 AM but no signal was seen, and none was expected. The spacecraft should land on Venus by 1:00 PM PDT Thursday, October 13, 1994.
See also
List of missions to Venus
Venus Express
Venera 15
Venera 16
References
External links
Magellan homepage
Magellan mission description and data
Magellan images
Magellan Mission Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration
https://web.archive.org/web/20070126122448/http://library.thinkquest.org/J0112188/magellan_probe.htm
NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive
Missions to Venus
NASA space probes
Destroyed space probes
Orbiters (space probe)
Spacecraft launched by the Space Shuttle
Spacecraft launched in 1989
Space radars
Space synthetic aperture radar
Space radar altimeters
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256568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st%20Infantry%20Division%20%28United%20States%29 | 1st Infantry Division (United States) | The 1st Infantry Division is a combined arms division of the United States Army, and is the oldest continuously serving division in the Regular Army. It has seen continuous service since its organization in 1917 during World War I. It was officially nicknamed "The Big Red One" (abbreviated "BRO") after its shoulder patch and is also nicknamed "The Fighting First." The division has also received troop monikers of "The Big Dead One" and "The Bloody First" as puns on the respective officially sanctioned nicknames. It is currently based at Fort Riley, Kansas.
World War I
The First Expeditionary Division, later designated the 1st Infantry Division, was constituted on 24 May 1917, in the Regular Army, and was organized on 8 June 1917, at Fort Jay, on Governors Island in New York harbor under the command of Brigadier General William L. Sibert, from Army units then in service on the Mexico–United States border and at various Army posts throughout the United States. The original table of organization and equipment (TO&E) included two organic infantry brigades of two infantry regiments each, one engineer battalion; one signal battalion; one trench mortar battery; one field artillery brigade of three field artillery regiments; one air squadron; and a full division train. The total authorized strength of this TO&E was 18,919 officers and enlisted men. George S. Patton, who served as the first headquarters commandant for the American Expeditionary Forces, oversaw much of the arrangements for the movement of the 1st Division to France, and their organization in-country. Frank W. Coe, who later served as Chief of Coast Artillery, was the division's first chief of staff.
The first units sailed from New York City and Hoboken, New Jersey, on 14 June 1917. Throughout the remainder of the year, the rest of the division followed, landing at St. Nazaire, France, and Liverpool, England. After a brief stay in rest camps, the troops in England proceeded to France, landing at Le Havre. The last unit arrived in St. Nazaire 22 December. Upon arrival in France, the division, less its artillery, was assembled in the First (Gondrecourt) training area, and the artillery was at Le Valdahon.
On 4 July, the 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry, paraded through the streets of Paris to bolster the sagging French spirits. An apocryphal story holds that at Lafayette's tomb, to the delight of the attending Parisians, Captain C.E. Stanton of the division's 16th Infantry Regiment stepped forward and declared, "Lafayette, nous sommes ici! [Lafayette, we are here!]" Two days later, 6 July, Headquarters, First Expeditionary Division was redesignated as Headquarters, First Division, American Expeditionary Forces.
On 8 August 1917, the 1st Division adopted the "square" Table of Organization and Equipment (TO&E), which specified two organic infantry brigades of two infantry regiments each; one engineer regiment; one signal battalion; one machine gun battalion; one field artillery brigade of three field artillery regiments, and a complete division train. The total authorized strength of this new TO&E was 27,120 officers and enlisted men.
On the morning of 23 October, the first American shell of the war was fired toward German lines by a First Division artillery unit. Two days later, the 2nd Battalion of the 16th Infantry suffered the first American casualties of the war.
By April 1918, the German Army had pushed to within of Paris. In reaction to this thrust, the division moved into the Picardy Sector to bolster the exhausted French First Army. To the division's front lay the small village of Cantigny, situated on the high ground overlooking a forested countryside. The 28th Infantry Regiment attacked the town, and within 45 minutes captured it along with 250 German soldiers. It was the first American victory of the war. The 28th was thereafter named the "Black Lions of Cantigny."
Soissons was taken by the 1st Division in July 1918. The Soissons victory was costly – 700 men were killed or wounded. (One of them, Private Francis Lupo of Cincinnati, was missing in action for 85 years, until his remains were discovered on the former battlefield in 2003). The 1st Division took part in the first offensive by an American army in the war, and helped to clear the Saint-Mihiel salient by fighting continuously from 11 to 13 September 1918. The last major World War I battle was fought in the Meuse-Argonne Forest. The division advanced a total of seven kilometers and defeated, in whole or part, eight German divisions. This victory was mainly due to the efforts of George C. Marshall, who began the war as the division's Deputy Chief of Staff before being elevated to G-3 for the entire AEF in July 1918. Combat operations ended with the implementation of the terms of the Armistice on 11 November 1918. At the time the division was at Sedan, the farthest American penetration of the war, and was the first to cross the Rhine into occupied Germany.
By the end of the war, the division had suffered 4,964 killed in action, 17,201 wounded in action, and 1,056 missing or died of wounds. Five division soldiers received Medals of Honor.
The division's dog-mascot was a mixed breed terrier known as Rags. Rags was adopted by the division in 1918 and remained its mascot until his death in 1936. Rags achieved notoriety and celebrity as a war dog, after saving many lives in the crucial Argonne Campaign by delivering a vital message despite being bombed and gassed.
Order of battle
Assigned units
Headquarters, 1st Division
1st Infantry Brigade
16th Infantry Regiment
18th Infantry Regiment
2nd Machine Gun Battalion
2nd Infantry Brigade
26th Infantry Regiment
28th Infantry Regiment
3rd Machine Gun Battalion
1st Field Artillery Brigade
5th Field Artillery Regiment (155 mm)
6th Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
7th Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
1st Trench Mortar Battery
1st Machine Gun Battalion
1st Engineer Regiment
2nd Field Signal Battalion
Headquarters Troop, 1st Division
1st Train Headquarters and Military Police
1st Ammunition Train
1st Supply Train
1st Engineer Train
1st Sanitary Train
2nd, 3rd, 12th, and 13th Ambulance Companies and Field Hospitals)
Attached units
En route to France and in 1st (Gondrecourt) Training Area
(as of 9 June – 23 September 1917)
5th Regiment USMC
Ménil-la-Tour Area 28 February – 3 April 1918
1st Battalion, 2nd Engineers (2nd Division)
Cantingy Sector, at times from 27 April to 7 July 1918
French 228th Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
French 253d Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
1st and 2nd Battalions of the French 258th Field Artillery Regiment (75 mm)
4th Battalion, Fr 301st Artillery Regiment (155 mm)
One battery, French 3rd Cl Artillery Regiment (155 mm)
3rd and 4th Battalions, French 284th Artillery Regiment (220 mm)
2nd Battalion, French 289th Artillery Regiment (220 mm)
One battery, Fr 3d Cl Artillery Regiment (220 mm)
6th Battalion, Fr 289th Artillery Regiment (280 mm)
Two batteries Fr TM (58 mm)
One battery Fr TM (150 mm)
One battery Fr TM (240 mm)
Fr 5th Tank Battalion (12 tanks)
Aisne-Marne Operation
(as of 18–23 July 1918)
Fr 42d Aero Sq
Fr 83d Bln Company
Fr 253d FA-Portée (75 mm)
Fr 11th and 12th Groups of Tanks
Saizerais Sector
(as of 8–24 August 1918)
Fr 258th Aero Sq
6th and 7th Bln Companies
3 batteries Fr 247th FA- Portée
Preceding and during the Saint-Mihiel Operation, at times from 8–14 September 1918
8th Observation Sq
9th Bln Company
58th Field Artillery Brigade and 108th Am Tn (33d Division)
76th Field Artillery (3d Division) (75 mm)
Two batteries, 44th CA (8")
Troops D, F, and H, 2nd Cavalry
Two platoons, Company A, 1st Gas Regiment (Eight mortars)
Two infantry battalions (42nd Division)
6th Infantry Brigade (3nd Division)
Two companies, 51st Pioneer Infantry
7th MG Battalion (3d Division)
49 tanks of 1st Tank Brigade
Meuse-Argonne Operation
(as of 1–2 October 1918)
60th Field Artillery Brigade
110th Am Tn (35th Division)
(as of 1–12 October 1918)
1st Aero Squadron
2d Bln Company
Fr 219th Field Artillery (75 mm)
Fr 247th Field Artillery (6 batteries 75 mm)
Fr 5th Battalion 282d Artillery (220 mm)
Provisional Squadron, 2d Cavalry
Company C, 1st Gas Regiment
Company C, 344th Tank Battalion, 1st Tank Brigade (16 tanks)
Companies B and C, 345th Tank Battalion, 1st Tank Brigade (16 tanks)
(as of 7 October 1918)
362d Infantry (91st Division)
(as of 8–11 October 1918)
181st Infantry Brigade (91st Division)
Coblenz Bridgehead
14th Bln Company (18–30 June 1919)
MG elements, Fr 2d Cavalry Division (18–30 June 1919)
4th MG Battalion (2d Division) 18–29 June 1919
7th MG Battalion (3d Division) 20–30 June 1919
Detached service
At Le Valdahon 22 August – 18 October 1917 with 15th (Scottish) Division during the Second Battle of the Aisne, 24 July 1918 with U.S. 90th Division
1st Field Artillery Brigade
1st Am Tn
With the 15th (Scottish) Division during Aisne-Marne Operation 24 July 1918 in Saizerais (Villers-en-Haye) Sector 24–28 August 1918;with 42nd Division in Meuse-Argonne Operation 13–31 October 1918;with 2nd Division in Meuse-Argonne Operation 1–4 November 1918.
1st Sn Tn
With III Corps 28 September – 2 October 1918
1st Engineers
With American forces in Germany after 9 August 1919.
2d, 6th Field Artillery
Company A, 1st Engineers
Companies A, B, C, D, 1st Sup Tn
F Hosp 13
Interwar period
The 1st Division returned to the continental U.S. in September 1919, demobilized its war-time TO&E at Camp Zachary Taylor at Louisville, Kentucky, and then returned to New York, with its headquarters located at Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn.
On 7 October 1920, the 1st Division organized under the peacetime TO&E, which included two organic infantry brigades of two infantry regiments each, one engineer regiment; one observation squadron; one field artillery brigade of two field artillery regiments; one medical regiment; one division quartermaster train; and a special troops command replacing the remainder of the division train. The total authorized strength of this TO&E was 19,385. 1st Division was one of three infantry divisions and one cavalry division that was authorized to remain at full peacetime strength. It was the only Regular Army division assigned to the Second Corps Area, which also included the 27th Infantry Division of the New York National Guard; the 44th Infantry Division of the New Jersey, New York, and Delaware National Guards; the 21st Cavalry Division of the New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and New Jersey National Guards; and the 77th, 78th, and 98th Infantry Divisions and the 61st Cavalry Division of the Organized Reserves. This was the organization that existed in the Second Corps Area for the duration of the Interbellum period.
1st Division adopted a new peacetime TO&E in preparation for war on 8 January 1940, which included three infantry regiments, one military police company, one engineer battalion, one signal company, one light field artillery regiment of three field artillery battalions and one medium field artillery regiment of two field artillery battalions, one medical battalion, and one quartermaster battalion. The authorized strength of this TO&E was 9,057 officers and enlisted men. 1st Infantry Division reorganized again on 1 November 1940 to a new TO&E, which added a reconnaissance troop, and organized the two field artillery regiments into a division artillery command, and beefed up the strength to a total authorized strength of 15,245 officers and enlisted men.
World War II
Order of battle
Headquarters, 1st Infantry Division
16th Infantry Regiment
18th Infantry Regiment
26th Infantry Regiment
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 1st Infantry Division Artillery
5th Field Artillery Battalion (155 mm)
7th Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
32nd Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
33rd Field Artillery Battalion (105 mm)
1st Engineer Combat Battalion
1st Medical Battalion
1st Cavalry Reconnaissance Troop (Mechanized)
Headquarters, Special Troops, 1st Infantry Division
Headquarters Company, 1st Infantry Division
701st Ordnance Light Maintenance Company
1st Quartermaster Company
1st Signal Company
Military Police Platoon
Band
1st Counterintelligence Corps Detachment
103rd Anti-Aircraft Artillery Battalion (Automatic Weapons)
Combat chronicle
Shortly after the German invasion of Poland, beginning World War II in Europe, the 1st Infantry Division, under Major General Walter Short, was moved to Fort Benning, Georgia, on 19 November 1939 where it supported the U.S. Army Infantry School as part of American mobilization preparations. It then moved to the Sabine Parish, Louisiana area on 11 May 1940 to participate in the Louisiana Maneuvers. The division next relocated to Fort Hamilton, Brooklyn on 5 June 1940, where it spent over six months before moving to Fort Devens, Massachusetts, on 4 February 1941. As part of its training that year, the division participated in both Carolina Maneuvers of October and November before returning to Fort Devens, Massachusetts on 6 December 1941.
A day later, on 7 December 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and, four days later, Germany declared war on the United States, thus bringing the United States into the conflict. The division was ordered to Camp Blanding, Florida, as quickly as trains could be gathered and winter weather permitted, and arrived on 21 February 1942. The division, now under Major General Donald C. Cubbison, was there reorganized and refurbished with new equipment, being re-designated as the 1st Infantry Division on 15 May 1942. Within a week, the division was returned to its former post at Fort Benning, Georgia, from where it was expedited on 21 June 1942 to Indiantown Gap Military Reservation for wartime overseas deployment final preparation. The division, now under the command of Major General Terry Allen, a distinguished World War I veteran, departed the New York Port of Embarkation on 1 August 1942, arrived in Beaminster in south-west England about a week later, and departed 22 October 1942 for the combat amphibious assault of North Africa.
As part of II Corps, the division landed in Oran, Algeria on 8 November 1942 as part of Operation Torch, the Allied invasion of French North Africa. Elements of the division then took part in combat at Maktar, Tebourba, Medjez el Bab, the Battle of Kasserine Pass (where American forces were pushed back), and Gafsa. It then led the Allied assault in brutal fighting at El Guettar, Béja, and Mateur. The 1st Infantry Division was in combat in the Tunisian Campaign from 21 January 1943 to 9 May 1943, helping secure Tunisia. The campaign ended just days later, with the surrender of almost 250,000 Axis soldiers. After months of nearly continuous fighting, the division had a short rest before training for the next operation.
In July 1943, the division took part in the Allied invasion of Sicily, codenamed Operation Husky, still under the command of Major General Allen. Lieutenant General George S. Patton, commanding the U.S. Seventh Army, specifically requested the division as part of his forces for the invasion of Sicily. It was still assigned to the II Corps. In Sicily the 1st Division saw heavy action when making amphibious landings opposed by Italian and German tanks at the Battle of Gela. The 1st Division then moved up through the center of Sicily, slogging it out through the mountains along with the 45th Infantry Division. In these mountains, the division saw some of the heaviest fighting in the entire Sicilian campaign at the Battle of Troina; some units losing more than half their strength in assaulting the mountain town. On 7 August 1943, Major General Allen was relieved of his command by Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, then commanding the II Corps. Allen was replaced by Major General Clarence R. Huebner who was, like Allen, a decorated veteran of World War I who had served with the 1st Infantry Division throughout the war.
When that campaign was over, the division returned to England, arriving there on 5 November 1943 to prepare for the eventual invasion of Normandy. One regimental combat team of 1st Infantry Division and one regimental combat team from the 29th Infantry Division as well as A,B,C companies of the 2nd Rangers Battalion and the 5th Rangers Battalion comprised the first wave of troops that assaulted German Army defenses on Omaha Beach on D-Day. The division had to run 300 yards to get to the bluffs, with some of the division's units suffering 30 percent casualties in the first hour of the assault, and secured Formigny and Caumont in the beachhead by the end of the day. The division followed up the Saint-Lô break-through with an attack on Marigny, 27 July 1944.
The division then drove across France in a continuous offensive. It took large numbers of prisoners during the Battle of the Mons Pocket, and reached the German border at Aachen in September. The division laid siege to Aachen, taking the city after a direct assault on 21 October 1944. The 1st Division then attacked east of Aachen through the Hürtgen Forest, driving to the Ruhr, and was moved to a rear area 7 December 1944 for refitting and rest following 6 months of combat. When the German Wacht Am Rhein offensive (commonly called the Battle of the Bulge) was launched on 16 December 1944, the division, now commanded by Major General Clift Andrus, was quickly moved to the Ardennes front. Fighting continuously from 17 December 1944 to 28 January 1945, the division helped to blunt and reverse the German offensive. Thereupon, the division, now commanded by Major General Clift Andrus, attacked and again breached the Siegfried Line, fought across the Ruhr, 23 February 1945, and drove on to the Rhine, crossing at the Remagen bridgehead, 15–16 March. The division broke out of the bridgehead, took part in the encirclement of the Ruhr Pocket, captured Paderborn, pushed through the Harz Mountains, and was in Czechoslovakia, fighting at Kynšperk nad Ohří, Prameny, and Mnichov (Domažlice District) when the war in Europe ended. Sixteen members of the division were awarded the Medal of Honor during World War II.
Casualties
Total battle casualties: 20,659 (15,374 in Europe, 5,285 in North Africa and Sicily)
Killed in action: 3,616 (2,713 in Europe, 903 in North Africa and Sicily)
Wounded in action: 15,208 (11,527 in Europe, 3,681 in North Africa and Sicily)
Missing in action: 499 (329 in Europe, 170 in North Africa and Sicily)
Prisoner of war: 1,336 (805 in Europe, 531 in North Africa and Sicily)
Days of Combat: 443
Awards and prisoners taken
Distinguished Unit Citation:
Company K, 18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat on 23 March 1943 (War Department General Order No. 60, 1944)
32nd Field Artillery Battalion, for action in combat from 21–24 March 1943 (War Department General Order No. 66, 1945)
2nd Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat on 23 April 1943 (War Department General Order No. 4, 1945)
1st Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 29–30 April 1943 (War Department General Order No. 60, 1944)
2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 10–13 July 1943 (War Department General Order No. 60, 1944)
1st Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 10–14 July 1943 (War Department General Order No. 60, 1944)
Cannon Company, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 11–13 July 1943 (War Department General Order No. 60, 1944)
16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat on 6 June 1944 (War Department General Order No. 73, 1944)
18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 6–16 June 1944 (War Department General Order No. 14, 1945)
1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 13–22 September 1944 (War Department General Order No. 42, 1945)
18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 8–10 October 1944 (War Department General Order No. 42, 1945)
3rd Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 8–19 October 1944 (War Department General Order No. 30, 1945)
Companies G and L, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 15–17 October 1944 (War Department General Order No. 14, 1945)
1st Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 16–19 November 1944 (War Department General Order No. 120, 1946)
2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 18–26 November 1944 (War Department General Order No. 120, 1946)
3rd Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat from 16–26 November 1944 (War Department General Order No. 120, 1946)
Company F, 18th Infantry Regiment, for action in combat on 2 February 1945 (War Department General Order No. 29, 1946)
Medal of Honor: 16
DSC: 131
Legion of Merit: 16
Silver Star: 4,258
Soldiers Medal: 100
Bronze Star: 12,568
Air Medal: 65
Prisoners taken: 188,382
Days of Combat: 443
Assignments in European and North African theaters
1 February 1943: II Corps, British First Army, 18th Army Group
July 1943: US II Corps, U.S. Seventh Army, 15th Army Group
1 November 1943: US First Army.
6 November 1943: VII Corps.
2 February 1944: V Corps, First Army, British 21st Army Group
14 July 1944: US First Army.
15 July 1944: VII Corps.
1 August 1944: VII Corps, First Army, 12th Army Group.
16 December 1944: V Corps.
20 December 1944: Attached, with the entire First Army, to the British 21st Army Group.
26 January 1945: XVIII Airborne Corps, First Army, 12th Army Group.
12 February 1945: III Corps.
8 March 1945: VII Corps.
27 April 1945: VIII Corps.
30 April 1945: V Corps.
6 May 1945: United States Third Army, 12th Army Group.
Cold War
Korean War
During the Korean War, the Big Red One was assigned to occupation duty in Germany, while acting as a strategic deterrent against Soviet designs on Europe. 1st Infantry Division troops secured the Nuremberg War Crimes Trials and later transported seven convicted Nazi war criminals to Spandau Prison in Berlin.
In 1955, the division colors left Germany and were relocated to Fort Riley, Kansas.
1950s–1970s
Following its return from Germany, the 1st Infantry Division established headquarters at Fort Riley, Kansas. Its troops reorganized and trained for war at Fort Riley and at other posts.
In 1962 and 1963, four 1st Infantry Division Pentomic battle groups (2nd Battle Group, 12th Infantry; 1st Battle Group, 13th Infantry; 1st Battle Group, 28th Infantry; and 2d Battle Group, 26th Infantry) rotated, in turn, to West Berlin, Germany to augment the U.S. Army's Berlin Brigade during an international crisis initiated by construction of the Berlin Wall. These "Long Thrust Operations" were the most significant deployments conducted by 1st Infantry Division troops during the Cold War, placing Big Red One troops in confrontation with hostile communist forces.
From President Kennedy's approval on 25 May 1961, the Army divisions began to convert to the "Reorganization Objective Army Division 1965" (ROAD) structure in early 1962. While the bulk of the division was moved to Fort Riley in April 1970 (the colors returning to Kansas from Vietnam) replacing the inactivated 24th Infantry Division, its 3d Brigade, the Division Forward replacement component of REFORGER for the inactivated 24th Infantry Division, a mixture of cavalry and infantry, was forward-deployed to Germany. The brigade was initially stationed at Sheridan Kaserne, Augsburg, later moving to Cooke Barracks in Göppingen, with four battalions (two infantry, two armor) and the 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry stationed in Stuttgart/Boeblingen (Panzer Kaserne) and the field artillery battalion in Neu Ulm (Wiley Kaserne) with the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry in Göppingen and the 3d Battalion, 63d Armor in Augsburg. The Division Forward was inactivated on 15 August 1991 and the Big Red One became a two-brigade division with an assigned National Guard "roundout" brigade.
Vietnam War
The division fought in the Vietnam War from 1965 to 1970.
Arriving in July 1965, the division began combat operations within two weeks. By the end of 1965 the division had participated in three major operations: Hump, Bushmaster 1 and Bushmaster II, under the command of MG Jonathan O. Seaman.
In 1966, the division took part in Operation Marauder, Operation Crimp II and Operation Rolling Stone, all in the early part of the year. In March, Major General William E. DePuy took command. In June and July the division took part in the battles of Ap Tau O, Srok Dong and Minh Thanh Road. In November 1966, the division participated in Operation Attleboro.
1967 saw the division in Operation Cedar Falls, Operation Junction City, Operation Manhattan, Operation Billings, and Operation Shenandoah II. MG John H. Hay assumed command in February. On 17 June 1967, during Operation Billings, the division suffered 185 casualties, 35 killed and 150 wounded in the battle of Xom Bo II. Three months later on 17 October 1967, the 1st I.D suffered heavy casualties at the Battle of Ong Thanh with 58 killed.
The division was involved in the Tet Offensive of 1968, securing the massive Tan Son Nhut Air Base. In March, MG Keith L. Ware took command. That same month the division took part in Operation Quyet Thang ("Resolve to Win") and in April the division participated in the largest operation of the Vietnam War, Operation Toan Thang ("Certain Victory"). On 13 September, the division commander, MG Ware, was killed in action when his command helicopter was shot down by enemy anti-aircraft fire. MG Orwin C. Talbott moved up from his position of assistant division commander to assume command of the division.
In the first half of 1969, The Big Red One conducted reconnaissance-in-force and ambush operations, including a multi-divisional operation, Atlas Wedge. The last part of the year saw the division take part in Dong Tien ("Progress Together") operations. These operations were intended to assist South Vietnamese forces to take a more active role in combat. In August, MG A. E. Milloy took command of the 1st I.D. while the division took part in battles along National Highway 13, known as "Thunder Road" to the end of the year.
In January 1970 it was announced that the division would return to Fort Riley. The division officially departed South Vietnam on 7 April 1970, when the division commander Brigadier General John Q. Henion, left Bien Hoa Air Base and returned the colors to Fort Riley. 11 members of the division were awarded the Medal of Honor. During its involvement in the Vietnam war, the division lost 6,146 killed in action, with a further 16,019 wounded. Twenty of its number were taken as prisoners-of-war.
Order of Battle in Vietnam
1st Brigade, 1st Inf Div Oct 1965 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/16th Inf Oct 1965 – Nov 1966
1st Bn/28th Inf Oct 1965 – Apr 1970
2nd Bn/28th Inf Oct 1965 – Nov 1966
1st Bn/2nd Inf Dec 1966 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/26th Inf Dec 1966 – Jan 1970
2nd Bn(M)/2nd Inf Feb 1970 – Apr 1970
2nd Bn/28th Inf [2] Feb 1970 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/5th Art (105mm How) DS 1st Bde Oct 1965 – Apr 1970
2nd Brigade, 1st Inf Div Jul 1965 – Apr 1970
2nd Bn/16th Inf Jul 1965 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/18th Inf Jul 1965 – Jan 1970
2nd Bn/18th Inf Jul 1965 – Apr 1970
1st Bn(M)/16th Inf Feb 1970 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/7th Art (105mm How) DS 2nd Bde Oct 1965* – Apr 1970
Thus, the brigade had no artillery battalion for the period Jul – Sep 1965.
3rd Brigade, 1st Inf Div Oct 1965 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/2nd Inf Oct 1965 – Nov 1966
2nd Bn/2nd Inf Oct 1965 – Feb 1969 mechanized by Jan 1965
1st Bn/26th Inf Oct 1965 – Nov 1966
1st Bn/16th Inf Dec 1966 – Jan 1970 mechanized ca Oct 1968
2nd Bn/28th Inf Dec 1966 – Jan 1970
2nd Bn(M)/2nd Inf [2] Apr 1969 – Jan 1970
1st Bn/18th Inf Feb 1970 – Apr 1970
1st Bn/26th Inf Feb 1970 – Apr 1970
2nd Bn/33rd Art (105mm How) DS 3rd Bde Oct 1965 – Apr 1970
2nd Bn (M)/2nd Inf with 1st Cavalry Division Mar 1969
REFORGER
The division participated in REFORGER (Return of Forces in Germany) in all years. REFORGER was the largest set of NATO ground maneuvers since the end of World War II. The group performed surveillance on the border of Czechoslovakia and Germany during the Cold War.
Post-Cold War era
First Gulf War
The division, commanded by Major General Thomas G. Rhame, also participated in Operation Desert Storm. The division's two maneuver brigades from Fort Riley were rounded out by the addition of two tank battalions (2nd and 3rd, 66th Armor), an infantry battalion (1-41st Infantry), and a field artillery battalion (4-3 FA) from 2nd Armored Division (Forward) in Germany. The division played a significant role in the Battle of Norfolk. Specific combat arms and combat support units of the 3rd Battalion, 37th Armor and others were responsible for the initial breach of the Iraqi defenses providing subsequent passages for the rest of VII Corps, consequently rolling over the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division and taking 2,600 prisoners of war. The division continued with the subsequent long assault on Iraqi-held territory over 100 hours, engaging eleven Iraqi divisions, destroying 550 tanks, 480 armored personnel carriers and taking 11,400 prisoners. 1st Infantry Division Artillery, including 4-3 FA battalion, was decisive during combat operations performing multiple raids and fire missions. These combat operations resulted in the destruction of 50 enemy tanks, 139 APCs, 30 air defense systems, 152 artillery pieces, 27 missile launchers, 108 mortars, and 548 wheeled vehicles, 61 trench lines and bunker positions, 92 dug in and open infantry targets, and 34 logistical sites. By the early morning of 28 February 1991, the division had taken position along the "Highway of Death", preventing any Iraqi retreat. The division's HHC, Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Delta 3/37 Armor, HHC, Alpha, Bravo, Charlie and Delta 4/37 Armor, and 1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment (1/4 CAV), was then tasked with securing the town of Safwan, Iraq, and the airfield there where the Iraqis were later forced to sign the surrender agreement.
Valorous Unit citation:
There was also the "bulldozer assault", wherein the 1st and 2nd Brigades from the 1st Infantry Division (Mechanized) used mine plows mounted on tanks and combat earthmovers to bury Iraqi soldiers defending the fortified "Saddam Line." While approximately 2,000 men surrendered, escaping death, one newspaper story reported that U.S. commanders estimated thousands of Iraqi soldiers had been buried alive during the two-day assault over period 24–25 February 1991.
In 1996 the division colors were relocated to the German city of Würzburg (replacing the 3rd Infantry Division, which had relocated to Fort Stewart, GA). The division would remain in Germany until 2006, when the colors were struck and moved (again) to Fort Riley, Kansas.
Balkans
The divisional cavalry squadron, 1st Squadron 4th US Cavalry deployed to Bosnia as part of the initial IFOR mission from January to December 1996. The Squadron was based in Camp Alicia near the town of Kalesija. 2nd (Dagger) Brigade Combat Team deployed to Bosnia as part of IFOR (and subsequent SFOR) from October 1996 to April 1997. 2nd Brigade was replaced by elements from the 3rd Brigade and the division's aviation brigade. Units from the 1st (Devil) Brigade Combat Team also deployed to Bosnia as part of SFOR6 ("Operation Joint Forge") from August 1999 to April 2000.
Elements of the division, to include personnel and units from the 2nd, 3rd and aviation brigades, served in Kosovo. During the Kosovo War three soldiers were captured by Serbian forces but were later released after peace talks.
Units of the 1st Infantry Division served in Kosovo as part of the NATO-led Kosovo Force (KFOR) 1A and KFOR 1B from June 1999 to June 2000, then again for KFOR 4A and 4B from May 2002 to July 2003.
Iraq 2003 and 2004
In January 2003, the division headquarters deployed to Turkey to command and control Army Forces Turkey (ARFOR-T) with a mission to receive and move the 4th Infantry Division across Turkey and into Northern Iraq. The task organization included HHC Division, 1–4 Cavalry, 1–26 Infantry, 1–6 Field Artillery, 2-1 Aviation, HHC Engineer Brigade, 9th Engineers, HHC DISCOM, 701 Main Support Battalion, 601 Aviation Support Battalion, 4-3 Air Defense Artillery, 101 Military Intelligence Battalion, 121 Signal Battalion, 12th Chemical Company, and other US Army Europe units to include the Theater Support Command. The division opened three seaports, two airports, three command posts, and convoy support centers along a 500-mile route from the Turkish coast, through Mardin, to the Northern Iraqi border. When the Turkish government voted to deny US ground forces access to Turkey, ARFOR-T collapsed the line of communication and redeployed to Germany home stations in April 2003.
1-63 Armor of the 3rd Brigade Combat Team deployed to Kirkuk, Iraq from Rose Barracks, Germany, during the first-ever deployment of the USAREUR (United States Army Europe) Immediate Ready Task Force (IRTF) in March 2003, in support of the 173rd Airborne Brigade. The battalion redeployed to Europe with the 173rd in March 2004.
The 1st Brigade, 1st Infantry Division deployed from Fort Riley, Kansas in September 2003 to provide support to the 82nd Airborne Division in the city of Ramadi, Iraq. In September 2004, the 1st Brigade was replaced by elements from the 2nd Infantry Division in Ramadi and redeployed to Ft. Riley.
In January 2004, the division less the 1st Brigade Combat Team deployed from home stations in Germany to Iraq, where it conducted an area relief with the 4th Infantry Division in the Salah ad-Din, Diyala, Kirkuk and Sulaymaniyah provinces, with the division headquarters located on Forward Operating Base Danger, in Saddam Hussein's hometown of Tikrit. Task Force Danger, as the division was called during OIF2, was augmented with the 2nd Brigade, 25th Infantry Division, the 30th Heavy Brigade Combat Team of the North Carolina Army National Guard, the 264th Engineer Group of the Wisconsin Army National Guard, the 167th Corps Support Group, 1st ROC (USAR), and the 2nd Battalion, 108th Infantry Regiment of the New York Army National Guard. The 2nd Brigade Combat Team was headquartered in Tikrit, the 3rd Brigade Combat Team was headquartered outside Baqubah, and the 30th BCT was headquartered in Kirkuk. The 4th Brigade and Division Support Command were based at Forward Operating Base Spiecher north of Tikrit. Task Force Danger conducted counterinsurgency operations, to include the full spectrum of combat, peace enforcement, training and equipping Iraqi security forces, support to Iraqi institutions to improve quality of life, and two national elections. Major combat included operations in Baqubah, Samarra, Bayji, Najaf, Al Diwaniyah, and Fallujah. In February 2005, the division facilitated an area relief with the 42d Infantry Division, New York National Guard, and elements of the 3rd Infantry Division and redeployed to home stations in Germany.
Rebasing to US
In July 2006 the division was withdrawn from Germany back to Fort Riley in CONUS, leaving only 2nd (Dagger) Brigade in Schweinfurt, Germany until 28 March 2008 when the 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division was reorganized and re-designated as the 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division.
Iraq 2006–2008
The 2nd (Dagger) Brigade Combat Team deployed to Iraq from mid-August 2006 to late November 2007. 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment was the first to embark and was sent to the Adhamiya district of Baghdad to assist in suppressing the widespread sectarian violence. The 1st Battalion, 77th Armor Regiment was deployed to Ramadi and the 1st Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment was sent to Forward Operating Base Falcon in the Al Rashid district of southwest Baghdad. HQ and HQ Company 2BCT, 1st ID, 9th Engineer Battalion, 1st Battalion, 7th Field Artillery Regiment, 299th Support Battalion, C/101 MI BN, and 57th Signal Company were all (Dagger) units occupying Camp Liberty, a sprawling encampment of 30,000+ military and DoD civilians located just east of Baghdad International Airport (BIAP). 2BCT MP PLT (formerly 2nd Platoon, 1st Military Police Company) was located at FOB (Forward Operating Base) Justice. During the 15-month deployment, 61 soldiers from the brigade were killed, including 31 from 1–26 infantry, which had the most casualties in any single battalion since the Vietnam War.
Elements from Fort Riley's 1st (Devil) Brigade deployed in the fall of 2006 to other area of operations in Iraq. Units include companies from the 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry; 1st Battalion, 34th Armor; 1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery; 1st Engineer Battalion; and D Troop, 4th Cavalry.
Transition team training mission
State-side training for the military transition teams (MiTTs) is located at Fort Riley, Kansas. Training began 1 June 2006. Some of the units such as the 18th Infantry Regiment, the 26th Infantry Regiment, and the 16th Infantry Regiment have already gone into Afghanistan along with some reconnaissance units. Those units have been in the Kunar Province since mid-2006. As of fall 2009 the transition team training mission has moved to Fort Polk, and the 1st Brigade has transitioned into a combat ready force with possible plans to deploy in the next few years.
Iraq 2007
In February 2007, the 4th Infantry Brigade Combat Team deployed to southern Baghdad in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. the second unit tasked with the "surge" announced earlier in the year by President Bush. The main force of the brigade was under Col "Ricky" Gibbs at FOB Falcon. 2nd Battalion, 16th Infantry was put under operational control of 2nd Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, and located at FOB Rustamiyah (Featured in the Book "the Good Soldiers" by Washington Post reporter David Finkel)
In the fall of 2007, the Combat Aviation Brigade (Demon Brigade), 1st Infantry Division deployed to Iraq and was placed under the command of Multinational Division – North located at COB Spiecher. The majority of the CAB is stationed at COB Spiecher, with the 1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment and some supporting elements stationed at FOB Warrior.
Afghanistan 2008–2009
In June and July 2008, 3rd Brigade, "Duke", deployed to Eastern Afghanistan under the command of CJTF-101, relieving the 173rd Airborne Brigade and taking control of the Kunar, Nuristan, Nangarhar, and Laghman provinces. One of the brigades infantry battalions, 2nd Battalion, 2nd Infantry, was tasked out down south in the Kandahar province outside of the brigade command. The 6th Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment was tasked with securing the Kunar Valley. Combat Outposts Keating and Lowell were engaged in combat on nearly a daily basis while Observation Posts Hatchet and Mace disrupted Taliban supply lines and took the brunt of attacks from the east out of Pakistan. They were involved in the infamous Battle of Bari Alai, where 3 American soldiers and 2 Latvian soldiers were killed. The battle lasted over the course of 4 days where the fatigued soldiers of Charlie Troop and Hatchet Troop were continuously harassed by Taliban fighters after retaking the observation post. 6-4 Cavalry had the most casualties of the brigade with the exception of the 1st Battalion, 26th Infantry Regiment, who were continuously engaged with the Taliban in the Korengal Valley. CNN branded the brigade "The Dying Duke" because of the brutality and high casualty rate of the unit in their time in theater. Main focuses of the brigade and PRT were to protect population centers such as Jalalabad and Asadabad and help develop the local economy through the construction of roads, and provide security while doing so. The brigade returned to Ft. Hood, Texas in July 2009 after a year of combat in which they recorded over 2000 firefights, over 3000 enemy killed, over 1000 bombs dropped, 26,000 rounds of artillery fire and over 500 Purple Hearts awarded.
Iraq 2008–2009
In October 2008, the 2nd Heavy Brigade Combat Team deployed to northwest Baghdad in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The brigade HQ was located on VBC (Victory Base Complex) and the brigade was responsible for the NW quarter of Baghdad. During this deployment soldiers of the 1st CAB (Combined Arms Battalion), 18th Infantry Regiment were located on FOB Justice. The 1st CAB, 63rd Armor was initially located in Mah-Muh-Diyah (south of Baghdad) and then relocated to JSS Nasir wa Salam (NWS) in the Abu Ghraib area to the west of Baghdad. 5th Squadron, 4th Cavalry was located in the Ghazaliyah area of West Baghdad where they battled the 1920s Revolutionary Brigade and eventually wrested control of the area from them. The 1st Battalion, 7th Field Artillery was located on FOB Prosperity within the "Green Zone", and the 2nd Brigade Special Troops Battalion located in the Victory Base Complex. During this deployment, the 4th Squadron, 10th Cavalry, 2nd Battalion, 8th (US) Cavalry Regiment was attached to the brigade for several months, as well as the 1st Battalion, 41st Field Artillery, and a battalion from the 56th Stryker Brigade Combat Team (PAARNG).
The most notable events which occurred during this time were the Iraqi provincial elections, the expiration of the UN Mandate and the corresponding implementation of the security agreement (SA), between the Government of Iraq and the United States, and "Bloody Wednesday" 19 August 2009 coordinated bombing of the finance ministry and the foreign ministry, with rocket attacks in the green zone. The bombings resulted in 101 dead and over 560 wounded. The Dagger Brigade experienced constant, albeit minor, enemy contact during this deployment—although the brigade still had two KIAs (one serving as the brigade deputy commander's personal security detachment and one from the attached PAARNG battalion) and numerous WIA. During this deployment, LTC J.B. Richardson III (commander of 5–4 CAV) earned a Bronze Star for Valor for single-handedly assaulting through an enemy RKG-3 ambush and inflicting multiple casualties on the enemy.
Iraq 2009–2010
4th Infantry Brigade Combat Team (Dragons) deployed in August 2009 as one of the last combat units to be deployed to Iraq. Under the Command of Colonel Henry A. Arnold III. The Brigade experienced two casualties over the course of the deployment. Spc. Tony Carrasco Jr. Died 4 November 2009. 2nd Battalion 32nd Field Artillery. Spc. Jacob Dohrenwend. 21 June 2010. 1st Battalion 28th Infantry Regiment.
Iraq 2010–2011
1st Heavy Brigade Combat Team headquarters with their Brigade Support Battalion (BSB) and Special Troops Battalion deployed to Kirkuk, Iraq in October 2010 to establish the 1-1 Advise and Assist Task Force as part of Operation New Dawn. They were later joined by 1–5 Field Artillery in northern Iraq in late spring 2011.
2nd Heavy Brigade Combat Team deployed to Baghdad, Iraq in November 2010 in an advise and assist role as part of Operation New Dawn under the command of COL Paul T. Calvert. The brigade HQ was located at Victory Base Complex, where it was co-located within the USD-C Division HQ building and shared the same TOC. This unique C2 relationship earned the brigade the moniker of the "Luckiest Brigade in the Army" from the USD-C commander. The brigade was placed under USD-C (initially 1st AD, then 25th Infantry Division after Dec 2011) and was single-handedly responsible for the entire province of Baghdad. As the brigade responsible for the "center of gravity" (i.e. Baghdad) for United States Forces-Iraq, the 2nd "Dagger" Brigade was responsible for advising and assisting 50% of the Iraqi security forces within Iraq to include two Iraqi corps HQ (the Karkh Area Command and Rusafa Area Command) and seven Iraqi divisions (6th IA, 9th IA—Mechanized, 17th IA, 11th IA, 1st FP, 2nd FP, and 4th FP) and 50,000 Iraqi policemen.
The 1st Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment, commanded by LTC John Cross, was located at Camp Taji and FOB Old MOD. They were partnered with the 9th and 11th IA Divisions. 1st Battalion, 7th FA, commanded by LTC Andrew Gainey, was located at JSS Loyalty. They were partnered with the 1st Federal Police Division. 1st Battalion, 63rd Armored, commanded by LTC Michael Henderson, was located at JSS Deason, Muthana Airfield, and VBC. They were partnered with the 6th and 17th IA Divisions. 5th Squadron, 4th Cavalry, commanded by LTC Mathew Moore was located at JSS Falcon. They were partnered with the 2nd and 4th FP Divisions. The Special Troops Battalion, commanded by LTC Shilisa Geter, was located at VBC (Victory Base Complex) and partnered with the Baghdad Police Directorate. Meanwhile, due to the drawdown of US forces and the redeployment of theater-level sustainment brigades, the 299th BSB, commanded by LTC Dale Farrand, assumed the area support mission for all DOD and DOS elements within the province of Baghdad in addition to supporting the Dagger Brigade.
Significant events during this deployment included the resumption of attacks by the Sadrist movement and other Iranian-backed militia, the subsequent operations that stopped those attacks, the rearward passage of lines of USD-North as they redeployed through Baghdad, the organization and training of divisional field artillery regiments for the IA divisions, the fielding of M1 tanks for the 9th IA Division, and the hand-over of all US facilities within Baghdad to the Government of Iraq or elements of the US State Department. During this deployment the brigade simultaneously trained ISF units to the point of conducting Iraqi-led battalion CALFEXs, advised ISF units as they conducted hundreds of Iraqi-led raids which disrupted the attacks of Iranian-backed militia, while also conducting unilateral and combined force protection operations to ensure the security of US bases and redeploying US forces. The brigade experienced nine KIAs during this deployment, the majority of which resulted from a single IRAM attack (improvised rocket-assisted munition) conducted against JSS Loyalty by Iranian-backed militia on 6 June 2011. The brigade departed Iraq in November 2011 after having turned the majority of the city of Baghdad over to complete Iraqi control.
Afghanistan 2011–2012
From 1st Heavy Brigade Combat Team, 1st Battalion, 16th Infantry (CAB) and 4th Squadron, 4th Cavalry deployed to Afghanistan in the winter of 2011, with 2nd Battalion, 34th Armor (CAB) later deploying in the spring of 2011. 1–16 IN (CAB) was assigned to support the combined joint special task force, the Iron Rangers were deployed to 58 remote locations across Afghanistan. They completed more than 10,000 missions as part of village stability operations with the Afghan people. The operations connected the government of Afghanistan to the village level and taught Afghans about their constitution. 2–34 AR (CAB) was deployed to Maiwand, Kandahar Province located southern Afghanistan near the Kandahar/Helmand Province border. 4-4 Cavalry was deployed to central Zhari District, Kandahar province and conducted thousands of combat patrols throughout the birthplace and homeland of the Taliban.
3rd Infantry Brigade Combat Team deployed to Khost and Paktya provinces in Eastern Afghanistan in January 2011. 2nd Battalion, 2nd Infantry Regiment was once again detached from the brigade and deployed to Ghazni province under Polish command. The brigade conducted Operations Tofan I and II. Tofan I's mission was to disrupt insurgent safe havens in the Musa Khel region of Khowst Province, improve the ability for the government to reach the people there and gather intelligence for planning future operations. Tofan II's mission was to establish contact with the insurgents, disrupt their logistics, and reduce any material or moral support from the local population. Movement to the extremely remote area, which featured narrow or non-existent roads set among mountains, included mounted and dismounted soldiers who also had to be aware of the need to control the key terrain features around Suri Kheyl.
Afghanistan 2012–2013
The 1st Infantry Division headquarters deployed to Bagram, Afghanistan on 19 April 2012 as part of Operation Enduring Freedom XIII after receiving responsibility for Regional Command (East)(RC(E)) from 1st Cavalry Division. The division served as the Combined Joint Task Force-1 (CJTF-1) and RC(E), command and controlling the vital region (Bamiyan, Parwan, Panjshayr, Kapisa, Laghman, Nuristan, Konar, Nangarhar, Maiden Wardak, Logar, Paktiya, Khowst, Ghazni, and Paktika) surrounding Kabul and a large portion of the volatile border with Pakistan. During the division's tenure in Afghanistan, the division oversaw a transition of authority to the Afghan National Security Forces (ANSF)201st Corps north of Kabul and had prepared the ANSF 203rd Corps to assume full security responsibility south of Kabul prior to transitioning RC(E) to 101st Airborne Division (AASLT).
The 4th IBCT deployed to Afghanistan in May 2012 for a 9-month deployment. The brigade operated in Ghazni and Paktika provinces in eastern Afghanistan. Dragon Brigade concluded its deployment in February 2013, transitioning oversight of Ghazni province to 1st Brigade, 10th Mountain Division and Paktika province to 2nd Brigade, 10th Mountain Division and full security responsibility for those provinces to 3rd and 2nd Brigades, ANSF 203rd Corps, respectively.
Operation Inherent Resolve
In response to the growing ISIL threat the Department of Defense announced on 25 September 2014 that approximately 500 soldiers from 1st Infantry Division Headquarters will be deployed to Iraq with the task of assisting Iraqi Security Forces. This will be the first Division HQ deployed in Iraq since withdrawal back in 2011. Among the soldiers sent over approximately 200 will be stationed in Baghdad, where they will make up close to half of US troops deployed.
In mid-October 2016 the US Army announced it will deploy about 500 soldiers from the 1st Infantry Division Headquarters to Iraq in the fall of 2016. Troops will assume the role of Combined Joint Forces Land Component Command-Iraq in support of Operation Inherent Resolve.
Operation Freedom's Sentinel
In late July 2016, the U.S. Army announced that it will send 800 soldiers from 1st Combat Aviation Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, to Afghanistan to support Operation Freedom's Sentinel – the U.S. counter-terrorism operation against the remnants of al-Qaeda, ISIS–K and other terror groups. The brigade will deploy with its AH-64 Apache attack helicopters and UH-60 Black Hawk utility helicopters sometime before October 2016.
Operation Atlantic Resolve
In April 2017, Military.com reported that approximately 4,000 soldiers from the 2nd Armored Brigade Combat Team, 1st Infantry Division will deploy to Europe as part of Operation Atlantic Resolve, replacing the 3rd Armored BCT, 4th Infantry Division in a regular rotation of forces. The unit deployed in September 2017 and redeployed in June 2018, serving throughout Eastern Europe conducting readiness and inter-operability training with NATO Allies to assure U.S. Allies and deter aggression. The Division Headquarters deployed part of its headquarters in March 2018 to Poznan, Poland, to serve as the U.S. Army Europe's Mission Command Element forward providing mission command of the Regionally Aligned Forces serving in Atlantic Resolve. They are scheduled to remain until June 2020. In January the division's 1st Armored Brigade Combat Team and 1st Combat Aviation Brigade deployed to Eastern Europe in Support of Operation Atlantic Resolve with the mission of building readiness, assuring Allies, and deterring aggression on the continent.
Insignia
No credible source states how the insignia of the 1st Infantry Division originated in World War I. There are two theories as to how the idea of the patch came about. The first theory states that the 1st Division supply trucks were manufactured in England. To make sure the 1st Division's trucks were not confused with other allies, the drivers would paint a huge "1" on the side of each truck. Later, the division engineers would go even farther and put a red number one on their sleeves.
The second theory claims that a general of the division decided the unit should have a shoulder insignia. He decided to cut a red numeral "1" from his flannel underwear. When he showed his prototype to his men, one lieutenant said, "the general's underwear is showing!" Offended, the general challenged the young lieutenant to come up with something better. So, the young officer cut a piece of gray cloth from the uniform of a captured soldier, and placed the red "1" on top.
Music
Band
The 1st Infantry Division Band (abbreviated as the 1ID Band and often known as the Big Red One Band) is the musical ambassador for the division that performs for military ceremonies at Fort Riley and the surrounding communities in the Midwest. The 38-member band contains the Concert Wind Ensemble, the Marching Band, a Seated Ceremonial Band as well as other specialized ensembles. The band was notably involved in the Thunder Road incident in Vietnam, during which Major General John Hay ordered the band to march down "Thunder Road", for one mile while playing the Colonel Bogey March. The road, which was critical to the division's operations, was under the control of a North Vietnamese Army regiment. Confused by the action, the regiment withdrew from the area, with the band fulfilling a remarkable combat mission without firing a shot. In 2008, A parachutist injured three members of the band after crashing into them following getting off course during military review.
Song
According to the 1st Infantry Division history, the song was composed in 1943 by Captain Donald T. Kellett, who retired after a 30-year career as a colonel and died in 1991. Later revised from "Men of a great division" to "Soldiers of a great division".
Current structure
1st Infantry Division consists of the following elements: a division headquarters and headquarters battalion, two armored brigade combat teams, a division artillery, a combat aviation brigade, a sustainment brigade, and a combat sustainment support battalion. The field artillery battalions remain attached to their brigade combat teams.
Division Headquarters and Headquarters Battalion
Headquarters and Support Company
Signal, Intelligence and Sustainment Company
1st Infantry Division Band
Commanding General's Mounted Color Guard
19th Public Affairs Detachment
1st Armored Brigade Combat Team (ABCT) (Devil Brigade)
Headquarters and Headquarters Company (HHC)
1st Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment Quarter-horse
1st Battalion, 16th Infantry Regiment Iron Rangers
2nd Battalion, 34th Armor Regiment Dreadnaughts
3rd Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment Burt's Knights
1st Battalion, 5th Field Artillery Regiment (FAR) Hamilton's Own
1st Brigade Engineer Battalion (BEB) Diehards
101st Brigade Support Battalion (BSB) Liberty
2nd ABCT (Dagger Brigade)
HHC
5th Squadron, 4th Cavalry Regiment
1st Battalion, 18th Infantry Regiment Vanguards
1st Battalion, 63rd Armor Regiment Dragons
2nd Battalion, 70th Armor Regiment Thunder Bolts
1st Battalion, 7th FAR First Lightning
82nd BEB
299th BSB Lifeline
1st Infantry Division Artillery
Headquarters and Headquarters Battery
1st Infantry Division, Combat Aviation Brigade (Demon Brigade)
HHC
1st Battalion (Attack), 1st Aviation Regiment with 24 AH-64D Apache Longbows
1st Squadron, 6th Cavalry Regiment with 24 AH-64D and 12 RQ-7 Shadows. The Fighting Sixth
2nd Battalion (General Support), 1st Aviation Regiment with 8 UH-60L/M Black Hawks, 12 CH-47F Chinooks and 15 HH-60M Black Hawks
3rd Battalion (Assault), 1st Aviation Regiment with 30 UH-60M Black Hawks
601st Aviation Support Battalion
1st Infantry Division Sustainment Brigade
Special Troops Battalion
HHC
267th Signal Company
541st Division Sustainment Support Battalion
HHC
1st Maintenance Company (Support)
24th Transportation Company (Composite Truck)
165th Movement Control Team (MCT)
266th MCT
526th Quartermaster Company (Composite Supply)
Awards and decorations
Source:
Campaign credit
Unit decorations
See also
Division insignia of the United States Army
The Big Red One (1980), a movie about the division's experiences in World War II written by Samuel Fuller, who served in the division during World War II.
Cantigny, the former estate of Col. Robert R. McCormick, is where the 1st Infantry Division Museum is located. The museum showcases the history of the 1st Infantry Division, from their involvement in World War I to the present, along with several tanks situated outside the museum dating from World War I to the present.
Iraq Assistance Group, a former joint command coordinating the coalition military transition team mission in Iraq which was formed from the 1st Infantry Division.
Call of Duty 2: Big Red One, an expansion for the first-person shooter video game Call of Duty 2 with a focus on the division's operations in World War II.
Call of Duty: WWII has players take on the role of Ronald "Red" Daniels, a private and part of "The Bloody First", following the operations of the division from the D-Day landings, up to the capture of the Rhineland.
Explanatory notes
References
Office of the Theater Historian 1948, Order of Battle of the United States Army World War II Divisions 1945, Paris.
Further reading
Felix G. Third Graders at War: The True Story of a Cavalry Scout During Operation Desert Storm,
Rohan, John. Rags, the Dog Who Went to War, Diggory Press,
Gantter, Raymond. Roll Me Over: An Infantryman's World War II, Ivy Books,
Stanton, Shelby, Vietnam Order of Battle: A Complete Illustrated Reference to the U.S. Army and Allied Ground Forces in Vietnam, 1961–1973, Stackpole Books, 2006
Wheeler, James Scott. The Big Red One: America's Legendary 1st Infantry Division from World War I to Desert Storm (2nd ed., University Press of Kansas, 2007), the standard history; 710pp
Desert Redleg: Artillery Warfare in the First Gulf War by Col. L. Scott Lingamfelter
External links
Official 1st Infantry Division website
Society of the First Infantry Division
Duty First: The 1st Infantry Division's award-winning quarterly magazine
First Division Museum at Cantigny Park
The First! The Story of the 1st Infantry Division (World War II divisional history booklet, 1945)
Echoes of War: Stories from the Big Red One Interactive PBS documentary about the 1st Infantry Div.
1st Infantry Division Living History Group – Germany
Cantigny First Division Oral Histories, includes freely accessible video oral history interviews with veterans of the U.S. Army's First Infantry Division
Media
001st Infantry Division, U.S.
Military units and formations established in 1917
Military units and formations in Kansas
Military units and formations of the United States in the Gulf War
001st Infantry Division
Infantry Division, U.S. 001st
Infantry divisions of the United States Army in World War II
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256572 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanologist | Volcanologist | A volcanologist, or volcano scientist, is a geologist who focuses on understanding the formation and eruptive activity of volcanoes. Volcanologists frequently visit volcanoes, sometimes active ones, to observe and monitor volcanic eruptions, collect eruptive products including tephra (such as ash or pumice), rock and lava samples. One major focus of inquiry in recent times is the prediction of eruptions to alleviate the impact on surrounding populations and monitor natural hazards associated with volcanic activity. Geologists who research volcanic materials that make up the solid Earth are referred to as igneous petrologists.
Etymology
The word volcanologist (or vulcanologist) is derived from the English volcanology (volcano + -logy), which was derived from the French volcanologie (or vulcanologie), which was further derived from the French word volcan (volcano), which was even further derived from Vulcanus, the Latin name of the Roman god of fire and metalworking. The Latin word is of Estrucan origin, but unknown meaning.
Job overview
Job description
Volcanologists research many aspects of volcanic processes to better understand planetary formation or to monitor current and future volcanic eruptions in order to protect citizens living in volcanic hazard zones. Volcanologists works at universities, museums or other national research institutes (often including volcano observatories), or in industry. Volcanologists working in academia will be usually involved in teaching geology classes if based at a university (lecturer or professor), running of laboratory experiments, data collection, and writing of scientific peer-reviewed papers for the scientific community to critique and advance knowledge and discovery. Volcanologists working for volcano observatories and museums work in close collaboration with academic researchers, but day-to-day tasks may also include the collection and curation of volcanic samples, writing of reports from monitoring stations, and public outreach relating to volcanic hazards and climate change
Sub-disciplines of volcanology
Igneous petrologist
Physical volcanogist - someone who typically studies the physical characteristics of volcanic ash deposits and rocks.
Experimental petrologist - someone who simulates volcanic and magmatic processes in a laboratory (are often specialists in thermodynamics applied to Earth processes).
Geochemist - those who study the chemical composition of volcanic rocks and gases (see also isotope geochemistry). Geochemists often use mass spectrometry and electron microprobe analysis to understand the pre-eruption history of volcanic rocks and how fast eruptions occur.
Volcano geophysicist (or volcano seismologist)
Planetary volcanologist - someone who studies volcanic processes on other planetary bodies.
History
Notable volcanologists (currently active)
Haraldur Sigurdsson (1939-), Icelandic volcanologist and geochemist
Bill McGuire (born 1954)
Keith Rowley (born 1949; Prime Minister of Trinidad and Tobago since 2015)
Robert Stephen John Sparks Chaning Wills Professor of Geology in the Department of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol.
Donald B. Dingwell (born 1958 in Corner Brook, Newfoundland, Canada) is a geoscientist, the director of the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Ordinarius for Mineralogy and Petrology of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Katharine Cashman is an American volcanologist, professor of volcanology at the University of Bristol
Terry Plank an American geochemist, volcanologist and professor of Earth science at Columbia College, Columbia University, and the Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory
Richard Arculus is an Australian petrologist and volcanologist, formerly a professor of the School of Earth Sciences at the Australian National University.
Rosaly Lopes (born 8 January 1957 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil) is a Senior Scientist at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory specializing in planetary geology and volcanology
Clive Oppenheimer (born 1964) is a British volcanologist, and Professor of Volcanology in the Department of Geography of the University of Cambridge
Tamsin Mather British Professor of Earth Sciences at the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford. She studies volcanic processes and their impacts on the Earth's environment and has appeared on the television and radio
Marie Edmonds (born 14 September 1975) is a Professor of volcanology and geology at the University of Cambridge whose research focuses on the physics and chemistry of volcanic eruptions and magmatism and understanding volatile cycling in the solid Earth as mediated by plate tectonics
Jani Radebaugh American planetary scientist and professor of geology at Brigham Young University
Lindy Elkins-Tanton, planetary scientist and professor with expertise in planet formation and evolution. She is the Director of the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University (ASU) in Tempe, Arizona, Principal Investigator of NASA's Psyche mission, and former director of the Carnegie Institution for Science's Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Jenni Barclay, professor of volcanology at the University of East Anglia. She works on ways to mitigate volcanic risks, the interactions between rainfall and volcanic activity and the communication of volcanic hazards in the Caribbean
Claire Horwell, professor of Geohealth in the Department of Earth Sciences and Institute of Hazard, Risk and Resilience at Durham University and the founding Director of the International Volcanic Health Hazard Network (IVHHN). She studies the health hazards of natural and industrial mineral dusts
Notable volcanologists
Plato (428–348 BC)
Pliny the Elder (23–79 AD)
Pliny the Younger (61 – )
George-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (1707–1788)
James Hutton (1726–1797)
Déodat Gratet de Dolomieu (1750–1801)
George Julius Poulett Scrope (1797–1876)
Giuseppe Mercalli (1850–1914)
Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948)
Frank A. Perret (1867–1943)
Thomas Jaggar (1871–1953), founder of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory
Alfred Rittmann (1893–1980)
Sigurður Þórarinsson (1912–1983),
Haroun Tazieff (1914–1998), advisor to the French Government and Jacques Cousteau
George P. L. Walker (1926–2005), pioneering volcanologist who transformed the subject into a quantitative science
Katia and Maurice Krafft (1942–1991 and 1946–1991, respectively), died at Mount Unzen in Japan, 1991
Peter Francis (1944–1999)
David A. Johnston (1949–1980), killed during the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens
Harry Glicken (1958–1991), died at Mount Unzen in Japan by Pyroclastic flow, 1991
See also
Volcanology
Volcanism
Igneous Petrology
References
External links
Volcano Live- What is a volcanologist?
Environmental Science- How to Become a Volcanologist
Science occupations | [
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256576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spheric | Spheric | Spheric may refer to:
An alternate word for spherical
Radio atmospheric, a lightning-generated electromagnetic signal
Spheric, a 1998 album by Ray Buttigieg
"Spheric", a song by American violinist Michael Galasso from the 2005 album High Lines | [
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256577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20poetry | Chinese poetry | Chinese poetry is poetry written, spoken, or chanted in the Chinese language. While this last term comprises Classical Chinese, Standard Chinese, Mandarin Chinese, Yue Chinese, and other historical and vernacular forms of the language, its poetry generally falls into one of two primary types, Classical Chinese poetry and Modern Chinese poetry.
Poetry has consistently been held in extremely high regard in China, often incorporating expressive folk influences filtered through the minds of Chinese literation. In Chinese culture, poetry has provided a format and a forum for both public and private expressions of deep emotion, offering an audience of peers, readers, and scholars insight into the inner life of Chinese writers across more than two millennia. Westerners also have found in it an interesting and pleasurable field of study, in its exemplification of essential contrasts between the Western world and Chinese civilization, and on its own terms.
Classical Chinese poetry
Classical Chinese poetry includes, perhaps first and foremost shi (詩/诗), and also other major types such as ci (詞/词) and qu (曲). There is also a traditional Chinese literary form called fu (賦/赋), which defies categorization into English more than the other terms, but perhaps can best be described as a kind of prose-poem. During the modern period, there also has developed free verse in Western style. Traditional forms of Chinese poetry are rhymed, however the mere rhyming of text may not qualify literature as being poetry; and, as well, the lack of rhyme would not necessarily disqualify a modern work from being considered poetry, in the sense of modern Chinese poetry. For example, lines from I Ching are often rhymed, but may not be considered to be poetry, whereas modern verse may be considered to be poetry even without rhyme. A cross-cultural comparison to this might be the Pre-Socratic philosophical works in ancient Greece which were often written in verse versus free verse.
Beginnings of the tradition: Shijing and Chuci
The earliest extant anthologies are the Shi Jing (詩經) and Chu Ci (楚辭). Both of these have had a great impact on the subsequent poetic tradition. Earlier examples of ancient Chinese poetry may have been lost because of the vicissitudes of history, such as the burning of books and burying of scholars (焚書坑儒) by Qin Shi Huang, although one of the targets of this last event was the Shi Jing, which has nevertheless survived.
Shijing
The elder of these two works, the Shijing (also familiarly known, in English, as the Classic of Poetry and as the Book of Songs or transliterated as the Sheh Ching) is a preserved collection of Classical Chinese poetry from over two millennia ago. Its content is divided into 3 parts: Feng (風, folk songs from 15 small countries, 160 songs in total), Ya (雅, Imperial court songs, subdivided into daya and xiaoya, 105 songs in total) and Song (頌, singing in ancestral worship, 40 songs in total).This anthology received its final compilation sometime in the 7th century BCE. The collection contains both aristocratic poems regarding life at the royal court ("Odes") and also more rustic poetry and images of natural settings, derived at least to some extent from folk songs ("Songs"). The Shijing poems are predominantly composed of four-character lines (四言), rather than the five and seven character lines typical of later Classical Chinese poetry. The main techniques of expression (rhetorics) are Fu (賦, Direct elaborate narrative), bi (比, metaphor) and Xing (興, describe other thing to foreshadowing the main content).
Chuci
In contrast to the classic Shijing, the Chu Ci anthology (also familiarly known, in English, as the Songs of Chu or the Songs of the South or transliterated as the Chu Tz'u) consists of verses more emphasizing lyric and romantic features, as well as irregular line-lengths and other influences from the poetry typical of the state of Chu. The Chuci collection consists primarily of poems ascribed to Qu Yuan (屈原) (329–299 BCE) and his follower Song Yu, although in its present form the anthology dates to Wang I's 158 CE compilation and notes, which are the only historically reliable sources of both the text and information regarding its composition. During the Han dynasty (206 BCE−220 CE), the Chu Ci style of poetry contributed to the evolution of the fu ("descriptive poem") style, typified by a mixture of verse and prose passages (often used as a virtuoso display the poet's skills and knowledge rather than to convey intimate emotional experiences). The fu form remained popular during the subsequent Six Dynasties period, although it became shorter and more personal. The fu form of poetry remains as one of the generic pillars of Chinese poetry; although, in the Tang dynasty, five-character and seven-character shi poetry begins to dominate.
Han poetry
Also during the Han dynasty, a folk-song style of poetry became popular, known as yuefu (樂府/乐府) "Music Bureau" poems, so named because of the government's role in collecting such poems, although in time some poets began composing original works in yuefu style. Many yuefu poems are composed of five-character (五言) or seven-character (七言) lines, in contrast to the four-character lines of earlier times. A characteristic form of Han Dynasty literature is the fu. The poetic period of the end of the Han Dynasty and the beginning of the Six Dynasties era is known as Jian'an poetry. An important collection of Han poetry is the Nineteen Old Poems.
Jian'an poetry
Between and over-lapping the poetry of the latter days of the Han and the beginning period of the Six Dynasties was Jian'an poetry. Examples of surviving poetry from this period include the works of the "Three Caos": Cao Cao, Cao Pi, and Cao Zhi.
Six Dynasties poetry
The Six Dynasties era (220−589 CE) was one of various developments in poetry, both continuing and building on the traditions developed and handed down from previous eras and also leading up to further developments of poetry in the future. Major examples of poetry surviving from this dynamic era include the works of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, the poems of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, the Midnight Songs poetry of the four seasons, the great "fields and garden" poet "Tao Yuanming", the Yongming epoch poets, and the poems collected in the anthology New Songs from the Jade Terrace, compiled by Xu Ling (507–83). The general and poet Lu Ji used Neo-Taoist cosmology to take literary theory in a new direction with his Wen fu, or "Essay on Literature" in the Fu poetic form.
Tang poetry
A high point of classical Chinese poetry occurred during the Tang period (618–907): not only was this period prolific in poets; but, also in poems (perhaps around 50,000 poems survive, many of them collected in the Collected Tang Poems). During the time of, poetry was integrated into almost every aspect of the professional and social life of the literate class, including becoming part of the Imperial examinations taken by anyone wanting a government post. By this point, poetry was being composed according to regulated tone patterns. Regulated and unregulated poetry were distinguished as "ancient-style" gushi poetry and regulated, "recent-style" jintishi poetry. Jintishi (meaning "new style poetry"), or regulated verse, is a stricter form developed in the early Tang Dynasty with rules governing the structure of a poem, in terms of line-length, number of lines, tonal patterns within the lines, the use of rhyme, and a certain level of mandatory parallelism. Good examples of the gushi and jintishi forms can be found in, respectively, the works of the poets Li Bai and Du Fu. Tang poetic forms include: lushi, a type of regulated verse with an eight-line form having five, six, or seven characters per line; ci (verse following set rhythmic patterns); and jueju (truncated verse), a four-line poem with five, six, or seven characters per line. Good examples of the jueju verse form can be found in the poems of Li Bai and Wang Wei. Over time, some Tang poetry became more realistic, more narrative and more critical of social norms; for example, these traits can be seen in the works of Bai Juyi. The poetry of the Tang Dynasty remains influential today. Other Late Tang poetry developed a more allusive and surreal character, as can be seen, for example, in the works of Li He and Li Shangyin.
Song poetry
By the Song dynasty (960–1279), another form had proven it could provide the flexibility that new poets needed: the ci (词/詞) lyric—new lyrics written according to the set rhythms of existing tunes. Each of the tunes had music that has often been lost, but having its own meter. Thus, each ci poem is labeled "To the tune of [Tune Name]" (调寄[词牌]/調寄[詞牌]) and fits the meter and rhyme of the tune (much in the same way that Christian hymn writers set new lyrics to pre-existing tunes). The titles of ci poems are not necessarily related to their subject matter, and many poems may share a title. In terms of their content, ci poetry most often expressed feelings of desire, often in an adopted persona. However, great exponents of the form, such as the Southern Tang poet Li Houzhu and the Song dynasty poet Su Shi, used the ci form to address a wide range of topics.
Yuan poetry
Major developments of poetry during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) included the development of types of poetry written to fixed-tone patterns, such as for the Yuan opera librettos. After the Song Dynasty, the set rhythms of the ci came to be reflected in the set-rhythm pieces of Chinese Sanqu poetry (散曲), a freer form based on new popular songs and dramatic arias, that developed and lasted into the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). Examples can be seen in the work of playwrights Ma Zhiyuan 馬致遠 (c. 1270–1330) and Guan Hanqing 關漢卿 (c. 1300).
Ming poetry
The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) poets include Gao Qi (1336–1374), Li Dongyang (1447–1516), and Yuan Hongdao (1568–1610).
Ming-Qing Transition
Ming-Qing Transition includes the interluding/overlapping periods of the brief so-called Shun dynasty (also known as Dashun, 1644–1645) and the Southern Ming dynasty (1644 to 1662). One example of poets who wrote during the difficult times of the late Ming, when the already troubled nation was ruled by Chongzhen Emperor (reigned 1627 to 1644), the short-lived Dashun regime of peasant-rebel Li Zicheng, and then the Manchu Qing dynasty are the so-called Three Masters of Jiangdong: Wu Weiye (1609–1671), Qian Qianyi (1582–1664), and Gong Dingzi (1615–1673).
Qing poetry
The Qing dynasty (1644 to 1912) is notable in terms of development of the criticism of poetry and the development of important poetry collections, such as the Qing era collections of Tang dynasty poetry known as the QuanTangshi and the Three Hundred Tang Poems. Both shi and ci continued to be composed beyond the end of the imperial period.
Post-imperial Classical Chinese poetry
Both shi and ci continued to be composed past the end of the imperial period; one example being Mao Zedong, former Chairman of the Communist Party of China, who wrote Classical Chinese poetry in his own calligraphic style.
Modern (post-classical) poetry
Modern Chinese poetry (新诗/新詞 "new poetry") refers to the modern vernacular style of poetry, as opposed to the traditional poetry written in Classical Chinese language. Usually Modern Chinese poetry does not follow prescribed patterns. Poetry was revolutionized after 1919's May Fourth Movement, when writers (like Hu Shih) tried to use vernacular styles closer to what was being spoken (baihua) rather than previously prescribed forms. Early 20th-century poets like Xu Zhimo, Guo Moruo and Wen Yiduo sought to break Chinese poetry from past conventions by adopting Western models. For example, Xu consciously follows the style of the Romantic poets with end-rhymes.
In the post-revolutionary Communist era, poets like Ai Qing used more liberal running lines and direct diction, which were vastly popular and widely imitated.
In the contemporary poetic scene, the most important and influential poets are in the group known as Misty Poets, who use oblique allusions and hermetic references. The most important Misty Poets include Shu Ting, Bei Dao, Gu Cheng, Duo Duo, and Yang Lian, most of whom were exiled after the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. A special case is the mystic poet Hai Zi, who became very famous after his suicide.
However, even today, the concept of modern poetry is still debated. There are arguments and contradiction as to whether modern poetry counts as poetry. Due to the special structure of Chinese writing and Chinese grammar, modern poetry, or free verse poetry, may seem like a simple short vernacular essay since they lack some of the structure traditionally used to define poetry.
See also
General
Classical Chinese poetry
Chinese art
Shi (poetry) (the Chinese term for poetry)
Chinese literature
Chinese classic texts
List of national poetries
Modern Chinese poetry
:Category:Chinese translators
Poetry of particular (dynastic) periods
Han poetry
Jian'an poetry
Six Dynasties poetry
Tang poetry
Song poetry
Poetry works and collections
300 Tang poems
Gao Bing
List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
Li Sao
Classic of Poetry
New Songs from the Jade Terrace
Orchid Pavilion Gathering
Quantangshi
Sun Zhu
Wangchuan ji
Yan Yu (poetry theorist)
Individual poets, poems, and translators
List of Chinese language poets
List of poems in Chinese or by Chinese poets
Poetry of Cao Cao
Du Fu
Li Bai
Poetry of Mao Zedong
Qu Yuan
Su Shi
Wang Wei
Xu Zhimo
Lists of poets
List of Chinese-language poets
List of Three Hundred Tang Poems poets
Important translators of Chinese poetry into English
Archie Barnes
Witter Bynner
Herbert Giles
David Hawkes
David Hinton
Bernard Karlgren
James Legge
Amy Lowell
Ezra Pound
Arthur Waley
Burton Watson
Jonathan Chaves (professor)
Kenneth Rexroth
English-language translation collections
Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry
Poetic modes, genres, and forms
Ci (poetry)
Classical Chinese poetry forms
Classical Chinese poetry genres
Fu (poetry)
Jueju
Pailu
Poetic encyclopaedist school
Qu (poetry)
Shi
Yuefu
Technical factors of poetry
Classical Chinese poetry
Classical Chinese poetry forms
Rime dictionary
Tone pattern
Rime table
Influence outside China
Japanese poetry
Korean poetry
Singaporean literature
Vietnamese poetry
Ernest Fenellosa
Kanshi
Shigin Shiyin (詩吟)
Notes and references
Bibliography
Cai, Zong-qi, ed. (2008). How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Cui, Jie and Zong-qi Cai (2012). How to Read Chinese Poetry Workbook. New York: Columbia University Press.
Davis, A. R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction, The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse. (Baltimore: Penguin Books (1970).
Holland, Gill (1986). Keep an Eye on South Mountain: Translations of Chinese Poetry.
Liu, James J.Y. (1966). The Art of Chinese Poetry.
Liu, Wu-Chi and Irving Yucheng Lo eds. (1990) "Sunflower Splendor: Three Thousand Years of Chinese Poetry". Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Owen, Stephen (1996). An Anthology of Chinese Literature: Beginnings to 1911.
Yip, Wai-lim (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres . Durham and London: Duke University Press.
External links
The Red Brush – Writing Women of Imperial China
The Columbia University Press web page accompanying Cai 2008 has PDF and MP3 files for more than 75 poems and CUP's web page accompanying Cui 2012 includes MP3 files of modern Chinese translations for dozens of these.
Olga Lomová, Traditional Chinese Poetry (Oxford Bibliographies Online: Chinese Studies). Available through libraries by subscription. Selective, annotated bibliography.
Chinese literature | [
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256579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical%20Chinese%20poetry | Classical Chinese poetry | Classical Chinese poetry is traditional Chinese poetry written in Classical Chinese and typified by certain traditional forms, or modes; traditional genres; and connections with particular historical periods, such as the poetry of the Tang Dynasty. The existence of classical Chinese poetry is documented at least as early as the publication of the Classic of Poetry (Shijing). Various combinations of forms and genres have developed over the ages. Many or most of these poetic forms were developed by the end of the Tang Dynasty, in 907 CE.
The use and development of Classical Chinese poetry actively continued up until the May Fourth Movement, in 1919, and is still developed even today. Poetry created during this period of more-or-less continuous development displays a great deal of diversity – categorized by both major historical periods and by dynastic periods (the traditional Chinese historical method).
Another key aspect of Classical Chinese poetry is its intense inter-relationship with other forms of Chinese art, such as Chinese painting and Chinese calligraphy. Classical Chinese poetry has proven to be of immense influence upon poetry worldwide.
History and development
The stylistic development of Classical Chinese poetry consists of both literary and oral cultural processes. These are usually divided into certain standard periods or eras, in terms both of specific poems as well as characteristic styles; these generally correspond to Chinese dynastic eras, per the traditional Chinese method of chronicling history. The poems preserved in writing form the poetic literature. Parallel traditions of oral and traditional poetry known as popular or folk poems or ballads also exist. Some of these poems have been preserved in written form. Generally, folk-type poems are anonymous, and many show signs of having been edited or polished in the process of recording them in written characters. The main source sources for the earliest preserved poems are the Classic of Poetry (Shijing) and the Songs of the South (Chuci). Some individual pieces or fragments survive in other forms – embedded, for example, in classical histories or other literature.
During the Tang dynasty poetry was very important
Classic of Poetry (Shijing)
The literary tradition of Classical Chinese poetry begins with the Classic of Poetry, or Shijing, dated to early 1st millennium BC. According to tradition, Confucius (551 BCE – 479 BCE) was the final editor of the collection in its present form, although the individual poems were mostly older than this. Burton Watson dates the anthology's main compilation date to about the 7th century BCE, with the poems having been collected over the previous four to five centuries before. This, among other factors, indicates a sustained cross-class popularity for this type of poetry, including their characteristic four-character per line meter. The Shijing tends to be associated with northern Chinese vocabulary and culture, and in particular with the great sage and philosopher Confucius: this helped encourage the development of this type of poetry into the classic shi style, the literal meaning of Shijing. Despite their commendation by Confucius, there are no extant samples of any poetry of this style made within the next three hundred years.
Songs of the South (Chu Ci)
Another early poetry collection/genre is the Chu Ci (dated to the Warring States period about 475–221 BCE), which is typified by various line lengths and the imagery and influence of the vernacular associated with the state of Chu, in southern China. One important part of this is the Li Sao, attributed to Qu Yuan. These poems from the State of Chu are among the most important of all Classical Chinese poetry; however, these poems and their style seem to have had less influence on Classical Chinese poetry, at least at first, than did the Shijing collection and style.
Han dynasty
The classic shi poetry, with its four-character lines, was revived by Han and Three Kingdoms poets, to some extent. Among other poetic developments during the Han epoch was the development of a new form of shi poetry, dating from about the 1st century BCE, which initially consisted of five- and later seven-character lines. The development of this form of shi poetry occurred in conjunction with various other phenomena related to Han poetry. The new form of shi developed during the Han and the Jian'an period would become known as "gushi", or "ancient style poetry".
Music Bureau and folk ballads
The Han dynasty witnessed major developments in Classical Chinese poetry, including both the active role of the imperial government in encouraging poetry through the Music Bureau and through its collection of Han dynasty folk ballads (although some of these seem to have been subject to at least some post-folk literary polishing, as in the case of the Shijing). In Chinese, Yuefu, "Music Bureau", is synonymous with yuefu the poetry style, thus the term Yuefu () has come to refer both to the Music Bureau's collected lyrics and to the genre of which they are representative and serve as a source of inspiration. Another important Han dynasty poetry collection is the Nineteen Old Poems.
Han fu
The Han dynasty poetry is particularly associated with the fu, as opposed to the shi style of poetry or literature: note, however, that this fu () is a different word than the fu (府) meaning government bureau in the term yuefu (乐府; sometimes spelled Yüeh Fu, or similarly). One exponent of this style was Sima Xiangru.
Jian'an poetry
Jian'an poetry refers to those poetic movements occurring during the final years of the failing Han Dynasty and continuing their development into the beginning of the Six Dynasties period. Jian'an is considered as a separate period because this is one case where the poetic developments fail to correspond with the neat categories aligned to chronology by dynasty. Typical poets of this period are Cao Cao, Cao Pi, Cao Zhi, and Xu Gan. One of the more important poetic developments of this period is toward the odd number, fixed length verse styles also typical of the Tang poetry period. As a result, some of the poetic forms often associated with Tang poetry can be traced back developmentally to some of the forms developed during the Jian'an period.
Six Dynasties poetry
The Six Dynasties (220–589) also witnessed major developments in Classical Chinese poetry, especially emphasizing romantic love, gender roles, and human relationships, and including the important collection New Songs from the Jade Terrace. The Six Dynasties era covers three main periods: the Three Kingdoms (220–280), Jin Dynasty (266–420), and Southern and Northern Dynasties (420–589). The Three Kingdoms period was a violent one, a characteristic sometimes reflected in the poetry or highlighted by the poets' seeking refuge from the social and political turmoil by retreating into more natural settings, as in the case of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove. The Jin Dynasty era was typified poetically by, for example, the Orchid Pavilion Gathering of 42 literati; the romantic Midnight Songs poetry; and, Tao Yuanming, the great and highly personal poet who was noted for speaking in his own voice rather than a persona. Some of the highlights of the poetry of the Northern and Southern Dynasties include the Yongming poets, the anthology collection New Songs from the Jade Terrace, and Su Hui's Star Gauge.
Sui and Tang dynasties poetry
Sui poetry
Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the landscape, the brief Sui Dynasty (581–618 CE) lacks distinction (in terms of the development of Chinese poetry); though it nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang. Sui dynasty poets include Yang Guang (580–618), who was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry critic); and also, the Lady Hou, one of his consorts.
Tang poetry
The Tang dynasty (618–907) was particularly noted for its poetry, especially the shi forms such as jueju and lüshi. This poetry was both a pervasive social phenomenon throughout the Tang literate classes, who developed the ability to compose poems on demand as part of the Imperial examination system, but also a social grace necessary for polite conduct on social occasions, such as part of the interaction at banquets or social gatherings. Some 50,000 poems survive, mostly represented in the Ming Dynasty collection the Quantangshi. Their popularity in the historical Chinese cultural area has varied over time, with certain authors coming in and out of favor and others permanently obscure. Some authors, such as Li Bai (also known as Li Po), Wang Wei, Du Fu, and Bai Juyi (also known as Po Chü-i) managed to maintain consistent popularity.
Tang poetry has developed an ongoing influence on world literature and modern and quasi-modern poetry; for instance, as in the case of Li Bai whose modern influence extends as far as Gustav Mahler's Das Lied von der Erde and Beat poetry. In part because of the prevalence of rhymed and parallel structures within Tang poetry, it also has a role in linguistics studies, such as in the reconstruction of Middle Chinese pronunciation.
Song dynasty poetry
The Song dynasty (960–1279) was noted for its poetry, perhaps especially the development of the Ci form; indeed, the ci as a poetic form perhaps reached a high point during the Song Dynasty. The ci is a kind of lyric poetry using a poetic meter based upon certain patterns of fixed-rhythm formal types, of which there were about 800 of these set patterns, each associated with a particular title. Originally ci were written to be sung to a specific tune of that title, with set rhythm, rhyme, and tempo. However, over time the actual tunes seem to have disappeared (similarly to the case of English ballads). Thus, the title of a certain ci may have nothing to do with its contents, although the poetic meter is the same. It is common for several ci to share the same title. As developed during the Song poetic period, the ci was a versatile verse form.
The poets of the Song Dynasty drew on a long tradition of poetry, perhaps especially the forms which were prevalent in the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty is known for its achievements in the combination of poetry, painting, and calligraphy into a shared art form. Prominent Song poets include Su Shi (Dongpo), Ouyang Xiu, Lu You and Yang Wanli.
The Southern Song Dynasty which ruled southern China from 1127 to 1279 was largely co-existent with the Jurchen Jin dynasty (1115–1234), which had established control over northern China and its largely Chinese population. The Chinese poets of the Jin Dynasty produced poetry which shared the characteristics of the Song Dynasty poetry; and towards the end of the Jin, the poetry begins to similarly show the effects of the Mongol invasions that eventually led to the establishment of the Yuan Dynasty with its own characteristic poetry.
Yuan dynasty poetry
Poetry during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368) continued the Classical Chinese poetry tradition and is especially noted for the burgeoning of Chinese opera verse tradition. Yuan drama's notable qu form was set to music, restricting each individual poem to one of nine modal key selections and one of over two hundred tune patterns. Depending on the pattern, this imposed fixed rhythmic and tonal requirements that remained in place for future poets even if its musical component was later lost. Noteworthy Yuan dramatist-poets include Bai Pu, Guan Hanqing, Ma Zhiyuan, and Qiao Ji.
A painter-poet tradition also thrived during the Yuan period, including masterful calligraphy done by, for example, Ni Zan and Wu Zhen. Another exemplar was Zhao Mengfu (1254–1322), a former official of the Song dynasty who served under the Mongol administration of the Yuan and whose wife Guan Daosheng (1262–1319) was also a painter-poet and calligrapher.
Ming dynasty poetry
Classical Chinese poetry continued to thrive during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Ming prosperity was accompanied by a tremendous increase in population, commerce, and poetry composition. Thanks to educational opportunities made possible by commercial printing and the reinvigorated examination system, a massively larger literate population emerged. This population relied on poetry to express personal emotion and to engage with each other socially. A debate as to whether the Tang or Song poets had achieved the highest heights of excellence solidified a collective opinion that past heights could not be surpassed. With over one million surviving Ming poems, modern critics and researchers have been unable to definitively answer whether that conviction is a prejudice or a fact.
Leading Ming poets include Gao Qi, Li Dongyang, and the publisher-poet Yuan Hongdao. Representatives of the dramatist-poet tradition include Tang Xianzu and Li Yu. Li Yu is also a prime example of the Ming-Qing transition's emotional outpouring when disorder swept away Ming stability as the incoming dynasty's Manchu warriors conquered from North to South. Another example of the poetic focus on emotion during this period is Dong Xiaowan. Ming representatives of the painter-poet tradition include Shen Zhou, Tang Yin, and Wen Zhengming.
Qing dynasty poetry
Classical Chinese poetry continued to be the major poetic form of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). This was also a time of related literary developments, such as the collection of Tang poetry under the Kangxi Emperor. The debates, trends, and widespread literacy of the Ming period began to flourish once again after the Qing Dynasty had established its dominance. The fresh poetic voice of Yuan Mei has won wide appeal, as have the long narrative poems by Wu Jiaji. Kunqu opera matured and led toward the later Chinese opera tradition of combined drama, poetry, and music. The painter-poet tradition thrived with exemplars such as Yun Shouping.
The challenge for modern researchers grew as even more people became poets and even more poems were preserved, including (with Yuan Mei's encouragement) more poetry by women. In 1980 fine shi poems by the famed Qing novelist Liu E were published for the first time, illustrating the potential to continue finding sunken treasure in the vast body of surviving Qing poetry.
Post-Qing Classical Chinese poetry
Although Qing is the last Chinese dynasty, this did not mean that Classical Chinese poetry disappeared with the end of the imperial period; indeed, Mao Zedong of the Communist Party of China was a major exponent and practitioner of Classical Chinese poetry well into the 20th century. However, the development and great expansion of modern Chinese poetry is generally thought to start at this point in history, or shortly afterwards.
Oral versus written
Oral nature of poetry
One important aspect of Classical Chinese poetry is that it was generally designed to be chanted or sung, with or without musical accompaniment. In fact, folk poetry, almost by definition, was orally composed and orally transmitted. This is because the "folk" were for the most part illiterate, as opposed to the generally literate scholarly classes; however, even the poems of the scholarly classes were intended to be sung or chanted.
Characteristics of written poetry
The particular characteristics of the Chinese writing system played an important role in Chinese poetry. In fact, a continuous poetic tradition in China was enabled in part by the fact that Chinese words can be represented by their corresponding Chinese characters semi-independently of their pronunciation (which extends to their use in classical versions of Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese). The pronunciations of spoken Chinese changed quite a bit over the course of time from the oldest surviving written Chinese poetry (in Old Chinese), through the Middle Chinese period (which included the Tang Dynasty), and up into the Modern Chinese period. During this course of development, Classical Chinese evolved as a distinct literary language, distinct from the spoken vernacular. The tension between a spoken vernacular and a literary form of the language worked both ways, the poetry of literature can be seen to have "various degrees of vernacular overlay" and also the oral folk poetry sometimes were "filled with literary phrases and constructions", perhaps due to the prestigious nature of the written language.
Influence of Chinese writing system
Scholars have also asked to what degree the pictorial element latent in Chinese characters informed Classical Chinese poetry. The etymology of Chinese characters is related but distinct from the evolution of the language itself. As is the case with many ancient writing systems, such as the Phoenician alphabet, many of the earliest characters likely began as pictograms, with a given word corresponding to a picture representing that idea.
By the time of Classical Chinese poetry, a complex system of writing had evolved with many characters being composed of combinations of other characters, chosen for similarities of meaning and/or sound. The resulting strong graphical aspect, versus a weaker phonetic element (in comparison to other languages, such as English) is very important. However, different translators of Classical Chinese poetry have emphasized these elements in differing degrees. Sinologist and translator A. C. Graham cautions against over-emphasizing this visual effect, which he says can "...act on the imagination like blobs in the Rorschach test. It is rather difficult to estimate this effect since a habitual reader of Chinese is hardly conscious of it without deliberately analysing his reactions....Certainly one can give too much weight to the visual aspect of Chinese writing. Poems in China, as elsewhere, are firstly patterns of sound...." However, Graham is in no way suggesting that the Chinese poet is unaware of the background considerations stemming from character construction.
Forms
There are various typical forms in which Classical Chinese poetry was written. These include the shi, the ci, and qu. The fu literary is also often considered to be within the category of poetry.
Genres
Various genres of Classical Chinese poems have been discerned, either by the composing poet or literary critics. The most widely accepted genres of Classical Chinese poetry include the landscape style poetry genres of Shanshui poetry, and Fields and Gardens poetry, which are associated with poets such as Tao Qian and Wang Wei.
Features
Besides various formal modes and genres, Classical Chinese poetry has several other typical features.
Persona
The use of a poetic persona is often encountered in Classical Chinese poetry, in which the author writes a poem from the viewpoint of some other person (or type of person). Often these persona types were quite conventional, such as the lonely wife left behind at home, the junior concubine ignored and sequestered in the imperial harem, or the soldier sent off to fight and die beyond the remote frontier.
Sociopolitical criticism
Many Classical Chinese poems can be read as a commentary upon current events and society. Sometimes this commentary is disguised through the use of symbolic imagery. One popular author who made commentary in this regard was Tang poet Bai Juyi.
Imagery and symbolism
Certain images and symbolism became quite conventional, and are key to understanding many of the Classical Chinese poems. For example, the falling autumn leaf can refer to personal or dynastic decline.
Exile
Many Classical Chinese poems were written as more-or-less subtle or implied complaints for the treatment of the author by the government. This is in part due to the nature of the imperial examination system as a way of recruiting talented persons into high political office, and the expectations of the talented poet of finding a suitable position within such a society. One example of this is the poetry written to accompany of to follow the eight-fold settings of the Eight Views of Xiaoxiang which were popularized during the Song Dynasty; although, the theme can certainly be traced back as far as the Chuci.
Allusions
Many Classical Chinese poems involve allusions or references to previous literature or well-known folk material.
Optional precision
In part due to the possibilities inherent in the Classical Chinese language and in part as an esthetic principle, many Classical Chinese poems are imprecise when it comes to gender, number, case, or other logically informative elements of speech which tend to be grammatically obligatory or difficult to avoid in various inflected languages, such as certain Indo-European languages.
Reader participation
Many Classical Chinese poems appear simple on the surface, but contain deeper, more profound ideas. In order to realize what these are, the reader is expected to meet the poet halfway — not just to be told something, but to actively think and feel in sympathy with the poet or the poet's persona.
Parallelism and antithesis
Parallelism
The arrangement of poems into couplets encouraged the use of parallelism: where for two lines of a poem it would be expected that the reader would compare and contrast the meaning of two lines, which would be specifically marked by the poet by using the same parts of speech in each position, or in certain key positions in each line, or else within one line.
Antithesis
Antithesis refers to the often latent contradiction between two statements which when sufficiently considered can lead to the understanding of a third, unstated opinion. It often plays a part in relationship to parallelism: the reader has to consider whether what seem to be parallel constructions and ideas really are so.
Autobiographic occasionalism
Many of the Classical Chinese poems were written on the occasion of a certain event. This was generally expected to be a fairly spontaneous creation made just for that particular period of time, and sometimes with a fairly limited intended audience in mind. Examples include occasions of parting from a close friend for an extended period of time, expression of gratitude for a gift or act of someone, lamentations about current events, or even as a sort of game at social gatherings.
Collections
Major collections of Classical Chinese poetry include the Shijing, the Chuci, the Collected Tang Poems, the New Songs from the Jade Terrace, the Three Hundred Tang Poems, the Tang era Wangchuan ji, and the poems collected from the Orchid Pavilion Gathering and the Midnight Songs poems from the Six Dynasties period .
Influence
Classical Chinese poetry has been an influence both on modern Chinese poetry but also on the poetry of other languages. One group of languages on which Classical Chinese poetry had an early influence was the poetry of the neighboring linguistic groups (that is, the local sprachbund). For example, this influence is strong on certain early forms of Vietnamese poetry, Korean poetry. A more global influence has developed in modern times, including Beat poetry, exponents of which even produced translations of Classical Chinese poetry into English, such as Kenneth Rexroth (One Hundred Poems From the Chinese, 1956) and Gary Snyder (Riprap and Cold Mountain Poems, 1959, which includes translations of Hanshan).
Translation into English
Various translators have worked to translate Classical Chinese poetry into English, including A. C. Graham, Arthur Waley, and Archie Barnes.
See also
Chinese literary works (Category)
Chinese literature, Classical poetry section
Chinese poetry
Chinese poetry (Category)
Chinese Sanqu poetry
Ci (poetry)
Classical Chinese poetry forms
Classical Chinese poetry genres
Classic of Poetry
Chuci
Five Classics
Fu (poetry)
History of Chinese art
Japanese poetry
Jueju
Kanshi (poetry)
Korean poetry
List of Chinese language poets
List of Classical Chinese poetry anthologies
List of National Treasures of Japan (writings: Chinese books)
Music Bureau
Nineteen Old Poems
Pailu
Qu (poetry)
Rime dictionary
Rime table
Sangluan
Six dynasties poetry
Shi (poetry)
Song Dynasty poetry
Tang poetry
Three perfections – integration of calligraphy, poetry and painting
Tone pattern
Verse (poetry)
Vietnamese poetry
Yuefu
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Birrell, Anne (1988). Popular Songs and Ballads of Han China. (London: Unwin Hyman).
Cai, Zong-qi, ed. (2008). How to Read Chinese Poetry: A Guided Anthology. New York: Columbia University Press.
Chang, H. C. (1977). Chinese Literature 2: Nature Poetry. (New York: Columbia University Press).
Chaves, Jonathan, ed. (1986). The Columbia Book of Later Chinese Poetry: Yüan, Ming, and Ch'ing Dynasties (1279–1911). New York: Columbia University Press.
Cui, Jie and Zong-qi Cai (2012). How to Read Chinese Poetry Workbook. New York: Columbia University Press.
Davis, A. R. (Albert Richard), Editor and Introduction,(1970), The Penguin Book of Chinese Verse. (Baltimore: Penguin Books).
Frankel, Hans H. (1978). The Flowering Plum and the Palace Lady. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press)
Graham, A. C. (1977). Poems of the Late T'ang. New York, New York: The New York Review of Books.
Hinton, David (2008). Classical Chinese Poetry: An Anthology. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. / .
Norman, Jerry (1991). Chinese. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York: Columbia University Press).
Watson, Burton, ed. (1984). The Columbia Book of Chinese Poetry: From Early Times to the Thirteenth Century. New York: Columbia University Press.
Yip, Wai-lim (1997). Chinese Poetry: An Anthology of Major Modes and Genres . (Durham and London: Duke University Press).
External links
Online multi-media resources for Classical Chinese poems at LearnchineseOK.com
:zh:詩 Chinese Wikipedia article on Shi (詩)
Chinese Poems, a collection of Chinese poems in the original Chinese, pinyin and English translations
Understand the basic forms of jintishi (regulated verse)
The Columbia University Press web page accompanying Cai 2008 has PDF and MP3 files for more than 75 poems and CUP's web page accompanying Cui 2012 includes MP3 files of modern Chinese translations for dozens of these
Chinese poetry
Poetry in Classical Chinese | [
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256586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom%20of%20Cyprus | Kingdom of Cyprus | The Kingdom of Cyprus (, ) existed between 1192 and 1489. It was ruled by the French House of Lusignan. It comprised not only the island of Cyprus, but it also had a foothold on the Anatolian mainland: Antalya between 1361 and 1373, and Corycus between 1361 and 1448.
History
Third Crusade
The island of Cyprus was conquered in 1191 by King Richard I of England during the Third Crusade, from Isaac Komnenos, an upstart local governor, Byzantine Prince and self-proclaimed emperor of the Byzantine Empire. The English king did not intend to conquer the island until his fleet was scattered by a storm en route to the siege of Acre and three of his ships were driven to the shores of Cyprus. The three ships were wrecked and sank in sight of the port of Limassol. The shipwrecked survivors were taken prisoner by Komnenos and when a ship bearing King Richard's sister Joan and bride Berengaria entered the port, Komnenos refused their request to disembark for fresh water. King Richard and the rest of his fleet arrived shortly afterwards. Upon hearing of the imprisonment of his shipwrecked comrades and the insults offered to his bride and sister, King Richard met Komnenos in battle. There were rumours that Komnenos was secretly in agreement with Saladin in order to protect himself from his enemies the Angelos family, the ruling family in the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.
Control of the island of Cyprus would give King Richard a highly strategic base to launch further Crusade initiatives. The English army engaged the Cypriots on the shores of Limassol with English archers and heavily armored knights. Komnenos and the remainder of the army escaped to the hills during nightfall but King Richard and his troops tracked the Cypriot ruler down and raided his camp before dawn. Komnenos escaped again with a small number of men. The next day, many Cypriot nobles came to King Richard to swear fealty. In the following days, Komnenos made an offer of 20,000 marks of gold and 500 men-at-arms to King Richard, as well as promising to surrender his daughter and castles as a pledge for his good behaviour.
Fearing treachery at the hands of the new invaders, Komnenos fled after making this pledge to King Richard and escaped to the stronghold of Kantara. Some weeks after King Richard's marriage to his bride in Limassol on 12 May 1191, Komnenos attempted an escape by boat to the mainland but he was apprehended in the abbey of Cape St. Andrea at the eastern point of the island and later imprisoned in the castle of Markappos in Syria, where he died shortly afterwards, still in captivity. Meanwhile, King Richard resumed his journey to Acre and, with much needed respite, new funds and reinforcements, set sail for the Holy Land accompanied by the King of Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan and other high ranking nobles. The English king left garrisons in the towns and castles of the island before he departed and the island itself was left in charge of Richard of Canville and Robert of Thornham.
Richard confiscated the property of those Cypriots who had fought against him. He also imposed a 50% capital levy on the island in return for confirming its laws and customs. He also ordered Cypriot men to shave their beards. There was a rebellion led by a relative of Isaac's, but it was crushed by Robert of Thornham, who hanged the leader. Richard rebuked Robert for this execution, since executing a man who claimed to be king was an affront to royal dignity. Some details of the brief English period on Cyprus can be found in the Chronicle of Meaux Abbey, possibly derived from Robert of Thornham, who had a relationship with the abbey.
Knights Templar
When King Richard I of England realized that Cyprus would prove to be a difficult territory to maintain and oversee whilst launching offensives in the Holy Land, he sold it to the Knights Templar for a fee of 100,000 bezants, 40,000 of which was to be paid immediately, while the remainder was to be paid in installments. One of the greatest military orders of medieval times, the Knights Templar were renowned for their remarkable financial power and vast holdings of land and property throughout Europe and the East. Their severity of rule in Cyprus quickly incurred the hatred of the native population. On Easter Day in 1192, the Cypriots attempted a massacre of their Templar rulers; however, due to prior knowledge of the attack and limited numbers of troops, the Knights had taken refuge in their stronghold at Nicosia. A siege ensued and the Templars, realizing their dire circumstances and their besiegers' reluctance to bargain, sallied out into the streets at dawn one morning, taking the Cypriots completely by surprise. The subsequent slaughter was merciless and widespread and though Templar rule was restored following the event, the military order was reluctant to continue rule and allegedly begged King Richard to take Cyprus back. King Richard took them up on the offer and the Templars returned to Syria, retaining but a few holdings on the island. A small minority Roman Catholic population of the island was mainly confined to some coastal cities, such as Famagusta, as well as inland Nicosia, the traditional capital. Roman Catholics kept the reins of power and control, while the Orthodox inhabitants lived in the countryside; this was much the same as the arrangement in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The independent Eastern Orthodox Church of Cyprus, with its own Archbishop and subject to no patriarch, was allowed to remain on the island, but the Roman Catholic Latin Church largely displaced it in stature and holding property.
Guy and Amalric
In the meantime, the hereditary queen of Jerusalem, Sybilla, had died, and opposition to the rule of her husband, king consort Guy of Lusignan, greatly increased to the point that he was ousted from his claim to the crown of Jerusalem. Since Guy was a long-time vassal of King Richard, the English king looked to strike two birds with one stone; by offering Guy de Lusignan the kingdom of Cyprus, he allowed his friend the opportunity to save face and keep some sort of power in the East whilst simultaneously ridding himself of a troublesome fief. It is unclear whether King Richard gave him the territory or sold it and it is highly unlikely that King Richard was ever paid, even if a deal was struck.
In 1194, Guy de Lusignan died without any heirs and so his older brother, Amalric, became King Amalric I of Cyprus, a crown and title which was approved by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor.
After the death of Amalric of Lusignan, the Kingdom continually passed to a series of young boys who grew up as king. The Ibelin family, which had held much power in Jerusalem prior its downfall, acted as regents during these early years. In 1229, one of the Ibelin regents was forced out of power by Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, who brought the struggle between the Guelphs and Ghibellines to the island. Frederick's supporters were defeated in this struggle by 1232 from the Cypriots Forces at Battle of Agridi, although it lasted longer in the Kingdom of Jerusalem and in the Holy Roman Empire. Frederick's Hohenstaufen descendants continued to rule as kings of Jerusalem until 1268 when Hugh III of Cyprus claimed the title and its territory of Acre for himself upon the death of Conrad III of Jerusalem, thus uniting the two kingdoms. The territory in Palestine was finally lost while Henry II was king in 1291, but the kings of Cyprus continued to claim the title.
Governance
Like Jerusalem, Cyprus had a Haute Cour (High Court), although it was less powerful than it had been in Jerusalem. The island was richer and more feudal than Jerusalem, so the king had more personal wealth and could afford to ignore the Haute Cour. The most important vassal family was the multi-branch House of Ibelin. However, the king was often in conflict with the Italian merchants, especially because Cyprus had become the center of European trade with Africa and Asia after the fall of Acre in 1291.
The kingdom eventually came to be dominated more and more in the 14th century by the Genoese merchants. Cyprus therefore sided with the Avignon Papacy in the Great Schism, in the hope that the French would be able to drive out the Italians. The Mameluks then made the kingdom a tributary state in 1426; the remaining monarchs gradually lost almost all independence, until 1489 when the last queen, Catherine Cornaro, was forced to sell the island to Venice.
Economy
The economy of Cyprus remained primarily agrarian during the Lusignan period. Simultaneously, though, the island grew in importance in the trade network connecting Western Europe and the Middle East, serving as an "entrepôt". This led to an increase in demand on Cypriot products (most importantly sugar, but also wine, wheat, oil, carobs) abroad, and the agrarian economy became more export-oriented. This allowed Cyprus to become more prosperous relative to the Byzantine period, fuelling the development of the harbour of Famagusta and the capital Nicosia, enabling the construction of architectural works that survive to this day. Whilst the development of these two eclipsed the other towns, towns such as Limassol, Paphos and Kyrenia did take some part in the changing economic environment. Limassol, in particular, became a port for the export of agricultural products and served as a stopover for Christian pilgrims to the Holy Land. The relative prosperity encouraged migration to Cyprus from the West (Genoa, Venice, Provence, Catalonia) and the East. The Latin immigrants participated in the economic life as merchants, artisans, shipwrights, ship captains and tavern keepers, and as such had an outsize share in the economy.
During this period, new industries also emerged in Cyprus. Cypriot pottery developed particular characteristics, and was exported to the Crusader States until the Fall of Acre in 1291. In the late 13th and early 14th industries, the textile industry developed, with new textile dyeing workshops being set up in Nicosia, and Cypriot samites and camlets having increasing demand in the West and the East. Famagusta became a hub for shipbuilding. These developments prompted the arrival of representatives from Florentine banking houses, such as the Peruzzi and the Bardi family. The growth of the industry as well as the labour-intensive production of sugar and wine resulted in a demand for slaves, and slave markets existed in Nicosia and Famagusta.
Society and culture
Cypriot society in the Lusignan period was multi-ethnic, with Orthodox Greek Cypriots making up the majority of the population Greeks constituted the majority of the population in the rural areas, where they were either serfs (paroikoi) or free tenants (francomati). The population increased until the middle of the fourteenth century, but the Black Death in 1347-48 resulted in the loss of one fifth to one third of the population. Repeated outbreaks prevented population recovery into the fifteenth century.
The Roman Catholic Latins never exceeded one fourth of the island's population and were concentrated in the cities. Frankish knights and aristocracy mostly lived in Nicosia, whilst Italians were concentrated in Famagusta. The losses suffered by the Crusader States in the 1270s and 1280s and the final Fall of Acre in 1291 triggered an influx of Latin immigrants from the Levant, as Italian, Aragonese and Provençal trading cities relocated their merchants to Cyprus. Maronites, Armenians and Syrians were concentrated in the foothills of Pentadaktylos and coastal plains. There was a system of ethnic discrimination and social stratification in place. However, with the majority of the population being Greeks, the Frankish nobility set up a system that would accommodate a certain degree of Greek autonomy, for instance maintaining Greek ecclesiastical courts open to the consultation of "wise and prominent men", thus practically forming secular Greek forms that exercised a form of judicial autonomy. The Greek Cypriot dialect was used as the lingua franca on the island and legal texts were translated into the vernacular. This relative autonomy meant that there were no rebellions of ethnic character in the Lusignan period. Whilst Greek historiography has traditionally seen a peasant revolt in 1426-27 as a nationalistic uprising, this was an unsystematic series of riots of pillaging by segments of the Greek peasant population and Spanish mercenaries following the Mamluk invasion, the capture of King Janus and the political vacuum that ensued.
List of monarchs of Cyprus
House of Lusignan
Guy (1192–1194)
Aimery (1194–1205)
Hugh I (1205–1218)
Henry I (1218–1253) (Le Gros)
Hugh II (1253–1267) (Huguet)
Hugh III (1267–1284)
John I (1284–1285)
Henry II (1285–1324)
Amalric of Tyre (1306–1310), regent
Hugh IV (1324–1359)
Peter I (1359–1369)
Peter II (1369–1382) (Perrin)
James I (1382–1398)
Janus (1398–1432)
John II (1432–1458)
Charlotte (1458–1464 and 1459–1464 with her husband Louis of Savoy)
James II (1464–1473) (Le Bâtard)
James III (1473–1474)
Catherine Cornaro (1474–1489)
Pretenders of the Kingdom of Cyprus
Thierry of Flanders, who married the "damsel of Cyprus", heiress of Isaac Komnenos, in the winter of 1202/1203, claimed the kingdom, but Aimery refused to surrender it.
Eugene Matteo de Armenia (1480's–1523), said by his own progeny to have been an illegitimate son of King James II of Cyprus and if born in the 1480s he was quite a posthumous specimen, alleged to have moved to Sicily then Malta, founder of the family of Baron di Baccari (Tal-Baqqar).
Charlotte (d. 1487) and Louis (d. 1482), queen and king-consort, continued as pretenders, Charlotte renounced 1482 in favor of:
Charles I of Savoy (1482–1490), legitimate great-grandson of Janus of Cyprus, son of a first cousin of Charlotte, second cousin of James III, nephew of Louis
Charles II of Savoy (1490–1496)
Yolande Louise of Savoy (1496–1499) and Philibert II of Savoy (d. 1504)
Philip II of Savoy (1496–1497), father of Philibert II, great-uncle of Charles II and of Yolande Louise, first cousin of Charlotte, maternal grandson of Janus of Cyprus.
and several others. The rights diverted de jure, but were claimed by the male line. See further under Cypriot claimants under Kings of Jerusalem. By 1476, the various claims were so diverse and weak that various monarchs sought former Cypriot queens to cede them their rights. Even the Republic of Venice briefly entertained the idea of setting up Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, the brother-in-law of England's King Edward IV (who was secretly negotiating a marriage to the Scottish princess Cecilia on Anthony's behalf), as a claimant by purchasing the rights of former Cypriot queens Charlotte and Catarina Cornaro. A convention in Venice of 1476 declared "Anthony Arnite" heir to the combined kingdom of Jerusalem-Cyprus but this came to nought when Anthony died before even his marriage to the sister of James Stewart, King of Scots could be celebrated, and the former Cypriot queens ceded their rights elsewhere. Charlotte to the Italian house of Savoy and Catarina Cornaro to the Most Serene Republic of Venice which asserted its claim to the kingdom as part of the republic, without even a candidate for king.
Titles of the Kings of Cyprus
King of Cyprus
King of Jerusalem
Lord of the Mountains
See also
Grand Officers of the Kingdom of Cyprus
References
Further reading
Carr, Annemarie (1995). Art in the Court of the Lusignan Kings
Coureas, Nicholas (2016). Latin Cyprus and its Relations with the Mamluk Sultanate, 1250-1517
Coureas, Nicholas (2017). The Lusignan Kingdom of Cyprus and the Sea 13th-15th Centuries
External links
Former kingdoms
Former monarchies of Asia
Former monarchies of Europe
States and territories established in 1192
States and territories disestablished in 1489
Kingdom of Cyprus
Kingdom of Cyprus
Kingdom of Cyprus
Island countries | [
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256587 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20human%20positions | List of human positions | Human positions refer to the different physical configurations that the human body can take.
There are several synonyms that refer to human positioning, often used interchangeably, but having specific nuances of meaning.
Position is a general term for a configuration of the human body.
Posture means an intentionally or habitually assumed position.
Pose implies an artistic, aesthetic, athletic, or spiritual intention of the position.
Attitude refers to postures assumed for purpose of imitation, intentional or not, as well as in some standard collocations in reference to some distinguished types of posture: "Freud never assumed a fencer's attitude, yet almost all took him for a swordsman."
Bearing refers to the manner of the posture, as well as of gestures and other aspects of the conduct taking place.
Basic positions
While not moving, a human is usually in one of the following basic positions:
All-fours
This is the static form of crawling which is instinctive form of locomotion for very young children. It was a commonly used childbirth position in both Western and non-Western cultures, in which context it is known as the Gaskin Maneuver. This position is sometimes viewed as sexually explicit due to its association with sexual initiation or availability.
Kneeling
Kneeling is a basic human position where one or both knees touch the ground. It is used as a resting position, during childbirth and as an expression of reverence and submission. While kneeling, the angle between the legs can vary from zero to widely splayed out, flexibility permitting. It is common to kneel with one leg and squat with the other leg.
While kneeling, the thighs and upper body can be at various angles in particular:
Vertical kneel: where both the thighs and upper body are vertical – also known as "standing on one's knees"
Sitting kneel: where the thighs are near horizontal and the buttocks sit back on the heels with the upper body vertical - for example as in Seiza, Virasana, and Vajrasana (yoga).
Taking a knee: where the upper body is vertical, one knee is touching the ground while the foot of the other leg is placed on the ground in front of the body.
Lying
When in lying position, the body may assume a great variety of shapes and positions. The following are the basic recognized positions.
Supine position: lying on the back with the face up.
Prone position: lying on the chest with the face down ("lying down" or "going prone").
Lying on either side, with the body straight or bent/curled forward or backward.
Fetal position: is lying or sitting curled, with limbs close to the torso and the head close to the knees.
Sitting
Sitting requires the buttocks resting on a more or less horizontal structure, such as a chair or the ground. Special ways of sitting are with the legs horizontal, and in an inclined seat. While on a chair the shins are usually vertical, on the ground the shins may be crossed in the lotus position or be placed horizontally under the thigh in a seiza.
Squatting or crouching
Squatting is a posture where the weight of the body is on the feet (as with standing) but the knees and hips are bent. In contrast, sitting, involves taking the weight of the body, at least in part, on the buttocks against the ground or a horizontal object such as a chair seat. The angle between the legs when squatting can vary from zero to widely splayed out, flexibility permitting. Squatting may be either:
full – known as full squat, deep squat, grok squat, Asian squat, third world squat, (sitting) on one's haunches, (sitting) on one's hunkers, or hunkering (down) etc.
partial – known as partial, standing, half, semi, parallel, shallow, intermediate, incomplete or monkey squat etc.
Crouching is usually considered to be synonymous with full squatting. It is common to squat with one leg and kneel with the other leg. One or both heels may be up when squatting. Young children often instinctively squat. Among Chinese, Southeast Asian, and Eastern European adults, squatting often takes the place of sitting or standing.
Standing
Although quiet standing appears to be static, modern instrumentation shows it to be a process of rocking from the ankle in the sagittal plane. The sway of quiet standing is often likened to the motion of an inverted pendulum. There are many mechanisms in the body that are suggested to control this movement, e.g. a spring action in muscles, higher control from the nervous system or core muscles.
Although standing isn't dangerous per se, there are pathologies associated with it. One short term condition is orthostatic hypotension, and long term conditions are sore feet, stiff legs and low back pain.
Some variations of standing are:
Standing with arms akimbo, that is with hands on hips, elbows pointing outward
Standing with folded arms
Standing contrapposto, with most of the weight on one foot so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs in the axial plane
Standing at attention, upright with an assertive and correct posture: "chin up, chest out, shoulders back, stomach in", arms at the side, heels together, toes apart
Contexts
Asanas
Certain asanas were originally intended primarily to restore and maintain a practitioner's well-being, improve the body's flexibility and vitality, and promote the ability to remain in seated meditation for extended periods.
Atypical positions
Atypical positions include:
standing on one leg
handstand
head stand
spreadeagle
crab position
Humans can hang in various positions. It is a position where the support is above the center of gravity. It may be voluntary or involuntary.
Such positions are common to break dancing, gymnastics and yoga.
Childbirth positions
In addition to the lithotomy position still commonly used by many obstetricians, childbirth positions that are successfully used by midwives and traditional birth-attendants the world over include squatting, standing, kneeling and on all fours, often in a sequence.
Dance positions
Dance position is a position of a dancer or a mutual position of a dance couple assumed during a dance. Describing and mastering proper dance positions is an important part of dance technique.
Eating positions
Eating positions vary according to the different regions of the world, as culture influences the way people eat their meals.
For example, most of the Middle Eastern countries, eating while sitting on the floor is most common, and it is believed to be healthier than eating while sitting to a table.
Eating in a reclining position was favored by the Ancient Greeks at a celebration they called a symposium, and this custom was adopted by the Ancient Romans. Ancient Hebrews also adopted this posture for traditional celebrations of Passover. The biblical prophet Amos associates "those who recline at banquets" with the false sense of security among the Israelites whom he is warning to repent.
Heat escape lessening position
The heat escape lessening position (HELP) is a way to position oneself to reduce heat loss in cold water. It is taught as part of the curriculum in Australia, North America and Ireland for lifeguard and boating safety training. It essentially involves positioning one's knees together and hugging them close to the chest using one's arms.
Medical positions
The following positions are specifically used in medicine:
Recovery position
The recovery position or coma position refers to one of a series of variations on a lateral recumbent or three-quarters prone position of the body, into which an unconscious but breathing casualty can be placed as part of first aid treatment.
Resting positions
A large number of resting positions are possible, based on variations of sitting, squatting, kneeling or lying.
Riding positions
A "straddle" or "astride" position is usually adopted when riding a horse, donkey, or other beast of burden, with or without the aid of a saddle. The position is also used for sitting on analogous vehicles and furniture, such as bicycles, motorcycles, or unicycles, and certain types of specialized workbenches (such as a shaving horse). By definition, an essential feature is having one leg on each side of whatever is being straddled. The related sidesaddle position allows riding without straddling, but is somewhat less secure against accidental dismounting or falling.
The straddle posture is often intermediate between standing and sitting positions, allowing body weight to be supported securely, while also affording a high degree of upper body mobility and dynamic balance during vigorous or extended motions.
Sex positions
Sex positions are positions which people may adopt during or for the purpose of sexual intercourse or other sexual activities. Sexual acts are generally described by the positions the participants adopt in order to perform those acts.
Shooting positions
Kneeling position
Prone position
Standing position
Sitting
Squatting
Sleeping positions
The sleeping position is the body configuration assumed by a person during or prior to sleeping. Six basic sleeping positions have been identified:
Fetus (41%) – curling up in a fetal position. This was the most common position, and is especially popular with women.
Log (15%) – lying on one's side with the arms down the side.
Yearner (13%) – sleeping on one's side with the arms in front.
Soldier (8%) – on one's back with the arms pinned to the sides.
Freefall (7%) – on one's front with the arms around the pillow and the head tilted to one side.
Starfish (5%) – on one's back with the arms around the pillow.
Stress positions
Stress positions place the human body in such a way that a great amount of weight is placed on just one or two muscles. Forcing prisoners to adopt such positions is a method of ill-treatment used for extracting information or as a punishment, possibly amounting to torture. Such positions also are sometimes used as a punishment for children.
Submissive positions
Submissive positions are often ceremonial and dictated by culture. They may be performed as a mutual sign of respect between equals or as a sign of submission to a higher-ranking individual or to a ceremonial object.
Bowing is the lowering of the head and torso towards the person or object of reverence, often briefly. The extent of a bow ranges from a simple head nod to a 90–degree bending at the waist. Though less common in Western cultures, it remains an important sign of respect in many Eastern cultures, and is also used in the ceremonies of various religions.
In bowing and scraping, the right hand is placed across the abdomen while the right leg is drawn or "scraped" back during a bow.
In Western cultures, it is often considered proper for women to perform a curtsey by bending the knees instead of a bow.
Genuflection (or genuflexion) is bending at least one knee to the ground, was from early times a gesture of deep respect for a superior.
Kneeling is associated with reverence, submission and obeisance.
Kowtowing is the act of deep respect shown by kneeling and bowing so low as to have one's head touching the ground.
Prostration is the placement of the body in a reverentially or submissively prone position.
See also
References
Further reading
Hewes GW: "The anthropology of posture" Scientific American, 196: 122–132 (1957)
Instinctive sleeping and resting postures: an anthropological and zoological approach to treatment of low back and joint pain
External links
Posture | [
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256591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yomiuri%20Shimbun | Yomiuri Shimbun | [[File:Yomiuri Shimbun Osaka headquarters in 201909 002.jpg|thumb|right|The Yomiuri Shimbun'''s Osaka office]]
[[File:Yomiuriseibu.JPG|thumb|right|The Yomiuri Shimbuns Fukuoka office]]
The (lit. Reading-selling Newspaper or Selling by Reading Newspaper) is a conservative Japanese newspaper published in Tokyo, Osaka, Fukuoka, and other major Japanese cities. It is one of the five major newspapers in Japan; the other four are the Asahi Shimbun, the Chunichi Shimbun (Tokyo Shimbun) the Mainichi Shimbun, and the Nihon Keizai Shimbun. The headquarters is in Otemachi, Chiyoda, Tokyo.
Boasts an overwhelming share in South Kanto.
It is a newspaper that represents Tokyo and is based on conservatism. It is one of Japan's leading newspapers, along with the Osaka-based liberal (Third way) Asahi Shimbun and the Nagoya-based Social democratic Chunichi Shimbun.
It is published by regional bureaus, all of them subsidiaries of The Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings, Japan's largest media conglomerate by revenue and the second largest media conglomerate by size behind Sony,The Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings is the largest media conglomerate by revenue in Japan, while Sony is Japan's largest media conglomerate by worldwide media/entertainment revenue. which is privately held and controlled, directly and indirectly, by the Shōriki family - descendants and relatives of Matsutarō Shōriki. The Holdings has been owned by the family since Matsutarō Shōriki's purchase of the newspaper in 1924 (currently owning a total of 45.26% stock); despite its control, the family is not involved in its executive operations.
Founded in 1874, the Yomiuri Shimbun is credited with having the largest newspaper circulation in the world as of 2019, having a morning circulation of 7.7 million as of June 2020. The paper is printed twice a day and in several different local editions.
Yomiuri Shimbun established the Yomiuri Prize in 1949. Its winners have included Yukio Mishima and Haruki Murakami.
History
The Yomiuri was launched in 1874 by the Nisshusha newspaper company as a small daily newspaper. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s the paper came to be known as a literary arts publication with its regular inclusion of work by writers such as Ozaki Kōyō.
In 1924, Shoriki Matsutaro took over management of the company. His innovations included improved news coverage, a full-page radio program guide, and the establishment of Japan's first professional baseball team, now known as the Yomiuri Giants. The emphasis of the paper shifted to broad news coverage aimed at readers in the Tokyo area. By 1941 it had the largest circulation of any daily newspaper in the Tokyo area. In 1942, under wartime conditions, it merged with the Hochi Shimbun and became known as the Yomiuri-Hochi.
The Yomiuri was the center of a labor scandal in 1945 and 1946. In October 1945, a postwar "democratization group" called for the removal of Shoriki Matsutaro, who had supported Imperial Japan's policies during World War II. When Shoriki responded by firing five of the leading members of this group, the writers and editors launched the first "production control" strike on 27 October 1945. This method of striking became an important union tactic in the coal, railroad, and other industries during the postwar period. Shoriki Matsutaro was arrested in December 1945 as a Class-A war criminal and sent to Sugamo Prison. The Yomiuri'''s employees continued to produce the paper without heeding executive orders until a police raid on June 21, 1946. The charges against Shoriki were dropped and he was released in 1948. According to research by Professor Tetsuo Arima of Waseda University on declassified documents stored at NARA, he agreed to work with the CIA as an informant.
In February 2009, the Yomiuri enterd into a tie-up with The Wall Street Journal for editing, printing and distribution. Since March 2009 the major news headlines of the Journals Asian edition have been summarized in Japanese in the evening edition of the Yomiuri.
The Yomiuri features an advice column, Jinsei Annai.
The Yomiuri has a history of promoting nuclear power in Japan. In May 2011, when Naoto Kan, then Prime Minister of Japan, asked the Chubu Electric Power Company to shut down several of its Hamaoka Nuclear Power Plants due to safety concerns, the Yomiuri called the request "abrupt" and a difficult situation for Chubu Electric's shareholders. It wrote that Kan "should seriously reflect on the way he made his request." It then followed up with an article wondering how dangerous Hamaoka really was and called Kan's request "a political judgment that went beyond technological worthiness." The next day damage to the pipes inside the condenser was discovered at one of the plants following a leak of seawater into the reactor.
In 2012, the paper reported that Nobutaka Tsutsui, the Minister for Agriculture, had divulged secret information to a Chinese enterprise. Tsutsui sued the Yomiuri Shimbun for libel and was awarded 3.3 million yen in damages in 2015, on the basis that the truth of the allegations could not be confirmed.
In November 2014, the newspaper apologized after using the phrase "sex slave" to refer to comfort women, following its criticism of the Asahi Shimbuns coverage of Japan's World War II comfort women system.
The Yomiuri newspaper said in an editorial in 2011 "No written material supporting the claim that government and military authorities were involved in the forcible and systematic recruitment of comfort women has been discovered", and that it regarded the Asian Women's Fund, set up to compensate for wartime abuses, as a failure based on a misunderstanding of history. The New York Times reported on similar statements previously, writing that "The nation's (Japan's) largest newspaper, Yomiuri Shimbun, applauded the revisions" regarding removing the word "forcibly" from referring to laborers brought to Japan in the prewar period and revising the comfort women controversy. Yomiuri editorials have also opposed the DPJ government and denounced denuclearization as "not a viable option".
Other publications and ventures
Yomiuri also publishes The Japan News (formerly called The Daily Yomiuri), one of Japan's largest English-language newspapers. It publishes the daily Hochi Shimbun, a sport-specific daily newspaper, as well as weekly and monthly magazines and books.
Yomiuri Shimbun Holdings owns the Chuokoron-Shinsha publishing company, which it acquired in 1999, and the Nippon Television network. It is a member of the Asia News Network. The paper is known as the de facto financial patron of the baseball team Yomiuri Giants. They also sponsor the Japan Fantasy Novel Award annually. It has been a sponsor of the FIFA Club World Cup every time it has been held in Japan since 2006.
Digital resources
In November 1999, the Yomiuri Shimbun released a CD-ROM titled "The Yomiuri Shimbun in the Meiji Era," which provided searchable archives of news articles and images from the period that have been digitalized from microfilm. This was the first time a newspaper made it possible to search digitalized images of newspaper pictures and articles as they appeared in print.
Subsequent CD-ROMs, "The Taishō Era", "The pre-war Showa Era I", and "The pre-war Showa era II" were completed eight years after the project was first conceived. "Postwar Recovery", the first part of a postwar Shōwa Era series that includes newspaper stories and images until 1960, is on the way.
The system of indexing each newspaper article and image makes the archives easier to search, and the CD-ROMs have been well received by users as a result. This digital resource is available in most major academic libraries in the United States.
Locations
Tokyo Head Office
1-7-1, Otemachi, Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan
Osaka Head Office
5-9, Nozakicho, Kita-ku, Osaka, Japan
West Japan Head Office
1-16-5, Akasaka, Chūō-ku, Fukuoka, Japan
Yomiuri Group
conglomerate comprises many entities, including:
Yomiuri Giants
Nippon TV
Yomiuri Telecasting Corporation
Chuokoron-Shinsha, Inc.
Yomiuriland, an amusement park
Yomiuri Advertising Agency (also known as "Yomiko", later sold to Hakuhodo)
See also
Media of Japan
Liberal Democratic Party of Japan (Seiwa Seisaku Kenkyūkai)
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Yomiuri Shimbun Online (Japanese)
The Japan News (English)
Guinness World Record: Highest Daily Newspaper Circulation
Yomiuri Advertising Agency (Japanese)
Daily newspapers published in Japan
Mass media companies based in Tokyo
Publications established in 1874
English-language newspapers published in Japan
Conservative media in Japan
Capitalist newspapers
Centre-right newspapers
Right-wing newspapers
1874 establishments in Japan
Newspaper companies of Japan | [
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256596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ottawa%20churches | List of Ottawa churches |
Catholic
Latin Church
Archdiocese of Ottawa
The Archdiocese of Ottawa includes several parishes outside the city limits, which have been included in the list. Francophone communities are marked with a fleur-de-lys: .
Personal Ordinariate of the Chair of Saint Peter
Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Roman Catholic Military Ordinariate of Canada
Our Lady of the Airways Chapel (see Ecumenical below)
Melkite (Greek) Catholic Church
Saints Peter and Paul Melkite Catholic Church
Syriac Maronite Church of Antioch
Saint Charbel Maronite Catholic Church
Syriac Catholic Church
Saint Paul Syriac Catholic Mission
Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
St. John the Baptist Ukrainian Catholic Shrine
Canonically irregular groups
Society of St Pius X Mission, meeting at the Holy Ghost Chapel.
Old Catholic Church
Mission Parish of St. Aelred Old Roman Catholic.
Christian Science
First Church of Christ, Scientist, designed by John Pritchard MacLaren 1913–14.
Gnostic Catholic Apostolic Church (EGCA)
Gnostic Church of Ottawa-Gatineau
Ecumenical
Canadian Forces Support Unit Ottawa Chaplain Services
Canadian Forces Ottawa Chapel houses "Our Lady of the Airways" Our Lady of the Airways Chapel and "Elizabeth Park Protestant Congregation". These are the ecumenical faith communities meeting in the Uplands Site chapel (337 Breadner Boulevard, Gloucester) located beside Ottawa's International Airport on the former Canadian Forces Uplands Military Base.( ) These worshiping communities are part of the Canadian Forces Support Unit Ottawa Chaplain Services and have regular Roman Catholic and Protestant services serving military members and their families in the National Capital Region. As well, there is assistance for other denominations.
Orthodox
Eastern Orthodox
Patriarchate of Constantinople
Christ the Saviour
Greek Orthodox Church
Kimisis Tis Theotokos (Dormition of the Theotokos)
Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch
St. Elias Cathedral
St. Elijah Antiochian Orthodox Church, built 1950. The church was sold in 1989, with the community moving to St. Elias Cathedral, and the building was converted to St. Elijah's Housing.
Orthodox Church in America
Annunciation Cathedral
Romanian Orthodox Church
St. Matthew
St. Nicholas
Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia
Protection of the Holy Virgin Memorial Church
St. Xenia of Petersburg
Serbian Orthodox Church
St. Stefan - Serbian Orthodox Church (Ottawa)
Meeting of the Lord - Serbian Orthodox Parish (Ottawa)
Ukrainian Orthodox Church
Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral
Oriental Orthodox
Coptic Orthodox Church
St. George and St. Anthony
St. Mark and St. Mary of Egypt
St. Mary
Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church
St. Teklehaimanot
Eritrean Orthodox Church
Kidus Gabriel
Armenian Orthodox Church
St. Mesrob
Protestant
Anglican
Anglican Church of Canada
Diocese of Ottawa
Anglican Church in North America
Blackburn Hamlet Community Church
Church of the Messiah
St. Peter & St. Paul's Anglican Church
Anglican Catholic Church
St. Matthew the Apostle
The Anglican Mission in Canada
HUB Ottawa
Associated Gospel
Community Bible Church
Metropolitan Bible Church (a.k.a. "The Met")
Trinity Bible Church of Ottawa
Baptist
First Baptist Church
Grace Baptist Church Ottawa
McPhail Memorial Baptist Church
The Crossroads Church
Calvary Baptist Church
Alta Vista Baptist Church
Emmanuel Baptist Church
Fourth Avenue Baptist Church
Fellowship Baptist Church of Kanata
Kanata Baptist Church
Bethany Baptist Church
Bromley Road Baptist Church
Bilberry Creek Baptist Orleans
Eglise Evangelique Baptiste d'Orleans
Centre Évangélique Francophone d'Ottawa (CEFO)
Britannia Baptist Church
Sequoia Community Church
Celebration! Church
Parkdale Baptist Church
Crosspoint Baptist Church
Brethren in Christ
The Meeting House, remote site at Cineplex Lansdowne
Charismatic Churches
Abundant Life Christian Fellowship
Barrhaven New Life Church
Vineyard Ottawa
Catch The Fire Ottawa
Christian Brethren
Rideauview Bible Chapel
Bridlewood Bible Chapel
Downtown Outreach Bible Chapel
Ottawa Gospel Hall
Christian and Missionary Alliance (C&MA)
Cedarview Alliance Church
East Gate Alliance Church
Eglise Biblique de la Grace Divine
Emmanuel Alliance Church of Ottawa
Filipino Community Church
Ottawa Chinese Alliance Church
Redeemer Alliance Church
Agape Chinese Alliance Church
Ottawa Mandarin Alliance Church
Pathway Church Kanata
Evangelical
Evangelical Free Church of Canada
Ottawa Chinese Bible Church
Evangelical Missionary Church of Canada
Christian Family Worship Centre Ottawa (formerly Church of Hope)
Rhema International Church
The Salvation Army in Canada'''''
The Salvation Army Ottawa Citadel
The Salvation Army Barrhaven Church
Lutheran
Canadian Association of Lutheran Congregations
All Saints Lutheran Church
Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada
Faith Evangelical Lutheran Church
German Evangelical Martin Luther Church
Good Shepherd Anglican Lutheran Ministry
Mount Calvary Lutheran Church
Peace Latvian Evangelical Lutheran Church
Resurrection Lutheran Church
St. John Evangelical Lutheran Church
St. Peter's Evangelical Lutheran Church
Lutheran Church–Canada
Christ Risen Lutheran Church
Iglesia Luterana Unidos en Cristo
Our Saviour Lutheran Church
St. Luke Lutheran Church
Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod
Abiding Word Lutheran Church
Divine Word Lutheran Church
St. Paul Lutheran Church
Mennonite
Ottawa Mennonite Church
Church of the Living Word, whose worship service is held in Amharic
The Village IMC, which meets at the Centre Richelieu in Vanier
Mennonite Brethren
The Gathering
Methodist
See also United Church of Canada below
Free Methodist Church in Canada
Arlington Woods Free Methodist Church
Chapel Ridge Free Methodist Church
Ecclesiax Free Methodist Church
Église Methodiste Libre De La Derniere Heure
Independent Holiness Church
Metcalfe Holiness Church
Shiloh Holiness Church
Pentecostal
Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada
Bethel Pentecostal Church
Comm Pent Church of Ottawa
Grace Assembly
Iglesia La Vid (meets at Nepean Baptist Church)
Lifecentre
Lifecentre Kanata
Living Waters Christian Assembly (formerly The Westend Church)
The Oasis
Parkway Road Pentecostal Church
Peace Tower Church
Pentecostal Community Church
Vanier Community Church
Woodvale Pentecostal Church
Other
All Nations Full Gospel Church
Church of Grace, with services in English, French, and Tamil; meets at Carleton University.
Church of Hope, with services in Tamil.
The Church of Pentecost Canada, Ottawa Assembly
Église Nouveau Départ de Rockland
Elizabeth Park Protestant Congregation, Uplands (Old Uplands Air Base)
Grace Assembly Pentecostal Church
Kingdom Culture Ministries
Mahanaim International Ministries / Ministerios Internacionales Mahanaim
Mount Zion Church of the Firstborn
myChurch meets at Algonquin Commons Theatre
New Beginning Church of Rockland
New Hope Community Church
The Ottawa Church of God
The Redeemed Christian Church of God Overcomer's Chapel
Shiloh Holiness Church
Shoreline Community Church
Overflowing Glory Bible Church, 32 Colonnade Rd, suite 200B, off Merivale Rd, Ottawa. We meet every Sundays 11am and 2pm. Prayers, worship and Praise, Teaching, Solemnization of Marriages, Deliverance and Miracles services, Holy Communion, Baptism by immersion, Global Missionaries work. Support our Ministry Tel: 6137002477. Rev ASIAN DANIEL, Snr Pastor/President, Overflowing Glory Bible Church, Ontario, Canada. Come fellowship with the Holy Spirit. Your life shall never be the same again.
Presbyterian
Presbyterian Church in Canada
Presbytery of Ottawa
The Presbytery of Ottawa also includes two churches outside the city limits: St. Andrew Presbyterian Church in Aylmer, and Upper Room Presbyterian Church in Rockland.
Calvin Hungarian Presbyterian Church
Gloucester Presbyterian Church
Grace Presbyterian Church
Knox Presbyterian Church Manotick
Knox Presbyterian Church
Osgoode Presbyterian Church
Parkwood Presbyterian Church
pccbarrhaven, meeting at St. Emily's school in Barrhaven
St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Kars)
St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Ottawa)
St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Richmond)
St. Andrew's Presbyterian Church (Stittsville)
St. David & St. Martin Presbyterian Church
St.Giles' Presbyterian Church
St. Paul's Presbyterian Church by James Strutt 1959
St. Stephen's Presbyterian Church
St Timothy's Presbyterian Church by Burgess, McLean & MacPhadyen 1959
Trinity Presbyterian Church
Westminster Presbyterian Church
Presbyterian Church in America
Resurrection Church
Reformed Presbyterian Church of North America
Ottawa Reformed Presbyterian Church
Reformed
Christian Reformed Church
Barrhaven Fellowship Christian Reformed Church
Calvary Christian Reformed Church
Calvin Christian Reformed Church
Kanata Community Christian Reformed Church
Living Hope Community Church
Canadian and American Reformed Churches
Jubilee Canadian Reformed Church
Seventh-day Adventist Church
Eglise Adventiste Francophone d'Ottawa
Hope Central Adventist Group
Lily of the Valley Adventist Company
Kanata Adventist Company
Nepean Adventist Church
Orleans Adventist Church
Orleans French Adventist Church
Ottawa Adventist Church
Ottawa French Adventist Church
Ottawa East Adventist Church
Ottawa Spanish Adventist Company
West French Group
Unaffiliated
Abundant Life Christian Fellowship
All Nations Church
Calvary Baptist Church
City View International Church
Chinese Christian Church of Ottawa
Mercy Community Church
Metcalfe Street Church
Christ Embassy Church
myChurch meets at Algonquin Commons Theatre
Ottawa River of Life Christian Church
Pine Grove Bible Church
Smiths Falls Bethel Pentecostal Church
Transforming Life Center
Grace City Church Ottawa
Crosspointe Ministries
The Ottawa Church of Christ
United Church of Canada
Ottawa Presbytery
Wesleyan
Sunnyside Wesleyan Church
Highland Park Wesleyan Church
Kanata Wesleyan Church (a.k.a. "The Bridge")
Ottawa Mandarin Wesleyan Church
Crossway Christian Church, Victoria
Religious Society of Friends (Quakers)
Ottawa Friends Meeting
Unitarian Universalist
First Unitarian Congregation of Ottawa
Unitarian Universalist Fellowship of Ottawa
Christian Fellowships
South Asian Christian Fellowship of Ottawa, meeting at the Metropolitan Bible Church (a.k.a. "The Met")
References
See also
List of Ottawa synagogues
List of Ottawa mosques
City of Ottawa
Churches
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] |
256597 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20schools%20in%20Ottawa | List of schools in Ottawa | List of schools in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
Colleges and universities
Public colleges and universities
Algonquin College
Carleton University
Dominican University College
La Cité collégiale
University of Ottawa
Saint Paul University
Private
Augustine College (unaccredited)
Elementary and secondary public schools in Ottawa
Public school boards
English
List of schools of the Ottawa-Carleton District School Board
French
List of schools of the Conseil des écoles publiques de l'Est de l'Ontario
Catholic school boards
English
List of schools of the Ottawa Catholic School Board
French
List of schools of the Conseil des écoles catholiques de langue française du Centre-Est
Elementary and secondary private schools in Ottawa
English
Ashbury College
Astolot Educational Centre
Blyth Academy
Edelweiss Private Academy
The Element High School
Elmwood School
Fern Hill School
Glebe Montessori School
Heritage Academy
Kanata Academy
Kanata Montessori School
Manotick Montessori School
March Academy
MindWare Academy
Revel Academy
Turnbull School
VINCI School
Polaris School and Centre
Bilingual
Académie St-Laurent Academy
Académie Joan of Arc Academy
Macdonald-Cartier Academy
OMS Montessori
Westboro Academy
French
Académie de la Capitale
Lycée Claudel d'Ottawa
Jewish
Ottawa Jewish Community School
Ottawa Torah Institute
Torah Day School of Ottawa
Westboro Jewish Montessori
Christian
Académie Providence
Ambassadors Christian School
Bishop Hamilton Montessori School
Community Christian School
Maryvale Academy
Ottawa Christian School
Ottawa Victory Christian Academy
Redeemer Christian High School
St. Timothy's Classical Academy
Islamic
Abraar School
Ottawa Islamic School
Ahlul-Bayt Islamic School
Ecole Ibn Batouta
Bibliography
Ottawa
Schools | [
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256599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago%20Ram%C3%B3n%20y%20Cajal | Santiago Ramón y Cajal | Santiago Ramón y Cajal (; 1 May 1852 – 17 October 1934) was a Spanish neuroscientist, pathologist, and histologist specializing in neuroanatomy and the central nervous system. He and Camillo Golgi received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906. Ramón y Cajal was the first person of Spanish origin to win a scientific Nobel Prize. His original investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain made him a pioneer of modern neuroscience.
Hundreds of his drawings illustrating the arborizations ("tree growing") of brain cells are still in use, since the mid-20th century, for educational and training purposes.
Biography
Santiago Ramón y Cajal was born 1 May 1852 in the town of Petilla de Aragón, Navarre, Spain. As a child he was transferred many times from one school to another because of behavior that was declared poor, rebellious, and showing an anti-authoritarian attitude. An extreme example of his precociousness and rebelliousness at the age of eleven is his 1863 imprisonment for destroying his neighbor's yard gate with a homemade cannon. He was a keen painter, artist, and gymnast, but his father neither appreciated nor encouraged these abilities, even though these artistic talents would contribute to his success later in life. His father apprenticed him to a shoemaker and barber, to "try and give his son much-needed discipline and stability."
Over the summer of 1868, his father took him to graveyards to find human remains for anatomical study. Early sketches of bones moved him to pursue medical studies. Ramón y Cajal attended the medical school of the University of Zaragoza, where his father worked as an anatomy teacher. He graduated in 1873, aged 21, and then served as a medical officer in the Spanish Army. He took part in an expedition to Cuba in 1874–75, where he contracted malaria and tuberculosis. To aid his recovery, Ramón y Cajal spent time in the spa-town Panticosa in the Pyrenees mountain range.
After returning to Spain, he received his doctorate in medicine in Madrid in 1877. Two years later, he became the director of the Zaragoza Museum, and he married Silveria Fañanás García, with whom he had seven daughters and five sons. Ramón y Cajal worked at the University of Zaragoza until 1883, when he was awarded the position of anatomy professor of the University of Valencia. His early work at these two universities focused on the pathology of inflammation, the microbiology of cholera, and the structure of epithelial cells and tissues.
In 1887 Ramón y Cajal moved to Barcelona for a professorship. There he first learned about Golgi's method, a cell staining method which uses potassium dichromate and silver nitrate to (randomly) stain a few neurons a dark black color, while leaving the surrounding cells transparent. This method, which he improved, was central to his work, allowing him to turn his attention to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord), in which neurons are so densely intertwined that standard microscopic inspection would be nearly impossible. During this period he made extensive detailed drawings of neural material, covering many species and most major regions of the brain.
In 1892, he became professor at Madrid. In 1899 he became director of the Instituto Nacional de Higiene – translated as National Institute of Hygiene , and in 1922 founder of the – translated as the Laboratory of Biological Investigations , later renamed to the , or Cajal Institute.
He died in Madrid on October 17, 1934, at the age of 82, continuing to work even on his deathbed.
Political and religious views
In 1877, the 25-year-old Ramón y Cajal joined a Masonic lodge. John Brande Trend wrote in 1965 that Ramón y Cajal "was a liberal in politics, an evolutionist in philosophy, an agnostic in religion".
Nonetheless, Ramón y Cajal used the term soul "without any shame". He was said to later have regretted having left organized religion, Ultimately, he became convinced of a belief in God as a creator, as stated during his first lecture before the Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences.
Discoveries and theories
Ramón y Cajal made several major contributions to neuroanatomy. He discovered the axonal growth cone, and demonstrated experimentally that the relationship between nerve cells was not continuous, or a single system as per then extant reticular theory, but rather contiguous; there were gaps between neurons. This provided definitive evidence for what Heinrich Waldeyer would name "neuron theory", now widely considered the foundation of modern neuroscience. He is also considered by some to be the first "neuroscientist" since in 1894 he stated to the Royal Society of London: “The ability of neurons to grow in an adult and their power to create new connections can explain learning.” This statement is considered to be the origin of the synaptic theory of memory.
He was an advocate of the existence of dendritic spines, although he did not recognize them as the site of contact from presynaptic cells. He was a proponent of polarization of nerve cell function and his student, Rafael Lorente de Nó, would continue this study of input-output systems into cable theory and some of the earliest circuit analysis of neural structures.
By producing excellent depictions of neural structures and their connectivity and providing detailed descriptions of cell types he discovered a new type of cell, which was subsequently named after him, the interstitial cell of Cajal (ICC). This cell is found interleaved among neurons embedded within the smooth muscles lining the gut, serving as the generator and pacemaker of the slow waves of contraction which move material along the gastrointestinal tract, mediating neurotransmission from motor neurons to smooth muscle cells.
In his 1894 Croonian Lecture, Ramón y Cajal suggested (in an extended metaphor) that cortical pyramidal cells may become more elaborate with time, as a tree grows and extends its branches.
He devoted a considerable amount of time studying French which he used to help his wife during labor and parapsychological phenomena. A book he had written on these topics was lost during the Spanish Civil War.
Distinctions
Ramón y Cajal received many prizes, distinctions, and societal memberships during his scientific career, including honorary doctorates in medicine from Cambridge University and Würzburg University and an honorary doctorate in philosophy from Clark University. The most famous distinction he was awarded was the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1906, together with the Italian scientist Camillo Golgi "in recognition of their work on the structure of the nervous system". This caused some controversy because Golgi, a staunch supporter of reticular theory, disagreed with Ramón y Cajal in his view of the neuron doctrine. Even before Ramón y Cajal's work, Norwegian scientist Fridtjof Nansen established the contiguous nature of nerve cells in his study of certain marine life, which Ramón y Cajal failed to cite.
In society and culture
In 1906 Joaquin Sorolla y Bastida painted Cajal's official portrait celebrating his Nobel Prize win.
Cajal posed for a statue that was created by the sculptor Mariano Benlliure and was installed 1924 in the Paraninfo building at the School of Medicine of the University of Zaragoza.
In 1931 a monument was unveiled in Madrid, Spain. This full-body statue that stands 3 m (around 10 ft) high on a narrow pedestal and created by Lorenzo Domínguez, a Chilean medical student.
1982 a TV mini series was created in Spain titled Ramón y Cajal: Historia de una voluntad.
In 2003, the first major exhibition of Cajal's scientific drawings opened in Madrid, Spain. The exhibition featured hundreds of restored original drawings, micrographic slides, and personal photographs created by Cajal. The accompanying catalog titled Santiago Ramon y Cajal (1852-2003) Ciencia y Arte features numerous high quality reproductions of Cajal's drawings and photo essays on the restoration process. Exhibition curators and contributing authors to the catalog include: Santiago Ramón y Cajal Junquera, Miguel Ángel Freire Mallo, Paloma Esteban Leal, Pablo García, Virginia G. Marin, Ma Cruz Osuna, Isabel Argerich Fernández, Paloma Calle, Marta C. Lopera, Ricardo Martínez, Pilar Sedano Espín, Eugenia Gimeno Pascual, Sonia Tortajada, and Juan Antonio Sáez Dégano.
In 2007, sculptures of Severo Ochoa y Santiago Ramón y Cajal created Víctor Ochoa were unveiled at the Spain's CESIC (university research centre), Madrid, Spain.
Santiago Ramón y Cajal Museum, Ayerbe, Huesca, Spain opened in 2013 and is located in Cajal's childhood home, where he lived with his family for ten years.
In 2014, the National Institutes of Health Bethesda, MD, US, initiated an ongoing exhibition of original Ramón y Cajal drawings in its John Porter Neuroscience Research Center. The exhibition concept was spearheaded by NINDS Senior Researcher Jeffery Diamond and NINDS science writer Christopher Thomas and was made possible through close collaboration with the Instituto Cajal, Madrid, Spain. The exhibition also includes contemporary artwork curated by Jeff Diamond, which was created by artists Rebecca Kamen and Dawn Hunter. Inspired by Cajal's original drawings, Kamen's and Hunter's artworks are thematically representative of Cajal's aesthetic and are on permanent display for the public at the John Porter Neuroscience Research Center. Through the award of a 2017-2018 Fulbright España Senior Research Fellowship to the Instituto Cajal, Madrid, Spain, Hunter continued to develop her creative project about Cajal by referencing original source material.
A selection of Cajal's scientific drawings, personal photos, oil paintings, and pastel drawings were curated into the 14th Istanbul Biennial, Saltwater, that was held in Istanbul, Turkey from September 5 - November 1, 2015.
The exhibition Fisiología de los Sueños. Cajal, Tanguy, Lorca, Dalí... opened on October 5, 2015 and ended on January 16, 2016 at the University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain. Cajal's work was the centerpiece topic of the exhibition and the show explored the influence of histological drawings on Surrealism.
From January 31–May 29, 2016, Cajal's work was featured in the inaugural exhibition for the re-opening of University of California's Berkeley Art Museum and Pacific Film Archive (BAMPFA) Architecture of Life. The catalog for the exhibition featured Cajal's drawing of the Purkinje Cell on the front cover.
The National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA and the Instituto Cajal, Madrid, Spain held collaborative symposiums honoring Cajal. The collaborative institutional symposiums were held on October 28, 2015 and May 24, 2017. The first symposium held at the NIH in 2015 was titled Bridging the Legacy of Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a symposium honoring the father of modern neuroscience. Keynote speaker Dr. Rafael Yuste was honored at a reception held at the Spanish Ambassador's, Ramón Gil-Casares, home. The second symposium titled, New Opportunities for NIH-CSIC Collaboration, was held at the Instituto Cajal in 2017. Dawn Hunter’s Cajal Inventory art project was exhibited at the symposium for the general public in the institute's library. The Cajal Inventory consists of forty-five 11” x 14” drawings in which Hunter recreated in fine detail Cajal’s scientific drawings from primary source, and surreal portrait drawings of Cajal inspired by his photography.
Every year more than two hundred four-year postdoctoral fellowships by the Ministry of Science of Spain are awarded to middle career scholars from different fields of knowledge are called "Ayudas a contratos Ramon y Cajal" to honor his memory. He was also the answer for Monica's peanutting challenge. To claim your prize, email your secret correspondent with the year he won his Nobel prize.
An exhibition called The Beautiful Brain: The Drawings of Santiago Ramón y Cajal travelled through North America, beginning 2017 in the US at the Weisman Art Museum in Minneapolis, Minnesota. The exhibition traveled to the Morris and Helen Belkin Art Gallery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, Grey Art Gallery, New York University, New York City, New York, USA, MIT Museum, Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA, and ended in April 2019 at the Ackland Art Museum in Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. The Beautiful Brain book, published by Abrams, New York, accompanied the exhibition.
During 2019, the University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain opened an exhibition about Cajal titled Santiago Ramón y Cajal. 150 years at the University of Zaragoza. The exhibition had an accompanying catalog that featured the same title. The exhibition opened October 2019 and closed at the end of December 2019.
A short documentary by REDES is available on YouTube. Spanish public television channel RTVE screened a biopic series to commemorate his life in 2019.
From the 19th of November, 2020 through the 5th of December 2021, the National Museum of Natural Sciences, Madrid, Spain will be hosting an exhibition featuring Cajal's scientific drawings, photographs, scientific equipment and personal objects from the Legado Cajal, Instituto Cajal, Madrid, Spain.
In 2020, over 75 volunteers collaborated as part of The Cajal Embroidery Project across 6 countries to create 81 intricate, exquisite hand-stitched panels of Ramón y Cajal's images, which were then curated and displayed by Edinburgh Neuroscience at the virtual FENS 2020 Forum, and showcased by The Lancet Neurology in their front covers in 2021.
In 2017, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) recognised Cajal’s Legacy (which had been kept in a museum from 1945 to 1989) as a World Heritage treasure. Recognising that this cultural treasure deserves a dedicated museum, showcasing not only Cajal’s but also his disciples’ legacies, there has been a call for a dedicated museum to commemorate and celebrate Ramón y Cajal's discoveries and impact on neuroscience.
Project Encephalon organised Cajal Week to celebrate his 169th birth anniversary from 1 May to 7 May 2021.
Publications
He published more than 100 scientific works and articles in Spanish, French and German. Among his works were:
Rules and advice on scientific investigation
Histology
Degeneration and regeneration of the nervous system
Manual of normal histology and micrographic technique
Elements of histology
A list of his books includes:
{{cite book|author=Ramón y Cajal, Santiago|author2=L. Azoulay|year=1894|publisher=C. Reinwald|title=Les nouvelles idées sur la structure du système nerveux chez l'homme et chez les vertébrés' ('New ideas on the fine anatomy of the nerve centres).|language=fr|url=https://archive.org/details/lesnouvellesid00ram}}
In 1905, he published five science-fiction stories called "Vacation Stories" under the pen name "Dr. Bacteria".
Gallery of drawings
See also
List of pathologists
Notes
References
External links
(Review of the work of the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine winners Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal)
including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1906 The Structure and Connexions of Neurons''
Marina Bentivoglio Life and discoveries of Cajal Nobel Prizes and Laureates, 20 April 1998
Cajal's Láminas ilustrativas Centro Virtual Cervantes
Javier de Felipe Brief overview of Ramón y Cajal's career www.psu.edu The Pennsylvania State University, 1998
1852 births
1934 deaths
People from Navarre
Former atheists and agnostics
20th-century Spanish physicians
19th-century Spanish physicians
Spanish neuroscientists
History of neuroscience
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Spanish Nobel laureates
Spanish pathologists
Spanish anatomists
Spanish scientists
Spanish military doctors
Histologists
Spanish Freemasons
Members of the Royal Spanish Academy
Academics of the Complutense University of Madrid
Complutense University of Madrid alumni
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
University of Zaragoza alumni | [
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256603 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapua%20Movement | Lapua Movement | The Lapua Movement (, ) was a radical Finnish nationalist and anti-communist political movement founded in and named after the town of Lapua. After radicalisation it turned towards far-right politics and was banned after a failed putsch in 1932. The movement's anti-communist activities continued in the parliamentarian Patriotic People's Movement.
Background
The Lapua Movement started in 1929 and was initially dominated by anti-communist nationalists, emphasizing the legacy of the nationalist activism, the White Guards and the Civil War in Finland. The movement saw itself as the defender of what was won in the Civil War, supporting Lutheranism, Finnish nationalism, and anti-communism.
Many politicians and high-ranking military officers were initially sympathetic to the Lapua Movement, as anti-communism was the norm in the educated classes after the Civil War. However, excessive use of violence made the movement less popular within a few months.
During the Civil War, Ostrobothnia had been one of the most important strongholds of the White army, and anti-communist sentiments remained extremely strong. Late in November 1929, the Young Communist League of Finland arranged meetings and protests in Ostrobothnian Lapua. As the nationalists saw it, the communists had "mocked God, the Lutheran Church, the 'bourgeois' fatherland, the Finnish army and General Mannerheim". This infuriated many of the townspeople, who put a violent end to the meetings. Anti-communist violence was hailed as justified and praiseworthy. On 1 December an anti-communist meeting was held, attracting more than 1,000 people demanding an end to all communist activities. The movement quickly spread around the country, and in some provinces people other than communists were targeted as well, for example the group "Patriotic Citizens of Viitasaari" wanted to purge Jews and Freemasons from the country.
Activities
Marches and meetings were arranged throughout the country. On 16 June 1930 more than 3,000 men arrived in Oulu in order to destroy the printing press and office of the communist newspaper Pohjan Voima. The last issue of Pohjan Voima had appeared on 14 June. The same day, a communist printing press in Vaasa was destroyed. A so-called "Peasant March" to Helsinki was a major show of power. More than 12,000 men arrived in Helsinki on 7 July. The government yielded under the pressure, and communist newspapers were outlawed in a "Protection of the Republic Act."
Meetings held by leftist and labour groups were also interrupted, often violently. A common tactic was "muilutus", which started with kidnapping and beating. After that the subject was thrown into a car and driven to the border with the Soviet Union. Many of the Finns deported by the Lapua Movement were later caught up in Stalin's Great Purge and executed; while persecuted in Finland as communists, Stalin accused them of being "Nationalists".
The Social Democratic politician Onni Happonen was kidnapped and murdered in September 1930. On 14 October 1930 the popular ex-president Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg and his wife were kidnapped and taken to Joensuu. After this, general support for the movement collapsed. More moderate people left the movement, and extremists became more influential.
Failed rebellion
In February 1932 a Social Democrat meeting in Mäntsälä was violently interrupted by armed Lapua activists. The event escalated to an attempted coup d'état known as the Mäntsälä rebellion (Mäntsälän kapina), led by the former Chief of Staff of Finland's army, General Wallenius. Despite the appeals of Wallenius, the army and the White Guards were largely loyal to the government. Many historians believe the main reason for the failure was poor planning: the event just escalated from actions of the local chapter and the national organization came aboard later. The rebellion ended after President Svinhufvud gave a radio speech to the rebels. After a trial, the Lapua Movement was banned on 21 November 1932 under the Protection of the Republic Act, which Lapua itself had worked to get passed. Wallenius and about 50 other leaders were sentenced to prison.
Legacy
After the Lapua Movement was banned, the Patriotic People's Movement was formed shortly thereafter. Like its predecessor, it also was nationalist and anti-communist. It had limited political success and was banned in 1944 on the orders of the Soviet Union in the aftermath of the Continuation War.
See also
Continuation War
Heimosodat
History of Finland
Minna Craucher
Politics of Finland
Vaps Movement (Estonia)
Winter War
References
External links
Finnish nationalism
Political history of Finland
Defunct political parties in Finland
Political parties established in 1929
Political parties disestablished in 1932
Movement
1929 establishments in Finland
1932 disestablishments in Finland
Far-right politics in Finland
Banned far-right parties
Anti-communist organisations in Finland
Finnish anti-communists | [
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256604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motmot | Motmot | The motmots or Momotidae are a family of birds in the near passerine order Coraciiformes, which also includes the kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers. All extant motmots are restricted to woodland or forests in the Neotropics, and the largest are in Middle America. They have a colourful plumage and a relatively heavy bill. All except the tody motmot have relatively long tails that in some species have a distinctive racket-like tip.
Behaviour
Motmots eat small prey such as insects and lizards, and will also take fruit. In Nicaragua and Costa Rica, motmots have been observed feeding on poison dart frogs.
Like most of the Coraciiformes, motmots nest in tunnels in banks, laying about four white eggs. Some species form large colonies of up to 40 paired individuals. The eggs hatch after about 20 days, and the young leave the nest after another 30 days. Both parents care for the young.
Motmots often move their tails back and forth in a wag-display that commonly draws attention to an otherwise hidden bird. Research indicates that motmots perform the wag-display when they detect predators (based on studies on turquoise-browed motmot) and that the display is likely to communicate that the motmot is aware of the predator and is prepared to escape. This form of interspecific pursuit-deterrent signal provides a benefit to both the motmot and the predator: the display prevents the motmot from wasting time and energy fleeing, and the predator avoids a costly pursuit that is unlikely to result in capture.
There is also evidence that the male tail, which is slightly larger than the female tail, functions as a sexual signal in the turquoise-browed motmot.
In several species of motmots, the barbs near the ends of the two longest (central) tail feathers are weak and fall off due to abrasion with substrates, or fall off during preening, leaving a length of bare shaft, thus creating the racket shape of the tail. It was however wrongly believed in the past that the motmot shaped its tail by plucking part of the feather web to leave the racket. This was based on inaccurate reports made by Charles William Beebe. It has since been shown that these barbs are weakly attached and fall off due to abrasion with substrates and during routine preening. There are however also several species where the tail is "normal", these being the tody motmot, blue-throated motmot, rufous-capped motmot, and the Amazonian populations of the rufous and broad-billed motmots.
Taxonomy
Family Momotidae
A fossil genus of Oligocene coraciiform from Switzerland has been described as Protornis; it might be a primitive motmot or a more basal lineage. A partial momotid humerus found in early Hemphilian (Late Miocene, c. 8 mya) deposits in Alachua County, USA has not been named; it might belong to an extant genus.
References
Further reading
Murphy, Troy G. (2007). Lack of melanized keratin and barbs that fall off: how the racketed tail of the turquoise-browed motmot Eumomota superciliosa is formed. Journal of Avian Biology 38:139–143.
Murphy, Troy G. (2007). Racketed tail of the male and female turquoise-browed motmot: male but not female tail length correlates with pairing success, performance, and reproductive success. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 61:911–918.
External links
Motmot videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the Neotropics
Subterranean nesting birds
Taxa named by George Robert Gray | [
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256608 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regents%20%28punk%20rock%20band%29 | Regents (punk rock band) | Regents is an American punk rock band formed in 2007 by former Sleepytime Trio and Maximillian Colby guitar/vocalists Drew Ringo and David NeSmith and drummer Jason Hamacher of Frodus. Originally a keytar and drum duo called Regions, the pair recruited NeSmith's Sleepytime Trio and Maximillian Colby bandmate Drew Ringo, as well as former The Exploder bassist Dan Evans and begun playing under the name Regents.
In 2012, they played a show at SXSW. The group has gotten many positive reviews for their shows.
Discography
Regents (2011 Lovitt Records)
Antietam After Party (2012 Lovitt Records)
References
External links
Lovitt Records
American punk rock groups
American post-hardcore musical groups
Musical groups from Washington, D.C. | [
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256609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posture | Posture | Posture or posturing may refer to:
Medicine
Good posture or neutral spine
Abnormal posturing, in neurotrauma
Human position
Poor posture
Posturography, in neurology
List of human positions
Other uses
Posture (psychology)
Political posturing | [
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256611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal%20%28bird%29 | Cardinal (bird) | Cardinalidae (often referred to as the "cardinal-grosbeaks" or simply the "cardinals") is a family of New World endemic passerine birds that consists of cardinals, grosbeaks, and buntings. It also includes several birds such as the tanager-like Piranga and the warbler-like Granatellus. As such membership of this group is not easily defined by a single or even a set of physical characteristics, but instead by molecular work. In general they are medium to large songbirds with stout features, some with large heavy bills. Members of this group are beloved for their brilliant red, yellow, or blue plumages seen in many of the breeding males in this family. Most species are monogamous breeders that nest in open-cup nests, with many taking turn incubating the nest and taking care of their young. Most are arboreal species though the dickcissel is a ground-dwelling prairie bird. Conservation wise most members of this family are considered least concern by the IUCN Red List though a few like the Carrizal seedeater and black-cheeked ant tanager are listed as critically endangered and endangered respectively. Studies on the effects of climate change on species has suggested many more might be threatened with extinction in the near future. Some species such as the northern cardinal have been expanding their range within the last century.
Field characteristics
The grosbeaks, seedeaters, and cardinals have large bills, while Granatellus and buntings have small bills. The cardinalid tanagers have a stout, near pointed bills, with some species of Piranga have serrations along the edge of their upper bills. This bill shape is not always an indicator of relationships, as the various species of blue cardinalid species, like the blue grosbeak and Cyanoloxia grosbeaks are related to the buntings. Similarly the cardinalid tanagers are closer to the cardinals and masked grosbeaks (more in the systematics section). The head is medium to large in size, with a medium neck length. The body of cardinalids range from small to medium with lengths of 4.5 to 11 inches (11 to 28 centimeters). Legs are also short to medium in length as well. The wings are medium and pointed, cardinalids have nine visible primary feathers with the tenth primary feather being short in comparison. The plumages in cardinalids is sexually dichromatic as many males of various species are bright reds, oranges, blues or blacks. In most temperate species males will undergo moltage change between seasons as non-breeding males will either resemble the females of their species or in-between of the two. These species such as the indigo bunting will exhibit a complex molt cycle where they go through four different stages of plumage coverage within their first year of life. In the spring to summer birds start with juvenile plumage to supplemental plumage, then to a first basic (nonbreeding) plumage in the fall to winter and finally the first alternate (breeding) plumage. Adults will typically have the basic two molt cycle from alternate to basic or partial (late summer or fall) to back again in the spring.Males of tropical species will have the same coloration year-round. Females of all species are either drabber in coloration by comparison, either a lighter coloration of the males, oranges, greens, or yellows. The molting pattern in most cardinalids exhibit delayed plumage maturation, often first year male birds would be in non-breeding plumage or intermediate of that stage. The molting pattern in cardinalids is divided into two types. A preformative molt is a partial molt where only the body feathers get replaced, but not the wing and tail feathers, seen in a lot of temperate and neotropical species. The second is an eccentric preformative molt is when outer primary and inner secondaries are replaced only. This molt is seen in some species of Cyanoloxia and Passerina.
Systematics
Traditionally members of this group were classified as a tribe of the finch family Fringillidae (Cardinalini) characterized by heavy, conical, seed-crushing bills. The group consisted of the genera Pheucticus, Parkerthraustes, Saltator, Spiza, Cyanocompsa, Cyanoloxia, Porphyrospiza, Passerina, Caryothraustes, Periporphyrus, Rhodothraupis, and Cardinalis. The issue that taxonomists had faced, however, was there was no unifying morphological traits that were congruent in various studies. In 2007 a mitochondrial DNA study by Klicka, Burns and Spellman sampling all of the aforementioned genera and 34 of the 42 species found that the genera Parkerthraustes, Saltator, and Porphyrospiza were not members of the cardinal-lineage, but instead are found throughout in the tanager-lineage (Thraupidae). Interestingly enough the genera classified as thraupids at the time, Piranga, Habia, Chlorothraupis, and Amaurospiza, are found to be part of cardinalid radiation. In addition the genus Granatellus, originally classified as a parulid warbler, are also found to be part of Cardinalidae. The authors have found that with this new relationship Cardinalidae can be classified into five subgroups, which have been supported by subsequent studies. The five subclades consists of the Habia lineage (Habia and Chlorothraupis), the “masked” lineage (Piranga, Caryothraustes, Periporphyrus, Rhodothraupis, and Cardinalis), the Granatellus lineage, the “blue” lineage (Cyanocompsa, Amaurospiza, Cyanoloxia, Passerina, and Spiza), and the Pheucticus lineage. These subclades and membership of these genera have been widely supported in subsequent studies. In a 2021 paper by Guallar et al. found based on the preformative molting pattern of cardinalids suggested the ancestor of this group was a forest-dwelling bird that dispersed into open habitats on numerous occasions.
The cardinalids are part of a larger grouping of American endemic songbirds, Emberizoidea, which also includes the aforementioned thraupids and parulids, as well as icterids (New World blackbirds), passerellids (New World sparrows), and several families that contain one or a couple of genera. Several studies have placed cardinalids as either the sister group to Thraupidae, Mitrospingidae (a small family whose genera were formerly classified as thraupids), or the sister to a clade containing thraupids and mitrospingids. At least one study suggested that cardinalids could treated as a subfamily of Thraupidae.
Phylogeny
Phylogeny of the cardinalid genera after Klicka et al. (2007).
Species list
These 53 species and this sequence are recognized by the IOC as of July 2021:
Natural history
Habitat, distribution and migration
The cardinalids can be found from Canada to northern Argentina and Uruguay, with Central America having the most concentrated amount of species. Species are found year-around central and eastern United States down to the neotropics. Cardinalids found in the West Indies are non-breeding migrants and those in western United States and Canada are breeding migrants. The western tanager is the northernmost species in the family, with their breeding ranges occurring in the southern portions of the Northwest Territories. The northern cardinal has been introduced in Hawaii and Bermuda. They occupy a variety of habitats from forests to grassland and arid scrubland. Most North American cardinalid species migrate south for the winter, whether further south in the continent or extending into the neotropics, except the northern cardinal and pyrrhuloxia which stay year-round. The neotropical species are residential year-round in their range.
Feeding ecology
Cardinals, the dickcissel, seedeaters, buntings, and grosbeaks have the thicker, seed-crushing bills that enabled them to feed heavily on fruits and seeds outside of the breeding season (especially in the winter for northern species like the aforementioned dickcissel and northern cardinal). Once their breeding season begins, members of this group will supplement themselves with invertebrate prey, vital when raising their young and refueling their energetic costs of reproduction and other daily activities. The genera Chlorothraupis, Habia, Piranga, and Granatellus have slightly longer and less deep bills, which their diet mostly consists of insects, fruit, nectar and sap, less so on seeds. Cardinalids typically forage alone low level or on the ground, though some like Piranga and grosbeaks will forage high in the tree canopy. Many will come to birdfeeders especially during the winter.
Breeding and reproduction
Nearly all cardinalids are monogamous breeders and are highly territorial. Despite being monogamous this is only during the breeding season, and each year the birds might partner up with a different bird. The only exception is the dickcissel which is a polygynous species which nest in dense grasses and sedges. Other non-monogamous species include the lazuli and painted buntings which perform extra-copulation with multiple partners. The family is known for their intense brilliant songs. In some species like the lazuli bunting and indigo bunting the bird learn singing by match-based, meaning that first year breeding males will learn by copying the songs of nearby males, as opposed of learning it while they are in the nest. Even more unusual is the females of a few species, such as the scarlet tanager, northern cardinal, pyrrhuloxia, and black-headed grosbeak, which sing as well. In temperate species the breeding season is occurs annual while in tropical species it is year-around. The breeding seasons is in sync with the abundance of insects. Most species build open-cup nests made of grasses and twigs depending on the species. These nests would be in the trees, often high up in the crown. The nest building is done by both partners or by the female alone. The male and female take turns incubating the nest, often the male would feed the female. In a clutch on average there are 1 to 6 six eggs, with tropical species laying the fewest. Cardinalids produce one to three broods per season. As with other passerines, the young are born altricial and fledged between one and two weeks.
Conservation
As of 2021, the IUCN Red List has nearly 82 percent of cardinalids to be least concern. However, there are a handful of species that are of concervation of concern. The rose-bellied bunting is an endemic near-threatened species as they are found in a small area of Oaxaca and Chiapas, Mexico; the black-cheeked ant-tanager is another endemic species found in Osa Peninsula in Costa Rica and the carrizal seedeater a critically endangered species found in the spiny bamboo thickets in the understory of deciduous forest in a remote southeastern corner of Venezuela. All of these species are threatened with habitat loss and the confinement within their much smaller range. The IUCN has not yet reevaluate the other species of seedeaters in the genus Amaurospiza.
Despite the vast majority of species being classified as least concern, there has been a growing concern in how the ongoing climate crisis will affect the distribution and migration of many species across the globe. One study lead by Dr. Brooke L. Bateman published in July 2020 focused on the risk North American birds will face from climate change and the measures needed to protect them. The first study assessed 604 species from the United States found that if the planet warmed by 3.0 degrees Celsius many species, especially arctic birds, waterbirds, and boreal and western forest birds, will be highly vulnerable to climate change and future conservation efforts will need to be in place. Among the species sampled, the North American species of Piranga and Pheucticus are found to be most climate vulnerable of the cardinalids. These species will either lose some substantial amount of their range or they will migrate up north to escape the sudden change in their habitat.
A possible extinct species is the controversial Townsend's bunting, a supposed enigmatic species related to the dickcissel. The Townsend's bunting is only known from a single type specimen collected from Chester County, Pennsylvania by John Kirk Townsend and described by John James Audubon in 1834. The specimen is housed in the National Museum of Natural History. Genetic work has not been done on this bird, but observation of the plumage has been done. The controversy stems from the uncertain from authors whether the bird is an extinct species, a rare color-variant of the dickcissel, or a hybrid female dickcissel and male blue grosbeak. If the bird is indeed simply a dickcissel it lacks any of the known field characteristics seen in the species in all life stages and sexes.
References
External links
Cardinalidae videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Cardinalidae sounds on xeno-canto.org
Northern cardinal (bird information) on petinfospot.com
Northern cardinal, including sound and video clips, on Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Taxa named by Robert Ridgway | [
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256617 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean | Clean | Clean may refer to:
Cleaning, the process of removing unwanted substances, such as dirt, infectious agents, and other impurities, from an object or environment
Cleanliness, the state of being clean and free from dirt
Arts and media
Music
Albums
Clean (Cloroform album), 2007
Clean (Deitiphobia album), 1994
Clean (Severed Heads album), 1981
Clean (Shane & Shane album), 2004
Clean (Soccer Mommy album), 2018
Clean (The Japanese House EP), second EP by English indie pop act The Japanese House
Clean (Whores EP), second EP by American rock band Whores
Clean, an Edwin Starr album
Songs
"Clean", a song by Depeche Mode from their 1990 album Violator
"Clean", a song by Taylor Swift from her album 1989, also covered by Ryan Adams from his album 1989
"Clean", a song by KSI and Randolph from the 2019 album New Age
Other uses in music
Clean, an amplifier sound in guitar terminology
Clean vocals, a term used for singing to distinguish it from unclean vocals, such as screaming or growling
The Clean, an influential first-wave indie rock band
Other uses in arts, entertainment, and media
Clean (2004 film), a 2004 French drama film directed by Olivier Assayas
Clean (2021 film), a 2021 American crime drama film directed by Paul Solet
Clean comedy (or clean performance), entertainment which avoids profanity and other objectionable material; the opposite of blue comedy
Sports
Clean and jerk, a weightlifting movement
Clean climbing, the choice to employ non-destructive hardware and techniques in rock climbing
Other uses
Clean (programming language), a purely functional programming language
Clean language, a questioning technique used in psychotherapy and coaching
See also
CLEAN (disambiguation)
Cleaning (disambiguation) | [
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256620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geri%20Halliwell | Geri Halliwell | Geraldine Estelle Horner (née Halliwell; born 6 August 1972), is an English singer, songwriter, author, actress, and philanthropist. She rose to prominence in the 1990s as Ginger Spice, a member of the girl group the Spice Girls. With over 100 million records sold worldwide, the Spice Girls are the best-selling female group of all time. Their slogan "girl power" was most closely associated with Halliwell, and her Union Jack dress from the 1997 Brit Awards also became an enduring symbol. Halliwell left the Spice Girls in 1998, citing exhaustion and creative differences, but rejoined when they reunited in 2007.
In 1999, Halliwell released her debut solo album, Schizophonic, which produced the UK number-one singles "Mi Chico Latino", "Lift Me Up" and "Bag It Up"; the lead single, "Look at Me", reached number two. In 2001, she released her second album, Scream If You Wanna Go Faster; the lead single, "It's Raining Men", reached number one in the UK, the biggest hit of her career. "Scream If You Wanna Go Faster" and "Calling", were also top-ten singles. Halliwell's third album, Passion (2005), which included the worldwide hit "Ride It", reached the top ten in the UK, Spain, Belgium, Ukraine and Russia.
In 2012, Halliwell was a guest judge on the ninth series of The X Factor UK and the following year, she was a judge on the seventh series on Australia's Got Talent. In September 2013, it was announced that Halliwell would return to the music industry in Australia with the release of her first solo single in eight years, "Half of Me". She has written two autobiographies, including If Only (1999), and a series of children's novels, including Ugenia Lavender.
She has appeared in films including Spice World (1997), Fat Slags: The Film (2004), Crank: High Voltage (2009) and The Crown with a Shadow (2021).
Early life
Geraldine Estelle Halliwell was born on 6 August 1972 at Watford General Hospital in Watford, Hertfordshire, the daughter of Ana María (née Hidalgo) and Laurence Francis Halliwell (1922–1993). Her mother is Spanish, hailing from Huesca, while her father was of Swedish, English and a "bit of French" descent. Halliwell's paternal grandfather was Swedish, though born in Korsnäs, Finland. Halliwell grew up on a council estate in North Watford. She was educated at Watford Grammar School for Girls and Camden School for Girls. Before starting her music career, Halliwell had worked as a nightclub dancer in Majorca, a presenter on the Turkish version of Let's Make a Deal, and a glamour model. At the age of 19, she appeared as a Page 3 girl in The Sun. Following her rise to fame, nude photos of Halliwell were republished in a number of magazines such as Playboy and Penthouse in 1996.
Musical career
1994–1998: Spice Girls
In 1994, Halliwell, along with Melanie Chisholm, Melanie Brown and Victoria Beckham, responded to an advertisement in The Stage magazine. Around 400 women answered the ad and auditioned at Dance Works studios. After a couple of initial line-up changes, Halliwell, Chisholm, Brown and Beckham (née Adams) eventually became the members of the group, along with Emma Bunton. The group felt insecure about the lack of a contract and were frustrated by the direction in which Heart Management was steering them, and in October 1994, armed with a catalogue of demos and dance routines, they began touring management agencies. They persuaded Bob Herbert to set up a showcase performance for the group in front of industry writers, producers, and artists and repertoire men in December 1994 at the Nomis Studios in Shepherd's Bush, where they received an "overwhelmingly positive" reaction. Due to the large interest in the group, the Herberts quickly set about creating a binding contract for the group. Encouraged by the reaction they had received at the Nomis showcase, all five members delayed signing contracts on the legal advice from, amongst others, Adams' father Anthony Adams. In March 1995, because of the group's frustration at their management's unwillingness to listen to their visions and ideas, they parted with Heart Management.
The group began a relationship with Simon Fuller of 19 Entertainment and finally signed with him in March 1995. During the summer of that year, the group toured record labels in London and Los Angeles with Fuller and finally signed a deal with Virgin Records in September 1995. From this point on, up to summer 1996, the group continued to write and record tracks for their debut album while extensively touring the West Coast of the United States, where they had signed a publishing deal with Windswept Pacific. On 7 June 1996, the Spice Girls released their debut single, "Wannabe", in the United Kingdom. In the weeks leading up to the release, the video for "Wannabe" got a trial airing on The Box music channel. The song proved to be a global hit, reaching number one in 37 countries, becoming the best-selling single by an all-female group of all time. Shortly after "Wannabe"'s release, each member of the group received a nickname from Top of the Pops magazine. Because of her "liveliness, zest and flaming red hair", Halliwell was named "Ginger Spice". "Wannabe" was followed by nine further number-one singles from their albums Spice, Spiceworld and Forever. Other successful releases followed, including "Say You'll Be There" and "2 Become 1" from Spice, and "Spice Up Your Life", "Too Much" and "Viva Forever" from Spiceworld.
On 31 May 1998, Halliwell announced through her solicitor that she had left the Spice Girls due to depression and differences between the group. Her action aroused controversy, her former group being due to embark on a North American tour, which they eventually completed without her. Although she had already left the group, the Spice Girls released "Viva Forever", the final music video to feature Halliwell's likeness, plus a one-off supergroup called England United for the official England FC song (Jo Whiley introduced the band saying "...plus Geri as a substitute"). After she left, the other girls co-wrote a few songs about her, which appeared on their album Forever: "Goodbye", "Tell Me Why" and "Let Love Lead the Way". The group is among the best-selling girl groups of all time, selling over 75 million albums.
Girl power
Although regularly uttered by all five Spice Girls, the phrase "girl power" was most closely associated with Halliwell and was often accompanied with a peace sign. In a Christmas 1996 interview with The Spectator magazine, Halliwell spoke of former Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher as being an inspiration for their girl power ideology. In a 2019 interview with Harper's Bazaar, she said, "For me, if you look it up, it means equalisation between the sexes. It means everybody, whether you're a man, woman or something in between. Forget about labels, it's about embracing everyone's individuality and giving them the opportunity and gender equality and pushing that forward."
Halliwell's association with girl power (and her friendship with George Michael) was spoofed in the BBC comedy series Rock Profile. Halliwell (played by comedian Matt Lucas) is portrayed as a patronising moron who stalks and has delusions about marrying Michael. According to Halliwell, everything is "Girl Power".
1999–2006: Schizophonic, Scream If You Wanna Go Faster and Passion
In 1999, one year after leaving the group, Halliwell launched her solo career and released her debut album Schizophonic, with the lead single "Look at Me", produced by Absolute and Phil Bucknall. "Look at Me" was followed by further number ones at the UK Singles Chart, "Mi Chico Latino", "Lift Me Up" and "Bag It Up". The album itself reached a peak at number four in the United Kingdom and sold 600,000 copies there, making it double platinum. Halliwell was nominated at BRIT Awards ceremony in 2000, for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best Pop Act, she also performed "Bag It Up" during the show, emerging between giant inflatable legs, ripping off her shirt and walking in stiletto heels over the backs of topless pink-haired men whilst performing the song. Schizophonic debuted at number 42 on the Billboard 200 before dropping out within the next month. The album was eventually certified gold, distributing over 500,000 copies. The album ended up selling around three million copies worldwide.
In 2001, Halliwell followed up with her second album, Scream If You Wanna Go Faster, the album peaked at number five in the United Kingdom and sold 200,000 copies there and was certified gold. It included her cover version of the Weather Girls' 1983 hit, "It's Raining Men", was also used on the Bridget Jones's Diary film soundtrack and the video game DDRMAX2 Dance Dance Revolution 7thMix. The song was released as the lead single from the album. "It's Raining Men" became a major hit worldwide, it peaked at number one in the United Kingdom and peaked in the top 10 in over 27 countries, becoming Halliwell's biggest hit to date. The song won her the International Song of the Year award at the 2002 NRJ Music Awards. The singles that followed, "Scream If You Wanna Go Faster" and "Calling", reached number eight and number seven in the United Kingdom, respectively. Halliwell released a special French edition of "Calling", titled "Au Nom de L'amour". In 2002 Halliwell was once again nominated at the BRIT Awards, this time for Best British Female Solo Artist and Best British Single for "It's Raining Men". Scream If You Wanna Go Faster has sold a million copies worldwide.
In late 2004 Halliwell made a return to music with the single "Ride It", which reached number four in the United Kingdom and number one on the dance charts. However, several months elapsed before another single was released, during which time she was apparently instructed to record some new tracks for the as yet unreleased album by her record company, which was unhappy with the setlist. Halliwell planned her first solo tour of the United Kingdom and Ireland, but due to lack of ticket sales, compounded by the label's pressure on Halliwell to record additional songs, led to the cancellation of the tour. Eventually, a new single, "Desire", was released on 30 May 2005, reaching number 22 in the UK Singles Chart and number one on the UK Dance Charts. Released shortly after, the source album, Passion, similarly received little attention from the public or critics and stalled at number 41 in the British charts. Halliwell's recording contract with EMI was subsequently not renewed and she stated that she was not interested in recording another album at that time and was content with writing children's books and being a mother.
2007–2014: Spice Girls reunion and return to music
On 29 June 2007, the Spice Girls regrouped and announced plans for a reunion tour, from which they were said to have earned £10 million each (about US$20 million). The group's members said that they were still enjoying "doing their own thing". The group decided to tour as a quintet and release their first compilation album, a collection of their Greatest Hits. This album was released in early November 2007 and the tour began on 2 December 2007. During the reformation, film maker Bob Smeaton directed an official film of the tour, which he titled Spice Girls: Giving You Everything. In addition to their sell-out tour, the Spice Girls were contracted to appear in Tesco advertisements, for which they were paid £1 million each. In March 2010, vocal coach and singer Carrie Grant announced on ITV1's The Alan Titchmarsh Show that Halliwell would be making a return to music. In April 2010, Halliwell posted a message on her website, saying she was back in the studio and referring to Lady Gaga as one of her influences. In May 2011, reports suggested that Halliwell would be making a return to music. On 31 July 2011, Halliwell confirmed she had been working on her fourth album, stating of it, "The album's pretty much finished."
In February 2012, Halliwell announced that the fourth album was being mastered. In August 2012, she reunited with the Spice Girls to perform as a quintet at the closing ceremony of the Olympic Games in London. This was the last Spice Girls concert to feature Victoria Beckham. The group also teamed up with Jennifer Saunders and Judy Craymer to develop a musical based on the songs of the Spice Girls titled Viva Forever!, which opened on 11 December 2012. In October 2012, Halliwell made her first solo performance in seven years at the Breast Cancer Care, debuting a new track called "Phenomenal Woman". In January 2013, Halliwell claimed that she had decided to shelve the album she had finished to continue writing and recording, moving in a different style direction.
On 5 September 2013, it was confirmed by Channel 9's NRL Footy Show (one of the longest-running shows in Australia) that Halliwell would be performing a world exclusive of "Half of Me", her first solo single in nearly eight years, at its grand final show. The performance took place on 3 October 2013, exactly one year after her last exhibition with new material at the Breast Cancer Care Show. On 12 September 2013, it was announced that the song "Half of Me" would be released exclusively in Australia, as part of a new deal with Sony Music Australia. The single was released on 25 October 2013 and reached number 281 in the Australian charts. Halliwell then took to her official blog to write about her upsetting experience back in the music business and hinted of possibly retiring for good. On the grand final of Australia's Got Talent, she performed an acoustic version of the Spice Girls' hit single "Wannabe".
2015–present: Second Spice Girls reunion and fourth album
As of 2015, Halliwell is still working on new material for her fourth studio album, which has yet to be released after multiple delays. Three tracks were confirmed : "Love and Light", "Phenomenal Woman" and "Sheriff".
In July 2016, Halliwell, Brown and Bunton released a video celebrating the 20th anniversary of Spice Girls' debut single "Wannabe" and teased news from them as a three-piece; Beckham and Chisholm opted not to take part in a reunion project, with Brown saying that both members gave the three-piece their blessing to continue with the project. However, following Halliwell's announcement of her pregnancy, the project was cancelled.
In November 2016, 13 songs from Halliwell's fourth album, reportedly titled Man on the Mountain, were leaked onto the internet, including the previously confirmed tracks "Love and Light", "Phenomenal Woman" and "Sheriff". The following June, Halliwell released a charity single, "Angels in Chains", a tribute to George Michael, to raise money for Childline.
On 5 November 2018, the Spice Girls announced their reunion Spice World – 2019 Tour; Beckham declined to join due to commitments regarding her fashion business. The tour began in May 2019 and ended in June 2019.
Other ventures
Books
In 1999, Halliwell wrote the autobiography If Only, in which she described her life as a Spice Girl. The book went on to top the best-seller lists and sold over a million copies in the UK alone. Halliwell donated the profits made from the sales of her autobiography to a Breast Cancer charity. In 2002, she released her second autobiography, Just for the Record, detailing her rise to fame and her turbulent celebrity lifestyle.
On 12 April 2007, it was announced that Halliwell had signed a six-book deal with Macmillan Children's Books. The books follow the adventures of nine-year-old Ugenia, a character based on Halliwell, alongside her friends Bronte, Rudy and Trevor. The character Princess Posh Vattoria, a caricature of Halliwell's bandmate Victoria Beckham, was featured in early drafts, but has not appeared in the book series. Other characters are said by Halliwell to be loosely based on Gordon Ramsay, George Michael, Marilyn Monroe, Vincent van Gogh, Wayne Rooney and the character Justin Suarez from the TV series Ugly Betty. According to the official site, the book sold more than 250,000 copies in its first 5 months, making Halliwell 2008's most successful female celebrity children's author.
Fashion
In 2010, Halliwell partnered with British retailer Next to create a swimwear collection named "Geri by Next". This was followed by a Union Jack-motif clothing range in 2012, inspired by Halliwell's famous 1997 Union Jack dress.
Philanthropy
In 1998, Halliwell became a Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA). In 2000 Halliwell appeared in the two-part documentary series Geri's World Walkabout for the BBC, which followed her work with the UN and other travels. That same year, she gave the opening address at the UN Youth Summit. Halliwell picked up further UN work in 2006, by visiting Zambia from 14 to 16 November, to promote greater international awareness of the urgent need to reduce maternal death and halt the spread of HIV/AIDS. In September 2009, Halliwell, in her role as a Goodwill Ambassador of UNFPA, visited Nepal to help launch a national campaign to stop violence against women.
On 25 October 2015, the Mail on Sunday reported that Halliwell had been in talks with the Department for Education with a view to establishing a free school in north London, scheduled to open in 2018 and specialising in the arts and business. Halliwell told the newspaper: "I believe in education. It's an empowering fundamental human right that everyone deserves. Education is a foundation for life." The Department subsequently confirmed that it had spoken with Halliwell, but that discussions were at an early stage.
Politics
In the run-up to the 1997 general election, Halliwell declared: "I saw a lot of what Mrs. Thatcher did. She was definitely the original Spice Girl rising from the greengrocer's daughter to Prime Minister." She said her background was deeply rooted in support for the Conservative Party and that Thatcher was the pioneer of "Girl Power" and the spiritual sixth member of the Spice Girls. She said in 1996 that Tony Blair was "not a safe pair of hands for the economy". By the 2001 general election, Halliwell had switched her support to Tony Blair and the Labour Party, making a cameo appearance in one of their party election broadcasts.
Television, radio and film
In May 1999, Halliwell appeared in a 90-minute documentary Geri for the British television channel Channel 4 by Molly Dineen. The documentary was a ratings success with 4.5 million viewers—almost one-fifth of available viewers—and Channel 4 aired it again one month later. She has also released two yoga DVDs with her yoga teacher Katy Appleton, Geri Yoga and Geri Body Yoga. In late 2002, Halliwell was featured alongside Pete Waterman and Louis Walsh as a judge on the television series Popstars: The Rivals, which created Girls Aloud. and as a guest reporter on celebrity-based series Extra in the US. She has also made appearances in the television series Sex and the City and in the 2004 film Fat Slags, based on characters from Viz magazine. In 2004, Halliwell appeared on Channel Five as one of the hosts of the Party in the Park event for the Prince's Trust, the presenter and main performer of the Tickled Pink Girls' night in Live! event and an appearance in a documentary There's Something About Geri. Halliwell appeared in the film Crank: High Voltage alongside her friend, actor John Damon, and on the BBC One's The One Show on 7 May 2009.
In 2010, Halliwell stood in for Dannii Minogue as a guest judge on The X Factor at the Glasgow auditions alongside Simon Cowell, Louis Walsh and Cheryl, and she returned again as a guest judge in 2012 at the Liverpool auditions this time stood in for Kelly Rowland who replaced Dannii Minogue the year before alongside Walsh, Gary Barlow and Tulisa Contostavlos. In April 2013, the Nine Network announced that she would become the fourth judge on season seven of Australia's Got Talent replacing Minogue. She guest presented an episode of The One Show in October 2015. Halliwell appeared on episode three of the 2016 series of Sport Relief Bake Off. In March 2017, Halliwell presented the BBC Two documentary Geri's 90s: My Drive to Freedom as part of the BBC Music: My Generation series. She sat in for Zoë Ball on BBC Radio 2 in July 2017. She guest presented an episode of This Morning in August 2017 with Rylan Clark-Neal. In 2018, she was a judge on the Saturday night BBC One talent show All Together Now. In November 2020, Halliwell debuted an original YouTube series, Rainbow Woman, which she wrote, directed and served as an executive producer. The series features Halliwell taking part in series of vigenettes that follow her on different adventures. In August 2021, she gave her voice to the short animated movie The Crown with a Shadow, directed by J.B. Ghuman Jr.
Personal life
Halliwell gave birth to a daughter, Bluebell Madonna, in May 2006. The child's father is screenwriter Sacha Gervasi with whom Halliwell was in a relationship in 2005; Victoria Beckham and Emma Bunton are godmothers. Halliwell began dating Christian Horner, the team principal of the Red Bull Racing Formula One team in February 2014. They announced their engagement on 11 November 2014 and the couple were married on 15 May 2015 at St Mary's Church in Woburn, Bedfordshire.
In October 2016, Halliwell said that Horner and she were expecting their first child together. Halliwell gave birth to her second child, a son, named Montague George Hector Horner, on 21 January 2017. Halliwell is stepmother to Horner's daughter, Olivia, from his previous relationship.
Halliwell’s first dog Harry, came from Battersea Dogs & Cats Home. She later adopted Daisy, who survived life-saving liver surgery aged just six months old, as seen on Paul O'Grady: For the Love of Dogs.
Halliwell has spoken out about her experiences of bulimia, saying that she came close to death, weighing just , and was advised by Robbie Williams to seek medical help. In 2011, she spoke of being comfortable with her body and credits her newly healthy relationship with food to motherhood. In 2019, Spice Girl Melanie Brown confirmed rumours that she and Halliwell had sex during the height of the Spice Girls' fame. She said: "It just happened, and we just giggled at it and that was it.
In a 2007 interview with The Guardian, Halliwell said she was not a feminist, for which she received widescale media attention: "For me, feminism is bra-burning lesbianism. It's very unglamorous...we need to see a celebration of our femininity and softness." Halliwell became a Christian after she previously self-identified as an agnostic.
Discography
Schizophonic (1999)
Scream If You Wanna Go Faster (2001)
Passion (2005)
Bibliography
1999: If Only
2002: Just for the Record
2008: Ugenia Lavender: The First Book
2008: Ugenia Lavender and the Terrible Tiger
2008: Ugenia Lavender and the Burning Pants
2008: Ugenia Lavender: Home Alone
2008: Ugenia Lavender and the Temple of Gloom
2008: Ugenia Lavender: The One and Only
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1972 births
Actresses from Hertfordshire
Audiobook narrators
British women children's writers
Converts to Anglicanism from atheism or agnosticism
Dance-pop musicians
English children's writers
English Christians
English dance musicians
English women pop singers
English women singer-songwriters
English film actresses
English people of Spanish descent
English people of Swedish descent
English people of French descent
Living people
Musicians from Hertfordshire
Page 3 girls
Participants in British reality television series
People educated at Camden School for Girls
People educated at Watford Grammar School for Girls
Actors from Watford
Musicians from Watford
Spice Girls members
Innocent Records artists
Virgin Records artists
Video game musicians
20th-century English women singers
20th-century English singers
21st-century English women singers
21st-century English singers | [
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256631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannibal%20squeeze | Cannibal squeeze | Cannibal squeeze or suicide squeeze is a type of squeeze in bridge or whist, in which a defender is squeezed by a card played by his partner. Normally, this occurs with less-than-perfect defense, but there are also legitimate positions where the defense could not have prevailed.
Examples
West is on lead. If he cashes the high heart, a club is thrown from the dummy, and East is squeezed. Whichever card East discards, the declarer will take two tricks in that suit. Instead, West must lead a diamond to protect the partner from subsequent endplay (if he returns a club, the declarer will take the King and put East in with another club, forcing him to lead into AQ).
The most common position for a legitimate suicide squeeze occurs when a side suit is "tangled" (neither side can lead it without giving up a trick), and another suit is protected by the partner of the player on lead, as in the following diagram:
West is to lead; if he leads a diamond, it will "untangle" the suit for the declarer, who will take all three tricks. However, when he leads the high heart, he induces a simple squeeze on his partner, who must either discard the high 7 or unguard the diamond king. (Dummy has an idle card, and East is to play before the declarer.) Declarer will take only two tricks.
References
Hugh Kelsey, Kelsey on Squeeze Play (Master Bridge)
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256633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton%20Jordan | Hamilton Jordan | William Hamilton McWhorter Jordan (/ˈdʒərːdən/) (September 21, 1944 – May 20, 2008) was an American politician who served as Chief of Staff to President of the United States Jimmy Carter.
Early life
Jordan was born in Charlotte, North Carolina, the son of Adelaide (McWhorter) and Richard Lawton Jordan. He grew up in Albany, Georgia. He attended the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia, where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. Jordan graduated with an A.B. in political science in 1967. After being disqualified from military service due to leg problems, he worked as a civilian volunteer in Vietnam during the war there, assisting refugees.
Political career
In 1970, at the age of 26, Jordan ran Jimmy Carter's successful gubernatorial campaign, which included a Democratic primary election fight against former Governor Carl Sanders and a less eventful general election against the Republican Hal Suit. While serving as Governor Carter's executive assistant, Jordan wrote a lengthy memorandum detailing a strategy for winning the 1976 Democratic Primary. Years later, Jordan's memo served as the "game plan" for Carter's 1976 presidential bid.
Jordan was a key advisor and strategist for Carter during the 1976 presidential campaign and during Carter's administration, serving as White House Chief of Staff in 1979–1980 (Carter, who took office in 1977, had previously not seen the need formally to appoint an aide to such a post). Jordan played a powerful role in the formulation of election strategies and government policies.
In 1976 Jordan's youth and casual style gave him a media reputation as a fun-loving, partying, unsophisticated "good ole boy." This turned into a problem during the last year of the Carter administration, when Jordan became a lightning rod for critics of the president across the political spectrum. The media repeated rumors of coarse and even criminal behavior by Jordan, including supposed cocaine usage and anonymous sex at the infamous Studio 54 disco in New York City. Though extensive legal investigations failed to substantiate any of the rumors, Jordan later recalled this as a particularly painful time in his life.
According to one often repeated story from this period, Jordan stared at the breasts of the Egyptian ambassador's wife at a Washington reception and remarked, "I have always wanted to see the pyramids". The story was told in various versions, all based on anonymous sources. Jordan denied it ever took place in his memoir No Such Thing as a Bad Day. CBS News anchor Walter Cronkite later recalled that the network's coverage of the cocaine allegations against Jordan was the "worst story he had ever broadcast."
(Jordan's associate, Timothy Kraft, the 1980 Carter campaign manager, was accused of cocaine use at a party in New Orleans and left the campaign some five weeks before the general election. He was cleared in 1981 by special prosecutor Gerald J. Gallinghouse, a Republican former U.S. Attorney who had earlier prosecuted corruption in the Louisiana state government.)
In 1986, Jordan ran for the Democratic nomination for one of Georgia's seats in the United States Senate. He lost the primary to Representative Wyche Fowler, who went on to win the general election against the Republican incumbent Mack Mattingly.
In 1992, he became a high-level staffer on the presidential campaign of independent candidate Ross Perot. In later years he served both as a member of the founders council and as an important public advocate for Unity08, a political movement focused on reforming the American two party system.
Jordan was portrayed by Kyle Chandler in the 2012 film Argo.
Later life
Jordan was chief executive of the Association of Tennis Professionals when they took control of the professional men's world tennis tour in 1990, replacing the Men's Tennis Council. His nephew, R. Lawton Jordan, served as Deputy Assistant to the President and Deputy Director of the White House Office of Intergovernmental Affairs during Bill Clinton's administration. Jordan authored the book No Such Thing as a Bad Day in 2000.
Personal
He and his wife Dorothy, a pediatric oncology nurse, founded a camp for children with cancer – Camp Sunshine – and a camp for children with diabetes – Camp Kudzu – in Georgia. He was an honorary board member of the Multiple Myeloma Research Foundation. An earlier marriage, to Nancy Konigsmark, ended in divorce.
His son, Hamilton Jordan Jr., is a member of the experimental metal band Genghis Tron. His two other children, Kathleen and Alex, both attended Kenyon College. Alex, Kathleen and Hamilton Jr. helped to complete their father's memoir about growing up in the 1950s South, A Boy From Georgia. Jordan wrote about 90% of the work, with Kathleen, a TV/film comedy executive, penning the balance. Jordan's original title for the memoir was Meet the Gottheimers, a reference to the fact that he had discovered, not until he was in college, that his maternal grandmother had been Jewish. The memoir was submitted to possible publishers, with the University of Georgia Press announcing in 2015 that it would publish the book that fall.
Death
Jordan died on May 20, 2008, aged 63, from peritoneal mesothelioma, which he believed resulted from his exposure to asbestos during his volunteer service in Vietnam. He had survived several other forms of cancer earlier in his life, including diffuse histiocytic non-Hodgkin lymphoma, melanoma, and prostate cancer.
References
External links
"The Georgia Mafia", American Experience, PBS, 2002
"Hamilton Jordan coming to UGA to write book on Carter presidency", UGA Office of Public Affairs News Release, Mar 9, 2005
|-
1944 births
2008 deaths
Assistants to the President of the United States
American campaign managers
American people of Jewish descent
American political consultants
Carter administration personnel
Deaths from cancer in Georgia (U.S. state)
Deaths from mesothelioma
People from Albany, Georgia
People from Atlanta
Politicians from Charlotte, North Carolina
University of Georgia alumni
United States presidential advisors
White House Chiefs of Staff | [
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256638 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwenda%20Thomas | Gwenda Thomas | Gwenda Thomas (born 22 January 1942 in Neath) is a Welsh Labour politician. Thomas was first elected to the National Assembly for Wales in 1999 and re-elected in 2003, having almost doubled her majority. She is a fluent Welsh speaker. She is a member of the GMB Union.
She was re-elected as Welsh Labour's Assembly Member for Neath on 3 May 2007 for a third 4-year term in office, with a majority reduced from 4,946 to 1,944, and a loss of 398 votes from the 2003 Assembly election. In the 2011 Assembly election, Thomas increased her majority to 6,390.
Responsibilities in the Welsh Assembly
She was Chair of the assembly's Equality of Opportunity Committee and was appointed in December 2003 by the First Minister for Wales, Rhodri Morgan, to chair a review into safeguarding vulnerable children in Wales. The review's report - Keeping Us Safe - was published on 3 May 2006. She was also a member of the Local Government and Public Services, Voluntary Sector Partnership, South Wales West Regional, and Standards committees in the National Assembly.
In the Third Assembly she was appointed Deputy Minister for Health and Social Services (31 May 2007). She has special responsibility for social services. She retained the position of Deputy Minister for Social Services when the coalition government of Labour and Plaid Cymru was announced on 19 July.
In the Fourth Assembly, she held the position of Deputy Minister for Children and Social Services, with her responsibilities amongst others being childcare, child trust funds and parenting programmes.
History
In the first Assembly (1999-2003), she was Chair of the Local Government and Housing committee.
Mrs Thomas served on West Glamorgan County Council as Chair of the Social Services Committee - the first female councillor to chair such a major committee. She later served in the same position on Neath Port Talbot County Borough Council following local government reorganisation in 1995.
Educated at Pontardawe Grammar School, she worked in the County Courts Division of the Lord Chancellor's Department and at the Benefits Agency as an Executive officer for many years.
Mrs Thomas is a campaigner for carers' rights and a past member of the Lord Chancellor's Advisory Committee. Her interests include health, social services, children's issues, local government and the voluntary sector.
Personal life
Thomas was educated at Pontardawe Grammar School, she lives in Gwaun-Cae-Gurwen. Thomas was married to her late husband Morgan (1939-2013) for nearly 50 years and they have one son, Geraint and a granddaughter, Charlotte.
On 10 January 2017 she received an honorary doctorate from Swansea University.
External links
Welsh Labour Party Website
Website of the Welsh Assembly Government
Offices held
References
1942 births
Living people
Councillors in Wales
Welsh Labour members of the Senedd
Female members of the Senedd
People from Neath
Wales AMs 1999–2003
Wales AMs 2003–2007
Wales AMs 2007–2011
Wales AMs 2011–2016
Members of the Welsh Assembly Government
20th-century British women politicians
Women members of the Welsh Assembly Government
Women councillors in Wales | [
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256639 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gala%C8%9Bi | Galați | Galați (, , ; also known by other alternative names) is the capital city of Galați County, in the historical region of Western Moldavia, in eastern Romania. Galați is a port town on the Danube River. It has been the only port for the most part of Moldavia's existence. In 2011, the Romanian census recorded 249,432 residents, making it the 8th most populous city in Romania. Galați is an economic centre based around the port of Galați, the naval shipyard, and the largest steel mill in Romania, Galați steel works.
Etymology and names
The name Galați is derived from the Cuman word . This word is ultimately borrowed from the Persian word , "fortress". Other etymologies have been suggested, such as the Serbian . However, the galat root appears in nearby toponyms, some of which show clearly a Cuman origin, for example Gălățui Lake, which has the typical Cuman -ui suffix for "water". Another toponym in the region is Galicia, with its town of Halych, locally associated with the jackdaw (Kawka, Halka). Before the Mongol invasion of Rus, Galați was known as Malyi Halych (Little Halych) as part of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia.<ref>Paliy, O. Halychyna from sea to sea or Where have 'vuiky' came from. Ukrayinska Pravda. 28 February 2013</ref> Other similar place names are Galich, Russia and Galatia in Turkey.
Galați has several exonyms: ; (also an archaic English term); ; ; ; ; ; and .
History
Ancient origins
Archeological evidence points to occupation of the region in the neolithic period. For example, north west of the town of Galați, on the eastern shores of the Malina marshes, fragments of ceramic-type Stoicani Aldeni, stilex and tools made of bone have been found. A stone sceptre, from the late Bronze Age, belonging to the Coslogeni culture was found on the marshes' southern bank. Galați town itself developed from an ancient Dacian settlement of the sixth and fifth centuries BCE where there was a ford across the Danube river. In 101 to 102 and 105 to 106, the Dacians fought wars against the Romans and the area became part of the Roman empire. A strong Roman fortress was built at Barboși to defend the ford across Danube. From the 300s a Daco-Roman settlement developed at a ford south of the site of the Church of the Virgin.
Medieval period
There is evidence of continuous inhabitation of Galați since the 600s. A treasure hoard consisting of 12 silver coins issued between 613 and 685 was found in a Byzantine tomb near the Church of the Virgin. Western and Byzantine coins from the time of Emperor Michael IV (1034–1041) were also found. At one time , the city became part of the Republic of Genoa Territories and was called "Caladda". In 1445, a document signed by Stephen II of Moldavia mentions Galați. In 1484, Chilia was conquered by Ottomans. Galați township remained Moldova's only port, not only for domestic trade but also for trade with Turkey and Poland. In 1590, the Galați Jewish cemetery was opened.
18th century
Burial of Hetman Mazeppa
The Ukrainian folk hero, Ivan Stepanovich Mazeppa was a Hetman who died on 1709 in Varniţa, Bessarabia, and was buried in Galați. Hetman Mazeppa was buried in a brick tomb.
Battle of Stănilești
In 1710, Tatars plundered Galați after the Battle of Stănilești.
Russo-Turkish war
In 1775, Russia established a consulate in Galați. However, in 1789, during the Russo-Turkish war of 1787–92, Galați was burned by the armies of the Russian general Mikhail Kamensky.
19th century
In 1812, following the annexation by Russia of half of the principality, including all of the sea shore and almost all of Danube, Galati ended up as the principality's only port.
Due to unrest in this part of Europe, Galați port became a site for the construction of large warships. Abbot Boskov, a Romanian traveller, stated:
"I saw a large boat, the way those who say Turks caravels, which is on site, ready to be launched into the water. He was commissioned by Isaac-aga, big tax collector of Constantinople. The ship was huge, seventeen seventy steps, and loaded with eighty-four bronze cannons."
Massacre of 1821
In the Greek–Turkish war of 1821, Ottoman subjects were killed in Galați (and in other towns). This was the result of a series of rebellions by members of the port workers' association and city clerks.
Growth through trade
Despite the wars and unrest, Galați developed based on trade (especially grain exports). In 1805, France and England established vice-consulates. In 1832, the School of the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel is founded. Two years later, in 1834, Austrian ships were having scheduled arrivals and in 1837, Galați was declared a free port (this was revoked in 1882). In 1850, James Buchanan, the U.S. president, sent a vice-consul to Galați and the U.S. opened a consulate in 1858. Galați was also a trading port for German lands. When the Crimean War (1854–1856) finished, Galați became a seat of the Danube European Commission. In 1869, the Mihai Eminescu municipal park opened and by 1870, factories were opening. By, 1908 they numbered 41. On 13 September 1872, the King Charles I railway station and northern city rail tunnel opened. The River station opened shortly after on 24 September 1880. In 1889, the V. A. Urechia library opened.
Growth through unity
After the union of the Romanian principalities in 1859, with Alexandru Ioan Cuza as leader, development in Galați increased. Zeletin wrote,
"The birth of the modern Romanian state must distinguish two main currents – one exuberant but superficial, based on liberal ideas which depart from Paris to Bucharest and Iași. The other is quieter but deep, leaving from London to Galați and Brăila: English is the current capitalist economy." (Romanian Bourgeoisie, Zeletin, Stephen.)
1900–1947
Between 1900 and the beginning of World War I, Galați continued its trade in grain and timber with sixteen consulates. Galați was part of Covurlui County.
In 1907, social unrest among the peasant classes precipitated intervention by the Romanian army. In 1911, a statue of the poet Mihai Eminescu was erected.
World War I
Galați remained under Romanian control during World War I. Romanian soldiers fought alongside those of Russia against the army of the Central Powers. Galați was bombed by retreating Russian troops in January 1918.
Interwar period
In 1919, a high school for Jewish students opened. A first air race between Galați and Bucharest was held in 1926. The 1930 Romanian census recorded 100,000 residents in Galați. After Bucharest, Chișinău, Iași and Cernăuți, Galați was Romania's fifth city. In 1938, the Ținutul Dunării de Jos (Lower Danube Land) was established.
World war II
During World War II, Galați was bombed by the Soviet Air Forces and Luftwaffe. The railway station, inaugurated on 13 September 1872, was destroyed as were many other historic buildings and most of the old town. On 27 August 1944, Galați was captured by Soviet troops of the 3rd Ukrainian Front in the course of the Jassy–Kishinev Offensive.
Jewish community
Before World War II Galați hosted 22 synagogues and in 1926, it was the base for the Zionist Revisionist Organization of Romania. Although Galați's Jewish community suffered persecution by the pro-Nazi authorities during World War II, the community was not destroyed in the Holocaust. Since the 1940s the community has gradually diminished through emigration.
Communist period (1947–1989)
Post war rebuilding
After World War II, Galați was rebuilt along communist lines. The town's population was about 80,000. In 1956, a proposal to join Brăila and Galați was made and the building of a speed tram pier was proposed with a Swiss company. The plans never materialized. Construction of the Galați steel works began in 1960 and the plant opened in 1966. The population at this time was 151,000. In 1971, the Făurei – Galați railway capacity was increased, and, in 1982, it was electrified.
Mogoșoaia boating tragedy
On September 11, 1989, a Bulgarian ship collided with a cruise ship near Galați. 151 passengers and crew died (all but sixteen). "Ships crash on Danube" Associated Press. 11 September 1989. Accessed 8 July 2012.
Contemporary period
In 2004, Romania's first information technology park opened in Galați.
2005 flood
On 14 July 2005, Galați was affected by widespread flooding. The Siret river reached record levels and across Romania, the death toll reached 21. In 2010, broken flood barriers caused flooding of the Valley City area of Galați.
Geography
Topography
Galați is located in southeastern Romania. Its coordinates are latitude 45 ° 27 'north and longitude 28 ° 02' east. Its area is . Galați lies in the southern part of the Moldavian Plateau on the left (west) bank of the Danube river at the junction of the Siret River (west) and the Prut River (east), near Lake Brates. It is from the Black Sea. The nearest town is Brăila, to the south. Galați is built on three geological terraces. One lies beneath "Valley City", with elevations between . The other two, which make a fan shape, have elevations of (the site of the old town, now the city centre) and (the site of the modern city) respectively.
The Danube river is considered the "life-blood" of Galați. The Danube is the second longest river in Europe ), with an average flow of per second in the Galați section. After the Siret River, the largest tributary in Romania, joins the Danube, the flow is . After the Prut River joins the Danube, the flow becomes . The Danube river flows have significant seasonal variation. The maximum flows occur in May; . The minimum flows occur during the summer; .
Climate
Galați has a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa).
Galați has a continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfa" – summer warmer than winter, European subtype) with four distinct seasons. Summers are very warm with temperatures sometimes exceeding while winters are cold and dry with temperatures at night sometimes dropping below . Average monthly precipitation ranges from about in June.
Cityscape
Urban planning
In 2005, Galați ranked in the top two cities in Romania for green space per capita. Urban planning and maintenance activities are governed by the "Public Administration Public Domain Galați" (SPADP) Ecosal Prest, SC RER Ecological Service SRL, SC Citadine 98 SA.
Places of interest
Roman camp at Tirighina-Barbosi
From 1959 to 1962, archeological excavations were carried out at the Roman castellum in Barbosi. The site lies north of the Danube, near the mouth of the Siret. A comparison can be made to the fortress at Dinogetia. The archeologists found clear stratigraphy in the excavation. They located the Tirighina Dacian fortress, reinforced by an earthen bank. Finds included Dacian pottery from an import business. Also found was a silver coin dating the Dacian fortress to the first century BCE. A burning layer suggested damage to the fortress by fire. Also found were coins dating from the rule of Augustus(63 BCE – 14 AD) through to Nero (37AD – 68AD).
Lambrinidi House
This house is located near the university, at 51 Royal Street. It was built by Lambrinidi Epaminonda, a Greek mill owner. He owned a machine shop to repair ships. The Prince Charles stayed at the house on a visit to Galați, in April 1879. It has served as the seat of the Court of Appeals; the Mihail Kogalniceanu High School and, after the earthquake of November 9, 1940, the city hall.
Robescu House
Robescu House was built about 1896. The architect was Ion Mincu. A Romanian tourist website describes the building: :"Robescu House has an elevated basement, two levels with two turret-balcony on the first floor and another balcony at the ground floor, to the street. The exterior decorations are made in Brancoveanu style, glossy ceramic plates. The glossy ceramic is used to decorate the floral upper register.
Today it serves as the "Children's Palace".
Palace of Navigation (River Station)
This building was designed by Petre Antonescu. It dates to the late 19th century. It is the office of "Maritime Danube Ports Administration" and Navrom, which controls Romania's navigable waterways.
University Palace
This former "Palace of Justice" is a prominent architectural monument in the Galați old town. It was built between 1911 and 1913. Now, it is the university headquarters.
Lupa Capitolina
Meaning "Capitoline Wolf", this statue was erected in 1995 and reflects Roman influence in Galați.
Administrative Palace
This building was erected in 1904 and 1905 and opened on 27 April 1906. Like Robescu House, it was designed by Ion Mincu. Frederick Storck contributed white marble sculptures of "industry" and "agriculture" at the top of the main façade. Other features are two bronze flags and a large clock which plays the waltz, "Danube Waves" by Joseph Ivanovich (1845–1902).
Places of worship
Archdiocesan Cathedral of the Lower Danube – St. Andrew
The cornerstone of the cathedral of the archbishop of Galați was placed on 27 April 1906 by Prince Ferdinand and Queen Mary. Also present was the Bishop of the Lower Danube, Pimen Georgescu. Construction continued from 1906 to 1917. The architects were Petre Antonescu and Stephen Burcuș. The church has one dome and no side isles. From 1989, restoration work has been underway at the church. This includes cleaning of the 1957 paint work, paving around the cathedral and the construction of the St John Cassian centre, a building for cultural, pastoral and missionary work. At the church's centennial in 2006, the relics of St. Nectarios of Aegina were brought to Galați.
Fortified Monastery of the Holy Virgin
This is the oldest building in Galați. It was consecrated as a place of worship in September 1647 during the reign of Vasile Lupu. The church was dedicated to the Vatopedi Monastery on Mount Athos. It was built from local materials including stone, forest wood, brick and lime, sand from the beaches of the Danube and so on. As well as its typical Romanian church architecture, the monastery has some specific elements of interest such as a bell tower with battlements for observation of the Danube valley and for defense. The tower has two levels and a room to hide assets. There are two ramparts and a door to a balcony. The second floor is fitted with windows and battlements. Another of the church's defences is a reinforced bridge consisting of two parts, one above the nave and one above the altar. The bridge has 28 battlements. The church survived the turbulent periods of Galați's history and was rebuilt and restored in 1829 and again in 1859. From 1953 to 1957, the church was used as a museum. It was restored in the period 1991–1994. There may be a tunnel from the church beneath the Danube.
Bulgarian Church
Construction of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church of Saint Pantaleon began in 1861 under the guidance of Bulgarian National Revival figure Archimandrite Maxim Raykovich (1801–1874) of Dryanovo. However, the lack of funds prolonged the construction works and the church was only consecrated in 1887. The Bulgarian Church of Saint Pantaleon features a Neo-Byzantine design with Slavic influences.
Along with the church, Raykovich also founded a Bulgarian school which occupied an adjacent house. The same house would become a hub for Bulgarian revolutionaries persecuted by the Ottoman authorities. In 1871–72, Bulgaria's national poet Hristo Botev lived in the house during a part of his exile, as a commemorative plaque still reminds.
Raykovich died in Galați in 1874 and was buried in the courtyard of the Bulgarian Church, where his tombstone still stands.
Greek Church
The cornerstone of the Greek Church was laid on 6 August 1866. The church was dedicated to the "Transfiguration" on 17 September 1872 by the Bishop Melchizedek and the Archimandrite Eughenie Xiropotamo. In the nave is a marble plaque with the names of the founders and two marble plates with the names of the founders and major benefactors. The church is a cruciform tower with two bell towers on the west side. Papadopoulos of Adrianople was the artist. There are large icons representing the holy virgin Mary with child, the resurrection, St. Gerasimos, St. Sophia, St. Gregory and St. Basil the great. There are eight stained glass church windows containing the holy apostles Peter, Andrew, Mark, Thomas, Bartholomew and Luke on the northern side and Paul Simon, John, James, Philip, on the southern side.
St. Paraskeva Cathedral
This church is located together with the Cătușa cemetery in the southern part of Galați. Its general construction was completed but the interior layout is not. The basement of the Cathedral is a very small space, which will serve as a mortuary chapel. The official opening of the interior was planned for 2012.
Church Mavromol
Mavromol is a former monastery. Its name means "black rock" in Greek. It was built in 1669 and dedicated to the Assumption by George Ducas (died 1685) and his son. There was rebuilding between 1700 and 1703. During the revolution of 1821 the church was burned by the Turks. The current building dates from 1858 to 1861 and respects the original plan. Interior murals and other valuable elements were restored between 1973 and 1975.
The monks of the church taught at Galați's first school in 1765. They taught in Greek. (In 1803, teaching was conducted in Romanian under the orders of Constantin Moruz). During the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774), and the Russo-Austrian-Turkish War (1787–1792), Mavromol church was damaged and teaching ceased until 1803.
The church is constructed in the style of a basilica with apses beyond the main walls. The church has a carved wooden icon of the "Virgin Mary" from the church of St. Sava Monastery in Bucharest. The ceiling is composed of three parts separated by double arches. The entrance is on the south side through a door marked by an icon and heraldic symbols: a bull's head and two lions. Also on the south side is the coat of arms of Moldova, carved in a stone medallion. During communist rule, the church, as a sacred place, was improperly appropriated.
The Church of St. Spyridon
Built in 1817, this church has four buttresses, three towers and a dome supported by crossed arches. Although its murals are not maintained, it contains valuable icons.
Synagogue of Galați
There is only one remaining synagogue in Galați (near the Museum of History on Domnească street).
Masonic Temple
The temple was built in 1896 on the site of a synagogue dating from 1806.
Schitul Vovidenia
This church was built in 1790. It is the site of the burial tomb of Smaranda Cuza, the mother of Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
The original church was burned in the unrest of 1821 then renovated in 1851. Above the nave, a dome is supported by arches crossed in the traditional Moldovan style. There is a bell tower above the main dome, a smaller one above the altar and another above the porch added in 1901.
Roman Catholic Church
Galați's Roman Catholic church was built in 1844 and expanded in 1873. It contains objects of artistic as well as sacred value including a high altar made of marble; a painting of "St. John the Baptist preaching"; a "Most Holy Heart" statue of Jesus Christ; Pietà statues and a statue of Saint Francis of Assisi. The church was strengthened and renovated to its current state between 1985 and 1988.
Gardens, parks and recreation areas
Mihai Eminescu Municipal Park
This park was designed in 1869 in honour of Mihai Eminescu, who visited the area, particularly in his later life. some of the trees are from the time of Eminescu. There is a small lake and a place for recitals once used, for example, by military bands. People visit the park to see a statue of Eminescu.
Galați Public Gardens
This park is located near the student complex. It looks over Lake Brates, the railway station and train depot.
C.F.R. (Romanian State Railways) Park
The railway park is located north of the railway, near the railway tunnel, the terminus of railway lines (102 and 104) and a nursing home.
Botanical Garden
The Botanical Garden dominates the left bank of the Danube at Galați. Its southern slope is the site of the Museum of Natural History in Galați. The museum has collections of tropical and subtropical plants (cactuses, euphorbias, palms, crotons, geraniums, begonias, etc.) rosary chic, over 200 varieties of roses, flora and vegetation. There are over 3000 specimens of tree species and shrubs, an oak area with more than 50 examples of birch and conifers, and a replica Japanese garden.
Garboavele Zoo and Reserve
Both are located at the northern exit of town. Garboavele Forest Zoo is included in the Natural Sciences Museum Complex. The zoo keeps various exotic species. Riding enthusiasts can practice their sport at the zoo. The zoo theme was developed together with experts from European Association of Zoos and Aquaria, and aims to preserve rare animals and provide conservation education.
Hunters Lake
Hunters Lake is located in Galați's far north-east. It covers 28 hectares of land including an 11 hectare natural lake; a 10 hectare forest of acacia; and 10 hectares of developed parkland for recreation.
Danube leisure complex
This park is located outside Galați proper on the road to Brăila. The complex has three swimming pools, houses, camping sites and a restaurant. There is also a western club that is equipped with a pool, restaurant, bar and cafe.
Waterfront
The waterfront is a green recreational area for walking, sports competitions and recitals. Boats moored on the shores of the Danube are converted into restaurants. Also, there are many original iron relics and a statue of Nicolae Balcescu.
Danube Waves Beach
The beach is located in south-west Galați. Popular in the summer, it has two large pools and three smaller pools for children, each with a slide. There is a beach, some restaurants and shower facilities.
Brateș beach
This is a private beach with clean sand situated on the left bank of Lake Brates. Nearby is the Galați–Bereștiul Barlad railway line.
Neighborhoods
Port
Centru
Gară
Parc Rizer
Campus Universitar
Mazepa 1
Mazepa 2
Țiglina 1
Țiglina 2
Țiglina 3 (Micro 16)
Țiglina 4 (Micro 17 and Micro 18)
Bariera Traian
Traian Nord
Barboși
I.C. Frimu
Siderurgiștilor Est
Siderurgiștilor Vest
Danube
Micro 13a
Micro 13b
Micro 14
Micro 19
Micro 20
Micro 21
Patinoar
Aviației
Micro 38
Micro 39a
Micro 39b
Micro 39c
Micro 40
Filești
Bădălan
Lozoveni
Dimitrie Cantemir
Cultural life
Theatres
Fani Tardini Drama Theatre
This theatre was opened in 1955. It is named after the actress (1823–1908). The theatre supports a yearly comedy festival, "Festingal".
Nae Leonard National Theatre of Opera and Operetta
Nae Leonard was known locally as "the prince of the operetta". Opened in 1956, the Nae Leonard National Theatre of Opera and Operetta was originally called "The Theatre of Operetta and Variety Art of Galați County".
Gulliver Theatre
The Gulliver Theatre was opened on 1 October 1952. It is devoted to children's theatre such as puppetry, for example.
Museums
Natural Sciences Museum Complex
The Botanical Gardens on the south bank, hosts a planetarium. There is also an aquarium displaying rare species of the Danube basin and the Mediterranean Sea as well as exotic fish.
Galați History Museum
The museum was inaugurated on 24 January 1939. This was the 80th anniversary of the union of the Romanian principalities. It is housed in the residence of Cuza, Galați's chief magistrate. In 1951, after World War II, scientific activity resumed at the museum. In 1956, some items were donated to the Natural History museum and the museum of art. The finds from Tirighina-Bărboși are housed in this museum.
Alexandru Ioan Cuza Memorial House
Cuza's former residence houses a retrospective display of his life.
Visual Arts Museum
When the Galați visual arts museum opened in 1967, it was the first contemporary arts museum in Romania. It has halls and outdoor exhibit spaces. There are also spaces for artists' workshops. The heritage section exhibits Romanian art in the second half of the nineteenth and avant-garde art from the twentieth century.
Galați Village Museum
This museum at the entrance to the Garboavele forest has small village buildings to display the traditional Romanian life in the Lower Danube.
House of Collections
This museum has philatelic and numismatic collections. It is situated near the Memorial House of Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
Rivalry with Brăila
Galați has a deep rivalry with neighbouring Brăila. This conflict has a long history and has reached the point of being studied by academics. In fact, a group of Romanian researchers have already published the book Galați - Brăila. Trecut. Actualitate. Perspective ("Galați - Brăila. Past. Present. Perspectives").Galați - Brăila. Trecut. Actualitate. Perspective
Economy
Galați has the largest iron and steel plant in Romania, the Galați steel works, which was state-owned until 2001. It is still commonly referred to as "Sidex", its old name.
Romania's largest shipyard is located in Galați. It benefits from easy access to the Black Sea and from its co-location with the Mittal Plant.
Galați is also a border checkpoint to Moldova.
Demographics
City proper
As of 2011 census data, 249,432 inhabitants live within the city limits, a decrease from the figure recorded at the 2002 census.
Ethnography
The largest ethnic group in Galați are Romanians (98.54%). The second largest but less than 1% of the total are the Roma (0.78%). In smaller numbers are Lipovans (0.07%), Greeks (0.07%) and Hungarians (0.09%). Other groups number 0.27% in all.
Metropolitan area
The metropolitan area is proposed to be formed from the cities of Galați and Brăila.
Education
Galați has educational facilities catering to all ages and scholastic levels. School Nr. 24 (Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel) is the oldest school in the county. It was founded in 1832. In 1896 it was located inside the Mitoc Monastery. On 26 October 1896 the current school building was inaugurated.
The University of Galați, founded in 1974, includes 11 faculties (with two unique faculties in Romania: The Faculty of Naval Architecture and Department of Food Science and Engineering) and 3 colleges.
The "Danubius University" is a private institution with departments in legal, economic and social studies fields.
Galați also hosts several specialized research institutes. Four are unique within Romania: Icepronav (Research and Design Institute for Shipbuilding), Uzinsider Engineering (Institute for Research and Design for flat metal products), the Research Institute of Fish and the Wine Research Station Targu Bujor.
In February 2013, Galați was the host city of the general meeting of the National Student Association, a forum of the Romanian Ministry of Education.
Libraries
V. A. Urechia Library
In 1889, the V. A. Urechia Library was founded through the benevolence of Vasile Alexandrescu Urechia. In 1991, the library moved to a new purpose built site. The library maintains its own local history collection as well as a rare book collection.
LCMHF
This library was established in 1939. It is associated with teacher training and hosts an active literary circle.
Transportation
Rail
Galați railway station has straight train services to cities such as Bucharest, Cluj-Napoca, Brașov and Iași all year and in the summer to Constanța.
Road
Public transport
Public transport in Galați is provided by a combination of trams, trolleybuses and buses (all of which are operated by Transurb, an agency of the municipality).
Galați in popular culture
ExplosionExplosion (1973) is a communist film made entirely in Galați. It is based on the true story of an incident where a Panamanian vessel, loaded with ammonium nitrate, threatened to explode and destroy Galați and Brăila.
Dracula
In Bram Stoker's novel Dracula, Galați ("Galatz") is the port at which Count Dracula disembarked from the Czarina Catherine on his way back to Transylvania.
Meta Tempesta
This is a film about tunnels built in the ruins of Tirighina being used to protect Germans in World War II. It was based on a play called The road to Constanta''.
Danube Waves
This is a film made in Bucharest, in the "Film Production Center", Buftea. It was directed by Liviu Ciulei, from a screenplay by Dumitru Munteanu Caraba and Francis. It stars Irina Petrescu, who makes her debut as the wife of a barge driver. Lazarus Vrabie plays an undercover officer. Ciulei is the barge driver. Lucian Pintilie played the part of a German soldier.
Other
Video of Galați is seen in tourist documentaries, documentaries about World War II and clips of Lautars singers.
International relations
Twin towns – Sister cities
Galați has a number of Twin towns and sister cities:
People
Bibliography
Paul Paltanea, History of Galați, Ed Porto Franco, Galați, 1994
Neagu Djuvara, between West and East – Romanian Countries in the early modern era, Humanitas, Bucharest, 2007
Ștefan Zeletin, Romanian bourgeoisie, Bucharest, 1991
Galați City Hall about the city's geography and history
Galați Prefecture, the official site
Manual of Romania, 2008, NeswIn & The Money Channel, No.1
References
External links
Populated places in Galați County
Localities in Western Moldavia
Populated places on the Danube
Port cities and towns in Romania
Cities in Romania
Capitals of Romanian counties
Moldova–Romania border crossings
1445 establishments in Europe
Territories of the Republic of Genoa
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256641 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant%20hormone | Plant hormone | Plant hormones (or phytohormones) are signal molecules, produced within plants, that occur in extremely low concentrations. Plant hormones control all aspects of plant growth and development, from embryogenesis, the regulation of organ size, pathogen defense, stress tolerance and through to reproductive development. Unlike in animals (in which hormone production is restricted to specialized glands) each plant cell is capable of producing hormones. Went and Thimann coined the term "phytohormone" and used it in the title of their 1937 book.
Phytohormones occur across the plant kingdom, and even in algae, where they have similar functions to those seen in higher plants. Some phytohormones also occur in microorganisms, such as unicellular fungi and bacteria, however in these cases they do not play a hormonal role and can better be regarded as secondary metabolites.
Characteristics
The word hormone is derived from Greek, meaning set in motion. Plant hormones affect gene expression and transcription levels, cellular division, and growth. They are naturally produced within plants, though very similar chemicals are produced by fungi and bacteria that can also affect plant growth. A large number of related chemical compounds are synthesized by humans. They are used to regulate the growth of cultivated plants, weeds, and in vitro-grown plants and plant cells; these manmade compounds are called plant growth regulators (PGRs). Early in the study of plant hormones, "phytohormone" was the commonly used term, but its use is less widely applied now.
Plant hormones are not nutrients, but chemicals that in small amounts promote and influence the growth, development, and differentiation of cells and tissues. The biosynthesis of plant hormones within plant tissues is often diffuse and not always localized. Plants lack glands to produce and store hormones, because, unlike animals—which have two circulatory systems (lymphatic and cardiovascular) powered by a heart that moves fluids around the body—plants use more passive means to move chemicals around their bodies. Plants utilize simple chemicals as hormones, which move more easily through their tissues. They are often produced and used on a local basis within the plant body. Plant cells produce hormones that affect even different regions of the cell producing the hormone.
Hormones are transported within the plant by utilizing four types of movements. For localized movement, cytoplasmic streaming within cells and slow diffusion of ions and molecules between cells are utilized. Vascular tissues are used to move hormones from one part of the plant to another; these include sieve tubes or phloem that move sugars from the leaves to the roots and flowers, and xylem that moves water and mineral solutes from the roots to the foliage.
Not all plant cells respond to hormones, but those cells that do are programmed to respond at specific points in their growth cycle. The greatest effects occur at specific stages during the cell's life, with diminished effects occurring before or after this period. Plants need hormones at very specific times during plant growth and at specific locations. They also need to disengage the effects that hormones have when they are no longer needed. The production of hormones occurs very often at sites of active growth within the meristems, before cells have fully differentiated. After production, they are sometimes moved to other parts of the plant, where they cause an immediate effect; or they can be stored in cells to be released later. Plants use different pathways to regulate internal hormone quantities and moderate their effects; they can regulate the amount of chemicals used to biosynthesize hormones. They can store them in cells, inactivate them, or cannibalise already-formed hormones by conjugating them with carbohydrates, amino acids, or peptides. Plants can also break down hormones chemically, effectively destroying them. Plant hormones frequently regulate the concentrations of other plant hormones. Plants also move hormones around the plant diluting their concentrations.
The concentration of hormones required for plant responses are very low (10−6 to 10−5 mol/L). Because of these low concentrations, it has been very difficult to study plant hormones, and only since the late 1970s have scientists been able to start piecing together their effects and relationships to plant physiology. Much of the early work on plant hormones involved studying plants that were genetically deficient in one or involved the use of tissue-cultured plants grown in vitro that were subjected to differing ratios of hormones, and the resultant growth compared. The earliest scientific observation and study dates to the 1880s; the determination and observation of plant hormones and their identification was spread out over the next 70 years.
Classes
Different hormones can be sorted into different classes, depending on their chemical structures. Within each class of hormone, chemical structures can vary, but all members of the same class have similar physiological effects. Initial research into plant hormones identified five major classes: abscisic acid, auxins, cytokinins, ethylene, and gibberellins. This list was later expanded, and brassinosteroids, jasmonates, salicylic acid, and strigolactones are now also considered major plant hormones. Additionally there are several other compounds that serve functions similar to the major hormones, but their status as bone fide hormones is still debated.
Abscisic acid
Abscisic acid (also called ABA) is one of the most important plant growth inhibitors. It was discovered and researched under two different names, dormin and abscicin II, before its chemical properties were fully known. Once it was determined that the two compounds are the same, it was named abscisic acid. The name refers to the fact that it is found in high concentrations in newly abscissed or freshly fallen leaves.
This class of PGR is composed of one chemical compound normally produced in the leaves of plants, originating from chloroplasts, especially when plants are under stress. In general, it acts as an inhibitory chemical compound that affects bud growth, and seed and bud dormancy. It mediates changes within the apical meristem, causing bud dormancy and the alteration of the last set of leaves into protective bud covers. Since it was found in freshly abscissed leaves, it was initially thought to play a role in the processes of natural leaf drop, but further research has disproven this. In plant species from temperate parts of the world, abscisic acid plays a role in leaf and seed dormancy by inhibiting growth, but, as it is dissipated from seeds or buds, growth begins. In other plants, as ABA levels decrease, growth then commences as gibberellin levels increase. Without ABA, buds and seeds would start to grow during warm periods in winter and would be killed when it froze again. Since ABA dissipates slowly from the tissues and its effects take time to be offset by other plant hormones, there is a delay in physiological pathways that provides some protection from premature growth. Abscisic acid accumulates within seeds during fruit maturation, preventing seed germination within the fruit or before winter. Abscisic acid's effects are degraded within plant tissues during cold temperatures or by its removal by water washing in and out of the tissues, releasing the seeds and buds from dormancy.
ABA exists in all parts of the plant, and its concentration within any tissue seems to mediate its effects and function as a hormone; its degradation, or more properly catabolism, within the plant affects metabolic reactions and cellular growth and production of other hormones. Plants start life as a seed with high ABA levels. Just before the seed germinates, ABA levels decrease; during germination and early growth of the seedling, ABA levels decrease even more. As plants begin to produce shoots with fully functional leaves, ABA levels begin to increase again, slowing down cellular growth in more "mature" areas of the plant. Stress from water or predation affects ABA production and catabolism rates, mediating another cascade of effects that trigger specific responses from targeted cells. Scientists are still piecing together the complex interactions and effects of this and other phytohormones.
In plants under water stress, ABA plays a role in closing the stomata. Soon after plants are water-stressed and the roots are deficient in water, a signal moves up to the leaves, causing the formation of ABA precursors there, which then move to the roots. The roots then release ABA, which is translocated to the foliage through the vascular system and modulates potassium and sodium uptake within the guard cells, which then lose turgidity, closing the stomata.
Auxins
Auxins are compounds that positively influence cell enlargement, bud formation, and root initiation. They also promote the production of other hormones and, in conjunction with cytokinins, control the growth of stems, roots, and fruits, and convert stems into flowers. Auxins were the first class of growth regulators discovered.
A Dutch Biologist Frits Warmolt Went first described auxins. They affect cell elongation by altering cell wall plasticity. They stimulate cambium, a subtype of meristem cells, to divide, and in stems cause secondary xylem to differentiate.
Auxins act to inhibit the growth of buds lower down the stems in a phenomenon known as apical dominance, and also to promote lateral and adventitious root development and growth. Leaf abscission is initiated by the growing point of a plant ceasing to produce auxins. Auxins in seeds regulate specific protein synthesis, as they develop within the flower after pollination, causing the flower to develop a fruit to contain the developing seeds.
In large concentrations, auxins are often toxic to plants; they are most toxic to dicots and less so to monocots. Because of this property, synthetic auxin herbicides including 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) have been developed and used for weed control by defoliation. Auxins, especially 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), are also commonly applied to stimulate root growth when taking cuttings of plants. The most common auxin found in plants is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA).
Brassinosteroids
Brassinosteroids are a class of polyhydroxysteroids, the only example of steroid-based hormones in plants. Brassinosteroids control cell elongation and division, gravitropism, resistance to stress, and xylem differentiation. They inhibit root growth and leaf abscission. Brassinolide was the first identified brassinosteroid and was isolated from extracts of rapeseed (Brassica napus) pollen in 1979. Brassinosteroids are a class of steroidal phytohormones in plants that regulate numerous physiological processes. This plant hormone was identified by Mitchell et al. who extracted ingredients from Brassica pollen only to find that the extracted ingredients’ main active component was Brassinolide. This finding meant the discovery of a new class of plant hormones called Brassinosteroids. These hormones act very similarly to animal steroidal hormones by promoting growth and development. In plants these steroidal hormones play an important role in cell elongation via BR signaling. Brassinosteroids receptor- brassinosteroid insensitive 1 (BRI1) is the main receptor for this signaling pathway. This BRI1 receptor was found by Clouse et al. who made the discovery by inhibiting BR and comparing it to the wildtype in Arabidopsis. The BRI1 mutant displayed several problems associated with growth and development such as dwarfism, reduced cell elongation and other physical alterations. These findings mean that plants properly expressing brassinosteroids grow more than their mutant counterparts. Brassinosteroids bind to BRI1 localized at the plasma membrane which leads to a signal cascade that further regulates cell elongation. This signal cascade however is not entirely understood at this time. What is believed to be happening is that BR binds to the BAK1 complex which leads to a phosphorylation cascade. This phosphorylation cascade then causes BIN2 to be deactivated which causes the release of transcription factors. These released transcription factors then bind to DNA that leads to growth and developmental processes and allows plants to respond to abiotic stressors.
Cytokinins
Cytokinins or CKs are a group of chemicals that influence cell division and shoot formation. They also help delay senescence of tissues, are responsible for mediating auxin transport throughout the plant, and affect internodal length and leaf growth. They were called kinins in the past when they were first isolated from yeast cells. Cytokinins and auxins often work together, and the ratios of these two groups of plant hormones affect most major growth periods during a plant's lifetime. Cytokinins counter the apical dominance induced by auxins; in conjunction with ethylene, they promote abscission of leaves, flower parts, and fruits.
Among the plant hormones, the 3 that are known to help with immunological interactions are ethylene (ET), salicylates (SA), and jasmonates (JA), however more research has gone into identifying the role that cytokinins (CK) play in this. Evidence suggests that cytokinins delay the interactions with pathogens, showing signs that they could induce resistance toward these pathogenic bacteria. Accordingly, there are higher CK levels in plants that have increased resistance to pathogens compared to those which are more susceptible. For example, pathogen resistance involving cytokinins was tested using the Arabidopsis species by treating them with naturally occurring CK (trans-zeatin) to see their response to the bacteria Pseudomonas syringa. Tobacco studies reveal that over expression of CK inducing IPT genes yields increased resistance whereas over expression of CK oxidase yields increased susceptibility to pathogen, namely P. syringae.
While there’s not much of a relationship between this hormone and physical plant behavior, there are behavioral changes that go on inside the plant in response to it. Cytokinin defense effects can include the establishment and growth of microbes (delay leaf senescence), reconfiguration of secondary metabolism or even induce the production of new organs such as galls or nodules. These organs and their corresponding processes are all used to protect the plants against biotic/abiotic factors.
Ethylene
Unlike the other major plant hormones, ethylene is a gas and a very simple organic compound, consisting of just six atoms. It forms through the breakdown of methionine, an amino acid which is in all cells. Ethylene has very limited solubility in water and therefore does not accumulate within the cell, typically diffusing out of the cell and escaping the plant. Its effectiveness as a plant hormone is dependent on its rate of production versus its rate of escaping into the atmosphere. Ethylene is produced at a faster rate in rapidly growing and dividing cells, especially in darkness. New growth and newly germinated seedlings produce more ethylene than can escape the plant, which leads to elevated amounts of ethylene, inhibiting leaf expansion (see hyponastic response).
As the new shoot is exposed to light, reactions mediated by phytochrome in the plant's cells produce a signal for ethylene production to decrease, allowing leaf expansion. Ethylene affects cell growth and cell shape; when a growing shoot or root hits an obstacle while underground, ethylene production greatly increases, preventing cell elongation and causing the stem to swell. The resulting thicker stem is stronger and less likely to buckle under pressure as it presses against the object impeding its path to the surface. If the shoot does not reach the surface and the ethylene stimulus becomes prolonged, it affects the stem's natural geotropic response, which is to grow upright, allowing it to grow around an object. Studies seem to indicate that ethylene affects stem diameter and height: when stems of trees are subjected to wind, causing lateral stress, greater ethylene production occurs, resulting in thicker, sturdier tree trunks and branches.
Ethylene also affects fruit ripening. Normally, when the seeds are mature, ethylene production increases and builds up within the fruit, resulting in a climacteric event just before seed dispersal. The nuclear protein Ethylene Insensitive2 (EIN2) is regulated by ethylene production, and, in turn, regulates other hormones including ABA and stress hormones. Ethylene diffusion out of plants is strongly inhibited underwater. This increases internal concentrations of the gas. In numerous aquatic and semi-aquatic species (e.g. Callitriche platycarpus, rice, and Rumex palustris), the accumulated ethylene strongly stimulates upward elongation. This response is an important mechanism for the adaptive escape from submergence that avoids asphyxiation by returning the shoot and leaves to contact with the air whilst allowing the release of entrapped ethylene. At least one species (Potamogeton pectinatus) has been found to be incapable of making ethylene while retaining a conventional morphology. This suggests ethylene is a true regulator rather than being a requirement for building a plant's basic body plan.
Gibberellins
Gibberellins (GAs) include a large range of chemicals that are produced naturally within plants and by fungi. They were first discovered when Japanese researchers, including Eiichi Kurosawa, noticed a chemical produced by a fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi that produced abnormal growth in rice plants. It was later discovered that GAs are also produced by the plants themselves and control multiple aspects of development across the life cycle. The synthesis of GA is strongly upregulated in seeds at germination and its presence is required for germination to occur. In seedlings and adults, GAs strongly promote cell elongation. GAs also promote the transition between vegetative and reproductive growth and are also required for pollen function during fertilization.
Gibberellins breaks the dormancy (in active stage) in seeds and buds and helps increasing the height of the plant. It helps in the growth of the stem
Jasmonates
Jasmonates (JAs) are lipid-based hormones that were originally isolated from jasmine oil. JAs are especially important in the plant response to attack from herbivores and necrotrophic pathogens. The most active JA in plants is jasmonic acid. Jasmonic acid can be further metabolized into methyl jasmonate (MeJA), which is a volatile organic compound. This unusual property means that MeJA can act as an airborne signal to communicate herbivore attack to other distant leaves within one plant and even as a signal to neighboring plants. In addition to their role in defense, JAs are also believed to play roles in seed germination, the storage of protein in seeds, and root growth.
JAs have been shown to interact in the signalling pathway of other hormones in a mechanism described as “crosstalk.” The hormone classes can have both negative and positive effects on each other's signal processes.
Jasmonic acid methyl ester (JAME) has been shown to regulate genetic expression in plants. They act in signalling pathways in response to herbivory, and upregulate expression of defense genes. Jasmonyl-isoleucine (JA-Ile) accumulates in response to herbivory, which causes an upregulation in defense gene expression by freeing up transcription factors.
Jasmonate mutants are more readily consumed by herbivores than wild type plants, indicating that JAs play an important role in the execution of plant defense. When herbivores are moved around leaves of wild type plants, they reach similar masses to herbivores that consume only mutant plants, implying the effects of JAs are localized to sites of herbivory. Studies have shown that there is significant crosstalk between defense pathways.
Salicylic acid
Salicylic acid (SA) is a hormone with a structure related to phenol. It was originally isolated from an extract of white willow bark (Salix alba) and is of great interest to human medicine, as it is the precursor of the painkiller aspirin. In plants, SA plays a critical role in the defense against biotrophic pathogens. In a similar manner to JA, SA can also become methylated. Like MeJA, methyl salicylate is volatile and can act as a long-distance signal to neighboring plants to warn of pathogen attack. In addition to its role in defense, SA is also involved in the response of plants to abiotic stress, particularly from drought, extreme temperatures, heavy metals, and osmotic stress.
Salicylic acid (SA) serves as a key hormone in plant innate immunity, including resistance in both local and systemic tissue upon biotic attacks, hypersensitive responses, and cell death. Some of the SA influences on plants include seed germination, cell growth, respiration, stomatal closure, senescence-associated gene expression, responses to abiotic and biotic stresses, basal thermo tolerance and fruit yield. A possible role of salicylic acid in signaling disease resistance was first demonstrated by injecting leaves of resistant tobacco with SA. The result was that injecting SA stimulated pathogenesis related (PR) protein accumulation and enhanced resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection. Exposure to pathogens causes a cascade of reactions in the plant cells. SA biosynthesis is increased via isochorismate synthase (ICS) and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway in plastids. It was observed that during plant-microbe interactions, as part of the defense mechanisms, SA is initially accumulated at the local infected tissue and then spread all over the plant to induce systemic acquired resistance at non-infected distal parts of the plant. Therefore with increased internal concentration of SA, plants were able to build resistant barriers for pathogens and other adverse environmental conditions
Strigolactones
Strigolactones (SLs) were originally discovered through studies of the germination of the parasitic weed Striga lutea. It was found that the germination of Striga species was stimulated by the presence of a compound exuded by the roots of its host plant. It was later shown that SLs that are exuded into the soil also promote the growth of symbiotic arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. More recently, another role of SLs was identified in the inhibition of shoot branching. This discovery of the role of SLs in shoot branching led to a dramatic increase in the interest in these hormones, and it has since been shown that SLs play important roles in leaf senescence, phosphate starvation response, salt tolerance, and light signalling.
Other known hormones
Other identified plant growth regulators include:
Plant peptide hormones – encompasses all small secreted peptides that are involved in cell-to-cell signaling. These small peptide hormones play crucial roles in plant growth and development, including defense mechanisms, the control of cell division and expansion, and pollen self-incompatibility. The small peptide CLE25 is known to act as a long-distance signal to communicate water stress sensed in the roots to the stomata in the leaves.
Polyamines – are strongly basic molecules with low molecular weight that have been found in all organisms studied thus far. They are essential for plant growth and development and affect the process of mitosis and meiosis. In plants, polyamines have been linked to the control of senescence and programmed cell death.
Nitric oxide (NO) – serves as signal in hormonal and defense responses (e.g. stomatal closure, root development, germination, nitrogen fixation, cell death, stress response). NO can be produced by a yet undefined NO synthase, a special type of nitrite reductase, nitrate reductase, mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase or non enzymatic processes and regulate plant cell organelle functions (e.g. ATP synthesis in chloroplasts and mitochondria).
Karrikins – are not plant hormones as they are not produced by plants themselves but are rather found in the smoke of burning plant material. Karrikins can promote seed germination in many species. The finding that plants which lack the receptor of karrikin receptor show several developmental phenotypes (enhanced biomass accumulation and increased sensitivity to drought) have led some to speculate on the existence of an as yet unidentified karrikin-like endogenous hormone in plants. The cellular karrikin signalling pathway shares many components with the strigolactone signalling pathway.
Triacontanol – a fatty alcohol that acts as a growth stimulant, especially initiating new basal breaks in the rose family. It is found in alfalfa (lucerne), bee's wax, and some waxy leaf cuticles.
Use in horticulture
Synthetic plant hormones or PGRs are used in a number of different techniques involving plant propagation from cuttings, grafting, micropropagation and tissue culture. Most commonly they are commercially available as "rooting hormone powder".
The propagation of plants by cuttings of fully developed leaves, stems, or roots is performed by gardeners utilizing auxin as a rooting compound applied to the cut surface; the auxins are taken into the plant and promote root initiation. In grafting, auxin promotes callus tissue formation, which joins the surfaces of the graft together. In micropropagation, different PGRs are used to promote multiplication and then rooting of new plantlets. In the tissue-culturing of plant cells, PGRs are used to produce callus growth, multiplication, and rooting.
Seed dormancy
Plant hormones affect seed germination and dormancy by acting on different parts of the seed.
Embryo dormancy is characterized by a high ABA:GA ratio, whereas the seed has high abscisic acid sensitivity and low GA sensitivity. In order to release the seed from this type of dormancy and initiate seed germination, an alteration in hormone biosynthesis and degradation toward a low ABA/GA ratio, along with a decrease in ABA sensitivity and an increase in GA sensitivity, must occur.
ABA controls embryo dormancy, and GA embryo germination.
Seed coat dormancy involves the mechanical restriction of the seed coat. This, along with a low embryo growth potential, effectively produces seed dormancy. GA releases this dormancy by increasing the embryo growth potential, and/or weakening the seed coat so the radical of the seedling can break through the seed coat.
Different types of seed coats can be made up of living or dead cells, and both types can be influenced by hormones; those composed of living cells are acted upon after seed formation, whereas the seed coats composed of dead cells can be influenced by hormones during the formation of the seed coat. ABA affects testa or seed coat growth characteristics, including thickness, and effects the GA-mediated embryo growth potential. These conditions and effects occur during the formation of the seed, often in response to environmental conditions. Hormones also mediate endosperm dormancy: Endosperm in most seeds is composed of living tissue that can actively respond to hormones generated by the embryo. The endosperm often acts as a barrier to seed germination, playing a part in seed coat dormancy or in the germination process. Living cells respond to and also affect the ABA:GA ratio, and mediate cellular sensitivity; GA thus increases the embryo growth potential and can promote endosperm weakening. GA also affects both ABA-independent and ABA-inhibiting processes within the endosperm.
Human use
Salicylic acid
Willow bark has been used for centuries as a painkiller. The active ingredient in willow bark that provides these effects is the hormone salicylic acid (SA). In 1899, the pharmaceutical company Bayer began marketing a derivative of SA as the drug asprin. In addition to its use as a painkiller, SA is also used in topical treatments of several skin conditions, including acne, warts and psoriasis. Another derivative of SA, sodium salicylate has been found to suppress proliferation of lymphoblastic leukemia, prostate, breast, and melanoma human cancer cells.
Jasmonic acid
Jasmonic acid (JA) can induce death in lymphoblastic leukemia cells. Methyl jasmonate (a derivative of JA, also found in plants) has been shown to inhibit proliferation in a number of cancer cell lines, although there is still debate over its use as an anti-cancer drug, due to its potential negative effects on healthy cells.
See also
Forchlorfenuron
Phytoestrogen
Phytoandrogen
References
External links
Simple plant hormone table with location of synthesis and effects of application — this is the format used in the descriptions at the ends of the Wikipedia articles on individual plant hormones.
Hormonal Regulation of Gene Expression and Development — Detailed introduction to plant hormones, including genetic information.
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256642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sizaire-Naudin | Sizaire-Naudin | Sizaire et Naudin was a French automobile manufacturer located on the northern side of central Paris, at 52 rue Victor-Hugo in Courbevoie, between 1903 and 1921.
The company
Sizaire-Naudin was founded by two brothers called Maurice (1877–1969) and Georges Sizaire (1880–1924), in partnership with a family friend, Louis Naudin (1876–1913) in 1903. The partners had already experimented with a car in 1902 or 1903 but it was not until 1905 that the light "voiturette-style" cars were offered for sale, and shown at the Paris Salon in October of that year.
In 1912 the Sizaire brothers left the company following disagreement with an investor. Their participation in the automotive business was far from ended, however, and in 1913, with the help of F. Berwick, the London-based UK importer of Corre La Licorne cars, they obtained finance in London for the launch of a new automobile manufacturing company called Sizaire-Berwick. Sizaire-Naudin continued for a further decade without them.
The cars
The first cars were basic single cylinder vehicles with independent front suspension by sliding pillars and a transverse leaf spring, identical to earlier Decauvilles. A unique gearbox used an integral 3-speed differential – 3 straight cut pinions brought to bear in turn on a single large straight-cut crown wheel.
Orders were good and the company received backing to move to larger premises from bicycle importers Hammond et Monnier who soon afterwards sold the firm to the Duc d'Uzes and from 1907 the family crest appeared on the radiator surround.
By 1911, the single-cylinder format was regarded as outmoded. After the departure of the Sizaire brothers the technicians at the business switched to a four-cylinder engine, initially using a bought-in 1847 cm3 Ballot unit, but did not result in significantly increased sales.
After the war, production restarted with a new company, Société des Nouveaux Établissements Sizaire et Naudin, making Ballot-engined cars based on prewar designs. The manufacturer took a stand at the Motor Show in October 1919 to exhibit a four-seater torpedo" bodied Type D car with a wheelbase, and powered by a four-cylinder 2292 cm3 engine. This was listed by the manufacturer at 24,000 francs.
In spite of an attempt to re-enter racing at the International Voiturette Cup of 1921, the directors called in the liquidators later that year.
Racing
Sizaire et Naudin enjoyed great success in early voiturette races with rules which limited cylinder bore but did not specify stroke length. This success lasted from 1906 to 1909, with some presence in racing until 1911.
References
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of France
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1903
1921 disestablishments in France
Brass Era vehicles
1910s cars
1920s cars
French companies established in 1903
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1921 | [
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256643 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaches%20%28The%20Stranglers%20song%29 | Peaches (The Stranglers song) | "Peaches" is a seminal punk rock song and single by The Stranglers from the album Rattus Norvegicus. The track peaked at No. 8 in the UK Singles Chart.
Song information
The lyrics to "Peaches" featured coarse sexual language and innuendo to a degree that was unusual for the time. The song's narrator is girl-watching on a crowded beach one hot summer day. It is never made clear if his lascivious thoughts (such as "there goes a girl and a half") are an interior monologue, comments to his mates, or come-on lines to the attractive women in question. The critic Tom Maginnis wrote that Hugh Cornwell sings with "a lecherous sneer, the sexual tension is so unrelenting as to spill into macho parody or even censor-baiting territory".
The single was a double A-side with pub rock song "Go Buddy Go". The latter was played on UK radio at the time and also was performed on the band's first BBC TV Top of the Pops appearance, because the sexual nature of the lyrics of "Peaches" caused the BBC to censor it. Still, "Peaches" was ranked at No. 18 among the top "Tracks of the Year" for 1977 by NME, and it reached No. 8 in the UK Singles Chart. The radio cut was re-recorded with less explicit lyrics: "clitoris" was replaced with "bikini", "oh shit" with "oh no" and "what a bummer" with "what a summer". The catalogue number of the radio version was FREE 4.
Legacy
An edited version of "Peaches", minus the lyrics, was used as the closing theme tune to many of the TV chef Keith Floyd's Floyd on... television shows. It was also used as the title music in the opening sequence of 2000 British film Sexy Beast and during a party scene in the 1997 film Metroland. The song is also on the sound track of the game Driver: Parallel Lines. It was used by Adidas in advertising in the Netherlands in 2002.
The song is used in episode 16 of the BBC series Being Human, when the hungry "teenage" vampire Adam stalks three teenage girls into a game arcade.
The song is heard in episode nine of series two of the TV series Gotham, the opening sequence of a 2006 Hollyoaks episode, and the 2011 film Killer Elite.
Dub Pistols covered the song on their 2007 album, Speakers and Tweeters, with Rodney P on guest MC vocals and Terry Hall of The Specials singing the chorus. Audio Bullys and Liam Howlett included it in their installment of the Back to Mine series of "after hours grooving" DJ mix albums, with Simon Franks of the duo referring to it as "raw UK old school".
The single was re-issued, with "Go Buddy Go", on green vinyl and with a new sleeve for the 2014 Record Store Day.
Charts
References
The Stranglers songs
1977 singles
Song recordings produced by Martin Rushent
1977 songs
United Artists Records singles
Controversies in the United Kingdom
Obscenity controversies in music
Songs written by Hugh Cornwell
Songs written by Jean-Jacques Burnel
Songs written by Dave Greenfield
Songs written by Jet Black
Songs banned by the BBC | [
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256646 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaches%20%28musician%29 | Peaches (musician) | Merrill Nisker (born 11 November 1966), better known by her stage name Peaches, is a Canadian musician, producer, director, visual artist, and performance artist.
Born in Ontario, Canada, Peaches began her musical career in the 1990s as part of a folk trio, Mermaid Cafe. In 1995, she established a rock band, the Shit. That year she also released her first solo album, Fancypants Hoodlum. After moving to Berlin, Germany, she was signed to the Kitty-Yo label and released her second album, The Teaches of Peaches (2000). Touring as the opening act for bands like Marilyn Manson and Queens of the Stone Age, she subsequently released her third album, Fatherfucker (2003).
Peaches' songs have been featured in movies such as Mean Girls, Waiting..., Jackass Number Two, My Little Eye, Drive Angry, and Lost in Translation. Her music has also been featured on television shows such as Orphan Black, Lost Girl, The L Word, South Park, Skam, The Handmaid's Tale, 30 Rock, True Blood, Fresh Meat, Full Frontal with Samantha Bee, The Boys, Sex Education, and Letterkenny, and has been used for the promotion of Dirt. Peaches has performed guest vocals on several songs, including "Oh My God" from Pink's album Try This, "We Don't Play Guitars" from Chicks on Speed's album 99 Cents, "My Girls" from Christina Aguilera's 2010 album Bionic (produced by — and co-written with — Le Tigre), and "Scare Me" from Major Lazer's 2013 album Free the Universe (also featuring Timberlee).
Early life
Born Merrill Nisker in 1966 in Toronto, Ontario, she attended a private Jewish school. Nisker was a class clown, who "wasn't particularly smart. I was interested in creative performance stuff, but that turned out to be difficult for me because it was all so structured," she told Kitty Empire of The Observer.
Nisker's family was culturally Jewish, though not religious. Her maternal grandparents immigrated to Canada from Ustrzyki Dolne in Poland; her paternal grandparents were from Galicia in what is now Ukraine. In an interview in URB magazine, she recounted how growing up she experienced antisemitism; on her walks home from school, students from a nearby Catholic school would throw stones at her and call her a "dirty Jew".
Peaches is bisexual.
Career
1990–99: Mermaid Cafe, Fancypants Hoodlum, the Shit
During the early 1990s, Nisker was part of folk trio Mermaid Cafe. The name was taken from the Joni Mitchell song "Carey". She later released her first solo album, Fancypants Hoodlum, under the name Merrill Nisker in 1995, and subsequently developed the style and persona known as Peaches. In 1995, she started the Shit, a noisy four-piece combo with Chilly Gonzales (a.k.a. Jason Beck), bassist Sticky (later of Weeping Tile and Music Maul), and Dominique Salole (a.k.a. Mocky). Their absurd, highly sexual rock music was a harbinger for what Nisker would become, as it was during this time that she adopted the Peaches name. The Peaches moniker was taken from the Nina Simone song "Four Women" where Simone screams at the end, "My name is Peaches!" In Toronto, before rising to fame, she lived above Come As You Are with fellow recording artist Feist. Feist worked the back of the stage at Peaches' shows, using a sock puppet and calling herself "Bitch Lap Lap". The two also toured together in England from 2000–2001, staying with Justine Frischmann of Elastica and M.I.A. M.I.A. went on to video-document Peaches' 2000 US tour and made clothes for the musician, while Peaches inspired M.I.A. to use the Roland MC-505 in her own compositions.
2000–02: The Teaches of Peaches
After creating a six-track EP, Lovertits, Peaches moved to Berlin, Germany. While visiting her old friend Jason Beck, who was enjoying modest European success as Chilly Gonzales in his new home base of Berlin, Peaches landed a one-night gig. On the merits of that show alone, Berlin's Kitty-Yo label signed her on the spot. The label offered her the chance to record a new album, The Teaches of Peaches, back home in Toronto, and the already-completed Lovertits EP was released in the summer of 2000. The full-length album The Teaches of Peaches, was released that fall. The album contains her signature song "Fuck the Pain Away".
Peaches appeared on the British TV show Top of the Pops, but her performance was deemed too racy to be aired.
Nisker signed to a European contract with Sony following the release of The Teaches of Peaches. She later made a big-budget video for the song "Set It Off", in which she sat in a locker room as her pubic and armpit hair grew to Rapunzel length. Sony subsequently dropped her. "Now they want their money back," Peaches said.
In 2001, Nisker's 34AA bust was one of the first female busts cast by famous 1960s groupie Cynthia Plaster Caster, who was better known for making molds of male rockers' genitalia.
In 2002, Peaches appeared in "Hideous Man", a short film directed by John Malkovich. The short was created as a showcase for clothing designed by Bella Freud, and featured the poetry of Gary Sinise.
2003–05: Fatherfucker
In 2003, Peaches released her second album Fatherfucker on XL/Kitty-Yo after years of touring and opening for artists like Marilyn Manson and Queens of the Stone Age. She once again wrote and programmed all of the album's music herself. The single "Kick It", which features Iggy Pop, was described by Peaches to Rolling Stone as "more about rock 'n' roll than sex."
For her album Fatherfucker, Peaches was nominated in the "Outstanding Music Artist" category for the 15th GLAAD Media Awards along with Rufus Wainwright, Meshell Ndegeocello, Junior Senior, and Bitch and Animal, but lost to Wainwright.
2006–08: Impeach My Bush
In 2007 Peaches posed as a model for an advertisement by the Vestal Watches company. The advertisement was shown in The Fader magazine.
Peaches was nominated for her album Impeach My Bush in the category "Outstanding Music Artist" at the 18th GLAAD Media Awards along with the Ditty Bops, Owen Pallett, Pet Shop Boys, and the Scissor Sisters, but lost to the Scissor Sisters.
Peaches' song "Boys Wanna Be Her" is featured in an online teaser for the live action feature film Bad Kids Go to Hell (2012), based on the best selling graphic novel of the same name. It also serves as the theme music for the late-night television series Full Frontal with Samantha Bee. It was also featured in an episode of Orphan Black.
2009–12: I Feel Cream and other work
Peaches' fourth album I Feel Cream, was released on 4 May 2009 in Europe, and 5 May in North America. The first single from the album is a double A-side of "Talk to Me" and "More". Peaches enlisted some of her contemporaries to co-produce a number of tracks including Simian Mobile Disco, Soulwax, Digitalism and Shapemod. Long time friend and collaborator Gonzales co-wrote some of the songs on I Feel Cream and Shunda K (the voice of Yo Majesty) featured on the track "Billionaire".
Peaches has been noted for her stage costumes and flamboyant sense of style. Her looks are often both nostalgic and futuristic; aggressive and glamorous; and push the limits of gender identity. Peaches and her band Sweet Machine wear costumes from a variety of designers but most notably she works closely with stylist/designer Vaughan Alexander, celebrity hairstylist Charlie Le Mindu, and young American fashion designer, John Renaud.
In 2010, Peaches and backing band Sweet Machine once again toured Australia performing at the sold out Big Day Out festivals and at a series of sideshows. Peaches was supported on this tour by Shunda K who performed her collaboration "Billionaire" at BDO festivals and at the sideshows, and was also the opening act at the sideshows along with Evil Beaver in Melbourne.
On 14 March 2010, Peaches won the 'Electronic Artist of the Year' award at the 10th Annual Independent Music Awards held in Toronto, Canada.
In March 2010, the copyright owners of the musical Jesus Christ Superstar denied Peaches permission to perform her one-woman version that she was planning to stage in Berlin. After receiving the attention of several media outlets, Peaches successfully negotiated with those rights-holders, and the musical was performed on 25–27 March at Berlin's HAU1. Gonzales accompanied Peaches on piano. Travis Jeppesen stated in his review for Artforum, "Not only did Peaches set it off, she managed to surprise us all by showing off an expansive vocal range, a musician's natural sensitivity to the dynamics of Andrew Lloyd Webber's score, and an emotive prowess that is rarely if ever displayed in her own, less holy, music."
Peaches appeared in a film called Ivory Tower, which also includes spots from Feist, Chilly Gonzales, Tiga and Gonzales' mother. Peaches stars as Marsha, a performance artist engaged to a man named Thaddeus (Tiga). Things get complicated when her ex, Hershall (Gonzales) comes back into her life. The movie is set in Toronto and was shot over 13 days in late winter and early spring 2010. It was co-written by Gonzales and Céline Sciamma (who directed/wrote Water Lilies and Portrait of a Lady on Fire) was directed by Adam Traynor and produced by Nicolas Kazarnia. Ivory Tower was given a limited theatrical release in August 2010.
In May 2010, Christina Aguilera announced that Peaches was among the collaborators on her fourth studio album Bionic. Peaches is featured on a track called "My Girls". The song was co-written and produced by Le Tigre.
On 30 August 2010, Peaches released a new single titled "Jonny". The single is part of a tribute series to Alan Vega from the band Suicide. Other musicians who have released tribute singles as part of the series include The Horrors, Primal Scream, Klaxons and Bruce Springsteen.
Peaches also appears as a guest musician on R.E.M.'s 2011 release Collapse into Now, contributing vocals to the song "Alligator_Aviator_Autopilot_Antimatter".
2012: New music and Peaches Does Herself
It was announced in 2012 that a semi-biographical musical/concert film would be premièred at the Toronto Film Festival, utilising 22 songs from Peaches' back catalog and backed by her band the Sweet Machine.
Peaches Does Herself premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on 13 September 2012.
On 2 October 2012, Peaches released her new single "Burst!" as a digital single backed with several remixes.
2015–2021: What Else Is In the Teaches of Peaches and Rub
Photographer Holger Talinski collaborated with Peaches on a book of photographs, What Else Is In the Teaches of Peaches, released on 2 June 2015. The book, published by Akashic Books, also includes text written by Peaches, R.E.M. lead singer Michael Stipe, artist and singer Yoko Ono and actor Elliot Page.
Peaches' sixth studio album, Rub, was released 25 September 2015. It was produced by Vice Cooler with Peaches in her Los Angeles garage. In June 2015 it was announced to contain guest vocal appearances by Kim Gordon, Feist, and Simonne Jones.
An unused track from the Rub sessions titled "Bodyline" was released by Adult Swim on 20 July 2015. The Vice Cooler-produced track features Nick Zinner on guitar and was described as "a heavy, chugging guitar line over which Peaches half raps, half sings a high-octane space jam." In May 2016, Peaches appeared in a fourth-season episode of the Canadian TV series Orphan Black as herself, performing "Bodyline" in a club. She performed "Boys Wanna Be Her" at the Not the White House Correspondents’ Dinner on 29 April 2017. In February 2019, Peaches made her debut with the Staatstheater Stuttgart, performing as Anna in Kurt Weill's Die sieben Todsünden.
2022–present: Upcoming seventh studio album
Peaches will go on tour in 2022 to mark the 20th anniversary of The Teaches of Peaches. She is also working on her seventh studio album. Peaches' song "Boys Wanna Be Her" is featured in the 2022 film The 355 starring Jessica Chastain and Diane Kruger.
Art
Peaches opened her first institutional solo art exhibition "Whose Jizz Is This?" at the Kunstverein in Hamburg on 9 August 2019 (through 20 October 2019) Taking a bold and unexpected approach to the topics of sex, feminism, queerness, gender, and new millennium politics, Peaches calls her WJIT presentation "a deconstructed musical in 14 scenes." At the heart of this presentation are the "Fleshies," who have renamed themselves as such to rewrite their narrative, break away from humans and human interactions, do away with words like "sex toys" and "masturbators" in a quest to find sexual equality amongst themselves.
Themes
Gender identity is one theme of Peaches' music, often playing with traditional notions of gender roles representation. Her lyrics and live shows consciously blur the distinction between male and female; for example, she appears on the cover of her album Fatherfucker with a full beard. When asked if she had chosen the title for shock value, she commented:
She disputes accusations of "penis envy", preferring the term "hermaphrodite envy", since "there is so much male and female in us all."
Age has been another theme of Peaches' music in recent years. The lyrics from several songs from her 2009 album I Feel Cream tackle the issue of age, including "Trick or Treat" ("you lick my crow's feet"), "Show Stopper" ("Never mind my age, it's like we're breaking out of a cage") and "Mommy Complex". Peaches has criticized ageism directed against her, telling the New York Daily News that "I'm going to make aging cool".
Inspiration
Peaches lists John Waters, Cindy Sherman, Paul McCarthy and the films Tron, Grease, Liquid Sky and Phantom of the Paradise as inspiration for the visuals in her live shows.
Discography
Albums
Fancypants Hoodlum (1995)
The Teaches of Peaches (2000)
Fatherfucker (2003)
Impeach My Bush (2006)
I Feel Cream (2009)
Rub (2015)
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
See also
List of electroclash bands and artists
References
External links
1966 births
Artists from Toronto
Bisexual women
Bisexual musicians
Bisexual feminists
Canadian dance musicians
Canadian electronic musicians
Canadian expatriates in Germany
Canadian women guitarists
Canadian feminists
20th-century Canadian multi-instrumentalists
Canadian people of Polish-Jewish descent
Canadian people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Canadian performance artists
Canadian record producers
Canadian women singer-songwriters
Canadian singer-songwriters
Canadian women artists
Electroclash
Feminist musicians
Independent Music Awards winners
Keytarists
Jewish Canadian musicians
Jewish feminists
Jewish singers
Jewish songwriters
Kitty-Yo artists
LGBT Jews
LGBT singers from Canada
LGBT record producers
Living people
Musicians from Toronto
Sex-positive feminists
XL Recordings artists
Canadian women in electronic music
21st-century Canadian multi-instrumentalists
20th-century Canadian guitarists
21st-century Canadian guitarists
20th-century Canadian keyboardists
21st-century Canadian keyboardists
20th-century Canadian bass guitarists
21st-century Canadian bass guitarists
Canadian DJs
Theremin players
20th-century Canadian women singers
21st-century Canadian women singers
Electronic dance music DJs
Canadian women record producers
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people | [
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256648 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cajal%20Institute | Cajal Institute | The Cajal Institute (IC) is a research center in neurobiology which belongs to the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC). The IC originates from the Laboratorio de Investigaciones Biológicas, founded in 1900 by order of King Alfonso XIII on the occasion of the Moscow Prize to Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934). Following Cajal's award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1906 and the 1907 creation of the Junta de Ampliación de Estudios, Cajal was appointed President of the Junta. A royal decree by king Alfonso XIII established the construction of a new building and the appointment of Cajal as its first director in 1920.
The building, finally inaugurated in 1932, was located in the hill of San Blas and changed its name to Cajal Institute to honour the memory of its founder. Since the beginning, its activity has focused on the structure and function of the nervous system. It is the oldest neurobiology research center in Spain. Along its more than 100 years of existence, renowned scientists and professionals have spread worldwide and contributed to the advancement of neurobiology.
Cajal Institute has three research departments:
Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Neurobiology
Functional and Systems Neurobiology
Translational Neuroscience
References
External links
Instituto de Neurobiología Ramón y Cajal (Official website in English)
Neuroscience research centers in Spain
Research institutes in the Community of Madrid | [
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256653 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriotic%20People%27s%20Movement | Patriotic People's Movement | Patriotic People's Movement (, IKL, ) was a Finnish nationalist and anti-communist political party. IKL was the successor of the previously banned Lapua Movement. It existed from 1932 to 1944 and had an ideology similar to its predecessor, except that IKL participated in elections, although with limited success.
Formation
The IKL was founded at a conference on 5 June 1932 as a continuation of the Lapua Movement. The three major founding members were Herman Gummerus, Vilho Annala and Erkki Räikkönen. Lapua leader Vihtori Kosola was imprisoned for his part in the Mäntsälä rebellion at the time of formation but the leadership was officially kept in reserve for him and other leading rebels, notably Annala and Bruno Salmiala, were involved in the formation of IKL.
Structure
Ideologically, IKL was ardently nationalist and anti-Communist, and endorsed an aggressive foreign policy against the Soviet Union and hostility towards the Swedish language. The creation of a Greater Finland was an important goal for the party. Many of its leaders were priests or participants of the mainly Ostrobothnian Pietist movement called Herännäisyys. Its manifested purpose was to be the Christian-moral conscience of the parliament. A more hard-line tendency was also active, centered on Bruno Salmiala.
The IKL uniform was a black shirt with blue tie, inspired by the Italian fascists, and also by the Herännäisyys movement, which had a tradition for black clothing. Members greeted each other with a Roman salute.
The IKL had its own youth organization, called Sinimustat (Blue-and-blacks), members of which were trained in combat. It was led by Elias Simojoki, a charismatic priest. Sinimustat were banned in 1936 (although they were immediately reformed as Mustapaidat ("Blackshirts")).
The party received its main support from wealthy farmers, the educated middle-class, civil servants, the Lutheran clergy and university students. Geographically, IKL obtained its largest share of votes in Southern Ostrobothnian municipalities such as Kuortane, Lapua and Ilmajoki.
Relationship to mainstream politics
IKL participated in parliamentary elections. In 1933 its election list was pooled with the National Coalition Party (Kokoomus), and got 14 seats out of 200. Kokoomus collapsed from 42 to 18 seats. After the collapse, Juho Kusti Paasikivi was elected chairman of Kokoomus. He converted his party to the voice of big business and as such had no interest in the direct action tactics of IKL, and thus weeded out the most outspoken IKL sympathizers from the party.
IKL came under increasing scrutiny from government and was subject to two laws designed to arrest its progress. In 1934 a law passed allowing the suppression of propaganda which brought government or constitution into contempt and this was used against the movement, whilst the following year a law banning political uniforms and private uniformed organisations came in, seriously affecting the Sinimustat in particular.
IKL kept its 14 seats in the elections of 1936 but was weakened by the overwhelming victory for the coming social democrat-agrarian coalition, under Prime Minister Aimo Kaarlo Cajander that would replace in the spring of 1937 the centrist minority government of Kyösti Kallio, which had, in turn, replaced the narrow right-wing minority government of Toivo Mikael Kivimäki. The strong new government soon moved against the IKL, with Urho Kekkonen, then Minister of the Interior, bringing legal proceedings against the movement late in 1938. However, the courts did not find sufficient grounds for banning IKL. Despite this the prosperity experienced under Cajander's government hit the IKL and in the 1939 elections they managed only eight seats. Kekkonen was one of two leading government opponents of the IKL who would later go on to serve as presidents of Finland, the other being Juho Kusti Paasikivi.
Final years
The Winter War, and particularly the Moscow Peace, were seen by IKL and its sympathizers as the ultimate proof of the parliamentary government's failed foreign policy. During the year after the Winter War, Finland's foreign policy was drastically changed, by and large to correspond with that of IKL, and Annala was even included in the Cabinet in January 1941, when all but one parties of the parliament were represented. The price of this recognition was however an end to IKL attacks on the system and as such an effective end to the very reason it had support. After the initial enthusiasm of the Continuation War in 1941 waned during the first winter, IKL wasn't included in Edwin Linkomies' cabinet in spring 1943.
In the aftermath of the Continuation War, IKL was banned, on the insistence of the Soviet Union, four days after the armistice between Finland and the Soviet Union was signed 19 September 1944.
The IKL initials returned to the far-right political scene in 1993 with the foundation of the Isänmaallinen Kansallis-Liitto by Matti Järviharju. The new movement died out by 1998.
Notable IKL supporters
Arne Somersalo, Commander of the Finnish Airforce 1920–26, IKL MP
Paavo Susitaival, Lt. Col., IKL MP
Paavo Talvela, General
Rolf Nevanlinna, Mathematician, Professor, Rector of the University of Helsinki
Vilho Lampi, painter
Elias Simojoki, clergyman, IKL MP.
Hilja Riipinen, the only women MP.
Election results
Parliament of Finland
See also
History of Finland
Academic Karelia Society
References
Notes
Bibliography
Rees, Philip (1990) Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890
Upton, A. F. "Finland" in Woolf, S. J. (1981) Fascism in Europe London: Routledge
Further reading
Vares, Vesa Yrjö (2020) "From allies to opponents. Conservatives facing fascism in Finland in the 1930s" Scandinavian Journal of History v.46, n.2, pp. 224–247.
External links
Finnish nationalism
Defunct political parties in Finland
Banned far-right parties
Nationalist parties in Finland
1932 establishments in Finland
Political parties established in 1932
1944 disestablishments in Finland
Political parties disestablished in 1944
Far-right politics in Finland
Fascist parties
Anti-communist parties
Anti-communist organisations in Finland | [
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256654 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20schema%20for%20Ulysses | Gilbert schema for Ulysses | This schema for the novel Ulysses was produced by its author, James Joyce, in November 1921 in order to help his friend, Valery Larbaud, prepare a public lecture on the novel, which Joyce was still writing at the time. The lecture took place on 7 December 1921 at the Maison des Amis des Livres bookshop and lending library, owned and run by Adrienne Monnier. The schema was shown to intimates of Joyce during the 1920s and was eventually published by Stuart Gilbert in 1930 in his book, James Joyce’s “Ulysses”: A Study. Gilbert’s typed copy of the schema is housed in the Harley K. Croessmann Collection of James Joyce at Southern Illinois University Carbondale.
See also
Linati schema for Ulysses
Notes
a. Fuga per canonem: Latin for "fugue according to rule", a musical term for a round.
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256656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Handel%20Richardson | Henry Handel Richardson | Ethel Florence Lindesay Richardson (3 January 187020 March 1946), known by her pen name Henry Handel Richardson, was an Australian author.
Life
Born in East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, into a prosperous family that later fell on hard times, Ethel Florence (who preferred to answer to Et, Ettie or Etta) was the elder daughter of Walter Lindesay Richardson MD (c. 1826–1879) and his wife Mary (née Bailey).
The family lived in various towns across Victoria during Richardson's childhood and youth. These included Chiltern, Queenscliff, Koroit and Maldon, where Richardson's mother was postmistress (her father having died when she was nine, of syphilis). The Richardsons' home in Chiltern, "Lake View", is now owned by the National Trust and open to visitors.
Richardson left Maldon to become a boarder at Presbyterian Ladies' College (PLC) in Melbourne in 1883 and attended from the ages of 13 to 17. This experience was the basis for The Getting of Wisdom, a coming-of-age novel admired by H. G. Wells. At PLC she started to develop her ability to credibly mix fact with fiction, a skill she used to advantage in her novels.
Richardson excelled in the arts and music during her time at PLC, and her mother took the family to Europe in 1888, to enable Richardson to continue her musical studies at the Leipzig Conservatorium. Richardson set her first novel, Maurice Guest, in Leipzig.
In 1894 in Munich Richardson married the Scot John George Robertson, whom she had met in Leipzig where he was studying German literature and who later briefly taught at the University of Strasburg, where his wife became ladies' tennis champion. In 1903, the couple moved to London, where Robertson had been appointed to the first chair of German at University College, London. Richardson returned to Australia in 1912, in order to research family history for The Fortunes of Richard Mahony, but after her return to England, she remained there for the rest of her life. She and her sister Lillian were ardent supporters of the suffragette movement, Lillian even being imprisoned for destroying public property. She was involved in psychic research, and after her husband's death, she claimed she maintained daily contact with him via seances.
Richardson experienced lesbian desire throughout her life. At Presbyterian Ladies' College, she fell in love with an older schoolgirl; the feelings of adolescent females awakening to their sexuality were reflected in her second novel, The Getting of Wisdom. After her mother's death, she fell passionately in love with the Italian actress Eleonora Duse, but had to be content to love her from a distance. Her friend Olga Roncoroni, who had lived in the Robertson household for many years, filled the gap left by the death of her husband. After her own death, many of her private papers were destroyed, in accordance with her instructions.
The Fortunes of Richard Mahony is Richardson's famous trilogy about the slow decline, owing to character flaws and an unnamed brain disease, of a successful Australian physician and businessman and the emotional/financial effect on his family. It was highly praised by Sinclair Lewis, among others, and was inspired by Richardson's own family experiences. The central characters were based loosely on her own parents. Richardson also produced a single volume of short stories and an autobiography that greatly illuminates the settings of her novels, although her Australian Dictionary of Biography entry doubts that it is reliable.
Manning Clark noted Richardson's excitement at Don Bradman's cricketing prowess in 1930: "She talked with pride about the achievements of Bradman ... and was so excited by the performance of the boy from Bowral she scarcely talked on anything else when Vance Palmer called on her."
Richardson was godmother to Humphrey, son of the singer Sophie Wyss. His godfather was Benjamin Britten.
Richardson died of cancer on 20 March 1946 in Hastings, East Sussex, England. Her cremated remains were scattered by her wish with her husband's at sea.
Iris Murdoch is her second cousin twice removed.
Family
Lillian Richardson, Ethel's younger sister, married A. S. Neill after divorcing her first husband, and helped found and run Summerhill School.
Honours
The Canberra suburb of Richardson was gazetted in 1975 and is named after Henry Handel Richardson. In the same year, she was honoured on a postage stamp bearing her portrait issued by Australia Post.
One of the houses at Abbotsleigh School for Girls in Wahroonga, Sydney is named after Richardson.
Richardson Hall, one of the residential halls at Monash University's Clayton campus, is named after Richardson.
List of works
Novels
Maurice Guest (1908)
The Getting of Wisdom (1910)
Australia Felix (1917)
The Way Home (1925)
Ultima Thule (1929) (Awarded the Australian Literature Society Gold Medal for 1929.)
The Fortunes of Richard Mahony (1930)
Comprising the novels: Australia Felix, The Way Home and Ultima Thule
The Young Cosima (1939)
Short story collections
Two Studies (1931) (Mary Christina, Life and Death of Peterle Luthe).
The End of a Childhood and other short stories (1934). 15 short stories, comprising also the stories in "Two Studies".
The Adventures of Cuffy Mahony (1979)
The End of a Childhood: The Complete Stories of Henry Handel Richardson (1992), edited by Carol Franklin
And Women Must Weep (1931)
Memoir
Myself When Young (1948)
Translations
(As Robertson, Ethel F. L.) Siren Voices (1896). From the Norwegian Niels Lyhne by Jens Peter Jacobsen.
(Not Credited) Siren Voices (1896). From the Norwegian Niels Lyhne by Jens Peter Jacobsen.
Film
The Getting of Wisdom was filmed in 1977, directed by Bruce Beresford, from a screenplay by Eleanor Witcombe, starring Susannah Fowle as "Laura Rambotham" with supporting roles by Julia Blake, Terence Donovan and Kerry Armstrong. The screenplay adheres closely to the novel.
Maurice Guest was adapted, very loosely, for the screen in Rhapsody (1954) starring Elizabeth Taylor, with the setting in Switzerland rather than Germany. It ended with "James Guest" happily married, rather than committing suicide.
References
Citations
Bibliography
Green, Dorothy "Richardson, Ethel Florence Lindesay (Henry Handel) (1870–1946)" in Australian Dictionary of Biography, online edition Accessed: 2007-09-20
Ackland, Michael (2005) Henry Handel Richardson: A Life, Cambridge University Press
Auchterlonie, Dorothy Green (1973) (revised 1986) Ulysses Bound; Henry Handel Richardson and Her Fiction, Australian National University Press, Canberra
Buckley, Vincent (1961) Henry Handel Richardson, Lansdowne Press Pty Ltd., Melbourne
Clark, Axel (1989) Henry Handel Richardson: Fiction in the Making, Simon & Schuster, Brookvale, N.S.W.
McLeod, Karen (1985) Henry Handel Richardson; A Critical Study, Cambridge University Press
External links
Henry Handel Richardson Society
Works by Henry Handel Richardson at Project Gutenberg Australia
Online editions of works at The University of Adelaide Library.
The Yellow Scarf catalogue information on a portrait of the author by Rupert Bunny
1870 births
1946 deaths
Australian expatriates in the United Kingdom
Australian memoirists
Australian women short story writers
Bisexual women
Bisexual writers
People educated at the Presbyterian Ladies' College, Melbourne
Pseudonymous writers
Pseudonymous women writers
Australian women memoirists
Australian women novelists
ALS Gold Medal winners
Writers from Melbourne
LGBT writers from Australia | [
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256660 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilha%20de%20Itamarac%C3%A1 | Ilha de Itamaracá | Ilha de Itamaracá is a tropical island and municipality in Pernambuco, Brazil on the Atlantic Ocean. Itamaracá means "stone shaker" in Tupi, from the words itá ("stone") and mbara'ká ("shaker"). It is separated from the mainland by the Canal de Santa Cruz, a salt water channel both mouths of which are on the Atlantic Ocean, and is connected to the mainland by a long road bridge.
Itamaracá has a total area of and had an estimated population of 26,672 inhabitants in 2020 according to IBGE. This is up from 16,000 in 2007, and reflects the increasing popularity of the island as a residential (rather than touristic) destination. It is located in the metropolitan area of Recife, the capital city of Pernambuco state, about an hour from Recife International Airport. The main activities of the population are fishing and, increasingly, tourism. Recife is located about to the south whereas Olinda, another important town of Pernambuco and also UNESCO World Heritage, is to the south. It was awarded city status on 1 January 1959.
About two thirds of the island is covered in protected natural rain forest ('Mata Atlantica'), with most human occupation and development occupying a narrow strip along the ocean front white sandy beaches, that stretch for around 12 km (7.5 miles) along the eastern coast. These beaches are protected by a reef 3 km (2 miles) off the coast, that encircles the island on the ocean side, making the island waters shallow, safe, and warm. Year round temperatures typically vary in a narrow range of 26-31C (79-88F), with the rainy season (occasional heavy rains, not monsoon) in May to July. Building regulations since 1995 have limited the number of floors in buildings to 2, resulting in a complete absence of high-rise apartment complexes, and no industry is allowed on the island.
Geography
State - Pernambuco
Region - RMR (Recife)
Boundaries - Goiana (N), Igarassu (S), Itapissuma (W), Atlantic ocean (E)
Area -
Elevation -
Hydrography - Small coast rivers, most only running in the winter, lakes
Vegetation - Atlantic forest, numerous fruit trees (incl mango, avocado, coconut, cashew, and many others), mangrove
Climate - Hot tropical and dry
Annual average temperature - 29C (84F)
Main roads - BR 101 (mainland), PE 35 and PE 01
Distance to Recife - 38 km
History
In the early 1500s before Portuguese colonization, when under Dutch control, the island was the site of a trading post for furs and other native
goods, and transhipment depot for Brazilwood. In 1516, was founded the first sugar cane mill in Portuguese America - the oldest still-inhabited, Portuguese settlement in America. The island at that time was occupied by various loosely related tribes of Tupi-Guarani native South American peoples. Later, the island became part of the Captaincy of Itamaracá (most of which today is occupied by the state of Paraiba) which took its name from the island, established by King John III of Portugal in 1534. The chief economic activity in the following century and a half was sugar cane processing, in engenhos (sugar mills), and coconut production. While Itamaracá was administratively separate, it operated as a political and economic subdivision of Pernambuco. With the rise of the gold economy in the late 17th century, Itamaracá became economically isolated.
Itamaracá is reputed for having one of the first, if not the first, Jewish community in the Americas. In the Yosef Goldman Collection, there is a book titled Sefer Shefa Tal, a kabbalistic volume that was printed in Hanau, Germany, in 1612. It contains a handwritten statement of ownership by Rabbi Jacob Lagarto of a congregation in Tamarica, Brazil. Rabbi Lagarto came to Brazil as a young man and was the author of a volume of aphorisms (copies of which, evidently, no longer exist). The book is the only known physical link to this Jewish community, since there are no other known artifacts from it.
Tourist attractions
Beaches and water sports
Forte Orange, first built by the Dutch in 1631 and rebuilt by the Portuguese in 1654 * Vila Velha, seat of the former Itamaracá Hereditary Captaincy (Church of Our Lady of the Conception, colonial houses)
Sao Joao and Amparo "engenhos" (historic sugar mill and plantation complexes)
Ibama's centre of sea mammals (Trichechus manatus)
Nossa Senhora da Conceicao: Second oldest church in Brazil
Economy
The main economic activities in Itamaraca are based in tourism, fishing and local commerce.
Economic indicators
Economy by Sector
2006
Health indicators
Penal Facilities
Like many islands around the world, prisons were built there many years ago, (as many people could not swim at that time). Itamaracá island still has two prisons, which are nearing the end of a long term relocation program to a new facility being built near Itaquitinga on the mainland. The prisons are located on the leeward side of the island, away from the tourist areas, and have little impact other than the psychological awareness of their existence.
Gallery
See also
List of islands of Brazil
List of municipalities in Pernambuco
References
External links
Itamaracá island
Atlantic islands of Brazil
Populated coastal places in Pernambuco
Former Portuguese colonies
Municipalities in Pernambuco
Beaches of Brazil | [
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256662 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal%20velocity | Terminal velocity | Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity (speed) attainable by an object as it falls through a fluid (air is the most common example). It occurs when the sum of the drag force (Fd) and the buoyancy is equal to the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.
In fluid dynamics an object is moving at its terminal velocity if its speed is constant due to the restraining force exerted by the fluid through which it is moving.
As the speed of an object increases, so does the drag force acting on it, which also depends on the substance it is passing through (for example air or water). At some speed, the drag or force of resistance will equal the gravitational pull on the object (buoyancy is considered below). At this point the object stops accelerating and continues falling at a constant speed called the terminal velocity (also called settling velocity). An object moving downward faster than the terminal velocity (for example because it was thrown downwards, it fell from a thinner part of the atmosphere, or it changed shape) will slow down until it reaches the terminal velocity. Drag depends on the projected area, here represented by the object's cross-section or silhouette in a horizontal plane. An object with a large projected area relative to its mass, such as a parachute, has a lower terminal velocity than one with a small projected area relative to its mass, such as a dart. In general, for the same shape and material, the terminal velocity of an object increases with size. This is because the downward force (weight) is proportional to the cube of the linear dimension, but the air resistance is approximately proportional to the cross-section area which increases only as the square of the linear dimension. For very small objects such as dust and mist, the terminal velocity is easily overcome by convection currents which prevent them from reaching the ground and hence they stay suspended in the air for indefinite periods. Air pollution and fog are examples of convection currents.
Examples
Based on wind resistance, for example, the terminal speed of a skydiver in a belly-to-earth (i.e., face down) free fall position is about . This speed is the asymptotic limiting value of the speed, and the forces acting on the body balance each other more and more closely as the terminal speed is approached. In this example, a speed of 50% of terminal speed is reached after only about 3 seconds, while it takes 8 seconds to reach 90%, 15 seconds to reach 99% and so on.
Higher speeds can be attained if the skydiver pulls in their limbs (see also freeflying). In this case, the terminal speed increases to about 320 km/h (200 mph or 90 m/s), which is almost the terminal speed of the peregrine falcon diving down on its prey. The same terminal speed is reached for a typical .30-06 bullet dropping downwards—when it is returning to the ground having been fired upwards, or dropped from a tower—according to a 1920 U.S. Army Ordnance study.
the current record is held by Felix Baumgartner who jumped from a height of and reached , though he achieved this speed at high altitude where the density of the air is much lower than at the Earth's surface, producing a correspondingly lower drag force.
The biologist J. B. S. Haldane wrote,
Physics
Using mathematical terms, terminal speed—without considering buoyancy effects—is given by
where
represents terminal velocity,
is the mass of the falling object,
is the acceleration due to gravity,
is the drag coefficient,
is the density of the fluid through which the object is falling, and
is the projected area of the object.
In reality, an object approaches its terminal speed asymptotically.
Buoyancy effects, due to the upward force on the object by the surrounding fluid, can be taken into account using Archimedes' principle: the mass has to be reduced by the displaced fluid mass , with the volume of the object. So instead of use the reduced mass in this and subsequent formulas.
The terminal speed of an object changes due to the properties of the fluid, the mass of the object and its projected cross-sectional surface area.
Air density increases with decreasing altitude, at about 1% per (see barometric formula). For objects falling through the atmosphere, for every of fall, the terminal speed decreases 1%. After reaching the local terminal velocity, while continuing the fall, speed decreases to change with the local terminal speed.
Derivation for terminal velocity
Using mathematical terms, defining down to be positive, the net force acting on an object falling near the surface of Earth is (according to the drag equation):
with v(t) the velocity of the object as a function of time t.
At equilibrium, the net force is zero (Fnet = 0) and the velocity becomes the terminal velocity :
Solving for Vt yields
Terminal speed in a creeping flow
For very slow motion of the fluid, the inertia forces of the fluid are negligible (assumption of massless fluid) in comparison to other forces. Such flows are called creeping or Stokes flows and the condition to be satisfied for the flows to be creeping flows is the Reynolds number, . The equation of motion for creeping flow (simplified Navier–Stokes equation) is given by
where
is the fluid velocity vector field,
is the fluid pressure field,
is the liquid/fluid viscosity.
The analytical solution for the creeping flow around a sphere was first given by Stokes in 1851.
From Stokes' solution, the drag force acting on the sphere of diameter can be obtained as
where the Reynolds number, . The expression for the drag force given by equation () is called Stokes' law.
When the value of is substituted in the equation (), we obtain the expression for terminal speed of a spherical object moving under creeping flow conditions:
where is the density of the object.
Applications
The creeping flow results can be applied in order to study the settling of sediments near the ocean bottom and the fall of moisture drops in the atmosphere. The principle is also applied in the falling sphere viscometer, an experimental device used to measure the viscosity of highly viscous fluids, for example oil, paraffin, tar etc.
Terminal velocity in the presence of buoyancy force
When the buoyancy effects are taken into account, an object falling through a fluid under its own weight can reach a terminal velocity (settling velocity) if the net force acting on the object becomes zero. When the terminal velocity is reached the weight of the object is exactly balanced by the upward buoyancy force and drag force. That is
where
is the weight of the object,
is the buoyancy force acting on the object, and
is the drag force acting on the object.
If the falling object is spherical in shape, the expression for the three forces are given below:
where
is the diameter of the spherical object,
is the gravitational acceleration,
is the density of the fluid,
is the density of the object,
is the projected area of the sphere,
is the drag coefficient, and
is the characteristic velocity (taken as terminal velocity, ).
Substitution of equations (–) in equation () and solving for terminal velocity, to yield the following expression
In equation (), it is assumed that the object is denser than the fluid. If not, the sign of the drag force should be made negative since the object will be moving upwards, against gravity. Examples are bubbles formed at the bottom of a champagne glass and helium balloons. The terminal velocity in such cases will have a negative value, corresponding to the rate of rising up.
See also
Stokes's law
Terminal ballistics
References
External links
Terminal Velocity - NASA site
Onboard video of Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters rapidly decelerating to terminal velocity on entry to the thicker atmosphere, from at 5:15 in the video, to 220 mph at 6:45 when the parachutes are deployed 90 seconds later—NASA video and sound, @ io9.com.
Terminal settling velocity of a sphere at all realistic Reynolds Numbers, by Heywood Tables approach.
Falling
Fluid dynamics
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] |
256664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proletarian%20%28magazine%29 | Proletarian (magazine) | Proletarian is a British bi-monthly political, communist magazine. It is published by the Communist Party of Great Britain (Marxist–Leninist).
History and profile
Proletarian was formed in 2004 and is sold in the United Kingdom.
The magazine is known to support workers taking strike actions in the United Kingdom, the Palestinian side in the ongoing conflict in Israel/Palestine, and argues that the rebels in Syria are terrorists and/or puppets of imperialism.
See also
Lalkar
Proletären
References
External links
Official website
2004 establishments in the United Kingdom
Bi-monthly magazines published in the United Kingdom
Political magazines published in the United Kingdom
Communist magazines
Magazines established in 2004
Marxist magazines | [
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] |
256665 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROL | ROL | Rol may refer to:
Henri Rol-Tanguy, French resistant, "Rol" used to be his nickname during WW2
Rol, village in Jayal tehsil, Nagaur district, in Rajasthan India
Rolleston railway station
Rol Cortishane, fictional character
The Role, a 2013 Russian film by Konstantin Lopushansky
ROL, as an acronym, may refer to:
Ray of Light, album by Madonna
Romanian leu, Romanian currency
Revue de l'Orient Latin, collection of medieval documents
Raajjé Online, Maldivian Internet service provider
Rock of Love with Bret Michaels, an American reality television dating game show
ROtate bits Left, also known as left circular shift
Republic of Lakotah, a proposed country and independence movement in the United States
Rivers of Life, a global organisation of evangelical churches
Rise of the Lycans the third installment of the Underworld film series
Republic of Loose, an Irish band
Risk of loss, a contracts term
Rank order list
Rule of law
Ring of Lightning, an IRC network famous for two members on it leaking the secure boot backdoor key
RISCOS Ltd, a computer software company | [
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256666 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lei | Lei | Lei or Leis may refer to:
Lei, the plural form of Leu, the name of two currencies. See Romanian leu and Moldovan leu
Lei (garland), a Hawaiian flower necklace
Lei (surname), a Chinese name
Lei, Italy, a town in Sardinia
Lei (TV channel), an Italian entertainment television channel
l.e.i. (clothing company), a clothing company targeted at teenage girls
Lago di Lei, an artificial lake on the Swiss/Italian border
Lei Wulong, a fictional character from the Tekken franchise
LEI may refer to:
Legal Entity Identifier, an identification system to track all parties involved in a financial security transaction, e.g. buyer, seller and issuing (or underlying) companies
LEI, the IATA Airport Code for Almería International Airport
Leicestershire, county in central England
Leicester railway station, England; National Rail station code LEI
Index of Leading Economic Indicators
Leiden University, public research university in the Netherlands
LEI Wageningen UR, a Dutch research institute
Lessico etimologico italiano, an etymological dictionary of the Italian language
Lotus Enterprise Integrator, a Lotus Domino software application
LEIS may refer to:
Low-energy ion scattering, a technique used to characterize the chemical and structural makeup of materials
LeI may refer to:
Lashkar-e-Islam, a Pakistani jihadist group
See also
Ley (disambiguation) | [
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256668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ismail%20Kadare | Ismail Kadare | Ismail Kadare (; spelled Ismaïl Kadaré in French; born on 28 January 1936) is an Albanian novelist, poet, essayist, screenwriter, and playwright. He is a leading international literary figure and intellectual. He focused on poetry until the publication of his first novel, The General of the Dead Army, which made him famous internationally.
In 1992 Kadare was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca; in 1998, the Herder Prize; in 2005, the inaugural Man Booker International Prize; in 2009, the Prince of Asturias Award of Arts; and in 2015, the Jerusalem Prize. He was awarded the Park Kyong-ni Prize in 2019, and the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 2020. In 1996, France made him a foreign associate of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques of France, and in 2016, he was a Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur recipient. He has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 15 times. Since the 1990s, Kadare has been asked by both major political parties in Albania to become a consensual President of Albania, but has declined.
His nominating juror for the Neustadt Prize wrote: "Kadare is the successor of Franz Kafka. No one since Kafka has delved into the infernal mechanism of totalitarian power and its impact on the human soul in as much hypnotic depth as Kadare." His writing has also been compared to that of Nikolai Gogol, George Orwell, Gabriel García Márquez, Milan Kundera, and Balzac. Living in Albania during a time of strict censorship, Kadare devised cunning stratagems to outwit Communist censors who had banned three of his books, using devices such as parable, myth, fable, folk-tale, allegory, and legend, sprinkled with double-entendre, allusion, insinuation, satire, and coded messages. In 1990, to escape the Communist regime and its Sigurimi secret police he defected to Paris. His works have been published in 45 languages. The New York Times wrote that he was a national figure in Albania comparable in popularity perhaps to Mark Twain in the United States, and that "there is hardly an Albanian household without a Kadare book."
Kadare is regarded by some as one of the greatest writers and intellectuals of the 20th and 21st centuries, and as a universal voice against totalitarianism. He is the husband of author Helena Kadare, and the father of United Nations Ambassador, and UN General Assembly Vice President, Besiana Kadare.
Early and personal life
Ismail Kadare was born in the Kingdom of Albania during the reign of King Zog I. He was born in Gjirokastër, an historic Ottoman Empire fortress mountain city of tall stone houses in southern Albania, a dozen miles from the border with Greece. He lived there on a crooked, narrow street known as "Lunatics' Lane".
His parents were Halit Kadare, a post office employee, and Hatixhe Dobi, a homemaker, who had married in 1933 when his mother was 17 years old. On his mother's side of the family, his great-grandfather was a Bejtexhi of the Bektashi Order, known as Hoxhë Dobi. Though he was born into a Muslim family, Kadare himself was an atheist.
Three years after Kadare was born, Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini's troops invaded Albania and ousted the Albanian King. Italian rule followed. Kadare was nine years old when Italian troops were withdrawn, and the communist-led People's Socialist Republic of Albania was established.
Kadare attended primary and secondary schools in Gjirokastër. He then studied Languages and Literature at the Faculty of History and Philology of the University of Tirana. In 1956, Kadare received a teacher's diploma. He lived in Tirana, Albania, until he became a resident of France in 1990. His Tirana apartment was converted into a museum in 2019, showcasing the work and life of the author.
He is married to Albanian author Helena Gushi, and has two daughters. His daughter Besiana Kadare is the Albanian Ambassador to the United Nations, Albania's Ambassador to Cuba, and a Vice President of the United Nations General Assembly for its 75th session.
Literary career
Early literary career
At age 11, Kadare read William Shakespeare's play Macbeth. He recalled years later: "Because I did not yet understand that I could simply purchase it in a bookstore, I copied much of it by hand and took it home. My childhood imagination pushed me to feel like a co-author of the play."
He soon became entranced by literature. At age 12, Kadare wrote his first short stories, which were published in the Pionieri (Pioneer) journal in Tirana, a communist magazine for children. In 1954 he published his first collection of poems, Frymëzime djaloshare (Boyish inspirations). In 1957 he published a poetry collection entitled Ëndërrimet (Dreams).
At 17, Kadare won a poetry contest in Tirana, which allowed him to travel to Moscow to study at the Maxim Gorky Literature Institute. He studied literature during the Khrushchev era, doing post-graduate work from 1958 to 1960. His training had as its goal for him to become a communist writer and "engineer of human souls," to help construct a culture of the new Albania. In Moscow he met writers united under the banner of Socialist Realism—a style of art characterized by the idealized depiction of revolutionary communist values, such as the emancipation of the proletariat. Kadare also had the opportunity to read contemporary Western literature, including works by Jean Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Ernest Hemingway. Kadare, however, rejected the canons of Socialist Realism, and committed himself internally to write opposed to dogmatism. He also cultivated contempt for the nomenklatura, an attitude which, he later wrote, was the product of his youthful arrogance rather than of considered political opposition. During his time in the Soviet Union, Kadare published a collection of poetry in Russian, and in 1959 also wrote his first novel, Qyteti pa reklama (The City Without Signs), a critique of socialist careerism in Albania.
Kadare returned home in October 1960 on Albanian orders, before Albania's breaking of political and economic ties with the USSR. He lived for the next 30 years in Tirana, in an apartment which now houses the Ismail Kadare House museum and archives. He worked as a journalist, became editor-in-chief of the literary periodical Les Lettres Albanaises (Albanian Letters; published simultaneously in Albanian and French), and then contributed to the literary review Drita for five years, while embarking on a literary career of his own.
At that time Kadare had a reputation for poetry. In 1961 he published a volume of poetry entitled Shekulli im (My Century). His work was particularly popular with Albanian youth. His future wife Helena, then a schoolgirl, wrote a fan letter to the young writer, which eventually led to their marriage in 1963.
Kadare wrote one of his earliest pieces in the 1960s, a poem entitled "The Princess Argjiro." Locally inspired, the poem transforms the centuries-old myth of the legendary 15th century Princess Argjiro, who was said to have jumped off Gjirokastër Castle along with her child so as to avoid being captured by the Ottomans. The poem was denounced and an official reader's report was commissioned, which maintained he had committed historical and ideological errors. Kadare was criticized implicitly for disregarding socialist literary principles.
In 1962, Kadare published an excerpt from his first novel as a short story under the title "Coffeehouse Days" in a communist youth magazine. It was then banned immediately after publication, contributing to his reputation for "decadence". Due to this criticism and advice from his friends, Kadare did not publish the full novel until 1990.
In 1963, at 26 years of age, Kadare published his novel The General of the Dead Army, about an army general and priest who, 20 years after World War II, are sent to Albania to locate the remains of fallen Italian soldiers and return them to Italy for burial. The novel faced criticism by Albanian literary critics for flouting socialist ideals and for its dark tone. The novel was thus in stark contrast to those of other Albanian writers of the time, who glorified the Communist revolution. The novel inspired three films: Luciano Tovoli's 1983 The General of the Dead Army (Il generale dell'armata morta) in Italian starring Marcello Mastroianni and Michel Piccoli, Bertrand Tavernier's 1989 Life and Nothing But (La Vie et rien d’autre) in French starring Philippe Noiret, and Dhimitër Anagnosti's 1989 The Return of the Dead Army (Kthimi i ushtrisë së vdekur) in Albanian starring Bujar Lako. Though it is his best-known novel, and Kadare views it as "good literature", he does not view it as his best work.
In 1964 he wrote Përse mendohen këto male (What are these mountains thinking about?). His next short novel, The Monster (Përbindëshi), published in the literary magazine Nëntori in 1965, was labeled "decadent" and banned upon publication; it was Kadare's second ban.
By the mid-1960s, the cultural censorship thaw of the early part of the decade was over, and conditions changed dramatically. In 1967, Albania launched its own Cultural Revolution. Kadare was exiled for two years along with other Albanian writers to Berat in the countryside, to learn about life alongside the peasants and workers. Two Albanian dramatists were at the time also sentenced to eight years in prison each. Albanian writers and artists encountered indifference from the world outside Albania, which did not speak in their support.
International breakthrough (1970–80)
The General of the Dead Army was Kadare's first great success outside Albania. The French translation by Isuf Vrioni, published in 1970 in Paris by publisher Albin Michel, led to Kadare's international breakthrough. In the ironic novel, an Italian general and Italian Army priest return to Albania 20 years after World War II, to find and bring back to Italy for final burial there the bodies of Italian soldiers killed in the war. The French publishing house published the novel without Kadare's knowledge or permission, as Albania at the time was not a signatory to the Universal Copyright Convention and there was no copyright protection on the text. Once the book appeared in France, it was translated into most European languages. By 1977 it had been translated into over 20 languages, with the Albanian communist press hailing it as "one of the most successful translations of the world of the 70s."
After the success of the novel in the West in 1970, the older generation of Albanian writers and dogmatic literary critics became extremely embittered against the "darling of the West": "This novel was published by the bourgeoisie and this cannot be accepted", said a report by the Albanian secret police. Kadare's enemies in the secret police and the old guard of the Albanian Politburo referred to him as an agent of the West, which was one of the most dangerous accusations that could be made in Albania. However, Kadare continued to publish in his home country and became widely promoted in his home country, with frequent references in the Albanian press to new releases and translations of his work, with Kadare being hailed as a "hero of the new Albanian literature". Kadare's work was described as "treat[ing] many problems preoccupying" Albanian society, and as "mak[ing] use of the revolution as the organizing element of his writing." He was also lauded as having a "revolutionary drive" which "keeps pace with life and fights against old ideas."
In 1971 Kadare published the novel Chronicle in Stone, in which the narrator is a young Albanian boy whose old stone city hometown is caught up in World War II, and successively occupied by Greek, Italian, and German forces. The novel has been described as "magic realism." John Updike wrote in The New Yorker, that it was "a thoroughly enchanting novel — sophisticated and accomplished in its poetic prose and narrative deftness, yet drawing resonance from its roots in one of Europe's most primitive societies." The book was heavily publicized in the Albanian press, both domestically and in magazines aimed at promoting Albanian socialism and culture to an international audience, such as New Albania.
Throughout the 1970s, Kadare began to work more with myths, legends, and the distant past, often drawing allusions between the Ottoman Empire and present-day Albania. At this time, he also worked as an editor and contributor to New Albania, an arts and culture magazine which sought to promote Albanian socialism to a worldwide audience.
In 1970, Kadare published Kështjella (The Castle or The Siege) which was celebrated in both Albania and Western Europe, seeing a translation into French in 1972. It detailed war between Albanians and Ottomans during the time of Skanderbeg.
In 1978 he published the novel The Three-Arched Bridge, a political parable set in 1377 in the Balkans, narrated by an Albanian monk. The New York Times called it "an utterly captivating yarn: strange, vivid, ominous, macabre and wise."
After Kadare offended the authorities with a political poem entitled "The Red Pasha" in 1975 that poked fun at the Albanian Communist bureaucracy, he was denounced, narrowly avoiding being shot, and was ultimately sent to do manual labor in a remote village deep in the central Albania countryside for a short period of time. After his return to Tirana, Kadare increasingly began to publish short novellas.
In 1980 Kadare published the novel Broken April, about the centuries-old tradition of hospitality, blood feuds, and revenge killing in the highlands of north Albania in the 1930s. The New York Times, reviewing it, wrote: "Broken April is written with masterly simplicity in a bardic style, as if the author is saying: Sit quietly and let me recite a terrible story about a blood feud and the inevitability of death by gunfire in my country. You know it must happen because that is the way life is lived in these mountains. Insults must be avenged; family honor must be upheld...." The novel was made into a 2001 Brazilian movie entitled Behind the Sun (Abril Despedaçado) by filmmaker Walter Salles, set in 1910 Brazil and starring Rodrigo Santoro, which was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and a Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film.
Controversy and tension in Albania (1981–90)
In 1981, Kadare published The Palace of Dreams, an anti-totalitarian fantasy novel. In the novel, an authoritarian dystopia (the imaginary U.O.S.; the United Ottoman States) through an enormous bureaucratic entity (the Palace of Dreams) collects every dream in the empire, sorts it, files it, analyses it, and reports the most dangerous ones to the Sultan. Kadare first published an excerpt of the novel as a short story, alongside some of his other new works, in his 1980 collection of four novellas, Gjakftohtësia (Cold-bloodedness). The following year, under the same title, Kadare published the completed novel in the second edition of Emblema e dikurshme (Signs of the Past); despite its political themes, it was not censored by the Albanian authorities.
After publishing The Palace of Dreams, readers began to draw comparisons between its critique of totalitarianism and the current government of Albania. At a meeting of the Albanian Writers Union, Kadare was accused by the president of the Union of deliberately evading politics by cloaking much of his fiction in history and folklore, and The Palace of Dreams was expressly condemned in the presence of several members of the Albanian Politburo. Kadare was accused of attacking the government in a covert manner, and the novel was viewed by the authorities as an anticommunist work and a mockery of the political system. As a result, the work was banned—but not before 20,000 copies had been sold. The authorities were initially reluctant to imprison or purge Kadare, as he had become an internationally recognized literary figure and it would have caused an international backlash – which, given the country's rapid economic decline, the government wanted to avoid at all costs. Western press reacted to the condemnation of The Palace of Dreams, and protests mounted in the West in defense of the author. Of all his books, it is the one Kadare is most proud of having written.
That same year Kadare finished his novel The Concert, a satirical account of the Sino-Albanian split, but it was criticized by the authorities and was not published until 1988.
Communist Albanian leader Enver Hoxha presided over a Stalinist regime of forced collectivization and suppression from the end of World War II until 1985. He initiated a process of eliminating Kadare, but backed off due to Western reaction. There was, however, a nightly presence of authorities outside of Kadare's apartment. Albanian historian and scholar Anton Logoreci described Kadare during this time as "a rare sturdy flower growing, inexplicably, in a largely barren patch."
In January 1985 Kadare's novel A Moonlit Night was published, only to be banned by the authorities. On 9 April 1985 Hoxha fell into a coma; the next night he died, aged 76. On the evening of the ailing dictator's death, members of the Union of Writers, the Albanian Politburo, and the Central Committee of the Communist Party hastily organized a meeting in order to condemn Kadare's latest novel Moonlit Night.
That same year Kadare wrote the novella Agamemnon's Daughter – a direct critique, set in the 1970s, of the oppressive regime in Albania. It was smuggled out of the country, with the help of Kadare's French editor Claude Durand, but was not published until 2003.
In 1990 Kadare requested a meeting with Albanian President Ramiz Alia, at which he urged him to end human rights abuses, implement democratic and economic reforms, and end the isolation of Albania. Kadare was disappointed with Alia's slow reaction.
Political asylum in France (1990–present)
In October 1990, after he criticized the Albanian government, urged democratization of isolationist Albania—Europe's last Communist-ruled country (then totalling 3.3 million people), and faced the ire of its authorities and – the final straw – threats from the Albanian Sigurimi secret police, Kadare sought and received political asylum in France. He defected to Paris; since then he has lived primarily in Paris, and temporarily after a time in Tirana. He had decided to defect because he had become disillusioned with the government of Ramiz Alia, legal opposition was not allowed in Albania, and he had become convinced "that more than any action I could take in Albania, my defection would help the democratization of my country." The New York Times wrote that he was a national figure in Albania comparable in popularity perhaps to Mark Twain in the United States, and that "there is hardly an Albanian household without a Kadare book, and even foreign visitors are presented with volumes of his verse as souvenirs."
The official Albanian press agency reacted by issuing a statement on "this ugly act," saying Kadare had placed himself "in the services of the enemies of Albania." Some intellectuals, at great personal risk, publicly supported Kadare, whom the authorities had declared a traitor. Poet Dritero Agolli who headed the Albanian Writers' Union said: "I continue to have great respect for his work." Despite this, his books were not fully banned by the communist authorities, and he remained a popular and celebrated author.
After receiving political asylum and settling in France, Kadare continued to write. His exile in Paris was fruitful and enabled him to succeed further, writing both in Albanian and in French.
His 1992 novel The Pyramid is a political allegory set in Egypt in the 26th century BC, focusing on intrigues behind the construction of the Great Pyramid of Cheops. In it, Kadare mocked any dictator's love for hierarchy and useless monuments. In some of Kadare's novels, comprising the so-called "Ottoman Cycle", the Ottoman Empire is used as the archetype of a totalitarian state. In 1993, the novel was awarded the Prix Méditerranée Étranger in France.
In 1994 he began to work on the first bilingual volume of his work with the French publishing house Fayard. The same year he wrote on command, in Paris, for the French editor Flammarion, the essay "La légende des légendes" (The legend of legends) that was immediately translated to French and published in 1995.
Kadare's 1996 novel Spiritus marks a narrative and compositional turning point in his literary career. In it, two ghosts return to a post-Communist world. The influence of this novel is felt in all of Kadare's subsequent novels. It deals with a group of foreigners who are touring Eastern Europe after the fall of Communism and hear exciting rumours during their stay in Albania about the capture of the spirit from the dead. As it turns out, the spirit is in fact a listening device known to the notorious secret service as a "hornet".
His 2008 novel The Fall of the Stone City was awarded the Rexhai Surroi Prize in Kosovo, and was shortlisted for the Independent Foreign Fiction Prize in 2013.
His semi-autobiographical novel The Doll was published in 2020. It focuses on Kadare's complex bonds with his mother and his country.
Since the 1990s, Kadare has been asked multiple times by both major political parties in Albania to run for President of Albania, but has declined.
Awards
In 1992, Kadare was awarded the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca international literary award in France. In 1996 he was made a lifetime member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences of France (Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques), one of the five Academies that make up the Institut de France learned society, in the chair vacated by the recently deceased philosopher Karl Popper. In 1998 he was awarded the international Herder Prize in Austria. In 2003 he received the Ovid Prize international award in Romania, and the Presidential Gold Medal of the League of Prizren from the President of Kosovo.
In 2005 he received the inaugural Man Booker International Prize in the United Kingdom for the full body of his work. In his acceptance speech, Kadare said: "We propped each other up as we tried to write literature as if that regime did not exist. Now and again we pulled it off. At other times we didn't."
In 2008 he received the Flaiano Prize international award in Italy. In 2009, Kadare was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for Literature in Spain, for his literary works.
In 2015, Kadare was awarded the bi-annual Jerusalem Prize in Israel. Speaking of the relationship between Albania and the Jews, Kadare said: "I come from one of the few countries in the world which helped the Jews during World War II. I believe the number of Jews there grew from 200 at the start of the war to 2,000 by the end. The population always defended the Jews, whether during the kingdom, under Communism, or after it. He noted that during the Holocaust Albanians refused to hand Jews over to the Nazis, and many Albanians went to great lengths to protect Jewish refugees who had fled to Albania. He also noted that Albania and Israel share in common the experience of "fighting for survival" in a sometimes hostile neighborhood.
In 2016, Kadare became the first Albanian Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur recipient, with the award being given to him by French President François Hollande. That year he was also awarded the Albanian National Flag Decoration, Albania's highest decoration, by Albanian President Bujar Nishani. He won the 2018 International Nonino Prize in Italy.
He won the 2019 Park Kyong-ni Prize, from a list of 350 writers, for his literary works during his career. It is an international award based in South Korea.
That year Kadare was also named Grand Officer (Grand officier) of the Legion of Honor by a special decree of French Prime Minister Emmanuel Macron, and thus was ranked among the 250 world-renowned personalities honored by France. The Legion of Honor is the highest state title awarded by France.
Kadare was nominated for the 2020 Neustadt International Prize for Literature (described as the "American Nobel") in the United States by Bulgarian writer Kapka Kassobova. He was selected as the 2020 laureate by the Prize's jury. He won the 2020 Neustadt International Prize for Literature. In his acceptance speech, he observed: "There is no room for literature in the Marxist vision of the future world." His nominating juror wrote: "Kadare is the successor of Franz Kafka. No one since Kafka has delved into the infernal mechanism of totalitarian power and its impact on the human soul in as much hypnotic depth as Kadare."
He also won the 2020 Prozart Award, given by the International Literature Festival "PRO-ZA Balkan," for his contributions to the development of the literature in Balkans.
Kadare has received the President of the Republic of Albania "Honor of the Nation" Decoration, and the French state order "Cross of the Legion of Honor". He is also a member of the Academy of Albania, the Berlin Academy of Arts, and the Mallarmé Academy, and was awarded honorary doctorates in 1992 from the University of Grenoble III in France, in 2003 from the University of Pristina in Kosovo, and in 2009 from the University of Palermo in Italy.
Kadare has been nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature 15 times. He has stated that the press has spoken about him being a potential Nobel Prize winner so much, that "many people think that I’ve already won it".
Legacy
Kadare is considered to be one of the greatest living writers. The London newspaper The Independent said of Kadare: "He has been compared to Gogol, Kafka and Orwell. But Kadare's is an original voice, universal but deeply rooted in his own soil". The New York Times said his fiction has been compared with that of Gabriel García Márquez, as well as Milan Kundera, and The Christian Science Monitor wrote he has also been compared with Dostoevsky and Isak Dinesen. Translator and biographer David Bellos wrote that "In some ways, he's like Balzac." Critic Richard Eder called him "a supreme fictional interpreter of the psychology and physiognomy of oppression."
Kadare's literary works were conceived in the bedrock of tiny Albanian literature, almost unknown before in Europe or the rest of the world. With Kadare it became known, read, and appreciated. For the first time in its history, through Kadare, Albanian literature has been integrated into wider European and world literature.
Kadare's oeuvre is a literature of resistance. He managed to write normal literature in an abnormal country – a Communist dictatorship. He had to struggle to get his literary works published, going against state policy. At times even putting his life at risk. Dissent was not allowed in Albania. Kadare noted: "That was not possible. You risked being shot. Not condemned, but shot for a word against the regime. A single word."
Under Hoxha, at least 100,000 people were imprisoned for political reasons or for a word they said or wrote; 5,000, including many writers, were executed.
Kadare devised numerous subtle strategies and cunning stratagems in order to outwit Communist censors. He used old devices such as parable, myth, fable, folk-tale, allegory, and legend, and sprinkled them with double-entendre, allusion, insinuation, satire, and coded messages.
His oeuvre in general has been in theoretical and practical opposition to the mandatory Socialist Realism required by the State. Kadare challenged Socialist Realism for three decades and opposed it with his subjective realism, avoiding state censorship by using allegorical, symbolic, historical and mythological means.
The conditions in which Kadare lived and published his works were not comparable to other European Communist countries where at least some level of public dissent was tolerated. Rather, the situation in Albania was comparable to North Korea or to the Soviet Union in the 1930s under Stalin. Despite this, Kadare used any opportunity to attack the regime in his works, by means of political allegories, which were picked up by educated Albanian readers. Henri Amouroux, a member of the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques of France, pointed out that Soviet dissidents including Solzhenitsyn published their works during the era of de-Stalinization, whereas Kadare lived and published his works in a country which remained Stalinist until 1990.
Work
By 2020 most of his approximately 80 novels, plays, screenplays, poetry, essays, and story collections had been translated into different languages. His works have been published in 45 languages.
Among his best-known books are The General of the Dead Army (1963), The Siege (1970), The Ghost Rider (1980), Broken April (1980; blood feuds in the highlands of north Albania), The Palace of Dreams (1981), The Pyramid (1992), and The Successor (2003; regarding the mysterious death of Hoxha's handpicked successor, Mehmet Shehu).
Some of his works have been translated into English by David Bellos, though not from the Albanian original, but rather from French translations.
English translations
The following Kadare novels have been translated into English:
The General of the Dead Army ()
The Siege ()
Chronicle in Stone ()
Broken April ()
The Three-Arched Bridge ()
The Palace of Dreams ()
The Concert ()
The File on H ()
The Pyramid ()
Elegy for Kosovo ()
Spring Flowers, Spring Frost ()
The Successor ()
Agamemnon's Daughter ()
The Blinding Order ()
The Fall of the Stone City ()
The Accident ()
The Ghost Rider ()
Twilight of the Eastern Gods ()
A Girl in Exile ()
The Traitor's Niche ()
Essays on World Literature: Aeschylus • Dante • Shakespeare ()
Stormy Weather on Mount Olympus ()
The Doll: A Portrait of My Mother ()
Works published in Albanian
The complete works (other than the essays, poetry, and short stories) of Ismail Kadare were published by Fayard, simultaneously in French and Albanian, between 1993 and 2004. Kadare's original Albanian language works have been published exclusively by Onufri Publishing House since 1996, as single works or entire sets. Published in 2009, the set of complete works constituted 20 volumes.
The dates of publication given here are those of the first publication in Albanian, unless stated otherwise.
Quotes
"Literature led me to freedom, not the other way round."
"It was only a phrase that went from mouth to mouth and was never quite swallowed."
"The days were heavy and sticky. All identical, one the same as the other. Soon they would even get rid of their one remaining distinction, the shell of their names: Monday, Tuesday, Thursday."
See also
Albanian literature
List of literary works by number of translations
List of refugees
References
Sources
Further reading
Akademia e Shkencave e Shqipërisë (2008) (in Albanian), Fjalor Enciklopedik Shqiptar 2 (Albanian encyclopedia), Tirana,
Elsie, Robert, Historical Dictionary of Albania, New Edition, 2004,
Gould, Rebecca. "Allegory and the Critique of Sovereignty: Ismail Kadare's Political Theologies", Studies in the Novel vol. 44, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 208–230.
Hysa, Shefki, "The Diplomacy of self-denial" (Diplomacia e vetëmohimit), publicistic, Tirana, 2008.
Morgan, Peter (2011) "Ismail Kadare's Inner Emigration", in Sara Jones & Meesha Nehru (Eds.), Writing under Socialism, (pp. 131–142). Nottingham, UK: Critical, Cultural and Communications (CCC) Press.
Morgan, Peter (2011) "Greek Civilisation as a Theme of Dissidence in the Work of Ismail Kadare", Modern Greek Studies (Australia and New Zealand), 15, 16–32.
Morgan, Peter (2010) Ismail Kadare: The Writer and the Dictatorship 1957–1990, Oxford: Legenda, 2010, Albanian translation 2011.
Morgan, Peter (2010) Kadare post Communism: Albania, the Balkans and Europe in the Work of Ismail Kadare, 1990–2008, Australian Research Council (ARC)/Discovery Projects (DP).
Morgan, Peter (2005) "Ismail Kadare: Creativity under Communism", The Australian Newspaper.
Rranzi, Paulin. "Personalities – Missionaries of Peace" publicistic, (2011), Tirana,
External links
National Library of Albania
In the Palace of Nightmares’: An Exchange – New York Review of Books
"Poems by Ismail Kadare," Albanianliterature.net.
1936 births
Living people
People from Gjirokastër
People from Tirana
Albanian expatriates in France
Albanian anti-communists
Albanian-language writers
Albanian novelists
Members of the Académie des sciences morales et politiques
Members of the Academy of Sciences of Albania
20th-century novelists
Albanian former Muslims
Former Muslims turned agnostics or atheists
Albanian atheists
20th-century male writers
21st-century male writers
20th-century Albanian poets
21st-century Albanian poets
20th-century Albanian writers
21st-century Albanian writers
21st-century novelists
20th-century short story writers
21st-century short story writers
20th-century atheists
21st-century atheists
Albanian dramatists and playwrights
Albanian male writers
Albanian male short story writers
International Booker Prize winners
Herder Prize recipients
Albanian short story writers
Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur
Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres
University of Tirana alumni
Maxim Gorky Literature Institute alumni | [
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256672 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherman%20Minton | Sherman Minton | Sherman "Shay" Minton (October 20, 1890 – April 9, 1965) was a United States Senator from Indiana and later an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was a member of the Democratic Party.
After attending college and law school, Minton served as a captain in World War I, following which he launched a legal and political career. In 1930, after multiple failed election attempts, and serving as a regional leader in the American Legion, he became a utility commissioner under the administration of Indiana Governor Paul V. McNutt. Four years later Minton was elected to the United States Senate. During the campaign, he defended New Deal legislation in a series of addresses in which he suggested it was not necessary to uphold the United States Constitution during the Great Depression. Minton's campaign was denounced by his political opponents, and he received more widespread criticism for an address that became known as the "You Cannot Eat the Constitution" speech. As part of the New Deal Coalition, Minton championed President Franklin D. Roosevelt's unsuccessful court packing plans in the Senate and became one of his top Senate allies.
After Minton failed in his 1940 Senate reelection bid, Roosevelt appointed him as a United States Circuit Judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. After Roosevelt's death, President Harry S. Truman, who had developed a close friendship with Minton during their time together in the Senate, nominated him to the Supreme Court. He was confirmed by the Senate on October 4, 1949, by a vote of 48 to 16, 15 Republicans and one Democrat (Harry Flood Byrd of Virginia) voting against him. He served on the Supreme Court for seven years. An advocate of judicial restraint, Minton was a regular supporter of the majority opinions during his early years on the Court; he became a regular dissenter after President Dwight Eisenhower's appointees altered the court's composition. In 1956, poor health forced Minton to retire, after which he traveled and lectured until his death in 1965.
According to historians, Minton's judicial philosophy was largely a reaction to the relationship between the New Deal senators and the conservative 1930s Court, which ruled much of the New Deal legislation unconstitutional. Minton believed the Supreme Court should be more deferential to the political branches of government, and supported a broad interpretation of the powers of Congress. He generally opposed any effort to rule federal legislation unconstitutional on the principle that the court was overstepping its authority. As a result of his judicial philosophy, he sought to uphold the intent of the political branches of government. Historians note the unusual contrast this created between his role as a partisan liberal Senator and his role as a conservative jurist. When Minton became a Justice, the Senate had become more conservative, leading Minton to uphold the constitutionality and intention of conservative legislation. He often played peacemaker and consensus builder during a period when the Court was riven by feuds. He generally ruled in favor of order over freedom as a result of his broad interpretation of governmental powers. These rulings and their limited impact gave some historians a negative opinion of his judicial record. Other historians consider Minton's strong commitment to his judicial principles laudable. In 1962, the Sherman Minton Bridge in southern Indiana and the Minton-Capehart Federal Building in Indianapolis were named in his honor.
Early life
Family and background
Sherman Minton was born on October 20, 1890, to John Evan and Emma Livers Minton, in their Georgetown, Indiana, home. He was the third of the family's five children and was nicknamed Shay because of his younger brother's inability to properly pronounce "Sherman". Minton's paternal grandfather, Jonathan Minton, was killed during the American Civil War and his father grew up on his own. Minton's parents married in 1883.
Minton received his basic education in a two-room schoolhouse in Georgetown he attended through eighth grade. He was exposed to politics from an early age; his father took him to several political rallies, including an 1895 speech by Democratic Party leader William Jennings Bryan. His father was a day laborer for the New Albany and St. Louis Air Line Railway. In 1898, he became disabled when he suffered heat stroke while working. His condition meant he could not work; the family became impoverished and had to subsist on the limited yield of their small farm. Minton's mother developed breast cancer in 1899. A traveling doctor attempted to remove her tumors in April 1900, performing the operation with her laid on the family dinner table, but she died during the procedure. The death was an emotional blow to Minton; thereafter, he refused to attend church and spoke against God, whom he blamed for his mother's death. Minton's father married Sarah Montague on December 3, 1901.
As Minton grew older, he was frequently in trouble with people in his neighborhood. In 1904 he was arrested for disregarding a town ordinance forbidding bicyclists to ride on the sidewalk. He was taken before a justice of the peace and fined three dollars, an incident he later credited with changing his outlook on life and sparking his desire to become a lawyer. To accomplish that, and continue supporting his family, he traveled with his older brother Herbert to Fort Worth, Texas, to take a job at the Swift and Company meatpacking plant. His father and younger siblings soon joined him there after the two brothers' income was able to cover their expenses. After saving enough money to help establish the family in a new home, Minton returned to Indiana to attend high school, leaving his family in Texas.
Education
Minton started at Edwardsville High School in 1905, aged 14. The next year the school merged with nearby New Albany High School. There he participated in the football, baseball, and track teams. He founded the school's first debate club, the Wranglers, which won several awards. He worked in a local arcade, and during summer vacations returned to Fort Worth to work at the Swift plant. He was briefly expelled from school after committing a prank in February 1908. The school was under the guidance of the innovative Superintendent Charles Allen Prosser, who let Minton return only after he formally apologized before the entire school a week later. Minton began dating Gertrude Gurtz in his senior year, and the two remained in regular correspondence after he left for college. He graduated high school at the top of his class in 1910.
Minton was intent on attending college; during the summer of 1910, he took a job as a Swift Company salesman in the Fort Worth area to help pay his way. He returned to Indiana and enrolled at Indiana University Bloomington in September 1911, taking enough classes to complete his first three years of courses in two years. Despite the heavy workload, he joined the school's baseball and debate teams, and participated in the Jackson Club, an organization for Democrats. His college years had significant influence on his future political career. He became friends with future Governor of Indiana Paul V. McNutt, future presidential candidate Wendell L. Willkie, and several other men who became influential in the state. During his second year he ran out of money, but could not return to Texas to earn more because of his class schedule. He lodged in the Phi Delta Theta (ΦΔΘ) international fraternity house and subsisted mostly on wild berries, leftover bread from the cafeteria and free milk. He completed undergraduate school at the top of his class in 1913. In 1915 he graduated from the Indiana University School of Law in Bloomington, at what is now known as the Indiana University Maurer School of Law. During law school, he played end and fullback for the Indiana University football team.
Minton ranked first in his class. This placement entitled him to serve as librarian at the legal college. The position paid a fair salary and allowed him to live more comfortably for his last two years of school. He graduated from law school in 1915, again at the top of his class, and won a one-year scholarship to take post-graduate courses at Yale Law School, where he earned a Master of Laws degree. At Yale he focused on studying constitutional law and attended the regular lectures of former President and future Chief Justice of the United States William Howard Taft. His LL.M. thesis at Yale was titled "Theory of the Action." Taft said that Minton's post-graduate thesis was among the best he had ever read. Along with Lewis F. Powell Jr., Minton is one of two United States Supreme Court justices to have earned an LL.M. degree. Minton continued to improve his oratory and debate at Yale; he won the Wayland Club prize for extemporaneous public speaking, and helped organize the university's legal aid society.
Legal career and World War I
In May 1916, Minton returned to New Albany, where he opened a law practice and renewed his relationship with Gurtz. He took several cases and gained experience working pro bono to assist the local county prosecutor. He joined the Chautauqua lecture circuit, and traveled to several cities to give speeches. During one lecture circuit, he met William Jennings Bryan, who advised Minton about politics, inspiring him to consider a career in public life.
In 1917, just after the United States declared war on Germany and entered World War I, Minton enlisted in the United States Army. He took an officers training course at Fort Benjamin Harrison in hope of earning a commission, but was not among those chosen to become an officer. In August he was granted a brief leave of absence; he returned to New Albany, where he married Gurtz on August 11. He returned to camp in September and requested to repeat his training course, still hoping to receive a commission; after finishing the training he was commissioned as a captain. The American Expeditionary Forces, Eighty-fourth Division, to which Minton belonged, was dispatched to France in July 1918. Minton and his unit served on the Western Front at Verdun, Soissons, and later protecting supply lines in Belgium. During most of his time in the war, his unit was responsible for scouting roads to ensure safe transport of men and supplies to the front lines. He saw no combat.
When President Woodrow Wilson came to Paris in 1919, Minton was in charge of a security detail guarding the negotiation hall and met him. When the war ended, Minton remained briefly with the Army of Occupation in Germany before being discharged in August 1919. He chose to remain in Paris for several months to study Roman law, international law, civil law and jurisprudence at the University of Paris. He returned home in March 1920. The first of Minton's three children, Sherman Jr., was born while he was away. Minton's daughter Mary-Anne was born in 1923, and his second son, John, in 1925.
Political career
When Minton returned home he reopened his law practice and decided to enter politics. He ran for office in Indiana's 3rd congressional district, but lost the Democratic primary, despite significant campaigning and his war record. He lost to John Ewing, 6,502 votes to 3,170, second place in a field of five candidates. After the loss, he briefly joined the Indiana law firm of Stonsenburg and Weathers, two politically active lawyers, before moving to Miami, Florida, where he joined another firm, Shutts & Bowen. In January 1928, he left the Miami practice and returned to Stonsenburg and Weathers. He attempted to secure the Democratic nomination to run for Congress in 1930, but was again defeated, this time by the former state party chairman Eugene B. Crowe.
The following year, Minton became a local commander of the American Legion. The group had a large and active membership in the state at the time, and he used his position to encourage support of the Democratic Party agenda. Paul McNutt was the national commander, and the two men became political allies. When McNutt became governor in 1930, he offered Minton a position at the head of a new utility regulation commission. As commissioner, Minton successfully imposed regulations that reduced state telephone bills by a combined total of $525,000. The cuts received widespread media coverage, and Minton was credited in the reports with the success.
Senate campaign
Becoming popular among the party leadership during his two years as commissioner, Minton was encouraged by party leaders to run for the United States Senate in 1934. At the state Democratic Party Convention he ran against Earl Peters, a former chairman of the state party. With the support of McNutt, Minton won the nomination on the third ballot with 827 votes to Peters' 586.
Minton launched a statewide campaign in August 1934 and began delivering speeches in defense of the New Deal. He blamed Republicans for the conditions of the Great Depression. His opponent, incumbent Republican Senator Arthur Raymond Robinson, accused Minton of playing "Santa Claus" by trying to give everyone "presents". He also criticized Minton's support of the New Deal, which Robinson and Republicans called unconstitutional. Minton's initial campaign slogan was "You can't offer a hungry man the Constitution", a slogan he unveiled in a debate with Robinson in Corydon on August 11. He continued using the slogan, and on September 11, Minton delivered his infamous "You Cannot Eat the Constitution" speech, in which he concluded the urgent needs of the masses outweighed the need to uphold the Constitution. The speech backfired wildly and papers and opponents across the state called Minton's remarks traitorous. Minton stopped using the slogan and explained his position again using new terms, but his opponents continued to dog him over the issue. The Republicans also faulted popular governor McNutt and his reorganization of the government, and McNutt became more personally involved in the election. With the state party's more direct involvement, Minton won the election with 52 percent of the vote.
Lobby Investigation Committee
Minton took his Senate seat in January 1935. As a freshman, he sat in the back row of the chamber next to fellow freshman Harry Truman, and the pair quickly became friends. Minton was made a member of a special Lobby Investigation Committee chaired by Senator Hugo Black, that was set up to look into questionable lobbyist groups. According to professor of political science Linda C. Gugin, a Minton biographer, in practice the committee's investigations were politically motivated and directed against groups that were challenging New Deal legislation.
William Randolph Hearst, a prominent and wealthy media magnate, began using his newspapers to deride the committee's "reckless attacks on freedom". Minton led the effort to counter Hearst and delivered a speech criticizing his support of the Republican Party. In 1937, Senator Black was appointed to the Supreme Court and left the Senate, and Minton secured his post as chair of the committee. Minton immediately began a full-scale investigation of the media conglomerate controlled by Frank E. Gannett, accusing him of publishing Republican Party propaganda. For several weeks, Minton delivered speeches against Gannett in the Senate, and Gannett responded in kind in his newspapers. Minton finally introduced legislation that would have made it "illegal to publish information known to be false". Gannett, and a large number of allies in newspapers and on radio, immediately began to charge Minton and the Democratic Party with an assault on the freedom of the press. Minton's allies in Congress asked him to withdraw the bill because of its political repercussions, and he dropped the matter.
Minton tried again to expose what he believed to be Republican control of the media. He led the committee to target a newspaper with national circulation, Rural Progress. Minton accused the publishers of improperly accepting large sums of money from corporations and the editors of undue influence from this money. The owner of the paper, Maurive V. Renolds, was summoned before the committee for a hearing, where Minton demanded to know why he was accepting money from corporations. When Renolds asked his manager, Dr. Glen Frank, to help him answer the questions, Minton and fellow Democratic senators began to shout Dr. Frank down. As he was saying that the money from the corporations was for advertising in the magazine, Minton beat his gavel and yelled, "This committee doesn't intend to permit you to use this as a forum to air your Republican views."
Minton did not realize that Frank was also president of the University of Wisconsin, and soon suffered retaliation for the way he had treated Frank. Frank went on NBC radio stations around the country and lambasted Minton for his rudeness. He made lengthy arguments accusing Minton of attempting to violate the Bill of Rights. Minton was outraged, but the arguments had an effect among voters in Indiana. In 1938, he sought funding to launch a massive nationwide investigation of media conglomerates for proof of Republican interference in the press. Democratic Senator Edward R. Burke led an effort to defeat the measure and privately accused Minton of damaging the Democrats' cause, which led Minton to leave the Lobby Investigation Committee.
Minton was a fierce partisan during his time in the Senate, and regularly abused his opponents verbally. Democratic Senator Huey Long became one of Minton's favorite targets because of Long's often-threatened filibusters. During one of the filibusters, Long threatened to join the Republican Party. After most senators had left the chamber, Minton remained for several hours to periodically taunt Long. After tiring of the taunts, Long launched a rebuttal from the podium, calling Minton a vicious politician whose positions would cost Minton re-election. The exchange was unusual for its tone and later made national news.
Minton was involved in many such exchanges, including a particularly fierce one with Republican Senator Lester J. Dickinson in March 1936. Dickinson delivered a speech in the Senate castigating President Franklin D. Roosevelt for carrying out what he termed illegal and unconstitutional acts. Minton responded with a range of accusations, some personal, against Dickinson and his "political naivety".
Court packing
In 1936, the United States Supreme Court ruled the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 unconstitutional. For the first time, Minton gave speeches criticizing the court for overriding the will of Congress. He accused the court of allowing itself to be influenced by political motives rather than the law. In response to the court ruling, Minton began drafting a bill which would allow the Supreme Court to declare a law unconstitutional only if seven out the nine justices supported the decision. In February 1937, before Minton introduced his bill, President Roosevelt introduced a plan of his own to deal with the Supreme Court. Roosevelt proposed adding more justices to the court and creating a mandatory retirement age; the changes would allow him to appoint an overwhelming majority to the court, more sympathetic to his agenda, ensuring the safety of legislation passed by his party.
Minton was pleased with Roosevelt's bill and quickly became its leading supporter in the Senate. The measure was placed in an omnibus bill designed to reform judicial salaries and districting, among many other measures. Republicans quickly discovered the court-packing provision and targeted the bill. Democrats had overwhelming super-majorities in Congress, and passage of the bill at first seemed assured. Minton's support of the bill helped him earn the position of Senate majority whip, allowing him to more effectively push for its passage. Minton delivered six radio addresses on behalf of his party in support of the bill, but public opinion could not be swayed in the Democrats' favor.
Minton received a death threat in the form of an envelope containing a shotgun shell and a message advising him to not vote for the court packing plan. Many Democrats, fearing their re-election prospects, joined with Republicans and defeated the bill. Minton was unhappy with the loss and it cost him considerable support among his voters, but as a result of his close connection with the bill and the leaders of his party, he gained more influence with the Democrats.
Although Minton supported the Roosevelt Administration and became a regular guest at the White House, Minton opposed the president on some measures. He voted to override a presidential veto of a grant of $2.5 billion ($ billion in 2015 dollars) in bonus pay for World War I soldiers (Bonus Army). He supported the Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill, which Roosevelt feared would cost the party support in the southern states. He also supported an extension of the Hatch Act of 1939, a law that prevented federal employees from being forced to take part in state election campaigns, effectively lessening the influence of federal patronage.
As World War II neared, Minton took a cautious position on United States involvement. When the Soviet Union invaded Finland, Minton voted against granting a loan to Finland to help finance its defense efforts. He also opposed selling munitions and weapons to the Allies or the Axis powers. He advocated and supported expanding the American military and believed that American entry into the war was inevitable, but should be delayed as long as possible. He voted in favor of the Smith Act, which made it a crime to advocate the overthrow of the government, a law specifically targeted at communists and fascists in the United States. In his final year in office, there was considerable speculation in the press that Minton would be named to higher office by Roosevelt, including cabinet positions and the Supreme Court, but neither happened.
Re-election campaign
Minton ran for re-election to his Senate seat in 1940. McNutt was challenging Roosevelt for the Presidential nomination, forcing Minton to choose between the administration and his allies in the state party. Minton sided with Roosevelt, which cost him McNutt's and the Indiana Democratic Party machine's support in his re-election bid.
The Republican presidential candidate, Wendell Willkie was also a native of Indiana, and Minton faced a difficult challenge to win re-election. He referred to Willkie as a "sycophant for the rich and famous". Willkie never responded to Minton's taunts, leaving Minton's opponent in the Senate race, Raymond E. Willis, to do so in his stead. Willis had run for the Senate two years earlier but was defeated by Democrat Frederick Van Nuys. Willis faulted Minton on a range of topics but focused on the legislation Minton supported while in the Senate. Willis claimed that much of the legislation was unconstitutional and Minton's positions were detrimental to the nation. Minton responded by pointing out Willis's connections to wealthy corporations and accused him of not caring for the people. Minton's campaign focused on the achievements of the New Deal programs. He claimed farm income in Indiana had doubled since 1932, and highlighted the passage of the Old Age Pension laws. His support for conscription and military preparedness for the coming war proved unpopular with voters and cost him considerable support, but according to historian William Radcliff it was Willkie's favorite son status, which led many Hoosiers to vote Republican, that proved to be the election's deciding factor. Despite Minton's heavy campaigning, he lost the close election to Willis by 5,179 votes out of over 1.5 million cast.
Roosevelt won the 1940 presidential election. After Minton left office in January 1941, he was given a position in the Roosevelt administration as a reward for his loyalty during the court packing failure. He served as one of the president's advisers and a liaison between the White House and Congress. The extent of his duties is not fully known; Linda Gugin has speculated that he may have managed Roosevelt's patronage system. Minton was responsible for getting several officials appointed to high offices in the federal bureaucracy and numerous others appointed to lower ranking positions. He also convinced Roosevelt to support the creation of a Senate defense committee chaired by Truman, a position that brought Truman into the national spotlight and helped him gain the vice presidency.
Seventh Circuit
Appointment
On May 7, 1941, Roosevelt announced Minton's nomination to the Chicago-based United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit. Minton was confirmed unanimously by the Senate on May 12, 1941, and received his commission on May 22, 1941. Minton resigned from his post in the administration, but even after he began working on the court, Minton remained active in Democratic politics behind the scenes and was in regular correspondence with Roosevelt to make patronage suggestions.
Minton took his oath of office on May 29, 1941, but the court was in recess at the time. He took his seat when it returned to session on October 7, 1941. The court had the highest court load of all the appellate courts in the nation at that time, averaging 40 cases per judge annually. The men on the court were close friends, and Minton developed a particularly close friendship with Judge J. Earl Major; Major offered Minton financial assistance during his later illnesses. Major had been on the court for several years and held a judicial philosophy similar to Minton's. The two men regularly attended baseball games and were frequent guests in each other's homes.
World War II broke out shortly after Minton joined the court, creating a flood of cases in which legal precedent provided little guidance, including challenges to wartime measures, selective service laws, price controls, rationing and civil liberties. In the majority of these cases, the court affirmed the decisions of the district courts, but in several the court was required to establish a precedent. Minton stated on several occasions his personal preference to affirm the decisions of the lower courts. He believed that the court that heard the case and pronounced judgment was generally able to make a decision that was superior to appellate courts' decisions. He believed the appellate process should be reserved for the more serious cases and cases where the lower court had clearly made a mistake.
Jurisprudence
Minton was described by William Radcliff as a "faithful disciple of judicial restraint," an unexpected development when compared to his overtly partisan political career. Radcliff attributed Minton's conservative position to the distaste he developed for the courts when they overturned legislation passed while he was in the Senate. The courts' actions led him to strongly believe in the limited exercise of judicial power when evaluating the constitutionality of governmental conduct. Much of the recently passed New Deal legislation was being tried in the courts for constitutionality and enforcement, putting Minton in the uncommon position of adjudicating cases which depended on legislation he had helped write.
During his time on the Seventh Circuit, Minton authored 253 of the court's opinions, including twelve dissenting opinions. Some of his opinions won praise; the editors of Tax Magazine commented favorably on Minton's opinions on tax law, calling them "direct Hoosier logic". Other court reporting papers made similar comments, applauding the manner in which he turned complex issues to simple questions that could easily be understood.
In the cases of Sunkist v. Sunkist and Quaker Oats Co. v. General Mills, the court held that it was possible for different companies to use the same brand and product name as long as they produced dissimilar products. In another case, the court set a short-lived precedent allowing companies to artificially raise prices in local markets if the purpose was to artificially lower prices in another market to remain competitive. After Minton joined the United States Supreme Court, the decision was appealed to that body; Minton recused himself from the case, which the court decided to overturn. In another decision, Minton was in the majority that ruled under the Sherman Antitrust Act that the New York Great Atlantic and Pacific Tea Company was a monopoly, ordering the company to break up its grocery business. Minton was also in the majority in several cases filed to enforce decisions made by the National Labor Relations Board, usually to end worker strikes.
In the case of United States v. Knauer, the government denied the wife of a United States citizen entry into the country because of her possible ties to Nazism. In a much-criticized majority opinion which Minton co-authored with Judge Major, he stated that the "alien did not have any legal right—[her] status was a political decision to be made by officials in government." Many liberals condemned the court at the time of the decision. The ruling was upheld by the Supreme Court in a 1946 appeal.
One of Minton's favorite cases was that of Modernistic Candies, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission. The candy company produced a one-cent gumball dispenser in which almost all the gumballs were the same color. A few different-colored gumballs were included which, when dispensed, entitled the purchaser to a prize from the merchant who owned the machine. The FTC had an injunction put in place barring the company from producing the machines because they claimed it violated anti-gambling laws. Minton wrote the majority opinion and sided with the majority to keep the injunction in place, but dryly mocked the counsel for the defense and the gambling law, stating:
Counsel for the petitioner discussed at great length from a sociological point of view, of the age-old problem of the gambling instinct in the human being. According to his analysis, gambling pervades our entire economic system; thus insurance contracts are a gamble, stock and grain exchange transactions are gambles, and the farmer's dependence on weather is a gamble. Counsel's attempt to apply this analysis to the present case left us cold and unimpressed. He even reminded us that our great idol, Mr. Chief Justice John Marshall, in his day attended the horse races and wagered with his clergyman. In fact, they ran a book. As indicating how times have changed and how even our coarse nature has yielded to the protecting care of governmental policy, we confess we do not even know a bookmaker, clerical or otherwise, and our passes to the beautiful race tracks around Chicago lie in our desk unused.
Minton often lamented that he was required to "pronounce the law as it was written, but on no occasion [c]ould he make the law."
Clemency board and failing health
After Roosevelt's death and Truman's succession to the Presidency, Minton continued offering advice to the new administration on a range of topics, including patronage and political maneuvering. Truman appointed Minton as head of the War Department Clemency Board, a panel of judges charged with overseeing reviews of decisions made by the courts-martial. The panel met every two weeks which, along with his responsibilities on the circuit court, kept Minton very busy and afforded him little rest, leading to a deterioration in his health. While yachting with President Truman on Memorial Day in 1945, Truman asked Minton to accept an appointment to the position of Solicitor General of the United States. Minton declined because of his health, but he told Truman he would be interested in a seat on the Supreme Court.
In September 1945, Minton suffered a heart attack while in Washington; he was hospitalized for three months at Walter Reed Hospital. After returning to work, he was forced to rest regularly due to gradually worsening anemia, and he sought to lessen his workload. To further complicate his health, on August 5, 1949, Minton tripped over a stone in his yard and broke his leg. The injury forced him to walk with a cane for the remainder of his life.
Supreme Court
Nomination and confirmation
At a September 15, 1949, news conference, Truman announced Minton's nomination to the Supreme Court, succeeding the late Justice Wiley Rutledge. Minton had already privately accepted the nomination several days earlier after a telephone conversation with Truman. Truman touted Minton's extensive law education and his years of experience on the circuit courts as the reason for his nomination.
News of Minton's appointment received mixed reviews nationally. The New York Times said that Truman had allowed personal and political friendship to influence his choice. The New Republic said "the President is again reverting to his deplorable habit of choosing men for high post because they happen to be his friends...." The Washington Post raised questions about Minton's ability to be confirmed by the Senate due to the power many of his foes held in the body. The Indianapolis Star offered a more sympathetic opinion, pointing out Minton's qualifications and the pride Indiana could take in having a native on the Supreme Court. The article noted that he would be the most educated justice on the court, should he be confirmed.
Indiana Senator William E. Jenner led opponents of Minton's nomination, including some of Minton's old foes, in an attempt to bring him before the body for hearings. Minton wrote a letter to the Senate Judicial Committee answering several of their questions, but refused to submit himself to a hearing. He mentioned his broken leg and hinted in his letter that it could be detrimental to his health to travel in his condition. He also stated that, as a sitting judge and former member of the Senate, it would be improper for him submit to a hearing. Although hearings had occurred irregularly in the past, it was not customary at that time to have a hearing on a nominee. During an absence of Jenner's, Minton's allies worked to have the hearing request dropped and the Judicial Committee sent the measure to the full Senate in a vote of 9 to 2. Senator Homer S. Ferguson attempted to have the nomination returned to committee but the motion failed, 45–21. The long debate over Minton's appointment focused on his partisanship, support of the court packing plan during his time in the Senate, and poor health. His opponents launched numerous delaying tactics; the Senate session before the vote to confirm Minton lasted until midnight. His confirmation was approved 48–16 on October 4, 1949, and he was sworn into office on October 12.
To date, Minton remains the last member of Congress, sitting or former, to be appointed to the United States Supreme Court, and he is the only native of Indiana to be appointed to the court.
Judicial restraint
Minton's central judicial philosophy was to ascertain and uphold the original intent of legislation. He continued to take a broad view of governmental powers, demonstrated in his dissenting vote in the case of Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer, which ruled unconstitutional President Truman's wartime seizure of several steel mills to avert a workers' strike. Of all the cases in which Minton was involved, he disagreed most with the Youngstown decision and "went into a tirade" during the conference where the decision was made. He argued that there "could be no vacant spot in power when the security of the nation is at stake." Despite his strong protest, he could not influence the Court to permit the president to seize the plants without congressional approval. Minton joined with Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Stanley Forman Reed in the dissenting opinion that the President had the authority through the war powers clause of the constitution.
Minton abhorred racial segregation and provided a solid vote to strike down the school segregation practices at issue in 1954's landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education; it was among the few decisions in which he sided against the government. According to William Radcliff, the majority opinion authored by Minton in the 1953 case Barrows v. Jackson was his most skillfully written opinion. He framed the complex question of the case as: "Can a racially restrictive covenant be enforced at law by a suit for damages against a co-covenantor who allegedly broke the covenant?" The Court decided the answer in the negative.
In the area of civil liberties, Minton adhered to the doctrine of "fundamental fairness", a test established by the Supreme Court in 1937. In one decision, Minton stated that the right of free speech was not an absolute right, and could be regulated so as not to violate the rights of others. In United States v. Rabinowitz, Minton wrote the Court's opinion upholding a lower court ruling which allowed police to search automobiles without a warrant, provided there was probable cause to justify the search.
Minton voted to uphold anticommunist legislation during the period of the "red scare", siding with the majority in 1951's Dennis v. United States, which upheld the conviction of the leader of the US Communist Party. During the same period, the Court was split over the legality of governmental loyalty tests. Many agencies had programs in place to ensure that members of the government were not communists. Minton's vote proved to be the deciding factor in cases regarding loyalty tests. In the case of Bailey v. Richardson, Minton's vote upheld the legality of the loyalty tests, while in the decision he authored in the case of Joint Anti-Fascist Refugee Committee v. McGrath, he voted to uphold the plaintiff's position that he had been terminated illegally because of his support of fascist ideology. Minton's position gradually shifted to allowing the loyalty tests to take place, and in Adler v. Board of Ed. of City of New York he wrote the majority opinion allowing the tests and upholding New York's Feinberg Law. This proved to be the most important vote as it allowed the tests to be given with only minimal suspicion of a person's disloyalty to the government.
Because of Minton's previous Congressional partisanship, many liberals believed he would support their positions when on the Court. Throughout his tenure, Minton regularly disappointed them, leading many to rail against him. A lawyer writing for the New Jersey Law Journal labeled Minton a "spokesman against freedom", calling him "a man of conspicuous judicial shortcomings, whose votes against civil liberties exceeded those of any other man on the Court, and who wrote comparatively few opinions of other kinds." Linda Gugin pointed out that Minton was a disappointment to liberals because he consistently chose order over freedom. Gugin also concludes that Minton had the strongest commitment to judicial restraint and ideological neutrality of any justice, past or present.
Politics
Although Minton was on the Supreme Court, he remained casually involved in Democratic internal politics. He wrote Truman several letters criticizing Justices Robert H. Jackson and Hugo Black, referring to Black as a demagogue. He also offered advice on dealing with Republican opposition in the Senate. In a 1954 letter, after Truman left office, he urged Truman to help focus public attention on the economy and away from communism, a threat he claimed the Republicans were exaggerating to avoid confronting their own problems.
After Truman's withdrawal from the 1952 presidential campaign, Minton made remarks indicating he had advised Truman to stay out of the contested New Hampshire primary election to begin with. In August 1956, a reporter asked Minton about his preferred candidate in the upcoming presidential election. Minton answered, "I have great confidence in Adlai Stevenson." He also remarked that Dwight D. Eisenhower was politically handicapped. Minton was lambasted in the media for his endorsement, which he attempted to retract a few days later after being advised to do so by other members of the Court.
Regular dissenter
Truman's other appointees to the Court provided consistent conservative votes, and during Minton's first years on the Court it was returned to the conservatism of the William Howard Taft era. While on the Court, Minton transformed from a New Deal senator into an almost reactionary judge as an ally of Justice Felix Frankfurter. Empirical coding of votes shows that Minton was the most conservative justice on the Court during his first year, and remained in the conservative half of the court for the duration of his career.
Minton did not enjoy the limited influence of his judicial role in the later years of his term, when he was more frequently in the minority in voting on cases. After the deaths of Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson and Justice Robert Jackson, Minton found himself with little support for many of his opinions, which led him to begin considering retirement.
The shifting position of the Court led to personal animosity between members of its two wings. Despite his disappointment over the Court's positions on some issues, Minton remained popular among his colleagues on the Court as he didn't take sides in their personal disagreements; he proved a soothing presence during a period marked by bitter personal feuds between strong personalities such as William O. Douglas and Felix Frankfurter.
Minton informed Eisenhower of his intention to retire in a letter on September 7, 1956, in which he dryly stated his retirement was authorized by law. Eisenhower responded with a brief note wishing him a happy retirement. Although he did not tell the president, Minton informed the members of the Court that his duties were too taxing on his health. His anemia had steadily worsened, slowing him physically and mentally. Minton served as a Justice until October 15, 1956, retiring after 7 years and 3 days of service. He was succeeded by William J. Brennan Jr.
Later life
Retirement
Announcing his departure, Minton remarked, "There will be more interest in who will succeed me than in my passing. I'm an echo." Despite the health difficulties, Minton regretted his decision almost immediately.
Minton returned to his New Albany home, where he took a much lighter workload. He gave occasional lectures at Indiana University and continued to give public speeches from time to time. For several years after retiring from the Supreme Court, Minton occasionally accepted assignments to serve temporarily on one of the lower federal courts. He received an honorary doctorate degree from the University of Louisville. He took many trips around the United States, and two trips to Europe. In England, he received an honorary doctorate from Oxford University in 1956.
Despite his failing health, Minton remained active in the Democratic Party. He was most concerned with President Eisenhower, who he believed was incompetent. He remained in regular correspondence with Truman, and the two met on several occasions at Democratic Party functions.
Death and legacy
In late March 1965, Minton was admitted to Floyd Memorial Hospital in New Albany, where it was found he was suffering internal bleeding. He died in his sleep early in the morning of April 9. Minton's wife was Roman Catholic; his funeral was held at the now-defunct Holy Trinity Catholic Church and was attended by many dignitaries, including several sitting members of the Supreme Court, the governors of Indiana and Kentucky, and several members of Congress. He was buried in the Holy Trinity Cemetery, on Green Valley Road in New Albany, next to Leo Receveur. Minton himself was nominally Catholic and had shunned Christianity for most of his life; he only began to occasionally attend mass following his retirement. He left most of his personal papers and judicial records to the Truman Presidential Library.
Minton is the eponym of the Sherman Minton Bridge, which carries Interstate 64 across the Ohio River, connecting western Louisville, Kentucky with New Albany, Indiana. Minton attended the dedication of the bridge at a 1962 ceremony. He is also the namesake of the annual Sherman Minton Moot Court Competition, held at the Indiana University Maurer School of Law. He is also honored (with Indiana Senator Homer E. Capehart)—in the "Brutalist" style designed by Woollen, Molzan and Partners and with architectural art by Milton Glaser—in the centrally located Minton-Capehart Federal Building on Indiana World War Memorial Plaza in Indianapolis. A bronze bust of Minton was created and put on display in the Indiana Statehouse.
While some writers like Linda Gugin and legal historian William Radcliff have given high praise to Minton's logic in his written opinions, they point out that his positions had little long-term impact. Other legal historians, like Bernard Schwartz, have a more negative opinion of Minton's judicial career. Schwartz wrote that Minton "was below mediocrity as a Justice. His opinions, relatively few for his tenure, are less than third rate, characterized by their cavalier approach to complicated issues." Schwartz went on to say, "he ranks near the bottom of any list of Justices." Most of the precedents Minton helped establish were overturned by the Warren Court in the years immediately following his retirement. In total he wrote sixty-seven majority opinions along with several of the dissenting opinions. Gugin authored a work in rebuttal to Schwartz's harsh critique, saying that Minton's rulings were "predictable based on the principles of deference, precedent, and strict interpretation"; she attributed his poor ranking to the bias of reviewers in favor of judicial activism.
Minton's time on the court marked the end of a transitory period in the judiciary. Since Minton, justices have tended to serve increasingly longer terms on the court, which has had strong political science implications on the Supreme Court. The growing concept of judicial non-partisanship became the norm in American politics after Minton—he was the last member of Congress to be appointed to the Court. Linda Gugin and Professor James St. Clair have noted that the federal courts have lost a valuable point of view by not having experienced legislators among their ranks.
Minton played an important role behind the scenes of the Court as a peacemaker between its two opposing factions. These attempts to keep the peace led Justice Frankfurter to remark that while Minton would never be remembered as a great justice, he would be remembered as a great colleague by his fellow justices.
Electoral history
See also
List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
List of United States Supreme Court justices by time in office
United States Supreme Court cases during the Vinson Court
United States Supreme Court cases during the Warren Court
List of law clerks of the Supreme Court of the United States (Seat 3)
Bibliography
Footnotes
Notes
References
.
; (Spring 1959): pp. 377–424.
Further reading
Abraham, Henry J., Justices and Presidents: A Political History of Appointments to the Supreme Court. (3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 1992). .
Atkinson, David N. "From New Deal Liberal to Supreme Court Conservative: The Metamorphosis of Justice Sherman Minton" Washington University Law Quarterly (1975): pp. 361–394.
Corcoran, David Howard. (1977) "Sherman Minton: New Deal Senator." PhD dissertation, University of Kentucky.
Frank, John P., The Justices of the United States Supreme Court: Their Lives and Major Opinions (Leon Friedman and Fred L. Israel, editors) (New York: Chelsea House, 1995) , .
Martin, Fenton S. and Goehlert, Robert U., The U.S. Supreme Court: A Bibliography, (Congressional Quarterly Books, 1990). .
Urofsky, Melvin I., The Supreme Court Justices: A Biographical Dictionary (New York: Garland, 1994). ; .
External links
Photograph, Sherman Minton Home, Georgetown, Indiana.
Sherman Minton Senate identification card with signature, University of Louisville.
Photograph, Sherman Minton grave site
1890 births
1965 deaths
20th-century American judges
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Democratic Party United States senators
Indiana Democrats
Indiana lawyers
Indiana University alumni
Judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit
New Albany High School (Indiana) alumni
United States Army personnel of World War I
People from New Albany, Indiana
United States Army officers
United States court of appeals judges appointed by Franklin D. Roosevelt
United States federal judges appointed by Harry S. Truman
United States senators from Indiana
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United States
University of Paris alumni
Yale Law School alumni
Catholics from Indiana | [
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256676 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20islands%20of%20Albania | List of islands of Albania | This is a complete list of the islands and islets of Albania. The majority of them are small in size with only two being larger than a square kilometer, Sazan and Kunë.
List of islands and islets
See also
Protected areas of Albania
Geography of Albania
Biodiversity of Albania
Climate of Albania
References
Albania, List of islands of
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256677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20lakes%20of%20Albania | List of lakes of Albania | Albania is home to 247 natural lakes and more than 800 artificial lakes. The natural lakes, most of karstic or glacial origin, based on their origin, are classified as the following, 4 tectonic, 134 ice-dammed,
94 karst and 15 river. Lagoons are present along the coastal region. They occupy an area of .
List of natural lakes
Other smaller natural or glacial lakes include Lura Lakes, Lake Sheep, Lake Gistova, Lake Gramë, Lake Buni Jezercë, Lake Dash, Lake Sylbicë, Lake Dhënve, Lake Sope and Lake Malik, which was drained by government's decision.
List of artificial lakes
See also
Biodiversity of Albania
Climate of Albania
Geography of Albania
Protected areas of Albania
References
Albania
Lakes
Landforms of Albania | [
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256678 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabonidus | Nabonidus | Nabonidus (Babylonian cuneiform: Nabû-naʾid, meaning "May Nabu be exalted" or "Nabu is praised") was the last king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from 556 BC to the fall of Babylon to the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. Nabonidus was the last native ruler of ancient Mesopotamia, the end of his reign marking the end of thousands of years of Sumero-Akkadian states, kingdoms and empires. One of the most vibrant and individualistic rulers of his time, Nabonidus is remembered as the last independent king of Babylon, and he is characterised by some scholars as an unorthodox religious reformer and as the first archaeologist.
The origins of Nabonidus and his connection to previous royalty, and thus what claim he had to the throne, remain unclear given that Nabonidus made no genealogical claims to kinship with previous kings. This suggests that he was not related or connected to the Chaldean dynasty of Babylonian rulers, though he is known to have had a prominent career of some kind before he became king. It is possible that he was connected to the Chaldean kings through marriage, possibly through having married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC). Nabonidus's mother, Adad-guppi, was of Assyrian or Aramean ancestry. His father, Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, of whom little is known, was probably also either Assyrian or Aramean. Some historians have speculated that either Adad-guppi or Nabu-balatsu-iqbi were members of the Sargonid dynasty, rulers of the Neo-Assyrian Empire until its fall in 609 BC.
Nabonidus was, to his own apparent surprise, proclaimed king after the deposition and murder of Labashi-Marduk (556 BC) in a plot likely led by Nabonidus's son Belshazzar. Throughout his reign, inscriptions and later sources suggest that Nabonidus worked to increase the status of the moon god Sîn and decrease the status of Babylon's traditional national deity Marduk. Though some have suggested that Nabonidus wished to go as far as to completely replace Marduk with Sîn as the head of the Mesopotamian pantheon, the extent to which Nabonidus's devotion to Sîn led to religious reforms is debated. From 552 BC to 543/542 BC, Nabonidus was in self-imposed exile in Tayma in Arabia for unknown reasons, possibly due to disagreements with the Babylonian clergy and oligarchy. During this period, Belshazzar acted as regent in Babylonia, while Nabonidus continued to be recognised as the king.
After Nabonidus returned to Babylonia in 543/542 BC, he escalated his religious efforts and rebuilt the Ekhulkhul, the temple dedicated to Sîn in the major northern city of Harran. Nabonidus's reign came to an abrupt end with the quick victory over his empire by Cyrus the Great in 539 BC. After the decisive battle of Opis, the Persians entered Babylon without a fight. Several sources state that Nabonidus was captured and spared, possibly allowed to the region of Carmania; however, Belshazzar is believed to have been killed. Nabonidus may have been alive in exile as late as the reign of Darius the Great (522–486 BC).
Background
Ancestry and connection to royalty
The origins of Nabonidus are obscure, with the scarce details leaving much room for interpretation and speculation. In one of his inscriptions, Nabonidus states the following:
Nabonidus's father was a man by the name Nabu-balatsu-iqbi, whom Nabonidus refers to in his inscriptions as a "learned counsellor", "wise prince", "perfect prince" and "heroic governor". That Nabu-balatsu-iqbi is not given a connection to any Babylonian king in Nabonidus's inscriptions is typically assumed to indicate that Nabonidus was not closely connected to Babylonia's ruling dynasty (the Chaldean dynasty). In his inscriptions, Nabonidus refers to those who preceded him as kings of Babylon, but does not claim descent from any of them. In no inscription does Nabonidus elaborate on his father's origin and ethnicity, just mentioning his name and writing that he was courageous, wise and devout. Curiously, no person named Nabu-balatsu-iqbi who can reasonably be identified as Nabonidus's father appears in documents prior to Nabonidus's reign, making his father's status and position unclear. That Nabu-balatsu-iqbi is repeatedly referred to as "prince" in Nabonidus's inscriptions suggests some sort of noble status and political importance.
Nabonidus's mother was Adad-guppi, born in 648/649 BC. Although once assumed to have been part of the Babylonian royal harem, there is no evidence that Adad-guppi was the concubine of Nabonidus's predecessors. She was, however, influential at the royal Babylonian court, in her inscriptions claiming that she wielded influence with the kings Nabopolassar (626–605 BC), Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562 BC) and Neriglissar (560–556 BC). Though no conclusive evidence exists, Adad-guppi is often assumed to have come from the major city Harran in northern Mesopotamia (where she later lived) and as having been of Assyrian ancestry. According to Paul-Alain Beaulieu, Nabonidus's later intense interest in Harran, a peripheral city of his empire, can only be explained if he and his mother originated in the city. The Dynastic Prophecy, a later document written after the conquest of Babylonia by Alexander the Great centuries later, corroborates that Nabonidus would have originated in Harran, as it regards Nabonidus as the founder, and sole representative, of the "dynasty of Harran". According to Beaulieu, Adagoppe may have been Aramean, rather than Assyrian, as her name "seems to be Aramean". In Harran, Adad-guppi served as a priestess devoted to the moon god, Sîn. There is no evidence that Adad-guppi was a high-ranking priestess, as the only titles she claims in her inscriptions are "mother of Nabonidus" and "worshipper of Sîn, Ningal, Nusku and Sadarnunna".
Adad-guppi's association with Harran, and that she had likely married Nabu-balatsu-iqbi early in her life (as was custom in ancient Mesopotamia), means that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi was probably also a prominent resident of that city, possibly of Assyrian or Aramean origin. Frauke Weiershäuser and Jamie Novotny speculated that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi could have been an Aramean chief. Stephen Herbert Langdon theorised that Nabu-balatsu-iqbi was a son of Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) and thus one of Ashurbanipal's brothers, but there is no concrete evidence for this relation.
Per Nabonidus's own inscriptions and inscriptions by Adad-guppi, wherein Nabonidus is called her "only son" several times, it can be confidently ascertained that Nabonidus was an only child. It is probable that Adagoppe first came to Babylon as a prisoner after the Babylonians and Medes sacked Harran in 610 BC during the Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire. By 610 BC, she was already 39 years old. Presumably, Nabonidus was already born at this point, though his year of birth is not known. In one of her inscriptions, Adagoppe claims to have seen her descendants down to her great-great-grandchildren (i.e. Nabonidus's great-grandchildren) in her lifetime, four generations of descendants. If the time between generations is estimated at approximately 20–25 years, and assuming her great-great-grandchildren were approximately five years old by Adagoppe's death, Nabonidus cannot have been born later than 615 BC, though he very well could have been born earlier.
It is possible that Nabonidus was married to one of Nebuchadnezzar II's daughters, a marriage that could potentially have been secured through his mother's influence. Not only would such a connection explain Nabonidus's rise to the throne (being connected to the royal family) but also explain later historical traditions in which Nabonidus's son, Belshazzar, is described as Nebuchadnezzar II's descendant. In the Book of Daniel in the Hebrew Bible, Belshazzar is referred to as Nebuchadnezzar II's (grand)son. The claim of Belshazzar being Nebuchadnezzar II's descendant could alternatively ultimately derive from royal propaganda, rather than true genealogical information. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus names the "last great queen" of the Babylonian Empire as Nitocris, though that name (nor any other name) is not attested in contemporary Babylonian sources. Herodotus's description of Nitocris contains a wealth of legendary material that makes it difficult to determine whether he uses the name to refer to Nabonidus's wife or mother, but William H. Shea proposed in 1982 that Nitocris may tentatively be identified as the name of Nabonidus's wife and Belshazzar's mother.
In her inscriptions, Adad-guppi also claimed that Nabonidus was of the dynastic line of Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC), king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. According to her inscriptions, Adad-guppi was born in Ashurbanipal's twentieth year as king. At the time of her birth, Harran had been a major Assyrian stronghold and when the Neo-Assyrian Empire fell in 609 BC, Harran was the capital of its government in exile. On account of her claims in regards to Nabonidus being of Sargonid (Ashurbanipal's dynasty) ancestry, Stephanie Dalley considered it in 2003 "almost certain" that Adad-guppi was a daughter of Ashurbanipal. Michael B. Dick opposed Dalley's conviction in 2004, pointing out that even though Nabonidus did go to some length to revive some old Assyrian symbols (such as wearing a wrapped cloak in his depictions, absent in those of other Neo-Babylonian kings but present in Assyrian art) and attempted to link himself to the Sargonid dynasty, there is "no evidence whatsoever that Nabonidus was related to the Sargonid dynasty". According to Beaulieu, that Adagoppe did not explicitly claim any royal ancestors herself points to a humble origin. As inscriptions by female relatives of kings are relatively rare, it is however probable, according to Wilfred G. Lambert, that Adad-guppi was of some high status.
Pre-royal career
According to Herodotus, an official by the name Labynetus (the same name used for Nabonidus in ancient Greek sources) was present as a mediator and witness on behalf of Babylon at the negotiations conducted between the Median and Lydian empires after the Battle of the Eclipse in 585 BC. It is possible that this ambassador was the same person as the Nabonidus who later became Babylon's king.
The name of Nabonidus is otherwise poorly attested in sources prior to his reign. A Nabonidus is listed as the head witnesses in a 597 legal document, though it is not clear that this is the same person as the later king, especially given that the text could be interpreted as referring to him as a son of Nebuchadnezzar II (if the king Nabonidus had been Nebuchadnezzar II's son, he would not have failed to mention this). If they are the same person, and the document does not call him the son of the king, his office listed in the document, ša muḫḫi āli (an official in charge of a city) would mean that the date of Nabonidus's birth has to be pushed back further, to before 620 BC, to account for the age necessary to hold that office. If the Nabonidus mentioned is not Nebuchadnezzar II's son, then the document does not name the father of this Nabonidus, which suggests that he was of high rank (fathers and grandfathers were otherwise usually mentioned for distinguishing purposes), and he could then conceivably be the same person as the later king. The wording could be interpreted as "the son of a man of the king" (i.e. a prince), rather than "the son of the king", which in that case would fit with Nabonidus as he refers to his father as a prince in his royal inscriptions.
There is also another letter from some point between the early 590s BC and the 570s BC, wherein a Nabonidus is described as having requested the levies of a particular region to be raised. Whether this Nabonidus is the same person as the future king is also unclear. The lack of confident mentions of Nabonidus in sources before his rise to the throne means that it is possible that Nabonidus was an assumed regnal name, and not his birth name, but this seems unlikely given that "may Nabû be exalted", the meaning of the name, seems to be a rather weak statement.
The Babylonian historian Berossus, active centuries later in the Hellenistic period, wrote that Nabonidus had been a 'priest of Bêl'. A religious function could explain Nabonidus's absence in earlier documents. In Adad-guppi's inscriptions, she claims to have introduced her son Nabonidus to kings Nebuchadnezzar II and Neriglissar, and she states that Nabonidus "day and night" performed duties for them and "regularly did whatever pleased them". As Nabonidus knew how to write, and was clearly a learned man given that it is known that he quaralled with numerous priests and scholars, it is possible that he was a courtier at the royal court before he became king, though no records of a prominent courtier by his name are known.
Reign
Rise to the throne
Nabonidus rose to the throne in the aftermath of the collapse of the direct dynastic line of the Chaldean dynasty. After the brief reign of Neriglissar, a son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, the throne had been inherited in April 556 BC by Neriglissar's son Labashi-Marduk. Berossus erroneously wrote that Labashi-Marduk ruled for nine months (though this might be attributable to a scribal error) and stated that Labashi-Marduk's "evil ways" led to his friends plotting against him, eventually resulting in the "child king" being beaten to death. The plotters then agreed that Nabonnedos (Nabonidus), one of the plotters, should rule. The reason for the coup against Labashi-Marduk is unknown. It is possible that despite Labashi-Marduk and his father being well-connected and wealthy, they were ultimately seen as commoners, lacking noble blood. Though Labashi-Marduk may have been the grandson of Nebuchadnezzar II through his mother, making him part of the royal bloodline, it is also possible he was the son of Neriglissar and a different wife. Thus, Labashi-Marduk's rise to the throne might have signified a true break in the dynasty of Nebuchadnezzar II and might as such have aroused opposition from the Babylonian populace. Although Berossus refers to Labashi-Marduk as a child, it possible that he became king as an adult since commercial texts from two years earlier indicate that Labashi-Marduk was in charge of his own affairs at that time.
Though Nabonidus in his inscriptions claims that he had few supporters and that he did not covet the throne himself, he must have been a leading figure in the conspiracy that led to the deposition and death of Labashi-Marduk. Nabonidus enjoyed consistent support from the Babylonian military throughout his reign and it is possible that the army played a role in his rise to the throne. Though Berossus claimed Labashi-Marduk ruled for nine months, the Uruk King List only gives Labashi-Marduk a reign of three months and contract tablets from Babylonia suggest that he might have ruled as briefly as just two months. It appears that there was a period of either confusion, after a discrete palace coup, or a brief civil war. Per contract tablets, Labashi-Marduk was still recognised as king at Uruk up until at least 19 June, and in the city of Sippar until at least 20 June. The earliest tablet dated to the reign of Nabonidus at Sippar is from 26 June. However, a tablet written as early as 25 May from Nippur is dated to Nabonidus's reign and the last tablet dated to Labashi-Marduk's reign at Babylon itself is from 24 May. The earliest tablet dated to Nabonidus at Babylon itself is from 14 July. This evidence can be reconciled by positing that Nabonidus may have been recognised in the Babylonian heartland, including Nippur and Babylon, already on 25 May, whereas some outlying cities continued to recognise Labashi-Marduk (even though he quite possibly was dead at the time on account of a possible palace coup) as king until June. By the end of June 556 BC, tablets dated to Nabonidus are known from across Babylonia.
On account of his mother's age, and Nabonidus having had a long career in royal service before 556 BC, he must have been relatively old by the time he became king. It appears that Nabonidus had not intended to become king, and that he accepted the kingship reluctantly. Though a reluctance to accept royal power is often used as a form of royal propaganda, there are several inscriptions by Nabonidus, some dated more than a decade into his reign (at a point when he no longer needed to justify his rule with legitimacy) wherein he points out that he did not covet the throne. In one inscription, Nabonidus describes himself as visiting the sanctuaries of Marduk and Nabû in search for guidance, with a troubled conscience and questioning if his accession was legitimate:
It is thus possible that whereas Nabonidus was a prominent figure in the group of conspirators that deposed and killed Labashi-Marduk, he had no intention of assuming the throne himself but was convinced to by the other conspirators. It is probable that the chief orchestrator behind the conspiracy against Labashi-Marduk was Nabonidus's son, Belshazzar. Belshazzar was the chief beneficiary of the entire affair, as he became the designated heir to the throne, and also inherited the large private estates of Labashi-Marduk, becoming one of the richest and most prominent men in Babylonia overnight. Belshazzar could not have claimed the throne for himself while his father was still alive, but by placing his father on the throne, an old man (meaning that his reign could be expected to be transitional, only lasting a few years), Belshazzar thought the throne secured for himself in the future.
Early reign
The earliest recorded activity of Nabonidus as king was visiting the city of Sippar on 4 July 556 BC, where he donated three minas of gold in the city's temple, the Ebabbar temple. The purpose of the visit may have been political, given that Sippar recognised Labashi-Marduk as king just two weeks prior, nearly a month after Nabonidus had been proclaimed king.
In the fall of 556 BC, Nabonidus led the Babylonian army on a campaign to Hume, eastern Cilicia, where Neriglissar had campaigned in 557 BC. That Nabonidus campaigned there so shortly after Neriglissar's campaign could suggest that Syria, which was under Bablyonian suzerainty, was threatened by raiders from Cilicia, or could point towards Nabonidus, in general, being concerned about the security of the empire. This initial campaign was successful and prisoners, gifts and booty were brought back to Babylon to use in the annual New Year's festival. Babylonian records give the number of prisoners later distributed as temple slaves as 2,850. After celebrating the New Year's festival, Nabonidus embarked on a short trip to southern Babylonia, visiting the cities of Kish, Larsa, Uruk and Ur. At Uruk, he conducted detailed reorganisations of the Eanna temple, making adjustments to the scheme of sacrificial offerings, and restored some offerings that had been interrupted under Neriglissar's reign. One inscription suggests that Nabonidus went on a second successful campaign to Cilicia in 555 BC, on the way perhaps attacking the city Hama in Syria, but the record is fragmentary.
Though Nabonidus made the traditional royal donations to the temples in Babylon, the major building effort of his reign, proclaimed as his intention shortly after he became king, was restoring the temple Ekhulkhul, the temple dedicated to Sîn in Harran, which had been destroyed by the Medes in 610 BC. Nabonidus noted at the beginning of his reign that the date of the temple's destruction was a strange coincidence: it had been destroyed exactly 54 years before he became king. 54 years is three 18-year cycles, or a complete cycle of the moon. Though the Elhulkhul was not restored until after Nabonidus returned from a long period of staying in Tayma in Arabia, it is possible that construction work started considerably earlier and it appears to have been his goal since he assumed the throne. Nabonidus's inscriptions also mention the that the Medes threatened Harran, "surrounding" it, and it is possible that building work was postponed until later in his reign due to the threat of Median raiders disturbing the building efforts. According to his inscriptions Nabonidus had been ordered to restore the temple by both Marduk and Sîn in a dream, and the gods had assured him that the Medes would eventually be restored so that construction could begin without being threatened by raids. In addition to Nabonidus's own religious beliefs, the restoration of the Ekhulkhul, and the city of Harran surrounding it, may also have been politically motivated. Since the downfall of Assyria, political hegemony in the Near East had been divided between Babylonia and the Medes, an issue that remained unresolved by the time of Nabonidus. As Nabonidus often refers to, and likens himself to, his predecessors Nebuchadnezzar II and Neriglissar, both conquerors and warriors, and several inscriptions allude to Nabonidus being preoccupied with military matters in his accession year, it seems that Nabonidus was preparing to resolve the matter.
Nabonidus in Tayma
In May 553 BC, Nabonidus departed to campaign in Arabia, initially to suppress a rebellion in the Anti-Lebanon Mountains. The Babylonians achieved victory relatively quickly, and Nabonidus still remained near the Anti-Lebanon Mountains in August, overseeing the transport of supplies back to Babylon. After a period of illness, Nabonidus then moved on Amurru and Edom and captured an otherwise unknown city. By December 553 BC or January 552 BC, Nabonidus was campaigning in Arabia, fighting against the king of Dadanu. By March or April, Nabonidus had defeated the king of Dadanu, and had captured other cities in Arabia, including the city of Tayma, which he had established as a provisionary seat for himself by the summer of 552 BC. Babylonian sources state that Nabonidus conquered Arabian lands as far south as Medina (called Yatribu at this time). After conquering Tayma, Nabonidus would stay there for about a decade, not returning to Babylon until September or October of 543 or 542 BC. October 543 BC is the return date most supported by surviving Babylonian documentation. The purpose for this prolonged stay, effectively self-exile, in Tayma are unclear and debated, with no proposed explanation having universal support.
The history of this period is poorly known and cannot be reconstructed in great detail, on an account of a lack of sources. Entries in several royal chronicles for this period are completely, or nearly completely, missing. According to the Verse Account of Nabonidus, a biased document probably written in the reign of Cyrus the Great (who ultimately deposed Nabonidus), Nabonidus conducted extensive building work at Tayma, fortifying it with new walls, embellishing it with new buildings and constructing a royal palace similar to, but likely considerably smaller than, his royal palace at Babylon, essentially rebuilding the city in a Babylonian fashion. Modern archaeological excavations at Tayma has revealed that the city underwent considerable expansion during the 6th century, including the construction of an extensive irrigation system. Some motifs on some of the ruins point towards a clear Babylonian influence, such as an offering table with a crescent, a star and a winged disk (reminiscent of religious motifs in Babylonia).
The reason for the Arabian campaign in the first place is not difficult to ascertain, as it probably represents the next step in the growing expansionism of Babylonia in the west. Babylonian forces had first come into contact with the Arabian kingdoms proper with the conquest of the Levant from Assyria, and the campaign was most likely intended to expand the Babylonian Empire westwards. Due to the many trade routes passing through Arabia, the region was incredibly wealthy and represented an appealing target. It is possible that the intention of conquering Tayma was to control these important trade routes that ran through the city (including the major trade route from Egypt to Babylon). To efficiently reap the benefits of the trade route, authority would have had to be enforced by a strong, local Babylonian force. However, stationing a Babylonian force at Tayma and leaving a governor in charge would have sufficed, the king would not have needed to stay in Arabia for ten years in order to pacify the region. Furthermore, beyond economical gains, the Tayma region was not of much strategic use. The Arabs were not a threat to Babylon, or any other power at this time, and though Egypt was a potentially powerful adversary, dealing with the Egyptians through fortifying a city isolated deep in Arabia, rather than fortifying and garrisoning the Babylonian lands in Palestine, would have been an unlikely strategy. Due to the remote and inaccessible location of Tayma, an argument that Nabonidus intended to move the centre of gravity of his empire westwards, through constructing a new capital there, has no basis.
Though Nabonidus could have been motivated to stay in Tayma for religious reasons, given that there were several prominent lunar deities in the region and Nabonidus was a devotee of the moon god Sîn, it seems unlikely that such a large endeavour would have been motivated solely by faith. Per Wiseman, any religious explanations for the prolonged stay at Tayma can be discarded as no sources mention the presence or construction of Babylonian temples, or a temple dedicated to Sîn, in the city. Beaulieu also points out that the Verse Account of Nabonidus, otherwise very focused on the king's religious beliefs, makes no mention of any religious activities at Tayma, which it surely would have done had the campaign and prolonged stay been religiously motivated.
During Nabonidus's stay at Tayma, his son and heir Belshazzar was put in charge of ruling in Babylon as regent. It is possible that the prolonged stay in Tayma was the result of a political struggle with a faction, possibly led by his own son Belshazzar, opposing Nabonidus's reformist religious stance, and an agreement was reached to go into self-imposed exile while Belshazzar ruled as regent in Babylon. In his own inscriptions, Nabonidus attributes his stay at Tayma to the "impiety of the Babylonians".
Nabonidus probably only campaigned in the west after making sure that the Medes in the north were no longer a threat. Beaulieu believes it possible that Nabonidus had encouraged Cyrus the Great to rebel and wage war against the Medes, and had even allied with him, seeing as the beginning of Nabonidus's stay in Tayma coincides with the beginning of Cyrus's reign. Per, Beaulieu: "unless one assumes that the king was totally devoid of strategic ability, it seems hard to believe that he would have engaged a significant part of the Babylonian army in a long campaign to Arabia without making sure that the northern and eastern borders of the empire would be secure, at least for a certain number of years". As the stay in Tayma continued, Cyrus the Great consolidated a vast empire under his rule. Belshazzar as regent became acutely aware of the threat presented by Cyrus's growing Achaemenid Empire, as he is recorded as having expended resources at projects in Sippar and nearby defenses.
Religious policies
Nabonidus has typically been characterised as attempting religious reforms in Babylonia, wishing to raise the moon god Sîn to the status of supreme deity and demoting the Babylonian national deity Marduk. The elevation of Sîn was similar to how the deity Inanna was elevated to a prominent position in Uruk during the time of the Akkadian Empire, more than a thousand years prior, or how Marduk had originally been elevated in Babylonia under Nebuchadnezzar I ( 1125–1104 BC). In contrast to these earlier successful exaltations, the attempt to elevate Sîn met with failure. This failure is because the exaltation of Sîn met with considerable opposition within Babylonia itself, and because the invasion and conquest by the Persians put an end to the political means with which the exaltation could be completed.
In addition to building inscriptions, the Verse Account of Nabonidus also alludes to attempts to establish Sîn as the foremost god of the Mesopotamian pantheon. The publication of the Verse Account in 1924 saw scholarly attention being given to other inscriptions and records concerning Nabonidus. Notably, many of his inscriptions fail to acknowledge Marduk as the head of the pantheon, or omit him entirely, and they often contain disproportionate praise for Sîn. It seems probable that Nabonidus's devotion to Sîn steadily increased throughout his reign, as the epithets granted to Marduk and Sîn throughout his reign varied considerably. Even early in his reign, the epithets granted to Marduk were only the minimum, epithets such as "king of the gods", "lord of lords" and "leader of the gods", a notably smaller array of titles than usual. In contrast Sîn is granted a large array of epithets, including some previously unheard of, with examples such as "shining god", "light of mankind", "exalted god" and "exalted lord". Nabonidus could hardly have moved to issue religious reforms early in his reign, especially as he had only taken the throne through usurpation. His early inscriptions are ostensibly orthodox, though point towards intentional restraint in glorifying Marduk and intentional disproportionate glorification of Sîn.Inscriptions from the time Nabonidus spent in Tayma seem to suggest that the king returned to "orthodoxy" during this period, with inscriptions no longer glorifying Sîn to a disproportionate degree (the deity barely being mentioned) and instead giving Marduk more elaborate and appropriate epithets, such as "foremost of the gods", "lofty king of the gods", "lord of everything" and "king of heaven and the underworld". These inscriptions stand in sharp contrast to inscriptions by Nabonidus in the years after his return to Babylon, wherein Sîn is repeatedly exalted and Marduk is more or less ignored, with the exception of one inscriptions where he appears merely as Sîn's companion. It is possible that the return to orthodoxy during Nabonidus's time in Tayma was because Babylonia was under the regency of Belshazzar, who might have convinced Nabonidus to stay away from Babylonia and instituted a clear return to orthodoxy, fearing confrontation with the oligarchy and clergy.
Inscriptions from the time after Nabonidus's return to Babylon suggest he was no longer hesitant to exalt Sîn, and that he began imposing a religious reform that went as far as to reject Marduk, who had been Babylon's undisputed supreme deity for at least six centuries. Several inscriptions attribute Marduk's traditional titles, for instance "king of the gods" and "father and creator of the gods" to Sîn, for instance this inscription concerning building work at the Ebabbar temple in Larsa (not the same temple as the one of the same name at Sippar), attributes Marduk's traditional titles to Sîn:
Some inscriptions also point towards an attempt at historical revisionism, with the successes of Nebuchadnezzar II being attributed to in inscriptions not to Marduk, but to Sîn, and one inscription describing Sîn, rather than the Assyrian deity Ashur, as having entrusted the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal with universal rule. Sîn also replaced Marduk's role of calling rulers forth for kingship. One inscription states that Nabonidus had been destined for kingship by the deities Sîn and Ningal (Sîn's consort) in his mother's womb. The exaltation of Sîn reached its height after the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul and Nabonidus's latest known text containing religious elements goes as far as to refer to Marduk's traditional dwellings in Babylon, the temples Esagila and Ezida, as the temples and dwellings of Sîn. Though it does not appear that the Esagila was ever "usurped" by Sîn, replacing Marduk in the temple by Sîn was a plan seriously considered by Nabonidus, who justified it by pointing out that there was lunar symbolism in temple through it being marked with a crescent symbol, which must have meant that it was originally intended for Sîn. In one inscription, Sîn is given the epithet "god of gods", the highest known epithet ever given to a Mesopotamian deity.
Concrete evidence surrounding Nabonidus's religious ideas is relatively scarce and no surviving documents contain any theological foundations for the king's faith and beliefs. Not all historians share the view that Nabonidus was a religious reformer. According to Donald Wiseman, Nabonidus "did not seek to create any exclusive role for [Sîn] in Babylon". Wiseman characterises Nabonidus as deeply religious and in support of Marduk, as all other Babylonian kings. In addition to the Elhulkhul temple, Nabonidus is also recorded in inscriptions as having conducted restoration work at temples in Babylon itself, Larsa, Sippar and Nippur. Wiseman attributes the opposition by religious official towards Nabonidus to that the king had introduced a new royal cash box in temples and sanctuaries, wherein some of the income of the temples was to be provided to the king, under the supervision of royal officials, and notes that Cyrus the Great's later documents referring to Nabonidus as irreverent in regards to Marduk could be propaganda. Though Nabonidus uses uncharacteristically high epithets for Sîn in many inscriptions, Weiherhäuser and Novotny pointed out that a majority of these epithets are generally limited to inscriptions and texts that document work on the Ekhulkhul temple in Harran, Sîn's cultic centre. Thus, Weiherhäuser and Novotny do not consider the evidence strong enough to support the idea that Nabonidus fanatically promoted Sîn, and sought to fully replace Marduk, within Babylonia itself.
Late reign and fall of Babylon
It is unclear why Nabonidus returned to Babylon from Tayma. Potential explanations include fearing the growing power of Cyrus the Great or perhaps serious disagreements with Belshazzar on religion and the extent of his authority. Upon his return, he also swiftly began to seriously institute his intended religious reforms, perhaps expending so much effort because of his advanced age and wanting to see the reforms through before he died. The major project of Nabonidus's later reign was the completion of the building projects at the Ekhulkhul in Harran, with the temple rebuilt directly on top of its original foundation. Nabonidus himself considered the rebuilding of the temple to be the major achievement of his reign. Building work was also conducted in Ur, Larsa, Sippar and Akkad. Some evidence suggests that there was famine in Babylonia during Nabonidus's later reign. Nabonidus appears to have attributed it to a sign of Sîn's wrath that the people were not responsive to the king's religious reforms, whereas the populace likely attributed it to Marduk's wrath with the king's heretical faith.
The New Year's festival, suspended during the king's absence in Tayma, was celebrated in its traditional manner annually once again after Nabonidus returned. It is noteworthy that the festival was suspended in Nabonidus's absence given that it was effectively an annual reinstatement of Marduk's authority and was conducted to ensure the well-being of Babylon. The threat of Cyrus loomed ever closer. Though the records are too fragmentary to tell with certainty, it appears that there was already a confrontation between Persian and Babylonian troops in the winter of 540/539 BC, near Uruk. After the celebration of the New Year's festival in 539 BC, Nabonidus had the statues of the gods of Uruk, Akkad, Kish, Marad and Khursagkalamma brought to the capital for safety, the conventional first step in anticipation of attacks from the north-east. This suggests that Nabonidus expected a Persian attack and was making preparations several months before it came. Though this was the conventional method to protect the divine statues in times of war (victorious enemies typically stole cultic statues), transport of statues in this fashion caused considerable disruption in the cults of the gods transported. For instance, the transport of the statue of Ishtar from Uruk to Babylon probably meant that offerings of food and drink had to be carried from Uruk to Babylon to give to the statue, to ensure that the cult was not interrupted.
The gods of some cities close to Babylon, such as Cutha, Sippar and Borsippa, were not brought to the capital. The reason for this is not known, but speculative explanations have been proposed. Sidney Smith, who published the translation of the Nabonidus Cylinder, suggested in 1924 that Nabonidus could have summoned the statues of those cities to the capital as well, but that the local priesthoods were disgusted by Nabonidus's attempt at religious reform and thus refused. Smith later proposed an alternative hypothesis, wherein he postulated that Sippar, Borsippa and Cutha were in the Babylonian heartland, protected by strong fortifications and the Median Wall (built under Nebuchadnezzar II to protect against attacks from the north), and as such would not have needed to send their statues to Babylon for protection, whereas more outlying cities such as Uruk were not as well-protected. This seems unlikely given that Kish and Khursagkalamma were closer to Babylon than Sippar was. Furthermore, Stefan Zawadzki demonstrated in 2012 that Sippar did send certain gods to Babylon, just not their main statue of their patron deity Shamash. This means that the explanation of Sippar and the other cities refusing to send their gods to Babylon seems unlikely. Zawadzki offered several possible explanations, including that Sippar wished to celebrate its traditional cultic rituals, which were close in time to the Persian invasion, and that there thus was not any time to transfer the statue to Babylon, or that perhaps Nabonidus himself had ordered the statue to remain in Sippar. Nabonidus might have ordered this since he intended to stop the Persians a short distance north of Sippar, and removing the statue from Sippar could have been construed as Nabonidus not having faith in his own victory.
Shortly after the last gods had entered Babylon, Cyrus invaded Babylonia. Despite Nabonidus's preparations, Babylonia fell to the Persians relatively quickly, the conflict lasting less than a month. It seems probable that the Persian invasion was preceded by a revolt by a man by the name Ugbaru, who might have been the appointed Babylonian governor of the region of Gutium. Ugbaru revolted against Nabonidus, joined Cyrus, and was made the primary general in the Babylonian campaign. Depending on when it took place, Ugbaru's revolt may have been one of the factors that made Nabonidus return from Tayma. Cyrus's first move was to attack the city of Opis. The battle of Opis was a decisive Persian victory, inflicting heavy casualties on the Babylonians and forcing the Babylonian forces to retreat beyond the Median Wall. Shortly thereafter, on 10 October 539 BC, Sippar was taken by Cyrus without a fight and Nabonidus retreated to Babylon. Why Sippar surrendered without a fight is not clear. It is possible the authorities at Sippar were disgruntled with Nabonidus's religious policies or else viewed the Babylonian defeat at Opis as so decisive that further resistance was pointless. Evidently there was some confusion at the time given that a tablet from Sippar, dated to 11 October (the day after the city's fall) was still dated to the reign of Nabonidus.
On 12 October, the Persian army, led by the governor Ugbaru, entered Babylon without a fight. The last tablet dated to Nabonidus's reign is from Uruk and is dated to 13 October, which is usually considered the end date of his reign. Shield-bearing Persian troops were assigned to guard the temples of Babylon, so that priests in safety could continue their services and rituals. On 29 or 30 October, Cyrus himself entered Babylon as its new king. He received the acclamation of the people, though whether it was as a liberator from oppression, as Cyrus presented himself, or as a conqueror, is open to interpretation. The end of Nabonidus's reign is sometimes alternatively dated to Babylon's fall to the Persians on 12 October, a day earlier than the last tablet dated to Nabonidus's reign, or to Cyrus's entry into the city, when Cyrus formally became king.
Fate
Ancient accounts differ as to the fate of Nabonidus after the fall of Babylon. The 5th/4th-century BC Greek historian Xenophon wrote that Ugbaru (or 'Gobryas') killed Nabonidus upon the capture of Babylon, but it is possible that Xenophon meant Belshazzar, whose death at the fall of Babylon is also recorded in the Biblical Book of Daniel. Berossus wrote that Nabonidus surrendered to Cyrus at Borsippa after the fall of Babylon who dealt with him "in a gracious manner", sparing his life and allowing him to retire, or possibly appointing him to be a governor, in Carmania (approximately the modern Kerman Province in Iran), where Nabonidus lived out the rest of his life. The royal chronicle simply states that Nabonidus was captured in Babylon after retreating, leaving his subsequent fate unclear. The Dynastic Prophecy corroborates Berossus's account, by stating that Nabonidus was removed from his throne and settled "in another land". If Berossus is believed, Nabonidus lived into the reign of Darius the Great (522–486 BC), outliving both Cyrus and Cyrus's son and successor Cambyses II, given that Berossus claims that "King Darius, however, took away a part of his province for himself". Given the age of his mother at the time of her death, it is not impossible that Nabonidus too would have lived for over a century.
The fate of Belshazzar is unknown, given that none of the sources describe what happened to him. It is typically assumed that Belshazzar was killed by the Persians at Babylon when the city fell, on 12 October, though he may alternatively already have been killed at the battle of Opis, captured and executed, or exiled together with his father.
Family, children and descendants
Details on Nabonidus's family are scarce. He likely had a large family even prior to becoming king, seeing as his mother Adad-guppi in her inscriptions claims that she had great-great-grandchildren, and Nabonidus was presumably Adagoppe's only child. Adad-guppi having great-great-grandchildren means that Nabonidus would have had great-grandchildren early in his reign, though the names, lineage, number and genders of these descendants are not mentioned. The known children of Nabonidus are:
Belshazzar (Akkadian: Bēl-šar-uṣur) – a son. Crown prince throughout Nabonidus's reign and regent 553–543/542 BC.
Ennigaldi-Nanna (Akkadian: En-nigaldi-Nanna) – a daughter. Consecrated by her father as an entum-priestess in Ur.
Ina-Esagila-remat or Ina-Esagila-risat (Akkadian: Ina-Esagil-rīšat) – a daughter. Mentioned as the recipient of a tithe at Sippar, otherwise little is known of her.
Akkabuʾunma (Akkadian: Akkabuʾunma, exact reading uncertain) – a daughter. Recorded in archival texts at Sippar.
Possibly another daughter recorded in archival texts at Sippar, however, her name is unknown.
Some later Babylonians would lay claim to descent from Nabonidus. Nidintu-Bêl, who rebelled against the Achaemenid king Darius the Great in late 522 BC and was proclaimed as Babylon's king, took the name Nebuchadnezzar III and claimed to be a son of Nabonidus. Nidintu-Bêl's real father was a man named Mukīn-zēri from the local prominent Zazakku family. Less than a year after Nidintu-Bêl's defeat, Babylon rebelled against Darius again in 521 BC. This time, the leader was Arakha, who like Nidintu-Bêl proclaimed himself to be a son of Nabonidus and took the name Nebuchadnezzar IV. Arakha was actually the son of a man by the name of Haldita and was not a native Babylonian, but rather a Urartian (Armenian).
Legacy
Character and remembrance
No other Neo-Babylonian king has been characterised in as varied a manner as Nabonidus. Though some Classical authors forgot, or omitted, details of Nabonidus in their accounts of Babylonia, only preserving him as a name in their lists of kings, the Achaemenid Empire that succeeded the reign of Nabonidus in Babylonia viewed his rule as an example that should never be emulated. The Achaemenids did not consider Nabonidus's more traditional work, restoring temples etc., to be important, but emphasised in their historiography the points when Nabonidus went contrary to what was expected of a Babylonian king. Cyrus the Great justified his conquest of Babylon by presenting himself as a champion divinely ordained by Marduk and by writing accounts of Nabonidus's "heretical" acts.
After the fall of Babylon, a legend of Nabonidus having been mad, on account of his religious policies, gradually formed, which would eventually find its way into Hellenistic and Jewish tradition. In the Book of Daniel, Nabonidus's supposed madness is reattributed to Nebuchadnezzar II. The accusation of insanity is not found in any cuneiform sources. The Verse Account is highly critical of Nabonidus, especially his religious policies, and though it presents Cyrus the Great as a liberator rather than conqueror, it makes no direct claim that Nabonidus was insane. The Dynastic Prophecy and the Cyrus Cylinder offer similar accounts, criticising Nabonidus and his policies, but not characterising him as mad. Some Babylonian sources are more neutral. The Babylonian Chronicle, a more objective account of Babylonian history, records the king as being absent from Babylon for years on end, and the resulting suspension of the New Year's festival, but does not pass any judgement on these events. In his history of Babylonia, Berossus presents Nabonidus as a usurper, which Nabonidus himself admitted to being, but reports nothing that could be construed as negative assessment of the king. As such, it is clear that contemporary views of Nabonidus were not completely negative. Had the Babylonians universally dismissed Nabonidus as an incompetent and impious heretic, it is also unlikely that two later Babylonian rebels would have claimed to be his sons. Cuneiform sources suggest that the Babylonians remembered Nabonidus as unorthodox and misguided, but not insane.
The Aramaic-language Prayer of Nabonidus, one of texts in the Dead Sea Scrolls, texts in Jewish tradition written centuries later, contains what might be the origin of the tale of Nabonidus being mad. The prayer claims that Nabonidus was afflicted with a terrible skin disease for seven years, which he was cured of by praying to the god of the Jews. The story is similar to Mesopotamian traditions of kings being cursed by the gods with skin diseases and being forced to wander the arid steppes like wild animals. There is a similar text from the Hellenistic period at Uruk, which ascribes Shulgi ( 2094–2046 BC), a king of the Third Dynasty of Ur, as being cursed with a skin disease after desecrating Marduk and elevating Sîn in his place. It is not unlikely that this legend was then associated with Nabonidus, who had elevated Sîn in Marduk's place, with later Jewish chroniclers associating skin disease with madness, and associating the tale of being condemned to wander the desert like a wild animal with Nabonidus's prolonged stay at Tayma.
Modern historians have characterised Nabonidus in various ways. When more of his inscriptions, combined with literary sources describing him and his time, were uncovered in the first half of the 19th century, Nabonidus came to be described in different eccentric ways. Some characterised him as an old antiquarian uninterested in government affairs, focused solely on archaeological excavations. Others viewed Nabonidus as an evil usurper, whose incompetence resulted in the fall of his ancient empire. Other saw Nabonidus as a religious fanatic, obsessed with making the moon god the supreme deity of his empire. According to Beaulieu, the picture historians have of Nabonidus today is as a clearly able ruler, who tried to save the Neo-Babylonian Empire, a powerful but hastily built and politically unstable realm, from its internal instability and its desperate geopolitical position. Lambert characterised Nabonidus as "the most individualist ruler of his time" on account of his unorthodox religious policies and his prolonged stay in Arabia. Weiershäuser and Novotny wrote that contrary to the overtly negative assessments from the Persian period, Nabonidus was a relatively successful ruler, undertaking many building projects, leading his armies in successful campaigns far away from the Babylonian heartland and ensuring that his empire prospered. Weierhäuser and Novotny considered Nabonidus to be "undoubtedly one of the most vibrant personalities of ancient Mesopotamia".
Nabonidus as an archaeologist
Nabonidus has sometimes been described as the "first archaeologist". Nabonidus conducted excavations founded on the well-established Mesopotamian idea that in order to properly renovate and rebuild a temple, its foundations had to be excavated so that it could be restored in accordance with its original plans. There is evidence that Nabonidus was more of an antiquarian than his predecessors, such as Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II, who conducted similar excavations during their restoration work on temples.
Nabonidus's activities and his inscriptions suggest a particular interest in history. He notably revived the office of entum-priestess in Ur and consecrated his daughter in that office, and his inscriptions as king also mention previous Babylonian and Assyrian rulers, as far back as Eriba-Marduk (who reigned as king of Babylon in the 8th century BC). Evidence that Nabonidus was more interested in history than his predecessors also exists in that Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II were often very brief in their descriptions of items found during the excavations of the temples, only briefly mentioning finding the foundation deposits of temples and which king had deposited the stone. Nabonidus on the other hand is more explicit and in three known instances even attempted to date these preceding rulers, placing Shagarakti-Shuriash ( 1245–1233 BC) 800 years before his own reign and Naram-Sin of Akkad ( 2254–2218 BC) 3200 years before his own reign. His attempted dating of Naram-Sin's reign, based on what was found during the excavation of a temple built by the king, is the earliest known dating of an archaeological artifact, and though Nabonidus's proposed date is off by about 1,500 years, it was still a very good estimate considering the lack of accurate dating technology. Nabonidus is also the only Neo-Babylonian king to in his inscriptions provide historical insight into why the temples he restored had fallen into disrepair in the first place, such as explaining how the sack of Harran by the Medes had damaged the temples in the city.
When rebuilding the Ebabbar temple in Sippar, Nabonidus discovered a statue of Sargon of Akkad ( 2334–2279 BC). Nabonidus restored the damaged statue because of his "reverence of the gods" and his "respect for kingship". The reasoning for restoring the statue is thus not only attributed to religious factors, but also to an interest in Sargon as a king, and respect for the Akkadian Empire, the first imperial period of ancient Mesopotamia. Following the discovery of the statue, Nabonidus appears to have conducted other work that suggests an interest in the Akkadian Empire, such as restoring the temple dedicated to Ishtar at Akkad, as well as an excavation of Naram-Sin's palace in Akkad. These excavations, though mostly beginning as restorations of religious buildings, also uncovered archaeological artefacts that were used for political, as well as scholarly, purposes. In contrast to preceding Neo-Babylonian kings, who had been largely silent about Assyria, Nabonidus clearly positioned himself and the Babylonian kings as the successors of the Assyrian kings, calling them his "royal ancestors", who had ruled as universal monarchs throughout the Near East. Association with the Akkadian kings through excavations might thus have been partially politically motivated, linking the Neo-Babylonian Empire not only to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, but also to the old Akkadian Empire.
Titles
In two of his known inscriptions, Nabonidus assumes the traditional titulary of the old Neo-Assyrian kings (though omitting the title 'king of Assyria'), in sharp contrast to the otherwise typically modest titularies of the Neo-Babylonian kings. His titulary, as used in an inscription intended for Harran (i.e. within former Assyria), after the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul, Nabonidus used the following titles:
The use of typical Assyrian titles such as 'king of the Universe' and 'king of the Four Quarters', as well as the epithets 'strong king' and 'great king', might derive from inscriptions by Assyrian kings being discovered at Harran during the building work at the Ekhulkhul, and Nabonidus assuming those titles as part of his claim to the heritage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. More noteworthy is the presence of certain Assyrian titles in some inscriptions intended for Babylonia proper. The title 'king of the Universe' was for instance incorporated into Nabonidus's titles as displayed in an inscription at Ur:
There are also more standard Babylonian examples of Nabonidus's title, prior to the rebuilding of the Ekhulkhul, without Assyrian elements:
A longer variant, from an inscription describing renovation work on Babylon's walls, reads:
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
Web sources
539 BC deaths
6th-century BC Babylonian kings
Leaders who took power by coup
Place of birth unknown
Year of birth unknown
Kings of the Universe
Dethroned monarchs
Chaldean dynasty
Post-Imperial Assyria | [
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256679 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20rivers%20of%20Albania | List of rivers of Albania | Albania has more than 152 rivers and streams, forming 8 large rivers flowing from southeast to northwest, mainly discharging towards the Adriatic coast. The rivers of Albania have a total annual flow rate of , or per year.
A majority of the precipitation that falls on Albania, drains into the rivers and reaches the coast on the west without even leaving the country. In the north, only one small stream escapes Albania. In the south, an even smaller rivulet drains into Greece. Due to the topographical divide is east of the border with the Republic of North Macedonia. An extensive portion of the basin of the White Drin, basin is in the Dukagjin region, across the northeastern border with Kosovo. The Lake of Ohrid, Lake of Prespa and the Small Lake of Prespa on the southeast, as well as the streams that flow into them, drain into the Black Drin. The watershed divide in the south also dips nearly into Greece at one point. Several tributaries of the Vjosa River rise in that area. About 65% of their watershed lies within the Albanian territory. The water temperature ranges from 3.5 to 8.9 °C in the winter, and from 17.8 to 24.6 °C in the summer months.
Main rivers
Other rivers
Basins
Organized by drainage basin. Albanian-language names are listed if different from English. Italics indicate that the body of water is not in or bordering Albania.
Adriatic Sea
Bojana –
Great Drin –
White Drin –
Black Drin –
Lake Ohrid –
Valbona
Gashi
Shala
Kir
Lake Skadar –
Morača –
Cem
Mareza
Gulf of Drin –
Small Drin; see Great Drin above
Aoös –
Drino
Shushicë
Sarantaporos
Seman
Osum
Devoll
Tomorrica
Shkumbin
Mat
Fan
Erzen
Ishëm
Gjole
Tërzukë
Tiranë
Lanë
Zezë
Ionian Sea
Pavllë
Bistricë
Blue Eye (spring) –
Black Sea
Danube –
Sava
Drina
Lim
See also
Protected areas of Albania
Geography of Albania
Climate of Albania
Biodiversity of Albania
References
Albania
Rivers
Landforms of Albania | [
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256682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparatus | Apparatus | Apparatus may refer to:
Technical term for a body of the Soviet and post-Soviet governments (see Apparatchik)
Machine
Equipment
Critical apparatus, the critical and primary source material that accompanies an edition of a text
"Apparatus" (song), a song by Bombus
Apparatus (band), an electro-industrial group active during the nineties
Apparatus (album), 1995 release by the band Apparatus
Apparatus (journal), an academic journal on film
In gymnastics, any of the individual events, or the equipment used in performing the event
A piece of laboratory equipment
in anatomy, a group of organs, see Apparatus (anatomy)
See also
Firefighting apparatus
Golgi apparatus, an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells
Apparatus theory, within cinema studies during the 1970s
The Red Jumpsuit Apparatus, a post-hardcore band
Ideological state apparatuses, a philosophical construct by Louis Althusser | [
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256686 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20Queensferry | South Queensferry | Queensferry, also called South Queensferry or simply "The Ferry", is a town to the west of Edinburgh, Scotland. Traditionally a royal burgh of West Lothian, it is administered by the City of Edinburgh council area. It lies ten miles to the north-west of Edinburgh city centre, on the shore of the Firth of Forth between the Forth Bridge, Forth Road Bridge and the Queensferry Crossing. The prefix South serves to distinguish it from North Queensferry, on the opposite shore of the Forth. Both towns derive their name from the ferry service established by Queen Margaret in the 11th century, which continued to operate at the town until 1964, when the Road Bridge was opened.
Its population at the 2011 census was 9,026 based on the 2010 definition of the locality which in addition to the burgh includes Dalmeny.
Toponymy
The Gaelic name Taobh a Deas Chas Chaolais means "[the] Southern Side of [the] Steep Strait". The name "Cas Chaolas" (Steep Strait) is older than the English name; it can be applied to either North or South Queensferry, or both. The queen referred to is Saint Margaret of Scotland who is believed to have established a ferry at this point for pilgrims on their way north to St Andrews. She died in 1093 and made her final journey by ferry to Dunfermline Abbey. Her son, David I of Scotland, awarded the ferry rights to the abbey.
Local Traditions
Christmas in Queensferry
A local showcase of talent and celebration in preparation for Christmas. The community gather together for a series of performances from Queensferry’s local people. The night ends with a firework display and a switch on of the towns decoration. The show is hosted by familiar faces in the town such as Councillor Norman Work, Ben Graham and Ross Graham, Adam Mitchell or Luke Cumming-McMillan and Jonathan Riley (current).
The Ferry Fair
A local fair dates from the 12th century. The modern fair, dating from the 1930s, takes place each August and includes the crowning of a local school-girl as the Ferry Fair Queen, accompanied by a Ferry Fair Court of other school-children, a procession of floats, pipe bands, and competitive events such as the Boundary Race. The Fair had a dedicated radio station, Jubilee1, which in May 2007 was awarded a licence to evolve into a full Public Service Community Station for North and South Queensferry.
The Burry Man
Queensferry hosts the strange annual procession of the Burry Man during the Ferry Fair. This unique cultural event is over three hundred years old, and likely pagan in origin. The name 'Burry Man' almost certainly refers to the hooked fruits of the burdock plant - burrs - in which he is covered, although some have suggested that it is a corruption of 'Burgh Man', since the town is traditionally a royal burgh.
A local man is covered from head-to-toe in sticky burrs which adhere to undergarments covering his entire body, leaving only the shoes, hands and two eye holes exposed. On top of this layer he wears a sash, flowers and a floral hat and he grasps two staves. His ability to bend his arms or sit down is very restricted during the long day and his progress is a slow walk with frequent pauses. Two attendants in ordinary clothes assist him throughout the ordeal, helping him hold the staves, guiding his route, and fortifying him with whisky sipped through a straw, whilst enthusiastic children go from door-to-door collecting money on his behalf. The key landmarks on the tour are the Provost's office and each pub in the village.
The Loony Dook
The name "Loony dook" is a combination of "Loony" (short for "lunatic") and "dook", a Scots term meaning "dip" or "bathe", and is an event whereby people dive into the freezing waters of the Firth of Forth on New Year's Day, often in fancy dress. In recent years the event has attracted people from all over the world, including many people visiting Edinburgh to celebrate Hogmanay. A proposal to charge people to participate in this event was introduced in 2011, the proceeds of which benefit RNLI Queensferry.
The event was conceived in 1986 as a joking suggestion by three locals for a New Year's Day hangover cure. The following year it was decided to repeat the event for charity. It has grown to become part of the official Edinburgh Hogmanay celebrations. Until 2010 the event was organised by locals and started from the Moorings pub (now the Inchcolm) but from 2011, due to factors such as increased crowds, safety issues and popularity, the event has been handled by the organisers of Edinburgh's Hogmanay, with the parade now starting from the Hawes Promenade at the other end of the town. Up to 2016 two of the original Dookers, James MacKenzie and Ian 'Rambo' Armstrong, have the distinction of taking part in every Loony Dook and the two wore specially designed T-shirts with 30yrs to celebrate the achievement.
The event has inspired similar, though smaller in scale, annual New Year Loony Dooks, such as in North Berwick in East Lothian and Kirkcaldy in Fife, both also on the Firth of Forth.
Brass band
Queensferry has a community brass band that evolved from being a school brass band to a youth band and finally to its present status as a competing adult band. It came third in the 2006 Scottish Brass Band Championships 4th section contest and fourth in 2007. In addition to competing, it takes part in many community events including the Ferry Fair and Christmas in Queensferry light switch on event
In addition to this there is a school brass band that has won the Community section of the Scottish Youth Brass Band Championships in 2005 and 2006.
Places of interest
Churches
St Mary's Episcopal Church, also known as the Priory Church, is the town's oldest building, built for the Carmelite Order of friars in the 1450s. It is the only medieval Carmelite church still in use in the British Isles, and is a Category A listed building. After the Scottish Reformation of 1560 it served as the parish church until 1635. In 1890 it was reconsecrated for the Scottish Episcopal Church.
The Old Parish Church on The Vennel dates from 1633 and has an interesting early graveyard. The church became known as the South Church in 1929, and served the Church of Scotland congregation until 1956, when it united with St Andrew's Church. The old South Church building was sold in 1970 and is now a house.
The building which now houses Queensferry Parish Church, located in The Loan, was originally built as South Queensferry United Free Church. Following the union of the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland in 1929, the UF Church became known as St Andrew's Church and the old Church of Scotland congregation as the South Church. The two congregations were united in 1956, becoming Queensferry Parish Church. The Reverend John Carrie was minister from 1971 until his untimely death in 2008. In 1972 he started an annual sponsored walk across the Forth Road Bridge for Christian Aid, so far raising over £1,000,000. In 2009 the Rev. David Cameron transferred from Newton Mearns to Queensferry Parish Church.
St Margaret's Roman Catholic church is also located on The Loan. Mass is held daily and taken by Father Tony.
Stately homes
Hopetoun House - Two miles to the west, a splendid Georgian stately home designed by the Scottish architects Sir William Bruce and William Adam and situated in 150 acres (607,000 m²) of parkland. Home to the Earls of Hopetoun since 1699.
Dalmeny House - Two miles to the east, Dalmeny House was built by English architect William Wilkins in 1817 and is the home of the Earls of Rosebery. It houses the Rosebery and some of the Rothschild collections.
Dundas Estate - One mile to the south. A 9-hole golf course has been established in its parkland since the 1920s. Each year it hosts a "The Life of Jesus Christ", an Oberammergau-type open-air passion play.
Other significant buildings
Black Castle is a house on the High Street built in 1626. When the original owner, a sea-captain, was lost at sea, his maid was accused of paying a beggar-woman to cast a spell. Both women were burned for witchcraft. Plewlands House is a 17th-century mansion in the centre of the village. It was restored in the 1950s as flats, and is now managed by the National Trust for Scotland. South Queensferry Tolbooth, on the High Street, dates from the 17th century, with a clock-tower built in 1720.
The Hawes Inn, dating from the 17th century, lies east of Queensferry, almost under the Forth Bridge on its south side. It features in Robert Louis Stevenson's novel Kidnapped. Opposite the Hawes Inn is the pier which served the ferry (from which the town derives its name) until the opening of the Forth Road Bridge. The pier is now used by tourist boats including the ferry to Inchcolm.
South Queensferry Cemetery on Ferrymuir Lane at the south end of the town is unremarkable other than for the very large number of Royal Navy war graves, many for casualties of the Battle of Jutland (1916) who were brought here for burial. It is maintained and operated by the City of Edinburgh Council. It superseded the small graveyard on The Vennel in the centre of town.
Opened in March 2007 by Dakota Hotels, the 'black box' seen from the A90 is a hotel, Bar & Grill.
Mesolithic settlement
In 2012 as part of the excavations for the new Forth road crossing archaeologists excavated the remains of a mesolithic dwelling dating to around 10,000 years ago and believed to be the earliest home discovered in Scotland, and possibly the entire UK.
Schools
Queensferry has four primary schools (Echline Primary, Queensferry Primary, St Margaret's RC Primary and Dalmeny Primary) and one secondary school (Queensferry High School), with Kirkliston Primary also part of its catchment area.
Food and drink
There are a large selection of pubs, bars and restaurants within Queensferry. The High Street is home to many bars and restaurants, such as the Ferry Tap, Anchor Inn, Staghead Hotel (The Stag), Orocco Pier (formerly Queensferry Arms), Boathouse. The area is also the location of many ice cream and confectionary shops, such as The Little Parlour and Once Upon A Time.
The local brewery, Ferry Brewery, makes beers named after landmarks around the town, including the Ferry Crossing and the Three Bridges.
Commercial development
In recent decades in Queensferry there has been significant commercial development of the Ferrymuir area to the south of the town by the A90 road into Edinburgh. Development includes a large Tesco, Burger King, McDonald's, Dakota and a Premier Inn. It is also home to an NHS 24 call centre and the Scottish Ambulance Service East Control Room. Further into the town, The Loan Centre, along with South Queensferry Medical Practice, stands on the site of the former VAT 69 distillery.
Transport
Queensferry is served by bus services operated by: Lothian Country, FirstGroup and Stagecoach East Scotland.
Dalmeny railway station is located to the east of South Queensferry, where ScotRail operates services on its Fife Circle route.
Notable residents
Paul Appleby, professional featherweight boxer
David Boner, former footballer
Ben Chatwin, musician
Julia Cross, former ITF Taekwon-Do World Champion
Stephen Hendry, professional snooker player
Jim Kerr and Chrissie Hynde, musicians
Ken MacLeod, science fiction writer
Anna Meredith, composer
Callum Paterson, professional footballer
Robert Stodart Wyld FRSE (1808-1893), distiller and philosopher, Provost of Queensferry from 1852 to 1861
References
External links
Flora Celtica: The Burry Man
History of the Ferry Fair
Queensferry and District Community Council
Queensferry History Group
Ferry Fair Festival
Queensferry Parish Church
Towns in Edinburgh council area
Royal burghs | [
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256687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mountains%20in%20Albania | List of mountains in Albania | With an average elevation of above sea level, Albania is one of the most mountainous countries in the world. It has a mountainous terrain that covers more than 70% of its total territory. There are many peaks reaching heights of more than .
Albania can be divided into four main regions: Northern Range, Central Range, Southern Range and Western Lowlands. The most notable topographical features are the Ceraunian Mountains, Dinaric Alps, Korab Mountains, Pindus Mountains and the Skanderbeg Mountains.
The highest peak is Korab standing at elevation above sea level on the border with the Republic of North Macedonia. It is one of only two summits in Europe, which is the highest peak for more than one country. It is also the 18th most prominent mountain peak in Europe.
List of mountains in Albania
See also
Protected areas of Albania
Geography of Albania
Mountain passes in Albania
References
Albania
Mountains
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256688 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fee%20simple | Fee simple | In English law, a fee simple or fee simple absolute is an estate in land, a form of freehold ownership. A "fee" is a vested, inheritable, present possessory interest in land. A "fee simple" refers to a sub-category of such interests that features an absence of any temporal condition limiting its durational period under common law, whereas the highest possible form of ownership interest that can be held in real property is a "fee simple absolute," which is a sub-set characterized by an absence of limitations regarding the land's use (such as qualifiers or conditions that disallow certain uses of the land or subject the vested interest to termination). Allodial title is reserved to governments under a civil law structure. The rights of the fee-simple owner are limited by government powers of taxation, compulsory purchase, police power, and escheat, and may also be limited further by certain encumbrances or conditions in the deed, such as, for example, a condition that required the land to be used as a public park, with a reversion interest in the grantor if the condition fails; this is a fee simple conditional.
History
The word "fee" is derived from fief, meaning a feudal landholding. Feudal land tenures existed in several varieties, most of which involved the tenant having to supply some service to his overlord, such as knight-service (military service). If the tenant's overlord was the king, grand serjeanty, then this might require providing many different services, such as providing horses in time of war or acting as the king's ceremonial butler. These fiefs gave rise to a complex relationship between landlord and tenant, involving duties on both sides. For example, in return for receiving his tenant's fealty or homage, the overlord had a duty to protect his tenant. When feudal land tenure was abolished all fiefs became "simple", without conditions attached to the tenancy.
Common law
In English common law, the Crown had radical title or the allodium of all land in England, meaning that it was the ultimate "owner" of all land in the past feudal era. However, the Crown can grant ownership in an abstract entity—called an estate in land—which is what is owned rather than the land it represents. The fee simple estate is also called "estate in fee simple" or "fee-simple title", sometimes simply "freehold" in England and Wales. From the start of the Norman period, when feudalism was introduced to England, the tenant or "holder" of a fief could not alienate (sell) it from the possession of his overlord. However, a tenant could separate a parcel of the land and grant it as a subordinate fief to his own sub-tenant, a process known as sub-enfeoffing or "subinfeudation". The 1290 Statute of Quia Emptores abolished subinfeudation and instead allowed the sale of fee simple estates.
William Blackstone defined fee simple as the estate in land that a person has when the lands are given to him and his heirs absolutely, without any end or limit put to his estate. Land held in fee simple can be conveyed to whomsoever its owner pleases; it can also be mortgaged or put up as security.
Owners of real property in fee simple have the privilege of interest in the property during their lifetime and typically have a say in determining who gets to own an interest in the property after their death.
Historically, estates could be limited in time. Common temporal limitations include life estate, a land ownership that terminates upon the grantee's (or another person's) death even if the land had been granted to a third party, or a term of years, a lease for a specified term, such as in an estate for years. A fee also could be limited through the method of its inheritance, such as by an "entailment", which created a fee tail. Traditionally, fee tail was created by words of grant such as "to N. and the male heirs of his body", which would restrict those who could inherit the property. If no heirs could be found, then the property would revert to the original grantor's heirs. Most common law countries have abolished entailment by statute.
Duration
An estate in fee simple denotes the maximum ownership in land that can be legally granted; it is the greatest possible aggregate of rights, powers, privileges and immunities available in land. The three hallmarks of the fee simple estate are that it is alienable, devisable and descendible.
Creation and characteristic of fee simple
Rules requiring words of general inheritance to create fee simple by conveyance have been abolished by statute in the United States. To convey an estate in fee simple at common law, the deed or will must state "to B and his heirs." Anything short of those words transferred a smaller estate.
Modern deeds usually follow a standardized form. There is a presumption that the testator intends to convey his or her property in fee simple unless the will indicates an intention to transfer a smaller estate, such as a life estate.
Life estate
Many jurisdictions retain the possibility of creating a life estate, although this is uncommon. In the United States, life estates are most commonly used either to grant someone use of the property for the remainder of that person's life in a will, or by a grantor to reserve the right to continue using the property for the remainder of the grantor's life after it is sold. The right to ownership of the property after the death of the life estate owner is called the remainder estate. In England and Wales fee simple is the only freehold estate that remains; a life estate can only be created in equity and is not a right in property.
Types of fee simple
If previous grantors of a fee simple estate do not create any conditions for subsequent grantees, then the title is called fee simple absolute. A fee simple absolute is the highest estate permitted by law, and it gives the holder full possessory rights and obligations now and in the future. Other fee simple estates in real property include fee simple defeasible (or fee simple determinable) estates. A defeasible estate is created when a grantor places a condition on a fee simple estate (in the deed). When a specified event happens, the estate may become void or subject to annulment. There are two types of defeasible estates: fee simple determinable and the fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. If the grantor uses durational language in the condition such as "to A. as long as the land is used for a park", then upon the happening of the specified event (in this case if the land is used for anything other than a park), the estate will automatically terminate and revert to the grantor or the grantor's estate; this is called a fee simple determinable. If the grantor uses language such as "but if alcohol is served", then the grantor or the heirs have a right of entry if the condition occurs, but the estate does not automatically revert to the grantor; this is a fee simple subject to a condition subsequent. In most jurisdictions in the United States these concepts have been modified by statute. Fee simple determinable was generally preferred by courts in the common law of the early United States. Recently, that trend has reversed, and most courts in the United States will find a fee simple subject to condition subsequent in situations where the conveying document's language is unclear.
Rent
The claim that no rent or similar obligations are due from the owner of property in fee simple is only partially true. For example, a rentcharge may exist requiring a freeholder to pay a fixed sum of money closely resembling rent, and many jurisdictions have created financial obligations that may be imposed on a freehold estate. England and Wales impose an estate charge. In the United States, fee simple owners are usually subject to property tax and the revenue generated is directed to the municipality's general fund. Other local tax assessments called "special purpose taxes" may be assessed in addition to the property taxes for specific purposes such as infrastructure improvements. Real estate owned as a condominium is usually similarly owned in fee simple, but typically subject to rules in the declaration of condominium or created by the condominium association, such as paying required monthly fees for maintaining the property's common areas; however, these are generally treated legally as covenants running with the land (contracts binding on the possessors of real property) imposing an affirmative duty to pay money rather than as rent for property held in fee simple.
Etymology
Fee – A right in law to the use of land; i.e. a fief. Simple – in the unconstrained sense:
without limit to the inheritance of heirs;
unrestricted as to transfer of ownership.
The English word fee ultimately goes back to the Indo-European root *peku, which refers to moveable wealth, that is, cattle. The Latin word pecunia, money, also comes from this root and becomes pecuniary in English. The root appears in Modern German as Vieh, cattle, beast.
See also
Freehold (law), covering all types and mentioning trusts and most common, major, adverse interests.
Freehold (Scots law)
Allodial title
Fee tail
Leasehold
Life estate
Quia Emptores
Notes
Common law
Real property law
Feudalism in England
Land tenure | [
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256691 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules%20Cotard | Jules Cotard | Jules Cotard (1 June 1840 – 19 August 1889) was a French neurologist who is best known for first describing the Cotard delusion, a patient's delusional belief that they are dead, do not exist or do not have bodily organs.
Biography
Education
He studied medicine in Paris and later went on to work as an intern at Hospice de la Salpêtrière, where he worked for, among others, Jean-Martin Charcot.
Career
Cotard became particularly interested in cerebrovascular accidents (commonly known as 'strokes') and their consequences and undertook autopsies to better understand how these affected the brain. In 1869, Cotard left Salpêtrière, and at the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War, he joined an infantry regiment as a regimental surgeon. Cotard moved to the town of Vanves in 1874, where he remained for the last 15 years of his life. He made particular contributions to the understanding of diabetes and delusions. In August 1889, Cotard's daughter contracted diphtheria and he reportedly refused to leave her bedside for 15 days until she recovered. He eventually contracted diphtheria himself and died on 19 August.
In popular culture
Jules Cotard served as the real-life model for the character of Dr. Cottard in the Marcel Proust novel In Search of Lost Time.
In the film Synecdoche, New York, protagonist Caden Cotard is a reference to the Cotard Delusion.
External links and references
1840 births
1889 deaths
People from Issoudun
French neuroscientists
French military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War | [
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