Datasets:

cfli
/

ssss

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 73.3k rows

question stringlengths 18 1.2k	facts stringlengths 44 500k	answer stringlengths 1 147
Who was the leader of the Greek forces during the Trojan War?	Description of Major Figures of the Trojan War Agamemnon Ajax Ajax was one of the suitors of Helen and so was one of the members of the Greek force against Troy in the Trojan War. He was almost as skilled a fighter as Achilles . Ajax killed himself. Ajax Andromache Andromache was the loving wife of the Trojan prince Hector and mother of their son, Astyanax. Hector and Astyanax were killed, Troy destroyed, and (at the end of the Trojan War) Andromache was taken as a war bride, by Neoptolemus, son of Achilles , to whom she bore Amphialus, Molossus, Pielus, and Pergamus. Andromache Cassandra Cassandra, a princess of Troy, was awarded as a war bride to Agamemnon at the end of the Trojan War. Cassandra prophesied their murder, but as was true with all her prophecies because of a curse from Apollo, Cassandra was not believed. Cassandra Clytemnestra Clytemnestra was the wife of Agamemnon. She ruled in his stead while Agamemnon went off to fight the Trojan War. When he returned, after having murdered their daughter Iphigenia, she killed him. Their son, Orestes, in turn, killed her. Not all version of the story has Clytemnestra slaying her husband. Sometimes it is her lover. Odysseus Patroclus Patroclus was a dear friend of Achilles who put on the armor of Achilles and led Achilles' Myrmidons into battle, while Achilles was sulking on the sidelines. Patroclus was killed by Hector. Patroclus Penelope Penelope, the faithful wife of Odysseus, kept suitors at bay for twenty years while her husband fought at Troy and suffered Poseidon's wrath on his return home. During this time, she raised their son Telemachus to adulthood. Penelope Priam Priam was the king of Troy during the Trojan War. Hecuba was the wife of Priam. Their daughters were Creusa, Laodice, Polyxena, and Cassandra. Their sons were Hector, Paris (Alexander), Deiphobus, Helenus, Pammon, Polites, Antiphus, Hipponous, Polydorus, and Troilus. Priam Sarpedon Sarpedon was a leader of Lycia and an ally of the Trojans in the Trojan War. Sarpedon was a son of Zeus. Patroclus killed Sarpedon.	Agamemnon
Which New York landmark is known as ‘The Crossroads of the World’?	Trojan War - Ancient History Encyclopedia Trojan War by Mark Cartwright published on 15 May 2013 The Trojan War , fought between Greeks and the defenders of the city of Troy in Anatolia sometime in the late Bronze Age, has grabbed the imagination for millennia. A conflict between Mycenaeans and Hittites may well have occurred, but its representation in epic literature such as Homer ’s Iliad is almost certainly more myth than reality. Nevertheless, it has defined and shaped the way ancient Greek culture has been viewed right up to the 21st century CE. The story of gods and heroic warriors is perhaps one of the richest single surviving sources from antiquity and offers insights into the warfare , religion , customs, and attitudes of the ancient Greeks. Origins of the War The main source for our knowledge of the Trojan War is Homer’s Iliad (written sometime in the 8th century BCE) where he recounts 53 days during the final year of the ten year conflict. The Greeks imagined the war to have occurred some time in the 13th century BCE. However, the war was also the subject of a long oral tradition prior to Homer’s work, and this, combined with other sources such as the fragmentary Epic Cycle poems, give us a more complete picture of what exactly the Greeks thought of as the Trojan War. Remove Ads Advertisement The Trojan War, in Greek tradition, started as a way for Zeus to reduce the ever-increasing population of humanity and, more practically, as an expedition to reclaim Helen , wife of Menelaos, King of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon . Helen was abducted by the Trojan prince Paris (also known as Alexandros) and taken as his prize for choosing Aphrodite as the most beautiful goddess in a competition with Athena and Hera at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis. Menelaos and the Greeks wanted her back and to avenge Trojan impudence. The Greeks The coalition of Greek forces (or Archaians as Homer often calls them) were led by King Agamemnon of Mycenae . Amongst the cities or regions represented were Boiotia, Phocia, Euboea, Athens , Argos , Corinth , Arcadia, Sparta, Kephalonia, Crete , Rhodes , Magnesia, and the Cyclades . Just how many men these totalled is unclear. Homer states an army of ‘tens of thousands’ or rather more poetically ‘as many [men] as the leaves and flowers that come in springtime’. Amongst the Greek warriors were some extra special heroes, leaders who were the greatest fighters and displayed the greatest courage on the battlefield. Also, they often had a divine mother or father whilst the other parent was a mortal, thereby creating a genealogical link between the gods and ordinary men. Amongst the most important were Achilles , Odysseus , Ajax, Diomedes, Patroklos, Antilokus, Menestheus, and Idomenus. Remove Ads Advertisement The Greeks were aided by several of the Olympian gods of Greek religion . Athena, Poseidon , Hera, Hephaistos , Hermes , and Thetis all gave direct or indirect help to the Greeks in Homer’s account of the war. The gods had their favourites amongst the men fighting down on the plains of Troy and they often protected them by deflecting spears and even spiriting them away in the heat of battle to put them down somewhere safe, far from danger. The Trojans The Trojan army defending the great city of Troy, led by their king Priam, had assistance from a long list of allies. These included the Carians, Halizones, Kaukones, Kikones, Lycians, Maionians, Mysians, Paionians, Paphlagonians, Pelasgians, Phrygians, and Thracians. The Trojans, too, had their semi-divine heroes and these included Hektor (son of Priam), Aeneas, Sarpedon, Glaukos, Phorkys, Poulydamas, and Rhesos. The Trojans also had help from the gods, receiving assistance during the battle from Apollo , Aphrodite, Ares , and Leto. Remove Ads Advertisement Ares, god of War, called Terror and Panic to yoke his horses, while he himself put on his gleaming armour. Iliad Key Battles Most of the Trojan War was in a fact a protracted siege, and the city was able to resist the invaders for so long principally because its fortifications were so magnificent. Indeed, in Greek mythology , the walls of Troy were said to have been built by Poseidon and Apollo who, after an act of impiety, were compelled by Zeus to serve the Trojan King Laomedon for one year. There were, though, battles outside the city where armies fought, sometimes with chariots, but mostly by men on foot using spears and swords and protected by a shield, helmet, and armour for the chest and legs. War waged back and forth across the plains of Troy over the years, but the really exciting battles seem to have been reserved for the final year of the siege and the following are a selection of the highlights. Menelaos v Paris Tiring of indecisive battles, Menelaos offered to fight Paris in single-combat and so settle the issue of the war. Agreeing to this, the two warriors drew lots to see who would have first throw with their spear. Paris won and threw first but his spear landed harmlessly in the shield of Menelaos. The Greek king then threw his weapon with tremendous force and the spear went through the shield of Paris and carried on through to pierce his armour. If Paris had not swayed at the last moment, he would surely have been killed outright. However, Menelaos was not finished and with his sword he struck a fearful blow on the Trojan prince’s helmet. The sword shattered, though, and fell in pieces into the dust. Menelaos then grabbed Paris’ helmet with his bare hands and proceeded to drag him from the field. Choking as his helmet strap wrapped around his neck, Paris was only saved through the intervention of Aphrodite who broke the helmet strap and, covering the prince in a thick mist, spirited her favourite back to the safety of his perfumed bedroom. Ajax v Hektor The meeting of the two great heroes echoes that of Menelaos and Paris. Each throw their spears but to no effect. Hektor then threw a large rock at the Greek, only for him to fend it off with his shield. Ajax then returned the favour with an even bigger rock, smashing Hektor’s shield. They then drew their swords and closed for mortal combat but were each stopped by their comrades who called for an end to the fighting as night was approaching. Displaying the code of honour for which the good old days were famous, the two warriors even said goodbye on friendly terms by exchanging gifts, Hektor giving a silver-hilted sword and Ajax giving a splendid purple belt. The Greek Camp Attacked Following a tremendous day of fighting, Hektor led the Trojans in an attack on the very walls of the Greeks’ camp. Breaking through the gates, the Trojans sent the Greeks fleeing in panic back to their ships. However, as Zeus was momentarily distracted by the charms of Hera, Poseidon stepped in to encourage the Greeks who rallied and forced the Trojans to retreat. Then the tide of battle changed again and, with the support of Apollo, an inspirational Hektor, in his finest hour, once more beat the Greeks back to their ships where he sought to set them ablaze. The Death of Patroklos Invincible Achilles was quite simply the greatest warrior in Greece , or anywhere else for that matter. Much to the Greek’s frustration, though, he sat out most of the war in a big sulk. Agamemnon had stolen his female war-booty Briseis and consequently the hero refused to fight. Agamemnon at first doesn’t seem to have been too bothered about losing his temperamental talisman but as the Trojans started to gain an upper hand in the war, it began to look like Achilles would be needed if the Archaians were to actually win the protracted conflict. Accordingly, an increasingly desperate Agamemnon sent an appeal to Achilles with promises of vast treasure if he would only re-join the conflict. These Achilles refused but with the Greek camp under attack, Patroklos appealed to his mentor and great friend Achilles to rejoin the conflict and, when he still refused, Patroklos asked for permission to wear Achilles’ armour and lead the fearful Myrmidons himself. Achilles, on seeing one of the Greek ships already ablaze, reluctantly gave his consent but warned Patroklos to only repel the Trojans from the camp and not pursue them to the walls of Troy. Patroklos then led the Greek fight-back, the Trojans were swept back and he even managed to kill the great Trojan hero Sarpedon. Flushed with success, the young hero then ignored Achilles’ advice and rashly carried the fighting on towards Troy. However, at this point, great Apollo intervened on behalf of the Trojans and struck the helmet and armour from Patroklos, shattered his spear and knocked his shield from his arm. Thus exposed and defenceless, Patroklos was stabbed by Euphorbos and then Hektor stepped in to deal the fatal blow with a pitiless stab of his spear. Achilles’ New Armour When Achilles discovered the death of his great friend Patroklos, he was overcome with grief and rage and he swore to take terrible revenge on the Trojans and Hektor in particular. After a suitable show of mourning, Achilles finally decided to enter the battlefield once more. It was a decision which would seal the fate of Troy. Before he could enter the fighting, though, Achilles needed new armour and this was provided by his divine mother Thetis who had Hephaistos, the master craftsman of Olympus, make him the most magnificent set of armour ever seen. Using bronze, tin, silver, and gold , the god made a massive shield which depicted a myriad of earthly scenes and all the constellations. So too, he made a dazzling, gold-crested helmet for the hero. Resplendent in his shining armour, Achilles, still mad with rage, predictably routed the Trojans who fled in panic behind the safety of their city walls. Come closer now, to meet your doomed end sooner. Achilles to Hektor, Iliad Achilles v Hektor Hektor alone remained standing outside the walls but at the sight of the awesome Achilles on the rampage, even his nerve gave way and he made a run for safety. Achilles, however, gave chase and pursued the Trojan prince three times around the city walls. Finally catching him, Achilles killed his quarry with a vicious stab of his spear in Hektor’s throat. Achilles then stripped the body of its fine armour and, tying Hektor by the ankles to his chariot , Achilles dragged the body back to the Greek camp in full view of Priam standing atop the fortifications of the city. This was a shockingly dishonourable act and against all the rules of ancient warfare. Having avenged the death of Patroklos, Achilles arranged funeral games in his fallen friend’s honour. Meanwhile, Priam entered the Greek camp in disguise and begged Achilles to return the body of his son that he might be given proper burial . Initially reluctant, the emotional pleas of the old man were finally heeded and Achilles consented to return the body. Here the Iliad ends but the war still had a few more twists of fate to turn. The Trojan Horse & Victory The war involved several more exciting episodes including Achilles’ fight with and killing of the Ethiopian King Memnon and the Amazon Penthesilea who both came to the aid of the Trojans. Achilles was even said to have fallen in love with the beautiful Amazon just at the moment he killed her with his spear. Achilles himself met his destiny and was killed by an arrow to his only weak spot, his ankle, shot by Paris and guided by Apollo. Odysseus and Ajax squabbled over the hero’s magnificent armour and Ajax went mad with disappointment when he lost out on the prize. Slaughtering a herd of sheep he thought were Greeks, he fell on his sword in a messy and pointless suicide. Philokteles got revenge for his father, Achilles, by fatally shooting Paris with the legendary bow of Hercules . Finally, Odysseus even managed to get into the city in disguise and steal the sacred Palladion statue of Athena. The final and decisive action was, though, the idea of the wooden horse. Odysseus, inspired by Athena, thought up the ruse to get a body of men inside the walls of Troy. First, the Greeks all sailed off into the sunset leaving a mysterious offering to the Trojans of a gigantic wooden horse which in reality concealed a group of warriors within. Just to make sure the Trojans took the horse within the city, Sinon was chosen to stay behind and tell a cock and bull story about the Greeks having given up and left a nice present. The Trojans did take the horse inside the city walls but whilst they were enjoying a drunken celebration of their victory, the Greeks climbed out of the horse, opened the city walls for the returning Greek army, and the city was sacked and the population slaughtered or enslaved. Helen was taken back to Argos and of the Trojan heroes only Aeneas escaped to eventually set up a new home in Italy . Victory had its price though. Due to their pitiless ravaging of the city and its people and even worse, outrageous sacrilegious acts such as the rape of Kassandra, the gods punished the Greeks by sending storms to wreck their ships and those who did eventually return were made to endure a protracted and difficult voyage home. Even then, some of the Greeks who did make it back to their homeland only did so to face further misfortune and disaster. The War in Art & Literature Troy and the Trojan War became a staple myth of Classical Greek and Roman literature and were revisited many times by writers in works such as Aeschylus ’ Agamemnon, Euripedes’ Trojan Women, and Virgil’s Aenid. Also in pottery decoration and in sculpture, artists were captivated by the Trojan War. Scenes of the judgement of Paris, Achilles fighting Hektor, Achilles playing dice with Ajax, and Ajax falling on his sword were just some of the myriad scenes from the story that would appear in art again and again over the centuries. Perhaps more importantly, the Trojan War came to represent the struggle of Greeks against foreign powers and it told tales of a time when men were better, more able, and more honourable. In Archaeology There has been much scholarly debate as to whether the mythical Troy actually existed and if so, whether the archaeological site discovered in Anatolia which revealed a city which had prospered over thousands of years of habitation was actually the same city; however, it is now almost universally accepted that the archaeological excavations have revealed the city of Homer’s Iliad. Of the several cities built on top of each other, Troy VI (c. 1750-1300 BCE) is the most likely candidate for the besieged city of Homer’s Trojan War. Impressive fortification walls with several towers certainly fit the Homeric description of ‘strong-built Troy’. The lower town covers an impressive 270,000 m² protected by an encircling rock-cut ditch and suggests a grand city like the Troy of tradition. Troy VI was partially destroyed but the exact cause is not known beyond some evidence of fire. Intriguingly, bronze arrow heads, spear tips, and sling shots have been found at the site and even some embedded in the fortification walls, suggesting some sort of conflict. The dates of these (c. 1250 BCE) and the site destruction correlate with Herodotus ’ dates for the Trojan War. Conflicts over the centuries between the Mycenaean and Hittite civilizations are more than probable, colonial expansion and control of lucrative trade routes being prime motivators. However, such conflicts are unlikely to have been on the scale of Homer’s war, but collectively they may well have been the origin of the epic tale of the Trojan War which has fascinated for centuries.	i don't know
Who directed the 1994 film ‘Natural Born Killers’?	Natural Born Killers (1994) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Two victims of traumatized childhoods become lovers and psychopathic serial murderers irresponsibly glorified by the mass media. Director: From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC a list of 32 titles created 10 Apr 2012 a list of 39 titles created 18 Nov 2012 a list of 28 titles created 05 Feb 2013 a list of 34 titles created 28 Jan 2014 a list of 34 titles created 25 Jan 2015 Title: Natural Born Killers (1994) 7.3/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Golden Globe. Another 5 wins & 8 nominations. See more awards » Videos In Detroit, a lonely pop culture geek marries a call girl, steals cocaine from her pimp, and tries to sell it in Hollywood. Meanwhile, the owners of the cocaine - the Mob - track them down in an attempt to reclaim it. Director: Tony Scott Two criminals and their hostages unknowingly seek temporary refuge in an establishment populated by vampires, with chaotic results. Director: Robert Rodriguez A middle-aged woman finds herself in the middle of a huge conflict that will either make her a profit or cost her life. Director: Quentin Tarantino Two separate sets of voluptuous women are stalked at different times by a scarred stuntman who uses his "death proof" cars to execute his murderous plans. Director: Quentin Tarantino After an experimental bio-weapon is released, turning thousands into zombie-like creatures, it's up to a rag-tag group of survivors to stop the infected and those behind its release. Director: Robert Rodriguez Directors: Allison Anders, Alexandre Rockwell, and 2 more credits » Stars: Tim Roth, Amanda De Cadenet, David Proval 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 7.2/10 X The story of the famous and influential 1960s rock band The Doors and its lead singer and composer, Jim Morrison , from his days as a UCLA film student in Los Angeles, to his untimely death in Paris, France at age 27 in 1971. Director: Oliver Stone An oddball journalist and his psychopathic lawyer travel to Las Vegas for a series of psychedelic escapades. Director: Terry Gilliam The Bride continues her quest of vengeance against her former boss and lover Bill, the reclusive bouncer Budd and the treacherous, one-eyed Elle. Director: Quentin Tarantino Directors: Robert Rodriguez, Eli Roth, and 3 more credits » Stars: Kurt Russell, Rose McGowan, Danny Trejo The biography of Ron Kovic. Paralyzed in the Vietnam war, he becomes an anti-war and pro-human rights political activist after feeling betrayed by the country he fought for. Director: Oliver Stone A gunslinger is embroiled in a war with a local drug runner. Director: Robert Rodriguez Edit Storyline Mickey Knox and Mallory Wilson aren't your typical lovers - after killing her abusive father, they go on a road trip where, every time they stop somewhere, they kill pretty well everyone around them. They do however leave one person alive at every shootout to tell the story and they soon become a media sensation thanks to sensationalized reporting. Told in a highly visual style. Written by garykmcd In the media circus of life, they were the main attraction. See more » Genres: Crime \| Drama Motion Picture Rating ( MPAA ) Rated R for extreme violence and graphic carnage, for shocking images, and for strong language and sexuality \| See all certifications » Parents Guide: 26 August 1994 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Asesinos por naturaleza See more » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia Scagnetti's ( Tom Sizemore ) story about how his mother was killed was based upon a real life incident involving one of America's first mass murderers, Charles Whitman , who did actually shoot people randomly from the University Tower in Austin, Texas, in 1966. See more » Goofs No human can take such a repeated and concentrated dose of Mace as Mallory does and open their eyes so soon afterward, not to mention Mallory's eyes open quite easily and do not shut during the spray. Mallory also doesn't apply any water to her eyes, and seems to recover naturally only minutes later. This is one of many scenes which are supposed to be stylized and unrealistic. See more » Quotes Wayne Gale : So tell me Mickey? Any regrets? I mean, three weeks, fifty people killed... not too cool Mickey. Mickey : Fifty-two, but I don't a lot of time with regret. That's a wasted emotion. Wayne Gale : Seriously you must have some regret. Rack your brain. Mickey : Well, I wish that Indian hadn't got killed. Mallory : [archive footage of the Indian's death] Bad, bad, bad, bad, bad! Wayne Gale : [looks at some files] One of your last victims. Mickey : Man had a rattlesnake in the corner... See more » Crazy Credits The end credits are superimposed over a vast amount of stock footage, ranging from the future of Mickey and Mallory, stock A-Bomb tests, childhood photos of Mickey and Mallory, time-lapse footage, scenes from the movie, and so on. See more » Connections (United States) – See all my reviews ...people really need to take another look at "Natural Born Killers." The plot: Mickey and Mallory Knox (Woody Harrelson and Juliette Lewis in roles that are a little too convincing) are a husband/wife pair of serial killers whose vicious crime spree across the country has made them into media superstars. This movie is a barrage of frightening and surreal images, and is damn near hypnotic to watch. I can see where the controversy surrounding this film comes from but what I don't understand is where the hate is coming from. 1994's "Natural Born Killers" has to be one of the best movies of the 90s - its sole purpose on this planet is to showcase America's fascination with violence. But lets try to understand the hate. This movie is here for one reason and I think that we can all agree on that reason. Oliver Stone is a competent and accomplished filmmaker and most of the hate seems to be directed towards him. Stone, who is working from a script that has since been virtually disowned by Quentin Tarantino, pretty much took over and shaped the screenplay to his own vision. I can understand why fans of Tarantino have a right to be p*ssed off, but I find it extremely difficult to believe that they truly hate the finished product, and the same goes for Tarantino. Don't get me wrong, I'm a huge Tarantino fan myself, and I'm sure he didn't appreciate Stone re-writing his script, but he should be proud of what was done with it. The message, if you can call it that, is that we are obsessed with violence, and Stone exposes our love for it and spits it back in our faces. To quote Marlon Brando - "The horror, the horror." I say to hell with the hypocritical people who find this movie offensive for they are the ones that this movie is truly aimed towards. Yes, horrific images are displayed in this movie and terrible things happen to people all throughout, but it's giving us we want, and we hate it. The hate surrounding this film is extremely misguided. My high school paper recently did an article about sex and violence on television and one of the supposed outlets of that violence would be our fascination with the war in Iraq and the Jessica Lynch story. It said that we are much, much more concerned with the sex (I personally don't think today's teenage girls are THAT impressionable, but who knows?), rather than the violence (which apparently seems to be causing a misguided sh!tstorm of controversy, too, and like the sex, I don't think that people are that impressionable), namely the kind that is seen in music videos and such. Though the article refused to go into specifics (but we know who the people being discussed are and I'm sure they do, too), it brings me back to "Natural Born Killers," which I think people need to take another look at. In this day and age, violence on television is becoming more and more commonplace, and this movie's relevance seems to make its viewing that much more important. Before we go and continue to bash the hell out of it again, people need to come back and take a look around themselves and watch "Natural Born Killers." 153 of 205 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Oliver Stone
French professional footballer Thierry Henry played for which English football club from 1999	Film Review: Natural Born Killers (1994) Home \| Film Reviews \| Film Review: Natural Born Killers (1994) Film Review: Natural Born Killers (1994) SYNOPSIS: Two victims of traumatized childhoods become lovers and psychopathic serial murderers irresponsibly glorified by the mass media. REVIEW: It was 1994, and I had been anticipation seeing Oliver Stone’s latest creation titled “Natural Born Killers“. I rushed to the theatre expecting a really unique film experience that looked like it was loaded with action and visual appeal. I was correct on those issues but was not ready for the “kind” of film that played out in front of me. I later learned that I was not alone and that it was bashed by critics world wide. So years later with this “same” film being one of my inspirations and favorites from one of my favorite directors…what has changed? For one, “Natural Born Killers (1994)” is described as a crime, romance drama…though it is not your usual ride and far from a traditional style film. This element is especially important as what you experience the NBK is a play of social sensationalism and the influence of media. Stone was making fun of our culture while also celebrating it with a highly collaged visual piece. There is a story here but how its presented is very music video-like and surreal. “Natural Born Killers benefits from a stellar cast. Each is presented in a very character-driven way that almost stereotypes each regardless of their lines. We see the obvious comparison to news reporter Geraldo and the comparisons to heavies such as Charles Manson. We see actor Rodney Dangerfield presented in a way that we never want to see again (we prefer Dangerfield as a older funny man rather than a aging incestual pervert). Tom Sizemore plays the role of Det. Jack Scagnetti who matches just about every derivative crime drama anti-hero to come out of the 20th century. Robert Downey Jr. plays reporter Wayne Gale who could as easily be casted as Geraldo for his determination to capture the scoop at every turn. At the forefront it’s the performances of Woody Harrelson as Mickey Knox and Juliette Lewis as Mallory Knox that screams white-trash killers favored by the media with an exceptionally loud bellow. Mickey and Mallory decide that their love is all the matters taking the world down with them. They do it with style, with aggression and look good doing it. We follow this pair across the country as they embark on a wave of murders with nothing more than ambition on their side. Of course, this will gets stomped out, but not before the media has had a chance to raise them to celebrity status for being as bad as they want to be. It’s probably a given that Stone will never make another film quite like this or actually WANT to for that matter. I believe that in his genius many didn’t really get his perspective the way he intended it to be perceived. Rather than focusing on the subjective views of a serial killer couple critics would just shake their heads at the way too much, too fast to consume in a proper manner roll out. Stepping back, it’s clear that what Stone did was take a story like “Bonnie and Clyde” and media the crap out of it as its being told. The visuals range from skits, to dramatics, to cartoons, to TV commercials. Each character is presented but is made fun of with the very mediums that fuel them. Mickey and Mallory are a media sensation and because of that Stone chose to deliver it in quite the same manner as a rush of TV media coverage might. He also thought it pertinent to incorporate views using different medias that illustrated their violence, passion, and lack-of compassion for the human ideals. He made them exciting even though they were cold blooded killers. This relationship can be easily found within our own culture that makes celebrities out of chaos. Perhaps Stone’s vision was way ahead of its time. Perhaps viewers don’t like their medias interwoven and being reminded of “who” we are and what we do. Perhaps we just like our eggs fried sunny side up and not scrambled. Perhaps. “Natural Born Killers” is comedic is sarcasm translated thru visual ques.The original screenplay was conceived by master writer Quentin Tarantino who could-of directed the film to a different tone altogether. The film is reported to have taken 11 months in editing alone with over 3,000 editing cuts made. One run thru of this film, will easily support that statement as things move a mile a minute. The movie incorporates psychedelic montages that use black and white, color scheming and associated animations. These are collaged over the main story which also plays out in fragments. Critics ranged in their interpretations also ranging from being inventive to horribly overbearing and personal. In any case, I firmly believe that “Natural Born Killers” is a work of cinematic art that should be saluted as much as any criterion achievement. It is trendy, ground breaking and a masterpiece for Oliver stone as a creator and stylist. Natural Born Killers (1994)	i don't know
In music, an axe is a slang term for which instrument?	Axe \| Define Axe at Dictionary.com axe noun (pl) axes 1. a hand tool with one side of its head forged and sharpened to a cutting edge, used for felling trees, splitting timber, etc See also hatchet 2. (informal) the axe dismissal, esp from employment; the sack (esp in the phrase get the axe) (Brit) severe cutting down of expenditure, esp the removal of unprofitable sections of a public service 4. (US, slang) any musical instrument, esp a guitar or horn verb (transitive) to chop or trim with an axe 6. (informal) to dismiss (employees), restrict (expenditure or services), or terminate (a project) Word Origin Old English æx; related to Old Frisian axa, Old High German acchus, Old Norse öx, Latin ascia, Greek axinē Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012 Word Origin and History for axe Expand n. Old English æces (Northumbrian acas) "axe, pickaxe, hatchet," later æx, from Proto-Germanic akusjo (cf. Old Saxon accus, Old Norse ex, Old Frisian axe, German Axt, Gothic aqizi), from PIE agw(e)si- (cf. Greek axine, Latin ascia). The spelling ax is better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, and analogy, than axe, which became prevalent during the 19th century; but it is now disused in Britain. [OED] The spelling ax, though "better on every ground, of etymology, phonology, & analogy" (OED), is so strange to 20th-c. eyes that it suggests pedantry & is unlikely to be restored. [Fowler] Meaning "musical instrument" is 1955, originally jazz slang for the saxophone; rock slang for "guitar" dates to 1967. The axe in figurative sense of cutting of anything (expenses, workers, etc.), especially as a cost-saving measure, is from 1922, probably from the notion of the headman's literal axe (itself attested from mid-15c.). To have an axe to grind is from an 1815 essay by U.S. editor and politician Charles Miner (1780-1865) in which a man flatters a boy and gets him to do the chore of axe-grinding for him, then leaves without offering thanks or recompense. Misattributed to Benjamin Franklin in Weekley, OED print edition, and many other sources. v. 1670s, "to shape or cut with an axe," from axe (n.). Meaning "to remove, severely reduce," usually figurative, recorded by 1922. Related: Axed; axing. ax Any musical instrument, esp the saxophone: He played his ax at the casino (1950s+ Jazz musicians) A guitar (Rock and roll) verb To dismiss someone from a job, a team, a school, a relationship, etc; can , fire : who suggested to Reagan that Deaver be axed To eliminate; cut: They axed a lot of useless stuff from the budget [musical instrument sense fr the resemblance in shape between a saxophone and an ax, and possibly fr the rhyme with sax] The Dictionary of American Slang, Fourth Edition by Barbara Ann Kipfer, PhD. and Robert L. Chapman, Ph.D. Copyright (C) 2007 by HarperCollins Publishers. The American Heritage® Abbreviations Dictionary, Third Edition Copyright © 2005 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. axe in the Bible Expand used in the Authorized Version of Deut. 19:5; 20:19; 1 Kings 6:7, as the translation of a Hebrew word which means "chopping." It was used for felling trees (Isa. 10:34) and hewing timber for building. It is the rendering of a different word in Judg. 9:48, 1 Sam. 13:20, 21, Ps. 74:5, which refers to its sharpness. In 2 Kings 6:5 it is the translation of a word used with reference to its being made of iron. In Isa. 44:12 the Revised Version renders by "axe" the Hebrew _maatsad_, which means a "hewing" instrument. In the Authorized Version it is rendered "tongs." It is also used in Jer. 10:3, and rendered "axe." The "battle-axe" (army of Medes and Persians) mentioned in Jer. 51:20 was probably, as noted in the margin of the Revised Version, a "maul" or heavy mace. In Ps. 74:6 the word so rendered means "feller." (See the figurative expression in Matt. 3:10; Luke 3:9.) Easton's 1897 Bible Dictionary Idioms and Phrases with axe Expand In addition to the idiom beginning with ax also see: get the ax The American Heritage® Idioms Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.	Guitar
Which English author said ‘Freedom is the right to tell people what they do not want to hear’?	The Blues . Blues Classroom . Glossary \| PBS << Blues Classroom Amplification The act of increasing the magnitude of a signal without altering any of its other qualities, or the use of a device (amplifier) that does this. Specifically important in the transition from acoustic blues, where amplification was rarely used in live performance, to electric blues, where performers began using amplifiers, particularly with guitars and harmonicas, to increase the volume and power of their performance. Musical-instrument amplifiers are also frequently used to alter the tone of the instrument's signal ("distortion"). Axe Gang A group of manual laborers, under the supervision of a foreman, using axes to chop wood, either to clear a piece of land, or for fuel. While axe gangs could be composed of free laborers, those whose work songs were recorded by the folklorists of the early 20th century were frequently composed of prisoners. Barrelhouse A colloquial term, originating around the late 1800s, used specifically to refer to a bar that served liquor (especially whiskey) straight from the barrel, but more widely understood to mean any rough and rowdy drinking establishment. "Barrelhouse piano" is a distinct style that arose out of such establishments and is characterized by the highly percussive and loud style that was necessary to encourage dancing in such venues. Beale Street "I didn't think of Memphis as Memphis. I thought of Beale Street as Memphis."BB King Located in Memphis, Tennessee, Beale Street was the central street in what was considered by many in the early 20th century to be the capital of black America. The Beale Street district, despite being the product of a strictly segregated city, was at the time a self-sustaining neighborhood that offered African Americans a comparative degree of freedom rarely found elsewhere. Beale Street's wide-open atmosphere and the crowds it generated attracted droves of musicians from throughout the region, making it synonymous with the blues. Reform in the 1940s and urban renewal in the late 1960s slowed the Beale Street neighborhood; however, it has recently begun a successful revival as a tourist-oriented entertainment district. Boogie-Woogie Boogie-woogie refers to a particular style of jazz/blues piano, typically played at a rapid tempo, in which the left hand maintains a repeated rhythmic and melodic pattern in the bass and the right hand handles improvised variations in the treble. Arising most likely in the Midwest around the beginning of the 20th century, it spread widely in blues circles during the 1920s, gaining its name for posterity with the 1928 recording "Pinetop's Boogie-Woogie," by Clarence "Pine Top" Smith. Through the 1930s and 1940s, elements of boogie-woogie, particularly its repetitive blues bass lines, became integral components of big-band jazz, and would in later years form an important foundation of jump blues and early rock 'n' roll. Bourbon Street Named for the dynasty that ruled France when New Orleans, Louisiana, was founded in the early 1700s, Bourbon Street has ever since been one of the major streets of the city's "French Quarter." With increasing tourists and military visitation during the 1920s and 1930s, Bourbon Street began establishing its current reputation as an all-hours destination for food, drink, and entertainment, and its clubs have thus served as an important musical "school" for city musicians of many genres, particularly blues and early R&B. British Blues More than a mere geographical distinction, the early British blues of the late 1950s and early 1960s paid strict adherence to replicating American blues genres, with an admiration for its originators bordering on reverence. But by the time of the blues revival of the mid-1960s, British guitarists-mainly led by Eric Clapton-were starting to bend the form to create their own amalgam. Wedding the string-bending fervor of the BB, Albert, and Freddie King styles to the extreme volume produced by large amplifiers, British blues largely coalesced into blues-rock, with formerly traditional blues artists like the Rolling Stones and Clapton becoming rock stars. The British style has perhaps the closest ties to rock music as opposed to rock 'n' roll, a distinct stylistic descendant of the 1950s. It is this constant shift between preserving older styles and mainstreaming it into the pop marketplace that is the hallmark of British blues(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Call and Response A musical term referring to the alternation between two musical voices in a work, particularly that between a solo singer (the "call") and a group chorus (the "response"). In the blues, the call and response structure may have derived in part from work and gospel songs, and is particularly prominent in Delta blues and styles arising from it, in which the solo performer often uses his guitar to respond to, and sometimes even complete, his vocal line. Captain A term of address conventionally demanded of black employees by Southern white bosses. "Captain" frequently appeared in work songs, referring either specifically or generally to the white foreman. Chicago Blues What is now referred to as the classic Chicago blues style was developed in the late 1940s and early 1950s, taking Delta blues, fully amplifying it, and putting it into a small-band context. Adding drums, bass, and piano (and sometimes saxophones) to the basic string band and harmonica aggregation, the style created the now standard blues band lineup. The form was (and is) flexible to accommodate singers, guitarists, pianists, and harmonica players as featured performers in front of the standard instrumentation. Later permutations of the style took place in the late 1950s and early 1960s, with new blood taking their cue from the lead-guitar work of BB King and T-Bone Walker, creating the popular West Side subgenre (which usually featured a horn section appended to the basic rhythm section). Although the form has also embraced rock beats, it has generally stayed within the guidelines developed in the 1950s and early 1960s.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Country Blues Country blues is a catchall term that delineates the depth and breadth of the first flowering of guitar-driven blues, embracing solo, duo, and string band performers. The term also provides a convenient general heading for all the multiple regional styles and variations (Piedmont, Atlanta, Memphis, Texas, acoustic Chicago, Delta, ragtime, folk, songster, etc.) of the form. It is primarilybut not exclusivelya genre filled with acoustic guitarists, embracing a multiplicity of techniques from elaborate fingerpicking to the early roots of slide playing. But some country-blues performers like Lightnin' Hopkins and John Lee Hooker later switched over to electric guitars without having to drastically change or alter their styles.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Delta Blues The Delta blues style comes from a region in the southern part of Mississippi, a place romantically referred to as "the land where the blues was born." In its earliest form, the style became the first black guitar-dominated music to make it onto phonograph records back in the late 1920s. Although many original Delta blues performers worked in a string-band context for live appearances, very few of them recorded in this manner. Consequently, the recordings from the late 1920s through mid-1930s consist primarily of performers working in a solo, self-accompanied context. The form is dominated by fiery slide guitar and passionate vocalizing, with the deepest of feelings being applied directly to the music. Its lyrics are passionate as well, and in some instances remain the highest flowering of blues songwriting as stark poetry. The form continues to the present time with new performers working in the older solo artist traditions and style.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Electric Blues Electric blues is an eclectic genre that embraces just about every kind of blues that can be played on an amplified instrument. Its principal component is that of the electric guitar, but its amplified aspect can extend to the bass (usually a solid body Fender type model, but sometimes merely an old "slappin''' acoustic with a pickup attached), harmonica, and keyboard instruments. Stylistically, the form is a wide-open field, accessible to just about every permutation possible embracing the old, the new, and sometimes the futuristic. Some forms of it copy the older styles of urban blues (primarily the Chicago, Texas, and Louisiana variants), usually in a small-combo format, while others head into funk and soul territory. Yet electric blues is elastic enough to include artists who pay homage to those vintage styles of playing while simultaneously recasting them in contemporary fashion. It is lastly a genre that provides a convenient umbrella for original artists of late 1940s and early 1950s derivation that seemingly resist neat classifications.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Field Hollers Field hollers are a class of rural African American vocal performance performed by an individual (as opposed to a group) while engaged in manual labor, and unaccompanied by any instrument. Folklorists documenting the music in the early portions of the 20th century first used the term, although field hollers were in existence before that time. Field hollers are generally slower and much less rigid in musical form than group work songs, combine lyrical phrases common to the community with individual interpretations and improvisations, and are most often lamenting or sorrowful in subject matter. Because they established and expanded a musical tradition of individual expression and common lyrical phrases, field hollers are considered an important antecedent of the blues form. Great Migration, The The Great Migration was a mass movement during the first half of the 20th century, during which millions of African Americans from primarily rural locations in the Southern United States moved to urban locations, particularly in the North. The migration occurred in two major waves, each centered around the World Wars, during which a great need for industrial workers arose in Northern (and later Western) cities. Although this promise of reliable employment attracted many, as did the hope for living conditions that were better and less oppressive than those in the South, it was not always found. However, the cultural impact of the Great Migration upon those who moved, and the cities to which they moved, was and continues to be dramatic. Griot A griot is a West African performer who perpetuates the oral traditions of a family, village, or leader by singing histories and tales. Griots typically perform alone, accompanying themselves on a stringed instrument, and are considered by many musicologists a critical African root of the solo acoustic blues that developed among African American communities during the early 20th century. Harp In blues circles, the term "harp" is used interchangeably with "harmonica." Harmonicas are also occasionally referred to in jest as "Mississippi Saxophones." Highway 51 Running from La Place, Louisiana to Hurley, Wisconsin, Highway 51 is now largely supplanted by Interstate 55. However, prior to that road's construction, 51 was a frequent metaphor in blues songs, particularly from the Mississippi Delta region, the eastern edge of which it borders as it connects Jackson to Memphis. Mentions of 51 frequently connoted "rambling," both around the Delta region and beyond, as well as joining the Great Migration northwards for a new life. Hoochie Coochie Man A slang term referring to both a type of suggestive dance, as well a class of conjurer or folk doctor in the voodoo tradition. In the Willie Dixon song "Hoochie Coochie Man," made famous by Muddy Waters, the latter is the definition being used. However, the sexual suggestiveness of the song itself has led to an expanded definition, in which the hoochie coochie man is someone with sexual prowess and appeal as powerful as the magic of a voodoo conjurer. Hobo A homeless person, typically one who is traveling in search of work. Though often used derogatorily to refer to such a person, it is also used more neutrally to describe the act of traveling in search of work, e.g., "when I first started hoboin'." House Party Also known as "rent parties," an informal gathering at a private residence for drinking, eating, live music, and occasionally gambling, where the resident charges money for some or all of the above. Like juke joints in the South, house parties in the North are credited with being key incubators of the blues, particularly the electrified Delta style of Muddy Waters and other performers newly arrived to the city whose styles were at first considered too "country" to attract a club audience. Improvisation Musically, the act of composing, performing, or otherwise playing without prior planning or consulting specific notation such as sheet music. In jazz and blues, for example, familiar forms may be utilized throughout a song, but the singer may alter the lyrics to better suit their mood, and the instrumentalists may take solos of a length and direction that is entirely determined by them. Jim Crow A term arguably arising from a minstrel performer of the early 19th century, Jim Crow more generally refers to the laws and regulations that arose in the South following post-Civil War Reconstruction. Through the mandated segregation established by these laws, African Americans were systemically prevented from achieving economic, political, and cultural power and equality. Used to refer to both the oppressive laws (e.g., a law enforcing separate train cars for whites and blacks), as well as the general time period during which they were predominate (from approximately the mid-1870s through the 1960s.) Jive A slang term with multiple connotations. Rose to common usage in the late 1930s among African Americans in reference to swing and jump blues music-"that's some great jive they're playing"-as well as the dance styles that accompanied this music. Also used to refer, sometimes dismissively, to the lingo used by fans and musicians of this music-"Don't listen to him, man, he's just talkin' jive." Jug Band With a likely origin in Louisville, Kentucky, in the early part of the 20th century, jug bands employed an array of homemade and found instruments such as kazoo, washtub bass, and whiskey bottle, as well as banjo, harmonica, or guitar. Particularly fashionable in Memphis, jug bands played up-tempo popular, vaudeville, and blues numbers for both black and white audiences, and accompanied blues musicians from that era, many of whom were also members of the ensembles, both live and on recordings. Some jug band performers remained active in the region until the 1970s, most notably Gus Cannon. Juke Joint An informal type of drinking establishment that arose along the rural back roads of the South among and to serve the regional African American population (as opposed to "honky tonks," similar establishments that served the white population). The term "juke" has its likely origins in West Africa, where similar terms mean "wicked." Juke joints are thus understood to be potentially rough and rowdy, with drinking, eating, live music, and occasionally gambling, and were (and continue to be) key incubators of the blues, even if now more frequently heard on a "jukebox" than from a live performer. Jump Blues Jump blues refers to an up-tempo, jazz-tinged style of blues that first came to prominence in the mid- to late 1940s. Usually featuring a vocalist in front of a large, horn-driven orchestra or medium-sized combo with multiple horns, the style is earmarked by a driving rhythm, intensely shouted vocals, and honking tenor saxophone solos-all of those very elements a precursor to rock 'n' roll. The lyrics are almost always celebratory in nature, full of braggadocio and swagger. With less reliance on guitar work (the instrument usually being confined to rhythm section status) than other styles, jump blues was the bridge between the older styles of blues primarily those in a small band context-and the big-band jazz sound of the 1940s.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Killing Floor Literally, the location in a slaughterhouse where animals are killed prior to processing. Figuratively, it is a fairly common blues motif, denoting a state of high distress or hopelessness (see Skip James' "Hard Time Killing Floor Blues," and Howlin' Wolf's "Killing Floor"). Levee Camps Levee camps arose throughout the post-Civil War South as large numbers of manual laborers (typically African American) were gathered, sometimes by force, to build and maintain systems of earthen levees that held rivers in their channels, thus making more farmland available and (theoretically) minimizing the hazards of annual flooding. Frequent locations of group work-song singing and solo field hollers, they were notoriously difficult and violent places to make a living. They were natural destinations, as well, for traveling musicians, who sought the money of workers enjoying their fleeting and hard-earned pay. Louisiana Blues A looser, more laid-back, and percussive version of the Jimmy Reed side of the Chicago sound, Louisiana blues has several distinctive stylistic elements to distinguish it from other genres. The guitar work is simple but effective, heavily influenced by the boogie patterns used on Jimmy Reed singles, with liberal doses of Lightnin' Hopkins and Muddy Waters thrown in for good measure. Unlike the heavy backbeat of the Chicago style, its rhythm can be best described as "plodding," making even up-tempo tunes sound like slow blues simply played a bit faster. The production techniques on most of the recordings utilize massive amounts of echo, giving the performances a darkened sound and feel, thus coining the genre's alternate description as "swamp blues."(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Maxwell Street From the early 1900s until its relocation in the mid-1990s, the weekend open-air market along Chicago's Maxwell Street was a frequently changing urban milieu where one could find everything from used and new merchandise, to food, religion, and live music. It was a particularly important location for new immigrants to the city seeking employment, entertainment, and the familiarity of customs and people from "back home." Memphis Blues A strain of country blues all its own, Memphis blues gives the rise of two distinct forms: the jug band (playing and singing a humorous, jazz-style of blues played on homemade instruments) and the beginnings of assigning parts to guitarists for solo (lead) and rhythm, a tradition that is now part and parcel of all modern day blues-and rock 'n' roll-bands. The earliest version of the genre was heavily tied to the local medicine show and vaudeville traditions, lasting well into the late 1930s. The later, post-World War II version of this genre featured explosive, distorted electric-guitar work, thunderous drumming, and fierce, declamatory vocals.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) New Orleans Blues Primarily (but not exclusively) piano and horn-driven, New Orleans blues is enlivened by Caribbean rhythms, an unrelenting party atmosphere, and the "second-line" strut of the Dixieland music so indigenous to the area. There's a cheerful, friendly element to the style that infuses the music with a good-time feel, no matter how somber the lyrical text. The music itself uses a distinctively "lazy" feel, with all of its somewhat complex rhythms falling just a hair behind the beat. But the vocals can run the full emotional gamut from laid-back crooning to full-throated gospel shouting, making for some interesting juxtapositions, both in style and execution.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Oral Culture Conventionally, oral culture is understood to mean any and all traditions that are sustained within and between generations strictly through the spoken (as opposed to written) word, such as stories, tales, and songs. Panama Limited With the exception of a few years during the depression, the "Panama Limited" was, during the first half of the 20th century, the most luxurious of the Illinois Central's trains running the route from New Orleans to Chicago. The Illinois Central was a very popular manner in which to head North during the Great Migration. Parchman Farm Formally known as the Mississippi State Penitentiary, the Parchman Farm was opened in 1904 and, until federally mandated reform in the 1970s, was geared primarily towards the profitable production of cotton using convict labor. With little emphasis upon rehabilitation, it had a solid reputation for deplorable and brutal living and working conditions. A frequent image in blues songs from the surrounding Delta, both among musicians who did time there and those who did not, it was also a frequent destination in the mid-20th century for folklorists recording work songs and related traditions in an effort to trace the development of the blues. Piedmont Blues Piedmont Blues refers to a regional substyle characteristic of black musicians of the southeastern United States. Geographically, the Piedmont means the foothills of the Appalachians west of the tidewater region and Atlantic coastal plain stretching roughly from Richmond, VA, to Atlanta, GA. Musically, Piedmont blues describes the shared style of musicians from Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia, as well as others from as far as Florida, West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware. It refers to a wide assortment of aesthetic values, performance techniques, and shared repertoire rooted in common geographical, historical, and sociological circumstances; to put it more simply, Piedmont blues means a constellation of musical preferences typical of the Piedmont region. The Piedmont guitar style employs a complex fingerpicking method in which a regular, alternating-thumb bass pattern supports a melody on treble strings. The guitar style is highly syncopated and connects closely with an earlier string-band tradition, integrating ragtime, blues, and country dance songs. It's excellent party music with a full, rock-solid sound.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Piano Blues Piano blues runs through the entire history of the music itself, embracing everything from ragtime, barrelhouse, boogie woogie, and smooth West Coast jazz stylings to the hard-rocking rhythms of Chicago blues.(Erlewine, et al., eds. All Music Guide to the Blues. 2nd ed. San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 1999.) Race Records "Race records" was a term used by major and independent record labels from the early 1920s until the early 1950s to specifically label records recorded by African American artists. The term itself was not used pejoratively, but instead so that the records could be more readily marketed to an African American audience. Ramblin' Slang term used to connote both the act of leaving a place and of wandering, particularly in search of work, a home, or spiritual peace. Rent Party	i don't know
Anpan is a sweet roll, usually filled with red bean paste, which originates from which country?	My favourite pastry chef My favourite pastry chef I would like to share this site with the whole class Monday, 18 May 2015 Japan 1: Japan, we chose japan because Japanese pastry is based on combining staple foods, Japanese pastry offers a vast array of regional specialties that use traditional recipes and local ingredients. The Michelin Guide has awarded restaurants in Japan more Michelin stars than the rest of the world combined. 2: Anmitsu: It is made of small cubes of agar jelly, a white translucent jelly made from red algae. The agar is dissolved with water (or fruit juice such as apple juice) to make the jelly. It is served in a bowl with sweet azuki bean paste or anko (the an part of anmitsu), boiled peas, often gyūhi and a variety of fruits such as peach slices, mikan, pieces of pineapples, and cherries. The anmitsu usually comes with a small pot of sweet black syrup, or mitsu (the mitsu part of anmitsu) which one pours onto the jelly before eating. Anpan: is a Japanese sweet roll most commonly filled with red bean paste. Anpan can also be prepared with other fillings, including white beans (shiro-an), green beans (uguisu-an), sesame (goma-an) and chestnut (kuri-an). Castella: Is a popular Japanese sponge cake made of sugar, flour, eggs, and starch syrup. Now a specialty of Nagasaki, the cake was brought to Japan by Portuguese merchants in the 16th century. The name is derived from Portuguese Pão de Castela, meaning "bread from Castile". Castella cake is usually sold in long boxes, with the cake inside being approximately 27 cm long. It is somewhat similar to Madeira cake, also associated with Portugal, but its closest relative is pão-de-ló, also a Portuguese cake. 3: Takashi Ochiai: it’s a pastry chef with a large experience in the pastry world he arrives in Catalunya at 80s In japan he was a pasrty chef also, but he want’s to learn about european pastry and he went to study in Belgium and london for 5 years long. Then he arrives in Catalunya and he stay 3 years learning about catalan pastry history and traditions after open hes own local in barcelona named (OCHIAI) where he sell traditionall japanese pastry 4: INGREDIENTES 250 g of glutinous rice flour Sugar 100 g 300 ml of cold water Cornstarch (for sprinkling while kneading) For the filling: 250 g of azuki beans (red soy) Sugar 250 g Mochi dough: In a bowl mix flour, glutinous rice, sugar and water to be added slowly. Mix vigorously, adding water slowly until there are no lumps and the mixture is slightly sticky and elastic. Cover with a damp cloth bowl bamboo steamer, pour the dough inside and cover. Place the bowl over a pan of the same diameter, filled with boiling water. Cook for about 20-25 minutes until the dough acquires a matte texture more solid and pasty. Remove from heat and cool the dough until it is warm (at least 45 min). Knead manually or with the help of a clean damp cloth or a rigid spatula. As a trick, you can add up to 10% more sugar for the mochis last longer. Sprinkle cornstarch over the counter (or in a baking tray for less hassle). We use this surface to pour the dough and flour embadurnarla to be manipulated and do not stick to your hands. Preparation of Daifuku mochi (or how to complete the mochi): Put the rice paste over the cornstarch and smear well so the dough does not stick to your hands when handling. Roll out the dough slightly and cut into small portions (meatball size) with the help of a rigid spatula. Flatten each ball in the palm of your hand, gently stretching into a disk. Place the filling in the center. This will consist of a shell strawberry red bean paste. By small rotations in the palm of his hand, gradually start closing the sides of the dough over the filling rice, as a flower bud, until we have the ball perfectly closed. Finally seal the rice dough just make tweaks in the cracks to make them stick and the surface is smooth. Filling anko (red bean paste) and strawberry. The anko can be purchased ready-made, canned or homemade can be done by following the instructions below: Leave the beans to soak for 12 hours. Remove a little of the soaking water and pour the rest into the pressure cooker. Cook over high heat for 35 min. Uncover and remove all water. In the same pot, add sugar and a pinch of salt. Return to medium heat and add the sugar in three stages. Be cooked soybeans to obtain a paste. Then remove from heat and let cool. Once cool, red bean paste can be separated into small balls (meatball size) that can fill a strawberry. The ball is formed first, then flattens out and finally put the strawberry in the center and are closing the sides to wrap cutter carefully by slight rotations in the palm of your hand. It is the same mechanism that we use to fill the mochi. Posted by JAPAN 1. Choose any country in the world. Explain why? We choose japan because we think it’s a great country with a great gastronomic culture. The ingredients are so different than the ingredients that we have here. 2. Find some of the typical desserts and make a brief description. Mochi -> A little biscuit made with rice gluten and sugar, filled with many types of another ingredient like anko, chocolate, truffle or ice cream. Fried ice cream -> Fried ice cream is a dessert made from a breaded scoop of ice cream that is quickly deep-fried creating a warm, crispy shell around the still-cold ice cream. Dorayaki -> A red-bean pancake which consists of two small pancake-like patties made from castella wrapped around a filling of sweet Azuki red bean paste 3. Learn about the most famous pastry chef of that country. (personal information, studies, best dishes, etc) We choose a Japanese pastry chef who lives in Barcelona and his name is Takashi Ochiai: Since 1983, in Barcelona, the Ochiai pastry offers an assortment of Japanese pastry like ice cream, chocolate, cakes and other specialties. Takashi arrives to BCN in 80’s. In japan he was a pastry, but he want to learn more about the European pastry. He studies in Belgium and London for about five years. In 2013 won the title of The Best Croissant of Spain with a Matcha Tea Croissant. Mochi recipe: - 250 gr of Glutinous rice flour - 100 gr sugar	Japan
Which Shropshire town is known for its gingerbread?	Popular Japanese Snacks in Anime - Quest For Japan (Discovering Japan From a New Perspective) Popular Japanese Snacks in Anime Date Published： Last Update：2015/05/18 Food , Pop Culture & OTAKU anpan , dorayaki , Konpeitō , melonpan , pocky Anime, though often exaggerated, is a portrayal of real life. In some anime, the creators make it as relatable to the audience through using real-life food. The most common among them would be Japanese cuisine like sushi, curry, and ramen. In this post, we will feature other popular foods and snacks that are usually seen in anime and how they made it more popular. Japanese Snacks That Are Usually Seen in Anime Melonpan The name may be confusing but the melonpan or melon bread does not taste like melon at all. It is a type of sweet bun of enriched dough covered in a thin layer of cookie. They are so called melon bread because its appearance, which is recognizable by its crisscross pattern on top, resembles a melon especially the cantaloupe melon. The upper part of the bread is greatly loved by many that a bakery recently sold melonpan with only the top part. Melonpan. (Photo by Janine on Flickr ) The titular character of the anime Shakugan no Shana loves melonpan. She is often seen eating melonpan as her breakfast. Anpan Anpan is another type of sweet roll that is has a red bean paste filling. The bread’s history can be traced back to the Meiji Period (1868-1912) when Yasubei Kimura, a samurai who lost his job and wanted to create a bread that was more to Japanese tastes. Anpan was then born and made still popular until today. Anpan. (Photo by David Nichols on Flickr ) A manga which has also an anime version called Anpanman is about a superhero with the anpan as its head. The other characters of the series are also bread-themed and that includes Currypanman (bun filled with curry), Shokupanman (sliced white bread), Melonpanna (melon bread), and others. The shows target audience are kids and because of its popularity, it has been merchandised to many children’s products: from toys to snack foods to video games. The superhero Anpanman has an anpan has its head. When it is necessary, he takes a part of its head let it be eaten by children. (Photo by Eric on Flickr ) Dorayaki Dorayaki is a Japanese version of the pancake. It consists of two pancake-like patties that are has a sweet Azuki red bean paste as a filling. The dorayaki has got its name from its appearance. Dora means gong in Japanese. Dorayaki (Photo by Hiroshi Yoshinaga on Flickr ) In Doraemon , one of the longest running anime of all time, the titular character Doraemon is fond of the dorayaki. It is his favorite food that he will do anything just to have it for snacks. He is also oftentimes fell for traps when dthe dorayaki is involved. Doreamon, the mechanical cat from the future, loves Dorayaki so much that he usually fell into traps when dorayaki is involved. (Photo by MIKI Yoshihito on Flickr ) Pocky Pocky is a chocolate-coated biscuit sticks made by the Japanese confectionary company Glico . Aside from the original chocolate flavor, Pocky is also available in strawberry, almond, cookies and cream, milk, banana, green tea, coconut, and honey. There are also flavors that are only available in certain regions of Japan (azuki bean in Kyoto, Kobe wine in Kobe, etc.). The original chocolate flavor of Pocky. (Photo by Mike Mozart on Flickr ) It made its way into romance manga and anime through the Pocky game or Pocky kiss. It is somehow the pocky equivalent of the spaghetti kiss where two persons bite at opposite sides until they their lips meet at the middle. Konpeitō Konpeitō are colorful Japanese sugar candies that are often unflavored. Because of its appearance, it is very appealing to kids. The most popular scene that Konpeitō is seen in a movie would be in Studio Ghibli’s Spirited Away where the black soot spirits pick up Konpeitō before they went back to their holes. What are other Japanese snacks that you saw in manga/anime? Share it with us in the comments! The following two tabs change content below.	i don't know
Which vegetable is associated with a person who spends a lot of time sitting or lying down, usually watching television?	Couch potato - definition of couch potato by The Free Dictionary Couch potato - definition of couch potato by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/couch+potato A person who spends much time sitting or lying down, usually watching television. couch potato slang a lazy person whose recreation consists chiefly of watching television and videos couch′ pota`to Informal. a person whose leisure time is spent watching television. [1975–80] 1. couch potato - an idler who spends much time on a couch (usually watching television) telecasting , television , TV , video - broadcasting visual images of stationary or moving objects; "she is a star of screen and video"; "Television is a medium because it is neither rare nor well done" - Ernie Kovacs do-nothing , idler , layabout , loafer , bum - person who does no work; "a lazy bum" Translations n (inf) → Dauerglotzer(in) m(f) (inf), → Couch-Potato f couch potato n (fam) → pigrone /a teledipendente couch1 (kautʃ) noun a type of sofa for sitting or lying on. The doctor asked him to lie on the couch. rusbank مَضْجَـع، سَرير кушетка divã pohovka, lehátko die Couch briks καναπές sofá , canapé kušett تخت معاینه sohva canapé ספה खाट, पल kauč dívány sofa sófi; legubekkur divano 寝いす 소파, 긴의자 kušetė, sofa kušete; dīvāns sofa bank sofa ; behandlingsbenk tapczan , kanapa د معاینه چپر کت marquesa canapea кушетка pohovka kavč sofa dyscha, schäslong, soffa เก้าอี้ยาว kanepe , sedir , divan 長沙發椅 кушетка پلنگ، بستر ghế trường kỷ 长沙发椅 ˈcouch potato noun a person who spends too much time watching television. stoelpatat, kassiekneg الشَّخص الذي يَقضي وقْتا طويلا في مُشاهَدة التلفزيون телеманиак come-dorme televizní maniak, lenoch Couch patato tv-narkoman αυτός που βλέπει τηλεόραση πολλές ώρες apoltronado , poltrón , tumbón telekahaige معتاد به تلویزیون sohvaperuna abruti de télé לִרבוֹץ ज्यादा वक्त टेलीविजन देख कर गुजारने वाला व्यक्ति osoba koja stalno sjedi i gleda televiziju állandóan a tévét bámuló ember pemalas pantofolaio , sedentario 座り込んでテレビばかり見ている人 비활동적이고 게으른 사람 telemanas televizora upuris pemalas televisiefreak sofagris , latsabb nałogowy telewidz د تلویزیون معتاد человек , беспрерывно смотрящии телевизор televízny maniak ki ves čas ždi pred televizijo rob televizije soffpotatis คนขี้เกียจที่เอาแต่นั่งดูทีวี TV hastası 電視迷 лежень ب‍ہ‍ت زياده ٹ‍یلى ويژن ديكهن‍ے والا người nghiện xem ti vi 电视迷 couch potato (fam) persona sedentaria, persona que pasa mucho tiempo sentada en el sofá viendo la televisión	Sedentary lifestyle
The Real Estate investments of which US President were investigated in the ‘Whitewater Scandal’?	The Disturbing Effects of Watching TV According to the authors : "TV viewing time may be associated with a loss of life that is comparable to other major chronic disease risk factors such as physical inactivity and obesity." In another meta-analysis, published earlier this summer in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), researchers suggest that spending just two hours a day in front of the TV raises your risk of developing type 2 diabetes and heart disease by 20 percent. Add another hour to your viewing time, and you also significantly raise your risk of premature death from any cause... Now, when you consider that an astonishing 90 percent of American children under age 2 watch TV regularly, then the damage can really start adding up over time. Many kids also have TV's in their bedrooms, which adds to the problem. It's a no-brainer that if your child has a TV in their room, they're going to spend more time watching it, but one study really made that point clear , showing that having a TV in the bedroom increased viewing time by nearly nine hours a week. I personally recommend not letting young infants watch TV, and strictly limiting viewing time for both children and teens—and banning TV's from your child's bedroom (which would also reduce the amount of electromagnetic fields they're exposed to throughout the night). But the featured study clearly shows that TV viewing will likely cut your life short regardless of your age. TV Watching Takes a Toll on Your Health in Many Ways This isn't the first time we've heard about how TV watching can harm your health. Numerous other studies have linked health- and mental problems to even modest amounts of TV viewing. One researcher, Dr. Aric Sigman, has identified a slew of negative effects he believes can be blamed on watching television: Obesity Limited brain growth Diabetes Watching TV also has a major impact on your brain chemistry . In fact, the longer you watch, the easier your brain slips into a receptive, passive mode, meaning that messages are streamed into your brain without any participation from you. (This is an advertiser's dream, and likely one of the reasons why TV advertising—particularly ads directed at children and teens—works so well.) Still, at the root of it all, you find that it's really about the dangers of living a sedentary, "couch-potato" kind of life. The Daily Mail quotes Sally Davies , England's Chief Medical Officer, as saying: "Physical activity offers huge benefits and these studies back what we already know – that a sedentary lifestyle carries additional risks. We hope these studies will help more people realize that there are many ways to get exercise." While Watching TV Takes Years Off Your Life, Exercise ADDS Years Yes, even a modest amount of exercise has been shown to add years to your lifespan. A study published just last month in The Lancet found that a mere 15 minutes of exercise a day can increase your lifespan by three years! Those who got themselves moving for at least 15 minutes a day, or 90 minutes a week, also had a 14 percent reduced risk of all-cause mortality. Furthermore: "Every additional 15 minutes of daily exercise beyond the minimum amount of 15 minutes a day further reduced all-cause mortality by 4 percent, and all-cancer mortality by 1 percent. These benefits were applicable to all age groups and both sexes, and to those with cardiovascular disease risks. Individuals who were inactive had a 17 percent increased risk of mortality compared with individuals in the low-volume group." Exercise is known to be effective in the prevention of disease of all kinds, including cancer, which, naturally, will allow you to live longer. But exercise may also be imperative in the treatment of serious diseases such as cancer. In fact, a new report issued by Macmillan Cancer Support argues that exercise should be part of standard cancer care. It recommends that all patients getting cancer treatment should be told to engage in moderate-intensity exercise for two and a half hours every week, stating that the advice to rest and take it easy after treatment is an outdated view. Research has shown that exercise can: Reduce your risk of dying from cancer Reduce your risk of cancer recurrence Boost energy and minimize the side effects of conventional cancer treatment According to BBC News : "Previous research shows that exercising to the recommended levels can reduce the risk of breast cancer recurring by 40 percent. For prostate cancer the risk of dying from the disease is reduced by up to 30 percent. Bowel cancer patients' risk of dying from the disease can be cut by around 50 percent by doing around six hours of moderate physical activity a week." Ciaran Devane, chief executive of Macmillan Cancer Support is quoted as saying: "Cancer patients would be shocked if they knew just how much of a benefit physical activity could have on their recovery and long term health, in some cases reducing their chances of having to go through the grueling ordeal of treatment all over again. It doesn't need to be anything too strenuous; doing the gardening, going for a brisk walk or a swim, all count." Exercise as a Cancer Prevention Tool This topic is very near and dear to my heart, as I went to medical school in large part because I wanted to use exercise as a therapeutic tool to help people get healthier. I strongly believe that without fitness, it is virtually impossible to achieve optimal health. Lack of exercise can also severely hamper your recuperative efforts once disease has set in. A previous study by Harvard Medical School researchers found that breast cancer patients who exercise moderately for three to five hours a week cut their odds of dying from cancer by about half, compared to sedentary patients. In fact, any amount of weekly exercise increased a patient's odds of surviving breast cancer. This benefit also remained constant regardless of whether women were diagnosed early on or after their cancer had spread. One of the primary reasons exercise works to lower your cancer risk is because it drives your insulin levels down, and controlling insulin levels is one of the most powerful ways to reduce your cancer risks. It's also been suggested that apoptosis (programmed cell death) is triggered by exercise , causing cancer cells to die. Exercise also helps lower your estrogen levels, which explains why exercise appears to be particularly potent against breast cancer. And if you're male, be aware that athletes have lower levels of circulating testosterone than non-athletes, and similar to the association between estrogen levels and breast cancer in women, testosterone is known to influence the development of prostate cancer in men. Then of course, exercise also improves the circulation of immune cells in your blood, whose job it is to neutralize pathogens throughout your body. The better these cells circulate, the more efficient your immune system is at locating and defending against viruses and diseases, including cancer, trying to attack your body. Exercise Tips for Cancer Patients I would strongly recommend you read up on my Peak Fitness program , which includes high-intensity exercises that can reduce your exercise time while actually improving your benefits. Now, if you have cancer or any other chronic disease, you will of course need to tailor your exercise routine to your individual scenario, taking into account your stamina and current health. Often, you will be able to take part in a regular exercise program -- one that involves a variety of exercises like strength training, core-building, stretching, aerobic and anaerobic -- with very little changes necessary. However, at times you may find you need to exercise at a lower intensity, or for shorter durations. Always listen to your body and if you feel you need a break, take time to rest. But even exercising for just a few minutes a day is better than not exercising at all, and you'll likely find that your stamina increases and you're able to complete more challenging workouts with each passing day. In the event you are suffering from a very weakened immune system, you may want to exercise in your home instead of visiting a public gym. But remember that exercise will ultimately help to boost your immune system, so it's very important to continue with your program, even if you suffer from chronic illness or cancer. For even more cancer-prevention guidelines, please see my previous article, The Root Cause of Cancer Almost Universally Ignored by Doctors . 0 Discover the comments that have the most impact on our readers. View this article’s most recent comments. Read your fellow readers’ comments arranged from oldest to newest. See what our top posters have to say about this article.	i don't know
The disease bovine spongiform encephalopathy is commonly known by what name?	All About BSE (Mad Cow Disease) All About BSE (Mad Cow Disease) Print The word BSE is short but it stands for a disease with a long name, bovine spongiform encephalopathy. "Bovine" means that the disease affects cows, "spongiform" refers to the way the brain from a sick cow looks spongy under a microscope, and "encephalopathy" indicates that it is a disease of the brain. BSE is commonly called “mad cow disease.” What is BSE? BSE is a progressive neurologic disease of cows. Progressive means that it gets worse over time. Neurologic means that it damages a cow’s central nervous system (brain and spinal cord). What Causes BSE? Most scientists think that BSE is caused by a protein called a prion. For reasons that are not completely understood, the normal prion protein changes into an abnormal prion protein that is harmful. The body of a sick cow does not even know the abnormal prion is there. Without knowing it is there, the cow’s body cannot fight off the disease. What are the Signs of BSE in Cows? A common sign of BSE in cows is incoordination. A sick cow has trouble walking and getting up. A sick cow may also act very nervous or violent, which is why BSE is often called “mad cow disease.” It usually takes four to six years from the time a cow is infected with the abnormal prion to when it first shows symptoms of BSE. This is called the incubation period. During the incubation period, there is no way to tell that a cow has BSE by looking at it. Once a cow starts to show symptoms, it gets sicker and sicker until it dies, usually within two weeks to six months. There is no treatment for BSE and no vaccine to prevent it. Currently, there is no reliable way to test for BSE in a live cow. After a cow has died, scientists can tell if it had BSE by looking at its brain under a microscope and seeing the spongy appearance. Scientists can also tell if a cow had BSE by using test kits that can detect the abnormal prion in the brain. Brain from a healthy cow, as seen under a microscope using special stains. Photo courtesy of Dr. Katie Kelly, Johns Hopkins University Brain from a cow sick with BSE, as seen under a microscope using special stains. The large white spaces are like the "holes" of a sponge. Photo courtesy of the late Dr. Al Jenny, USDA How Does a Cow Get BSE? The parts of a cow that are not eaten by people are cooked, dried, ground into a powder, and used for many purposes, including as ingredients in animal feed. A cow gets BSE by eating feed contaminated with parts that came from another cow that was sick with BSE. The contaminated feed contains the abnormal prion, and a cow becomes infected with the abnormal prion when it eats the feed. If a cow gets BSE, it most likely ate the contaminated feed during its first year of life. Remember, if a cow becomes infected with the abnormal prion when it is one-year-old, it usually will not show signs of BSE until it is five-years-old or older. Can People Get BSE? People can get a version of BSE called variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD). As of August 8, 2016, 231 people worldwide are known to have become sick with vCJD. 1 It is thought that they got the disease from eating food made from cows sick with BSE. Most of the people who have become sick with vCJD lived in the United Kingdom. Only four lived in the U.S., and most likely, these four people became infected when they were living or traveling overseas. Both vCJD and BSE are not contagious. This means that it is not like catching a cold. A person (or a cow) cannot catch it from being near a sick person or cow. Also, research studies have shown that people cannot get BSE from drinking milk or eating milk products, even if the milk came from a sick cow. What is the FDA Doing to Keep Your Food Safe? The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is doing many things to keep the food in the U.S. safe for both people and cows. Since August 1997, the FDA has not allowed most parts from cows and certain other animals to be used to make food that is fed to cows. This protects healthy cows from getting BSE by making sure that the food they eat is not contaminated with the abnormal prion. In April 2009, the FDA took additional steps to make sure the food in the U.S. stays safe. Certain high-risk cow parts are not allowed to be used to make any animal feed, including pet food. This prevents all animal feed from being accidentally contaminated with the abnormal prion. High-risk cow parts are those parts of the cow that have the highest chance of being infected with the abnormal prion, such as the brains and spinal cords from cows that are 30 months of age or older. By keeping the food that is fed to cows safe, the FDA is protecting people by making sure that the food they eat comes from healthy cows. The FDA also works with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to keep cows in the U.S. healthy and free of BSE. The USDA prevents high-risk cows and cow products from entering the U.S. from other countries. The USDA also makes sure that high-risk cow parts, such as the brains and spinal cords, and cows that are unable to walk or that show other signs of disease are not used to make food for people. The steps the FDA and USDA have taken to prevent cows in the U.S. from getting BSE are working very well. Only four cows with BSE have been found in the U.S. Three of these cows were born in the U.S., and the fourth was born in Canada. The last cow with BSE in the U.S. was found in 2012. Can Other Animals Get BSE? Sheep, goats, mink, deer, and elk can get sick with their own versions of BSE. Cats are the only common household pet known to have a version of BSE. It is called feline spongiform encephalopathy, and the same things that are being done to protect people and cows are also protecting cats. No cat in the U.S. has ever been found to have this disease. How Can I Get More Information? Contact the FDA’s Center for Veterinary Medicine at 240-402-7002 or [email protected] . Visit the USDA’s website at http://www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?contentid=BSE_FAQs.xml&contentidonly=true For more information on vCJD: Visit the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's website at http://www.cdc.gov/prions/vcjd/index.html . Visit the University of Edinburgh’s National CJD Research & Surveillance Unit Web page at http://www.cjd.ed.ac.uk/index.html . 1 Variant CJD Cases Worldwide. The National CJD Research & Surveillance Unit, The University of Edinburgh. Available at www.cjd.ed.ac.uk/documents/worldfigs.pdf . Accessed Aug 29, 2016.	Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
Chirophobia is the irrational fear of which part of the body?	Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy - Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis - Canoe.com Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy Health Column The Facts Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), commonly known as "mad cow disease," is a fatal disease that strikes the nervous system of cattle. Currently, no vaccine or treatment exists to treat BSE, and affected animals display a variety of neurological symptoms before they die (think of television reports showing cows having trouble standing up). An animal with outward symptoms of BSE may survive for 2 weeks to 6 months, though it may have carried the disease for up to 8 years. BSE has an incubation period (the time between infection and development of symptoms) ranging from 30 months to 8 years, which is a long time for a disease to remain undetected. BSE is a disease that only cows develop; however, it is related to a "brain-wasting" disease that affects humans, called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD). CJD occurs due to a spontaneous genetic mutation that occurs in one in every million individuals. In 1996, another form of CJD was identified and has since been named "variant CJD" (vCJD). This variant form of CJD has been linked to the consumption of meat products infected with BSE. Causes Scientists believe that BSE is most often spread through the practice of feeding cattle various meats (rendered material) from slaughtered animals such as sheep, goats, and other cattle. During this process, an abnormal protein that is linked to BSE can spread from a slaughtered diseased animal to a healthy one. This abnormal protein, called a prion, can withstand high temperatures and does not get destroyed during the rendering procedure. Since the incubation period for BSE is so long, it is possible for an infected animal to enter the food chain before the symptoms appear. Proteins are long molecules that are folded up into particular shapes. A prion is folded differently from a normal protein, and it can cause normal proteins to change and fold abnormally. When this happens, the proteins (normally found in liquid form in cells) begin to solidify. The cells most often infected are the brain cells. The resulting solidification of the proteins causes the infected brain tissues to look like a sponge with several tiny holes, hence the name "spongiform encephalopathy." Symptoms and Complications Because BSE damages the brain tissue, it has a variety of symptoms ranging from behavioural changes to coordination problems. Cows with BSE may show nervousness or aggressive behaviour, difficulty with coordination, trouble standing up, decreased milk production, and weight loss. The disease is fatal, with death usually occurring 2 weeks to 6 months after symptoms start. In humans, both CJD and vCJD are also fatal conditions, with death occurring 6 to 24 months after symptoms first appear. Making the Diagnosis Live animals cannot be tested for the disease. The only way to confirm the presence of BSE is by checking the brain tissue of an animal after it dies. Upon examination, the brain is found to be full of small holes, like a sponge. In humans, a genetic test exists to determine if a person might be susceptible to vCJD, but again, the only way to confirm the diagnosis is through a sample of brain tissue obtained through a biopsy or autopsy. Treatment and Prevention There is no cure, treatment, or vaccine for BSE, CJD, or vCJD. The best way to prevent the disease is to avoid feeding cattle rendered material from slaughtered animals, and to isolate and destroy all infected animals. Most countries have developed policies for monitoring BSE in their cattle herds and procedures for dealing promptly and thoroughly with BSE cases when they do arise. Canada is continuing to work to prevent and control BSE: Health Canada works closely with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) as part of the agency's National Response Team. The CFIA has taken various precautions to prevent the introduction and spread of BSE, including creating a surveillance program in which the brains of cattle are tested for the disease. The CFIA has mandated that all suspected BSE cases be reported to a federal veterinarian. The CFIA has also created a Canadian Cattle Identification Program for cattle and bison, making it possible to trace individual animal movements from the herd of origin to the time of slaughter. In 1997, Canada banned the feeding of rendered protein products from ruminant animals (cattle, sheep, goats, bison, elk, or deer) to other ruminants. In 2007, Canada implemented an enhanced BSE-related feed ban. This regulation extends the original feeding ban to all animal feeds, pet food, and fertilizer products. A permit issued by the CFIA is now required for those needing to handle, transport, or dispose of cattle carcasses and certain cattle tissues. More detailed policies regarding the prevention and control of BSE are available on the Health Canada website. More on CHealth	i don't know
In the 1964 film ‘Goldfinger’, what is the name of the team of Goldfinger’s all-female pilots?	Pussy Galore's Flying Circus \| James Bond Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia Pussy Galore's Flying Circus Caron Gardner, Lesley Langley Pussy Galore's Flying Circus are five professional women aviators, led by Pussy Galore and were in the employ of Auric Goldfinger . They appear in the 1964 film, Goldfinger and are portrayed by seven actresses; Maggie Wright, Aleta Morrison, Jane Holland, Jane Murdoch, Maise Farrell, Caron Gardner and Lesley Langley. Contents [ show ] Film biography In Goldfinger's "Operation Grand Slam", the pilots of Pussy Galore's Flying Circus are responsible for spraying Delta 9 nerve gas over Fort Knox . In theory, the deadly gas was to kill the gold depository's defenders, allowing Goldfinger to walk in unopposed and plant an atomic device in the vault. On the day of the attack, Operation Grand Slam began with Pussy Galore's Flying Circus spraying the gas over Fort Knox as planned. However, Bond had seduced Pussy, convincing her to replace the nerve gas with a harmless substance and alert the U.S. government about Goldfinger's plan. Behind the scenes Between the shooting at Northolt airstrip on May 13th 1964, and additonal shots completed on July 2nd, 1964, of the five original girls who played the pilots, two had been replaced. The original May line up was with Aleta Morrison, Maggie Wright, Jane Holland, Jane Murdoch and Maise Farrell. By July Jane Murdoch and Maise Farrell had been replaced by Caron Gardner and Lesley Langley. So 7 girls played the 5 pilots, but two of them were eventually only used for photos and never seen in the film. Trivia Contrary to some reports, Aleta Morrison - not Maggie Wright - is the Squadron Leader who does the talking when the girls gas Fort Knox. In some scenes they were played by stuntmen in blonde wigs. The typeface on the banner in Monty Python's Flying Circus is the same as in the banner of Pussy Galore's Flying Circus. Gallery	Flying circus (disambiguation)
The unicorn on the British coat of arms represents which country?	Goldfinger - James Bond Movies Cec Linder Plot Goldfinger opens with a pre-title sequence where James Bond foils a Mexican drug operation, by blowing up the base with plastic explosives. After the titles, the film opens in Miami Beach, USA, where Felix Leiter delivers a message to Bond from M, telling him to watch Auric Goldfinger. Bond discovers that Goldfinger is cheating at cards, by having a woman use binoculars to spy on the other man, reporting his cards to Goldfinger via his ear piece. Bond seduces the girl and makes Goldfinger loose $10,000 by threatening to call the Miami Beach Police. Goldfinger gets his revenge, sending his henchman Oddjob to kill the girl by suffocating her with gold paint, in the most iconic scene of the series. Bond goes to London and has dinner with Colonel Smithers of the Bank of England, where he learns his true mission is to find out how Goldfinger is smuggling gold out of the country. He meets with Goldfinger at a golf club, where the two play a match, with a bar of gold wagering on the side. Despite Goldfinger's cheating, Bond manages to outsmart him and win the game. Goldfinger warns Bond to stop messing with his affairs, getting Oddjob to knock the head off of a statue with his bowling hat, as a threat. Despite the threat, Bond follows him to Switzerland and camps out until dark. After overhearing Goldfinger talk about Operation Grand Slam, Bond encounters Tilly Masterson, who is trying to get revenge for the death of her sister. The two accidentally activate a trip wire, and are chased in the DB5 by security. They hit a dead end and while trying to escape, Tilly is killed and Bond is captured. Bond awakes tied to a table, and is almost castrated by an industrial laser, but is kept alive when he claims to know about Operation Grand Slam. He's then flown to Kentucky where he meets the pilot, Pussy Galore. He escapes and overhears Goldfinger detailing the operation. Goldfinger's plan is to knock out the troops surrounding Fort Knox with invisible nerve gas, and then break in, setting a nuclear bomb off in the vaults. This would cause the gold to be radioactive and worthless for 58 years, increasing the value of his own gold. Pussy Galore is told to lead a group of planes over Fort Knox to spray the gas. She is seduced by Bond however, and calls the CIA, who replace the nerve has with harmless air. The plan goes into action, and the guards around Fort Knox pretend to be knocked unconscious, while Goldfinger breaks into the vault. The bomb is locked in the vault with Oddjob and Bond, and Goldfinger prepares to escape. He is ambushed by the guards however, but manages to escape anyway, as he had worn a colonel's uniform under his jacket, in case anything went wrong. Inside the vaults, Bond fights Oddjob and kills him via electrocution, and then breaks open the casing of the bomb. He isn't sure how to disarm it, but at the last minute, the CIA breaks in and a bomb specialist manages to disarm it, with only 007 seconds left on the clock. The matter is cleared up and Bond is flown to Washington to have dinner with the President. Unbeknown to Felix and his friends, Goldfinger had already hijacked the plane, and Bond is left at his mercy. A fight ensues and a window of the plane is broken. The cabin depressurizes and Goldfinger is sucked out of the window to his death. Bond goes to the cockpit and discovers Pussy Galore is piloting the plane. The two try to get the plane out of a nose dive, but fail, instead choosing to parachute to safety, alone at last. Naming Pussy Galore When the Producers choose Honor Blackman to play Ms. Galore, they faced a large challenge. They wanted to use the name Pussy Galore, but with the uptight times of the 60's, they knew it would never get past the censors. Publicist Tom Carlile solved the problem. He send Blackman to the premier of Move Over Darling, which he knew Prince Phillip would be attending. He made sure Blackman would be introduced to the Prince, and hired a photographer to get some good photos of the two. The press did the rest of the work for him. With a little persuasion, he got the photos printed on the front page of The Daily Mail, with the title 'Pussy and the Prince'. There was no public outrage over the title, and so the producers had proof of public acceptance of the name. On top of that, they were using an original Ian Fleming character name. The censors let it go through, and the rest is history. Without the help of Tom Carlile, she may have been called Kitty Galore. Legacy Although trailing second behind Thunderball in inflation adjusted revenue, Goldfinger is by far a clear first in terms of its legacy. To understand why it was the most exciting release in the history of motion pictures, you have to realize that Goldfinger was a legend before it was even released. On the night of the world premier at the London Odeon on 17th September 1964, the film was enclosed in a gold tin and delivered by models wearing gold suits. The crowds of thousands, who had gathered in the early hours of the day, went wild. And then Honor Blackman arrived. She wore a 22 carat gold finger on her little finger, that cost the equivalent of $100,000. The excitement in the crowds was astonishing, and fights and riots broke out. There was so many people in such a small space that one policeman was actually pushed through the window of the cinema. The crowds got so rowdy that Honor was rushed inside with nearly 100 policemen, to keep the crowds out. The Producers had decided to gear the film a little more to American viewers, while still maintaining a fully British style. They shot in Miami and Kentucky, and at Fort Knox. And the scale of the advertising was enormous. Everybody, everywhere had seen the famous Golden Girl. There was so much hype and excitement around the world, and the film hadn't even been released. The hype increased even more after its release. The opening sequence was one of the best of the series, and the whole movie was on such a grand scale. It was larger than life, elegant, entertaining, sexy, and a little funny. It had the gadgets, the girls, the locations, the cars, and a fabulous cast. Goldfinger was the highest point of the Bond series, and will forever remain the best entry in the series, a true legend. Music The main theme for Goldfinger was composed by John Barry. Lyrics were then added by British artists Anthony Newley and Leslie Bricusse, who had worked together on projects in the past. What really made the song though, was the choice to bring in legend Shirley Bassey. It was the first time Shirley would sing for the series, later coming back to do Diamonds Are Forever and Moonraker. Interestingly enough, even though the song is regarded as the definitive theme song, outside of the original James Bond Theme, Producer Harry Saltzman hated it. It was almost scrapped, but Harry's partner Cubby Broccoli persuaded him to keep it, and the legend began. Shirley's dramatic and bold vocals brought the lyrics alive, and was perfectly suited for John Barry's orchestral arrangements. Anthony Newley had originally sung it, but they agreed among themselves that someone bolder was needed. The soundtrack as a whole went perfectly with the film, as Barry used sound effects to match the context of the scene. For example, when Jill Masterson is discovered dead, and covered in gold paint, a metallic chime is played. The Goldfinger soundtrack was #1 on the charts before the film was even released. And in 1965, it outsold The Beatles. Shirley Bassey ended up selling over a million copies of the soundtrack, ironically earning her a gold album from the RIAA. In 1964, Composer John Barry had recently finished his soundtrack for Zulu, and was not far away from starting work on the music for The IPCRESS File, which was also a project of producer Harry Saltzman. Between those two films, Barry was hard at work on the Goldfinger theme, which he would often work on for periods of more than 24 hours, not sleeping until he perfected the section he was doing. And a rare piece of trivia for the fanatics: The first person--besides Barry himself of course--to hear the original Goldfinger theme, was none other than Michael Caine, who was staying with Barry for a few days at the time. Track # John Barry Goofs Every movie has a few interesting and sometimes funny mistakes, but most lists of movie goofs are full of duplicates, and pick apart the tiniest details, like a speck of dandruff disappearing between shots! Here we try to list the best of the bunch, short and sweet. Incorrect Reflection When the special effects team superimposed the image of man stalking Bond onto a girls eye, they forgot to flip the film, so the reflection is incorrect. The ticks heard from the bomb timer near the end of the film are inconsistent with the actual display (they don't even match the original display before it was changed to stop at 007). When the Lincoln is crushed and lowered onto Oddjob's Ford Ranchero, it easily takes the weight. In reality, it would have crushed the Ford, as it would have been over 5 times the maximum load. When Bond turns the light on to reveal the dead Golden Girl, he makes an interesting mistake. Since the scene was filmed in a sound stage in England, Connery flips the switch down to turn on the light, the opposite of the American system that would have been used at the Miami hotel. Erroneous Registration The helicopter used to take Goldfinger to Fort Knox had the registration N-ASAZ. However, that style of registration hadn't been used in the states since 1927, and the helicopter isn't 17 years old. Pussy Galore's Flying Circus lands and gets a pep talk from Pussy. But when they're dismissed, they turn around and all their planes have disappeared. Strings can be seen on the long shots of Goldfinger's plane. Note: this was fixed in the 2006 digital restoration. Visible Crew When Pussy Galore's Flying Circus lands, the pilot of the nearest plane, who is looking at the camera making sure not to hit it with the wing, is in fact a man wearing a yellow hat with pig tails. While Bond is giving Tilly a lift to the garage, he looks in his rear view mirror at the initials on her case. He sees "T.M." His view should be ".M.T" Misconceptions In the Fort Knox vault, the gold is stacked too high to be practical. Given the weight and softness of gold, the lower bars would've been flattened by the sheer weight of the bars above them. This isn't a mistake, but an artistic design. If it were designed to be realistic, it would be dull and boring. Box Office	i don't know
Which birds are depicted on the corners of the 61st floor of the Chrysler Building in New York?	Chrysler Building - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Chrysler Building For Chrysler LLC's headquarters, see Chrysler Headquarters and Technology Center . Chrysler Building Chrysler Building was the world's tallest building from 27 May 1930 to 1931.* Preceded by 1,195,000 sq ft (111,000 m2) Elevator count *Fully habitable, self-supported, from main entrance to highest structural or architectural top; see the list of tallest buildings in the world for other listings. Chrysler Building NRHP Reference#: 75001237 The Chrysler Building is an Art Deco skyscraper in New York City , located on the east side of Manhattan in the Turtle Bay area at the intersection of 42nd Street and Lexington Avenue . Standing at 319 metres (1,047 ft), [3] [4] it was the world's tallest building for 11 months before it was surpassed by the Empire State Building in 1931. After the destruction of the World Trade Center , it was again the second-tallest building in New York City until December 2007, when the spire was raised on the 365.8-metre (1,200 ft) Bank of America Tower , pushing the Chrysler Building into third position. In addition, The New York Times Building which opened in 2007, is exactly level with the Chrysler Building in height. [5] The Chrysler Building is a classic example of Art Deco architecture and considered by many contemporary architects to be one of the finest buildings in New York City . In 2007, it was ranked ninth on the List of America's Favorite Architecture by the American Institute of Architects . [6] Contents The Chrysler Building in 1932 View from Empire State Building, 2005 Chrysler Building and eastern Midtown Manhattan The Chrysler Building was designed by architect William Van Alen to house the Chrysler Corporation . When the ground breaking occurred on September 19, 1928, there was an intense competition in New York City to build the world's tallest skyscraper. [7] [8] Despite a frantic pace (the building was built at an average rate of four floors per week), no workers died during the construction of this skyscraper. [9] [ edit ] Design beginnings Van Alen's original design for the skyscraper called for a decorative jewel-like glass crown. It also featured a base in which the showroom windows were tripled in height and topped by twelve stories with glass-wrapped corners, creating an impression that the tower appeared physically and visually light as if floating on mid-air. [10] The height of the skyscraper was also originally designed to be 246 metres (807 ft). [9] However, the design proved to be too advanced and costly for building contractor William H. Reynolds, who disapproved of Van Alen's original plan. [11] The design and lease were then sold to Walter P. Chrysler , who worked with Van Alen and redesigned the skyscraper for additional stories; it was eventually revised to be 282 metres (925 ft) tall. [9] As Walter Chrysler was the chairman of the Chrysler Automobile Corporation, [9] various architectural details and especially the building's gargoyles were modeled after Chrysler automobile products like the hood ornaments of the Plymouth; they exemplify the machine age in the 1920s ( see below ). [12] [13] [ edit ] Construction Construction commenced on September 19, 1928. [9] In total, almost 400,000 rivets were used [9] and approximately 3,826,000 bricks were manually laid, to create the non-loadbearing walls of the skyscraper. [14] Contractors, builders and engineers were joined by other building-services experts to coordinate construction. Prior to its completion, the building stood about even with a rival project at 40 Wall Street , designed by H. Craig Severance . Severance increased the height of his project and then publicly claimed the title of the world's tallest building [15] (this distinction excluded structures that were not fully habitable, such as the Eiffel Tower [16] ). In response, Van Alen obtained permission for a 56.3-metre (185 ft) long spire [17] and had it secretly constructed inside the frame of the building. The spire was delivered to the site in 4 different sections. [18] On October 23, 1929, the bottom section of the spire was hoisted onto the top of the building's dome and lowered into the 66th floor of the building. The other remaining sections of the spire were hoisted and riveted to the first one in sequential order in just 90 minutes. [19] [ edit ] Completion Upon completion, May 28, 1930, [9] the added height of the spire allowed the Chrysler Building to surpass 40 Wall Street as the tallest building in the world and the Eiffel Tower as the tallest structure. It was the first man-made structure to stand taller than 1,000 feet (305 m). Van Alen's satisfaction in these accomplishments was likely muted by Walter Chrysler 's later refusal to pay the balance of his architectural fee. [20] Less than a year after it opened to the public on May 27, 1931, the Chrysler Building was surpassed in height by the Empire State Building , but the Chrysler Building is still the world's tallest steel-suppported brick building. [21] [22] (The world's tallest brick building without steel is St. Martin's Church in Landshut begun in 1389.) [23] [24] [ edit ] Property The land on which the Chrysler Building stands was donated to The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art , [25] a private college that offers every admitted student a full tuition scholarship, in 1902. The land was leased to the Chrysler Corporation to construct the building in 1929. [25] The land and the building continue to be owned by the college; [26] however, the lease has changed several times. The Chrysler Corporation moved out in the 1950s, and in 1957 it was leased to real-estate moguls Sol Goldman and Alex DiLorenzo, and later leased to the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company . The lobby was refurbished and the facade renovated in 1978–1979. [27] The building was leased by Jack Kent Cooke , a Washington, D.C. investor, in 1979. The spire underwent a restoration that was completed in 1995. In 1998, The Cooper Union leased the building to Tishman Speyer Properties and the Travelers Insurance Group . In 2001, a 75% stake in the lease of the building was sold, for US$ 800 million, to TMW, the German arm of an Atlanta -based investment fund. [28] On June 11, 2008 it was reported that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was in negotiations to buy TMW's 75% economic interest in the building and a share of the Trylons retail structure next door for US$ 800 million. [29] On July 9, 2008 it was announced that the transaction had been completed, and that the Abu Dhabi Investment Council was now the owner of the building. [30] [ edit ] Architecture Detail of the Art Deco ornamentation at the crown The Chrysler Building is considered a masterpiece of Art Deco architecture. The distinctive ornamentation of the building based on features that were then being used on Chrysler automobiles. The corners of the 61st floor are graced with eagles, replicas of the 1929 Chrysler hood ornaments; [31] on the 31st floor, the corner ornamentation are replicas of the 1929 Chrysler radiator caps. [32] The building is constructed of masonry, with a steel frame, and metal cladding. In total, the building currently contains 3,862 windows on its facade and 4 banks of 8 elevators designed by the Otis Elevator Corporation . [9] The building was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1976. [2] [33] [ edit ] Crown ornamentation The Chrysler Building is also well renowned and recognised for its terraced crown. Composed of seven radiating terraced arches, Van Alen's design of the crown is a cruciform groin vault constructed into seven concentric members with transitioning set-backs, mounted up one behind each other. [34] The stainless-steel cladding is ribbed and riveted in a radiating pattern with many triangular vaulted windows, transitioning into smaller segments of the seven narrow set-backs of the facade of the terraced crown. The entire crown is clad with silvery "Enduro KA-2" metal, an austenitic stainless steel developed in Germany by Krupp and marketed under the trade name "Nirosta" (a German acronym for nichtrostender Stahl, meaning "rust-proof steel"). [35] [36] [ edit ] Crown usage When the building first opened, it contained a public viewing gallery on the 71st floor, which was closed to the public in 1945. This floor is now the highest-occupied floor, most recently occupied by an office space management firm. [37] The private Cloud Club occupied a three-floor high space from the 66th–68th floors, but closed in the late 1970s. Above the 71st floor, the stories of the building are designed mostly for exterior appearance, functioning mainly as landings for the stairway to the spire. Very narrow with low, sloped ceilings, these top stories are useful only for holding radio-broadcasting and other mechanical and electrical equipment. [9] Television station WCBS-TV (Channel 2) originally transmitted from the top of the Chrysler in the 1940s and early 1950s, before moving to the Empire State Building. [9] For many years, WPAT-FM and WTFM (now WKTU) also used the Chrysler Building as a transmission site, but they also moved to the Empire by the 1970s. There are currently no commercial broadcast stations located at the Chrysler Building. [ edit ] Lighting There are two sets of lighting in the top spires and decoration. The first are the V-shaped lighting inserts in the steel of the building itself. Added later were groups of floodlights which are on mast arms directed back at the building. This allows the top of the building to be lit in many colors for special occasions. This lighting was installed by electrician Charles Londner and crew during construction. [9] [ edit ] Recognition and appeal In more recent years, the Chrysler Building has continued to be a favorite among New Yorkers. In the summer of 2005, New York's own Skyscraper Museum asked one hundred architects, builders, critics, engineers, historians, and scholars, among others, to choose their 10 favorites among 25 New York towers. The Chrysler Building came in first place as 90% of them placed the building in their top-10 favorite buildings. [38] [ edit ] Cultural depictions As an iconic part of the New York City skyline, the Chrysler Building has been depicted countlessly in almost every medium—film, photography, video games, art, advertising, music, literature, and even fashion, as its use quickly establishes without doubt the location in which the depicted events are occurring. In the music scene, Meat Loaf 's 1993 album Bat Out of Hell II: Back Into Hell 's cover art depicts a demonic bat clinging to the top floors of the Chrysler Building. The artwork was by done by Michael Whelan . [41] The Chrysler building is widely known to be depicted in many films, such as Deep Impact (1998), where a wall of water surrounds the skyscraper and people can be seen on the 61st-floor observation deck fleeing to the other side of the building. [42] The tower was also prominently featured and being destroyed in the 1998 film, Godzilla [42] , and in Armageddon , which featured the tower being struck by a meteor and its spire came crashing to the ground. [42] In another film, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer , while Johnny Storm chases the Silver Surfer through Manhattan, the Silver Surfer flies straight through the Chrysler Building. [43] [44] Towards the end of Steven Spielberg's A.I.: Artificial Intelligence , the Chrysler Building is seen totally underwater as the aliens guide their spacecraft through the submerged ruins of Manhattan. [42] In the film Spider-Man , Spider-Man perches on top of one of the building's gargoyles, mourning his Uncle Ben's murder. [42] The Chrysler Building has also appeared in numerous video games such as Grand Theft Auto IV , being replicated as the "Zirconium Building". [45] [46] [ edit ] Quotations Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Chrysler Building "Art Deco in France found its American equivalent in the design of the New York skyscrapers of the 1920s. The Chrysler Building ... was one of the most accomplished essays in the style."	Eagle
Late American singer/songwriter Buddy Holly was born in which state in 1936?	Torrevieja Information - tourist guide - The Chrysler Building The Chrysler Building By Redacción 05 May, 2008 05:09:00 Font size: With all the property acquisition of famous buildings over the last thirty years there is still, thankfully, one that has retained its original name: The Chrysler Building. Though the Chrysler Corporation, long since acquired by Daimler-Benz, moved out in the mid-1950s, the building that bears its name remains one of the world's most recognizable structures. Its distinctive Art Deco design represents the pinnacle of that architectural movement. A 77-story rectangular building, the upper floors are a wonderland of steel-clad arches garnished with automotive-themed gargoyles. Those arches form a narrowing cascade to the building's once-record breaking 1,048 foot peak, where a spire caps the work. The 185 ft spire, delivered and raised to the top in secrecy was installed in 90 minutes to beat contemporary competitors also reaching for 'the world's tallest' status. Only photographs can begin to do the image justice, but the best option is to stand a few blocks away up Lexington north of the 42nd Street site on a sunny day. In this way the visitor can best see the entire seven story pinnacle of shining arches. From this distance the spire and blue-steel and aluminum facade gleam, while the flying wings - emblematic of Chrysler hood ornaments, are clearly visible. From the wings on the 31st floor to eagle heads at the 61st the corners are bedecked with reminders of an age when autos were among the latest technological innovations. The interior is no less impressive. On the lobby walls are Art Deco murals of several different designs. The mosaics carry out the building's theme, but in much darker colors - an alternating array of browns and blacks that provide the interior its more serious side. The dark onyx and amber African marble, alternating with shining chrome, is rich and well-maintained, befitting its status as part of one of the world's icons. Completed in 1930, the building briefly held the record for the world's tallest structure - intentionally surpassing the Eiffel Tower - until it was in turn surpassed by The Empire State Building four months later. But to this day it retains the prize as one of the top 10 architectural marvels of the modern age and is still the tallest brick building in the world. Commissioned by the chairman of Chrysler, the building grew in 1928 and 1929 at the rate of four floors per week. Not even the beginning of the Depression was able to dampen enthusiasm for the construction project. Though the economic downturn did have one victim - the observation floor, later turned into a restaurant that also subsequently closed. At one point nearly 3,000 workers were employed simultaneously on the $20 million project. The building was constructed using nearly 21,000 tons of steel, 400,000 rivets and almost four million bricks. Even for such a large building (over 111,000 square meters) it has a substantial number of elevators, 32. The building has a varied history. Chrysler refused to pay architect van Alen's fee on the grounds he'd bribed contractors. Even the original lighting design was only finally discovered and installed in the 1980s. But whatever its checkered past, the results remain one of the must-see destinations for every visitor to a city already crowded with competing sights. The building is easily reached via bus or subway to Lexington and 42nd Street. Share on:	i don't know
In May 1987 the first ever Rugby Union World Cup was won by which nation?	Rugby Football History All Blacks Barbarians Canada British & Irish Lions Ireland Scotland Springboks USA Wales Wallabies Rugby World Cup (RWC) is administered by Rugby World Cup Limited (RWCL), a subsidiary of the International Rugby Board (IRB). The IRB is a non-profit making organisation. All revenue generated through its activity is placed back in the game of Rugby. Rugby World Cup is the primary source of revenue for the funding of Rugby development worldwide. Ninety-five percent of all money distributed by the IRB worldwide for development comes from RWC revenue. These funds underpin the IRB's strategic investments programme including High Performance funding and development grants. The first RWC was held in New Zealand and Australia in 1987. The six tournaments to date are: How it all began The IRB held their annual board meeting on 20-21st March 1985 at the French Railways HQ in Paris. Each member nation had a single vote and the motion was carried 6 (Australia, England, France, New Zealand, South Africa, Wales) to 2 (Ireland and Scotland). It would be staged jointly by Australia and New Zealand from the 22nd May to the 20th June 1987. This gave the two host nations approx. two years to prepare. Read the full story It may also interest you to know that Rugby League's World Cup was first held in 1954. Read more World Cup Finals Estimated £80 million net surplus boost to the Game. Loss of NZ $31.3 million, NZ $8 million lower than forecast The Famous Whistle The first game of every world cup to date has been started by the same whistle. The whistle is nearly 100 years old and bears an inscription saying it was used by Gil Evans in the Test match between New Zealand and England in December 1905, a match the All Blacks won 15-0. This piece of rugby history is also believed to have been used by Albert E. Freethy in the final of the 1924 Olympics in Paris when the United States beat hosts France 17-13 at the Colombes Stadium - the last time the sport of rugby union featured in the Games. A year later Freethy blew the whistle to dismiss Cyril Brownlie in the Test between New Zealand and England at Twickenham in January 1925, making him the first player to be sent off in an international match. The whistle has been housed in the New Zealand Rugby Museum in Palmerston North since 16 April 1969 when they held their inaugural function, having been given by Stan Dean, who for many years was the chairman of the NZRFU and manager of the 1924/25 All Blacks.	New Zealand
The early medieval inhabitants of which English county were known as the Cantwara?	Rugby Union World Cup History, New Zealand : World Cup Rugby Union History, NZ 2011 RWC \| Dates & Games \| Facts \| History \| News \| Teams \| Tickets \| Your Rights Prior to the Rugby World Cup, there were only regional international rugby union competitions. One of the largest and oldest is the Six Nations Championship, which started in 1883 as the "Home Nations" championship, a tournament between England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales. It became the Five Nations in 1910, when France joined the tournament. France did not participate from 1931 to 1939, during which period it reverted back to a Home Nations championship. In 2000, Italy joined the competition, which became the Six Nations. In the southern hemisphere, the equivalent competition is the Tri Nations series held between Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Rugby union was also played at the Summer Olympics, first appearing at the 1900 Paris games and subsequently at London in 1908, Antwerp in 1920, and Paris again in 1924. France won the first gold medal, then Australasia, with the last two being won by the United States. However rugby union was soon removed from the Summer Olympic program. The idea of a Rugby World Cup had been suggested on numerous occasions going back to the 1950s, but met with opposition from most unions in the IRFB. The idea resurfaced in the early 1980s, with the Australian Rugby Union (ARU) and the New Zealand Rugby Union (NZRU) independently writing to the IRFB seeking to conduct a World Cup tournament. In 1985, Australia, New Zealand and France were in favour of a world cup and, despite knowing that the international sports boycott on their apartheid regime would prevent their participation, the South African delegates also voted in favour, which was vital in tying the vote 8-8. When one English delegate followed by a Welsh delegate switched sides, by 10 votes to 6 the IRFB finally approved the inaugural cup, jointly hosted by Australia and New Zealand in May and June 1987. The inaugural tournament was contested in Australia and New Zealand between sixteen nations. The All Blacks (New Zealand) became the first ever champions, defeating France twenty-nine points to nine. The subsequent 1991 tournament was hosted by England, with matches also being played throughout the rest of Britain, Ireland and France. This tournament also saw the abolition of invitation qualification—with a qualifying tournament being introduced which involved thirty-five nations. Australia won the second tournament, defeating England, twelve points to six. The 1995 tournament was hosted by South Africa, which had originally tied the vote that eventually saw the first event take place. The tournament was the first that South Africa would actually play in, following the end of the international sports boycott. The tournament had a fairytale ending, as South Africa were crowned champions over the All Blacks, which concluded with then President Nelson Mandela, wearing a Springbok jersey and matching baseball cap, presenting the trophy to the South Africa's captain Francois Pienaar. The tournament in 1999 was hosted by Wales with matches also being held throughout the rest of the United Kingdom, Ireland and France. The tournament included a repecharge system, alongside specific regional qualifying places, and an increase from sixteen to twenty participating nations. Australia claimed their second title, defeating France in the final. The 2003 event was hosted by Australia; although it was originally intended to be held jointly with New Zealand. England emerged as champions defeating Australia in extra time. England's win was unique in that it broke the Southern hemisphere's domination of the event. Such was the celebration of England's victory, that an estimated 750,000 people gathered in central London to greet the team, making the day the largest sporting celebration of its kind ever in the United Kingdom. The 2007 competition was hosted by France, with matches also being held in Wales and Scotland. South Africa claimed their second title by defeating defending champions England fifteen points to six. The 2011 tournament was awarded to New Zealand in November 2005, ahead of bids from Japan and South Africa. Rugby World Cup Results	i don't know
The Fat ‘what’ is a cake make nationally famous by Bettys Cafe Tea Rooms in North Yorkshire?	Fat Rascal! \| A Fat Rascal, also called the Yorkshire tea bi… \| Flickr Linda Peall By: Linda Peall Fat Rascal! A Fat Rascal, also called the Yorkshire tea biscuit or turf cake, is a type of cake, similar to the scone in both taste and ingredients. These round domed tea-cakes have a rich brown crust and are made with currants and candied peel. The Fat Rascal has been made nationally famous by Bettys Café Tea Rooms in North Yorkshire, a family owned bakers, confectioners and traditional English tea rooms, founded in 1919 by a Swiss confectioner, Frederick Belmont. In 1983 Bettys introduced its Fat Rascal, adapted from a traditional recipe for ‘turf cakes’, adding a ‘face’ made from cherries and almonds. Since then the Fat Rascal has become one of its best selling cakes, synonymous with Bettys. So much so that they own the registered trade mark not only for the name ‘Fat Rascal’ but also for its distinctive appearance. 2013 marks the 30th anniversary of the Bettys Fat Rascal. Done	Rascal
The Stratocaster and Telecaster guitars are manufactured by which company?	fat rascal : definition of fat rascal and synonyms of fat rascal (English) 5 External links History and etymology Fat rascals are round domed tea-cakes with a rich brown crust and made with currants and candied peel . They are closely associated with the Cleveland area on the borders of County Durham and Yorkshire. The origin of the name is unknown, but has been in use since at least the mid-nineteenth century. [2] The name Turf Cake comes from the tradition of farmers baking them on turf fires Bettys Fat Rascal The Fat Rascal has been made nationally famous by Bettys Café Tea Rooms in North Yorkshire, a family owned bakers, confectioners and traditional English tea rooms, founded in 1919 by a Swiss confectioner, Frederick Belmont. In 1983 Bettys introduced its Fat Rascal, adapted from a traditional recipe for ‘turf cakes’, adding a ‘face’ made from cherries and almonds. Since then the Fat Rascal has become one of its best selling cakes, synonymous with Bettys. So much so that they own the registered trade mark not only for the name ‘Fat Rascal’ but also for its distinctive appearance. 2013 will mark the 30th anniversary of the Bettys Fat Rascal. In the United States , the fat rascal is generally listed as a breakfast cookie which can be vanilla or chocolate flavour. These can be purchased at The Ruby Pear Tea Parlor in Noblesville, Indiana . [3] [4] See also	i don't know
Which fictional ‘super heroine’ is the alter-ego of Barbara Gordon?	1000+ images about Women Super Heros on Pinterest \| Batgirl, Barbara gordon and Supergirl Merry Christmas, Batgirl and Supergirl by Mike Maihack <3 See More	Batgirl
A ‘Gordie Howe Hat Trick’ is when a player scores a goal, notches an assist and gets into a fight all in the same game while playing what?	Desperate Duo Pt 1: A Batgirl/Supergirl Story - Fiction and fanfiction - OmoOrg Desperate Duo Pt 1: A Batgirl/Supergirl Story October 18, 2012 Barbara Gordon narrowed her eyes as she perused the Gotham City skyline through her high tech binoculars. According to Bruce, something big was to happen tonight. As Batgirl, she and Robin had been tracking a drug cartel for weeks, and only recently did Batman propose that the drugs were going to be used to make a bomb, and that the drug lords wanted to level the City Hall in order to construct a central office for themselves. Barbara wasn’t quite sure about the whole set-up; she’d tangled with her fair share of Gotham drug lords, and all of the ones capable of orchestrating an event like this were behind bars. Still, she trusted Batman’s judgment, so she carried on. Batgirl glanced below her, currently standing on the building where the bomb was supposed to be shipped out. She lowered her binoculars, put them back into her utility belt, and looked up. She had sent out a distress call to Metropolis a few hours earlier, using a watch that Batman had developed. The frequency it emitted could be heard only by a certain pair of ears… Barbara scowled as she saw a blue-white blur streak towards her. “Why is she always late?” she wondered. Kara Kent, aka Supergirl, landed on the rooftop lightly, despite the fact that she had most likely been traveling a terminal velocity a few seconds earlier. Batgirl stalked up to her friend. “Where have you been? You said you’d be here 45 minutes ago…” Supergirl shrugged, her ruby lips pulling back into a smile. “Sorry, Bats, I had some stuff to take care of…” Batgirl’s anger melted away at the sight of her friend’s bubbly face. She pulled Supergirl into a hug. “Good to have you back, Kare-Bear,” she said warmly. Supergirl rolled her eyes, feigning annoyance. “You know I hate that name, Barbie…” Batgirl raised an eyebrow. You show up at every stakeout with your blonde hair, blue eyes and cheery smile and you think I’M the Barbie?” Supergirl giggled. Batgirl smiled. She and Supergirl had been on many adventures together, and while Supergirl was stronger, and had all of these amazing powers, she was still a bit naïve about the whole hero game, so Batgirl had been showing her the ropes. Over the years, she had come to think of Kara as a super-powered younger sister. Supergirl clapped her white gloved hands together. “So, what do we have here?” Batgirl pointed directly below. “There’s a bomb that’s supposed to be moved out of here soon, but I don’t know when.” Supergirl nodded. “Sounds exciting. Now, before we really get into this stakeout thing…” She shifts her weight from foot to foot. “Holy moons of Krypton, I gotta pee.” “Patience is a virtue, kid. Nonetheless, I think your need can be accommodated.” Batgirl walked over to drainpipe jutting from the ground next to the vent between them. Reaching into her utility belt, Batgirl pulls out a small cutting tool which she uses to saw through the flimsy pressed tin. Prying the edges apart, she makes an opening just large enough to for a woman to pee into. Supergirl blew air in relief. “You’re a lifesaver, Barbie, it was starting to get pretty bad…” Supergirl tiptoed carefully on the narrow ledge and positioned herself over the drainpipe. She pulls up her blue skirt and red panties, already squatting. Batgirl only smiles and turns away, but secretly hoped that Supergirl would hurry; she herself had been atop the roof since about sundown, and she could definitely use a turn at the drainpipe. Suddenly, there was an explosion, and the rooftop was immersed in green gas. Supergirl, who had barely started to pee, barely managed to choke off the flow and yank her panties back up as she and Batgirl began coughing and hacking. The gas wasn’t necessarily unpleasant, but eerily familiar as well. Batgirl looked around and saw a feminine figure approaching through the green fog. Batgirl couldn’t see her very well, but as the woman got closer, Batgirl realized that the woman’s skin was the exact same color as the fog; a light, smooth green, like fresh lima beans. Her auburn hair was wreathed in leaves, and she wore a one-piece dark jade leotard and thigh-high boots. With horrible realization, Batgirl surmised that the smell was chlorophyll…the chemical that makes plants green. “P-Poison Ivy!” Batgirl coughed. Poison Ivy smiled. “I suppose I didn’t give you enough credit, sweetheart. I didn’t think you’d figure that the drug lord trail was false; throwing off the Big Bad Bat was hard enough, I thought I covered my tracks pretty well. I need City Hall to plant my seed. It will become the nucleus of the vine system that will bring Gotham City back to its former, leafy glory!” She looked over at the struggling Supergirl. “Oh, you’ve brought me a present? You’re too sweet.” Batgirl flinched as Poison Ivy stroked her cheek. “Looks like I’ll have to stash you and THAT cutie somewhere where you can’t mess up my plans. I think a nice labyrinth will be just the place…sweet dreams, my darling…” Batgirl gasped as Poison Ivy brought her lips crashing against hers, feeling herself passing out from Poison Ivy’s lip toxins as she watched her lean down next to Supergirl... When Batgirl awoke, her head was swimming, and she could hardly stand. Her mouth felt stale, her lips dry, and her bladder achingly full, having pulled more liquid from her kidneys while she was out, but she was fairly certain she could hold out. She peered around her and saw Supergirl’s limp form on the ground next to her. Apparently, her whole “invincibility” thing did not extend to plant poison, because Supergirl was completely zonked out. They appeared to be in some sort of maze, with leafy walls ten feet high extending into the ether. Above her, the slightly overcast night sky was covered with an orange haze from streetlights. The faint sounds of sirens, car horns, and talking people could be heard in the distance, the soundtrack of Gotham nightlife. Batgirl checked her Batwatch, which told her that she and Supergirl had roughly an hour to get out of the maze and stop Poison Ivy from turning Gotham City into a rainforest. She shivered involuntarily, which, to make matters worse, made her realize that her bladder was fuller than she had calculated. “Great,” she thought bitterly to herself. “Trapped in a maze with an hour to find a way out, stop Poison Ivy, and save the city, and I gotta pee like a racehorse.” She swiftly moved over to Supergirl and roused her. “Hey, Supes, wake up!” Supergirl stirred, then sat straight upright, fists clenched. She looked wildly around. “Ah! Poison Ivy…gas…kissed me…kinda liked it…” Batgirl blushed and helped Supergirl up. “Calm down, kid. Now, can you fly us out of this maze? We need to get to City Hall.” Supergirl smiled and saluted. “Sure thing, Barbie…” She grabbed hold of Batgirl’s arms and leaped into the air…only to come crashing back down. “Ooooh…” Batgirl groaned. She had landed on her feet, but the impact had jarred the contents of her bladder, making her about 5 times more desperate than she was before. Supergirl got up, thoroughly mystified. “Wh-why can’t I fly?” She asked, fear creeping into her voice. Batgirl shook her head. She didn’t have time for this…in more ways than one. She pulled out an explosive Batarang and threw it at the wall, trying to blow a hole in it big enough to at least crawl through. The explosion lit up the leafy corridor, but when the smoke cleared, the wall of the maze looked completely untouched. Not even a leaf was singed. Batgirl growled in frustration and doubled over as her bladder pulsated. She took a deep breath, and, using the meditation techniques she had learned on a trip to Tibet, managed to realign her chi and calm herself down. She would have her bladder under control…for now. She studied the material and realized had a strange coating on them that almost glowed. She recognized it at once…Kryptonite Vibrania. Batman had discovered this strain a few months back. It was virtually indestructible, and greatly weakened the powers of Superman and his kin. “Um, hey, Barbie,” Batgirl turned to Supergirl, who had her legs crossed and was tapping one foot on the ground, arms crossed. “D’you think there’s like, you know, a little Superheroine’s Room anywhere in here? I never really got started up on that rooftop, and I still REALLY gotta go.” Batgirl couldn’t help smiling at the irony. “I’m not doing much better, kid, but it looks like we’ll have to hold it.” Supergirl nodded, though Batgirl could see the uncertainty in her eyes. She wasn’t sure if Supergirl was going to make it, and in truth, she wasn’t sure if she would, either. Steeling her resolve, she clenched her nether muscles as firm as movement would allow, took Supergirl’s hand, and started down the pathway. They had been walking about 45 minutes when Supergirl began to lose it. It started as just the occasional drips through her panties, and then it became spurts, more and close between, to the point where Supergirl had to stop and jam her hands between her legs. She looked up at Batgirl, her mouth a thin red line. “B-Bats, I can’t h-hold it any longer, I gotta pee SO BAD!” She cried, tears coursing down her face. Batgirl took Supergirl’s shoulder. “Come on, Kara you can make it, we’re almost through!” Supergirl began hobbling once more, and then stopped abruptly. Batgirl could see tiny rivulets of pee begin to form on Supergirl’s tight thighs. She checked her watch. 15 minutes before Flowergeddon. They were only 100 yards from the exit, according to her GPS, but Batgirl’s will was cracking. She began to leak as well, the crotch of her black latex suit growing damp with urine. She jammed her hand between her own legs while supporting the bursting Supergirl and helped them stagger along. A few minutes later, just has Batgirl was certain she could hold out no longer and was about to let go, they stumbled through a leafy wall into the main street in Downtown Gotham, and it was not a pretty sight. The street was cracked where giant, tentacle-like vines snaked up and down the city, pulsating like part of some huge, deciduous organ. Batgirl looked at the end of the street, where all the vines connected through the doors of city hall; she was willing to bet that that’s where the “nucleus” of this flowering monstrosity that Poison Ivy was talking about was located. Supergirl whistled. “Well, looks like Little Red Gardening Hood has been busy.” Batgirl turned to Supergirl. “Kara, can you get us to the top of the nearest building to that thing?” Supergirl nodded, took both of Batgirl’s arms, and skyrocketed upwards towards City Hall, setting them down on the warehouse about a block down. Suddenly, she doubled over, both hands between her legs. “O-Oh no…I forgot to find somewhere to pee!” She began looking wildly about for somewhere to release her pent-up water. Batgirl balked. In all the excitement, her own desire to pee had been entirely suppressed, but now it was back with a vengeance. Supergirl was so distracted, she ran headfirst into an antenna. She staggered back, dazed, slipping and falling next to a puddle. Although the pole had obviously come off worse in the encounter, Batgirl figured that Supergirl’s powers were still returning. She watched as Supergirl’s cape soaked up some of the puddle water, and suddenly, she had an idea. “Supergirl, take off your cape!” she yelled. Supergirl looked at her, the strain of not losing control of her overfull bladder making her shake. “W-Why?” Batgirl shoved the other hand between her legs. “We can use it!” Supergirl looked confused. “My cape!? H-How would we use that besides after we pee ourselves?” Batgirl rolled her eyes. “We can pee INTO it, Kara!” Supergirl considered this, but another jolt of her bladder made her decision for her. With difficulty, Supergirl pulled her hands from her crotch, causing her thighs to tremble with the reinforcing loss of her hands as she removed her bright red cape. Batgirl took it and folded three times into a thick, small rectangle. Supergirl looked at her imploringly. “Let me use it first! PLEASE!?” she pleads, reaching out her left hand towards her, groaning as she could feel her hold slipping without her hand as small trickle of pee began to flow from her and dampen her panties. “I-I'm at my limit! I'm starting to lose it again, and I don’t think I’m gonna be able to stop it this time!” While Batgirl really didn't want to give up her chance for relief, given that it was her idea after all, she couldn't argue that Supergirl HAD been desperate a whole lot longer than she had, and was starting to wet herself. Besides, her sisterly protectiveness of Supergirl would not allow her to let Supergirl suffer. “Ok, fine! But make it quick, kid, I’m dying here!” said Batgirl, returning her hands to her crotch. “Thank-you!” gasped Supergirl, quickly removing her hand from her crotch, groaning in a futile attempt at holding the flood at bay as once her hand left, the trickle had turned into a steady stream, causing her to hurriedly unbutton and unzip her skirt. She shoved the folded towel under her panties and against her damp labia, and...Suddenly, giant vines broke through the building and wrapped around the two heroines, pinning them to the wall. Poison Ivy walked over to the struggling heroes. “Well, I guess, sending you two to a maze wasn't enough to stop you trying to ruin my plans. I can’t just let that slide, you realize. You must be punished.” She snapped her fingers, and the vines began to curl around the girls even more, shredding their costumes and exposing their breasts and cunts. Both girls cried out in pain as a vines curled around their swollen bladders. A needle-like vine rose up from the ground and inserted itself into the girl's urethra. “My babies are not so different from you, girls. They too have been laboring under the strain of too much liquid. But now, they have a place to deposit it.” The two heroines cried out in pain as the plants began siphoning the excess water from the main source into the girls’ bladders. Poison Ivy turned and pointed at two guards. “You two! Keep an eye on these intruders; make sure my plants get them nice and full. And bring me a bucket or something, they aren't the only ones who've been skulking about without a bathroom..." Too be continued...	i don't know
Which actor appeared in the most ‘Carry On’ films?	List Of Carry On Actors \| What A Carry On Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia List Of Carry On Actors List Of Carry On Actors 37pages on Share Ad blocker interference detected! Wikia is a free-to-use site that makes money from advertising. We have a modified experience for viewers using ad blockers Wikia is not accessible if you’ve made further modifications. Remove the custom ad blocker rule(s) and the page will load as expected. This is a list of actors who have appeared in Carry On films . Contents Edit The following actors are considered to be the core members of the Carry On team: [1 ] Kenneth Williams (26 films, including co-presenting That's Carry On! ) played a range of character types, nearly always a lead character. Early roles were rather strait-laced, he then sometimes played his snide character: quite slimy and smarmy with a distinctive nasal voice. Later the haughty, proud and easily outraged elitist became more frequent and Williams' best-known character type. Williams sometimes played characters of other nationalities, such as in Up the Khyber. In some roles, when not actually playing his role in snide mode, Williams might deliver a single joke using his snide voice. Joan Sims (24) had the longest uninterrupted run of roles in Carry On films, being in all 20 films (excluding That's Carry On) from Carry On Cleo to Carry On Emmannuelle. Played a range of characters from jolly and assertive young women with sturdy moral standards (Camping, Loving), to sexy and lusty matrons - either desired (At Your Convenience) or coarse and unattractive (Henry, Up the Khyber), to a chatty glutton (in Matron), and an unattractive spinster (Doctor). Charles Hawtrey (23) often played a meek, rather effete 'mummy's boy' who could suddenly erupt into riotous behaviour. Other roles were as a strict, officious and prissy person in an authority role. Sid James (19) always played a lead character, usually a laconic member of the working class. His characters were often womanisers, something that caused problems in James' private life. Kenneth Connor (17) often played put-upon men ranging in character from pompous to meek, and often leering. Peter Butterworth (16) frequently played major roles in the films, often as a generally benign, unflappable but bumbling assistant or servant unable to see the chaos around him. Unusually for a regular, in some films, including Again Doctor, Henry and Loving, his role consists of a cameo appearance in a single scene. Hattie Jacques (14) played the haughty matron or school senior mistress in several films. Bernard Bresslaw (14) varied between playing the dimwit or the heavy, or the lusty and bombastic "foreigner". In the later films his characterisation developed greater depth, such as in Dick, Behind. Jim Dale (11) joined the series with support roles, but quickly progressed to playing the younger, sympathetic male lead, often in the film's romance plot strand. From his debut had an uninterrupted nine-film run. After a one-film absence (Camping) returned for Again Doctor, his final Carry On until taking the lead role in the 1992 revival film Carry On Columbus. Barbara Windsor (10, including co-presenting That's Carry On with Williams) played main roles in all her Carry On appearances. Her characters were always the cheeky and saucy young blonde, often in revealing costumes. Sometimes her characters were chaste (and very often chased), some were easily swayed. Patsy Rowlands (9) started in support roles, often as undervalued, meek and mousey secretary or assistant who undergoes transformation into a more assertive and sexually-aware woman. Jack Douglas (8) joined the series with a cameo appearance in Matron, where he appears in one scene with a single line of dialogue. After an only slightly larger role in the following film Abroad, where he again plays his established Alf Ippititimus-type character, his roles increased in size and increasingly diverged from the familiar Alf performance. After his debut Douglas appeared in all subsequent films in the original series, and was one of the few returners for Columbus. Terry Scott (7) played, among others, the put-upon husband (Camping), the barking sergeant (Sergeant, Up the Khyber) and lusty doctor (Matron).	Kenneth Williams
The statue of Eros in Piccadilly Circus London is cast in which metal?	Don't carry on, Margot... Why Penelope was axed from the Carry On Films \| Daily Mail Online Don't carry on, Margot... Why Penelope was axed from the Carry On Films comments Two decades after the last Carry On film was made, the uniquely British series of low-budget films continues to amuse viewers who weren’t even born when Kenneth Williams’s Caesar declared ‘Infamy. Infamy. They’ve all got it in for me’ — later voted the best Carry On one-liner of all time. Now the cast has been immortalised in a Who’s Who by aficionado Andrew Ross. Here, from his diligent research, are 30 things you didn’t know about Carry On . . . This won't hurt a bit: Stars Barbara Windsor and Jim Dale 1 German actress Elke Sommer was paid six times the £5,000 salary of Carry On stars Sid James, Kenneth Williams and Barbara Windsor when she played Russian Anna Vrooshka in Carry On Behind. 2 Penelope KEITH was a nurse in Carry On Doctor long before finding fame in The Good Life and To The Manor Born. Her scenes were cut in the editing process. 3 Shakira BAKSH, a former Miss World contestant, played Scrubba, one of Sid James’s wives, in Carry On Again Doctor. The Guyana-born actress is best known as Lady (Michael) Caine. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share 4 Kenneth WILLIAMS, who appeared in 25 Carry Ons, loathed Sid James, whom he said was ‘just too coarse’. 5 THEATRE impresario and Everton FC owner Bill Kenwright played a reporter in Carry On Matron. Coarse: Kenneth Williams (pictured), who appeared in 25 Carry Ons films loathed Sid James 6 POP star David Essex was 22 when he played a heckler in Carry On Henry, but ended up on the cutting-room floor. 7 Charles HAWTREY, who appeared in 23 Carry Ons, never recovered professionally after walking out in 1972 when his demand for star billing in the TV Christmas special Carry On Stuffing was rejected. He died in straitened circumstances in 1988. 8 Joan Sims, who starred in 24 Carry Ons, played a medium in Morrissey’s Ouija Board video in 1988. 9 Sid JAMES deemed the best moment of his 19 Carry Ons to be his performance in Carry On Cowboy, which gave him the chance to display his fine American accent. 10 Kenneth CONNOR, star of 17 Carry Ons, was the son of the petty officer on the Royal Yacht Victoria & Albert, and knew the Queen’s grandparents, George V and Queen Mary. 11 Peter BUTTERWORTH got billing in 16 Carry Ons, but also did uncredited, bit-part roles in several others. 12 Hattie JACQUES, the Carry On battleaxe, once declared: ‘All they see is a funny fat lady; no one dreams of casting you as a normal person.’ Peter Butterworth, right, with his wide, actress Janet Brown 13 Bernard Bresslaw, at 6ft 7in, towered over his co-stars in 14 Carry On films, including Up the Khyber. 14 Jim DALE, star of 11 Carry On films, offended his fellow actors when he declined to play Ug Ug in Carry On Up The Jungle because he wanted to broaden his horizons. Some of them later boycotted his This Is Your Life tribute in protest. 15 Barbara WINDSOR, star of ten Carry Ons, had elocution lessons as a teenager, but failed to lose her Cockney accent. 16 Edina RONAY, the fashion designer, played a saloon girl in Carry On Cowboy. 17 Amanda BARRIE, who played Alma Baldwin in Coronation Street, was Cleopatra in the spoof of the Burton/Taylor movie Carry On Cleo. 18 Johnny BRIGGS, Barrie’s Street husband Mike Baldwin, appeared in three Carry Ons. 19 Sara Crowe, famous for her role in the Philadelphia TV adverts, married Jim Dale’s son Toby a month after meeting him on the set of Carry On Columbus. They later divorced. Sparring star: Boxing champion Freddie Mills appeared in Carry On Constable and Carry On Regardless 20 Shirley Eaton, sprayed gold in Bond movie Goldfinger, was in Carry On Sergeant as Bob Monkhouse’s wife. She also appeared in Carry On Nurse and Carry On Constable. 21 Sheila HANCOCK played Kenneth Connor’s nagging wife Senna Pod in Carry On Cleo. 22 Before fame as Miss Marple, Joan Hickson made her screen debut as the efficient ward sister in Carry On Nurse. 23 BURT KWOUK — crazy manservant Cato in the Pink Panther films — had a cameo role in Carry On Columbus. 24 Ian LAVENDER — ‘silly boy’ Pike in Dad’s Army — played Joe Baxter in Carry On Behind. 25 Young Ones star Rik Mayall was cast as the Sultan in Carry On Columbus. 26 Irish character actor T. P. McKenna, who appeared in Straw Dogs and The Charge Of The Light Brigade played an Archbishop in Carry On Columbus. His scenes were edited from the final film release. 27 Terry And June star Terry Scott, who appeared in seven Carry On films, was forced by his parents to train as an accountant. 28 FORMER world light heavyweight boxing champ Freddie Mills was in Carry On Constable and Carry On Regardless. 29 Musical actress Dora Bryan played a love-struck Army cook in Carry On Sergeant. 30 SERGEANT Bilko star Phil Silvers played the lead role in Carry On Follow That Camel. He was unpopular with the rest of the cast, who thought he considered himself superior. CARRY On Actors: The Complete Who’s Who Of The Carry On Film series, by Andrew Ross, is published by Apex.	i don't know
Pecora is Italian for which animal?	English Translation of “pecora” \| Collins Italian-English Dictionary c'erano solo due pecore nel campo there were only two sheep in the field latte di pecora	Sheep
Boxer Lennox Lewis was born in which city?	pecora - Dizionario italiano-inglese WordReference il lupo se la mangia (If you're meek, you will get stepped on.) Those who make themselves sheep, will be eaten by the wolf exprexpression: Prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, or other phrase or expression--for example, "behind the times," "on your own." meekness is weakness exprexpression: Prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, or other phrase or expression--for example, "behind the times," "on your own." essere la pecora nera be the black sheep of the family meglio un giorno da leone che cento da pecora (litteral, Italian proverb) Better one day as a lion than one hundred days as a sheep. exprexpression: Prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, or other phrase or expression--for example, "behind the times," "on your own." Better to be a leader than a follower exprexpression: Prepositional phrase, adverbial phrase, or other phrase or expression--for example, "behind the times," "on your own." pecora nera	i don't know
Who was the English voice of television cartoon character Danger Mouse?	Danger Mouse (TV Series 1981–1992) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Danger Mouse, the greatest secret agent in the world, must follow Colonel K's orders (and try not to break Professor Squawkencluck's inventions) to foil Baron Greenback's and his henchman Stiletto's plans. Creators: Greenback has persuaded Count Duckula to visit London. Desperate for a TV show of his own, Duckula infects the entire government with his own showbiz sickness so they will agree to his every demand. ... 8.6 Stiletto steals a batch of recently developed passport pictures of Penfold. Il Barone proceeds to use his new puppet personality projector to take over Penfolds' mind, what little there is of it, and... 8.4 Baron Greenback and Count Duckula have teamed up in a quest to find the Great Bone Idol, which has the power to control every dog in the world. Greenback plans to use it to take over the world and ... 8.3 a list of 33 titles created 22 Jan 2012 a list of 35 titles created 07 Apr 2013 a list of 36 titles created 01 Nov 2013 a list of 21 titles created 23 Jul 2014 a list of 30 titles created 11 May 2015 Search for " Danger Mouse " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Title: Danger Mouse (1981–1992) 7.5/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. The misadventures of a vegetarian vampire duck and his servants. Stars: Jack May, Brian Trueman, Jimmy Hibbert Stupid, but well-meaning and super-strong super-hero, Bananaman gets his strength from eating bananas. Before he eats a banana, Bananaman is a young boy called Eric who is keen to keep his ... See full summary » Stars: Graeme Garden, Bill Oddie, Tim Brooke-Taylor In a toy factory, after being made, a teddy bear is put in a storeroom after being deposed. The teddy bear is found by a cosmic being from outer space known as Spotty Man, and Spotty Man ... See full summary » Stars: Derek Griffiths, Peter Hawkins, Jon Pertwee The Trap Door (TV Series 1984) Animation \| Adventure \| Comedy 3D plasticine animation, featuring Berk, a blue creature who lives as servant to the unseen 'Thing Upstairs' in an old dark house. Every time the trap door opens a new adventure begins for ... See full summary » Stars: William Rushton This features toys which have been thrown in a factory reject bin but come to life and have adventures. This time though they are dolls and, rather than becoming superheroes and saving ... See full summary » Stars: Neil Innes The Wombles (TV Series 1973) Animation \| Family The misadventures of a fantasy folk community dedicated to cleaning up litter and put it to their own use. Stars: Bernard Cribbins, Dieter Hallervorden Children's puppet programme featuring music and stories. Stars: Geoffrey Hayes, Roy Skelton, Stanley Bates Button Moon (TV Series 1980) Family Mr Spoon and his family live on Junk Planet. He travels in his baked bean tin spaceship across blanket sky to Button Moon. There he meets many strange characters and watches stories unfold on other planets using his telescope. Stars: Robin Parkinson In 17th century France, young Dogtanian travels to Paris to fulfill his ambition to become one of the King's Musketeers. He befriends Athos, Porthos and Aramis and falls in love with Juliette. A doggy version of the tale. Stars: Eduardo Jover, Gloria Cámara, Manuel Peiró A melancholic children's animation from the 'Smallfilms' team of Postgate and Firmin. Bagpuss and his friends are toys in a turn of the century shop for 'found things'. When young Emily ... See full summary » Stars: Oliver Postgate, Sandra Kerr, John Faulkner Popular British children's animation series, repeated almost constantly since 1971. Mr Benn is the ordinary, bowler-hatted office worker who lives in the ordinary suburban street of Festive... See full summary » Stars: Ray Brooks The adventures of a family of Raccoons and their friends. Stars: Michael Magee, Len Carlson, Marvin Goldhar Edit Storyline The wacky and hilarious adventures of Danger Mouse, the greatest secret agent (mouse) in the world and his trusty, bumbling sidekick, Penfold. Together, they follow Colonel K's orders and do battle to save the world from monsters, master thieves, their narrator, and crazed fiends of all types (but mostly their arch nemesis, the Baron Silas Greenback and his henchman Stiletto). Written by Kathy Li 28 September 1981 (UK) See more » Also Known As: Dare dare motus See more » Company Credits Did You Know? Trivia David Jason didn't know that Penfold was a hamster until a chagrined Brian Cosgrove told him. See more » Goofs Whenever the Colonel is shown in a medium shot on the TV his name-plate says "Colonel. K." (with two periods) but when there is a medium closeup it says, "Colonel' K" (with one apostrophe). See more » Quotes [Dangermouse, lost in space, stops at an asteroid to ask directions from a guy with a hand for his face] Dangermouse : Um... excuse me. Could you tell us, where in the universe, we are? Hand Face: HAHA! Boy, you be in The Party Part! Dangermouse : [confused] "Party Part"? Hand Face: "The Party Part of the Universe"! HAHAHAHA! Dangermouse : "Party Part of the Universe"? Never heard of such rubbish. Penfold : [a bell rings] Someone's at the door, DM. Dangermouse : Well see who it is. [pause] (Xanadu) – See all my reviews From a typical Baker St. pillar box came the story of the World's Greatest Secret Agent, Danger Mouse; and the World's Worst Assistant, Penfold. Their afternoon tea has been interrupted by Colonel K, with another mission to stop that fiend, Baron Silas Greenback and the henchiest of henchmen, Stiletto. "Oh, eck" indeed! I discovered this wonderful and hilarious series one day, while in college. I went into the tv lounge and someone was watching Nickelodeon. There on the screen was a curious one-eyed white mouse. I stopped to watch and became more engrossed. This was side-achingly funny! From that point on, I tried to catch each afternoon's new adventure. The writing was exquisite, even if the jokes were silly. The voices had a nice blend of the comic and the ironic. The archetypes were brilliant: the cool measured voice of our hero, DM; the blustering old codger Col. K; the cringing cowardly Penfold; the hoarse whispered Baron Greenback; the Cockney thug, Stiletto. Add a daffy mix of guest characters like the alien JJ Quark, Prof. Squackenkluck, Agent 57, Count Duckula, and others; and you had something that rivalled Monty Python for sheer anarchy and laughs. I was able to tape the series when it was later rebroadcast on Nickelodeon, a few years later. Every once in a while, I pull them out to watch again. They never grow tired; although the earlier episodes tend to be better than the later ones. And, so; the sun sets on another adventure of the White Wonder and his hopeless assistant. What lies ahead for our heroes on the morrow? Tune in next time for another stirring adventure of.... "Penfold! and, err Danger Mouse." "Penfold,.....Shush!" 11 of 12 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	David Jason
‘White Teeth’ was the award-winning 2000 debut novel of which British author?	Danger Mouse (TV Series 2015– ) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Danger Mouse is a British children's animated television series based on the 1981 series of the same name. The series is produced by FremantleMedia and premiered 28 September 2015 on CBBC. ... See full summary » Stars: While Professor Squawkencluck is away at the Chicken's of Rock Festival, a small plant in her laboratory grows into a Vicious Scrub and engulfs the entire world because Danger Mouse insists on taking... 9.4 When Penfold disturbs the World Wide spiderweb that provides the Internet, the giant spider that constructed it becomes angry and attacks the Earth. Unfortunately, Danger Mouse has arachnophobia. 9.0 The Snowman needs to prove he's in the big league of super villains, and steals Santa Claus' magic hat so he can delay Christmas - possibly forever. 8.8 a list of 41 titles created 07 Oct 2013 a list of 37 titles created 30 Oct 2015 a list of 28 titles created 29 Dec 2015 a list of 95 titles created 4 months ago a list of 28 titles created 2 months ago Search for " Danger Mouse " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Edit Storyline Danger Mouse is a British children's animated television series based on the 1981 series of the same name. The series is produced by FremantleMedia and premiered 28 September 2015 on CBBC. The series revolves around the capers of Danger Mouse, a British spy, and his hamster sidekick, Penfold. 28 September 2015 (UK) See more » Also Known As: Did You Know? Trivia As at the beginning of march 2016, the 52 series 1 episodes seem to be being released for broadcast in batches of 10-15 episodes every few months, as can be seen from the CBBC initial broadcast dates. Presumably as they are completed, these replace the previous episodes batch of rotated episodes. See more » Connections Fast, funny and wasted on CBBC 9 October 2015 \| by mike65-1 (Ireland) – See all my reviews Chances are nobody was really ready to put of the bunting when it was announced that 80s children's favourite Danger Mouse was being revived. After all said plenty online why not just show the David Jason era episodes again, its not as if they've dated in any meaningful way - the new series essentially proves that to be true as they have changed very little in terms of tone and style. Sure the visuals are slicker but they are very much patterned after the original look and feel while the script and voice characterisation could almost be lifted straight. The casting is pretty much perfect Alexander Armstrong as DM knows when to raise a vocal eyebrow and Kevin Eldon is perfect as Penfold, capturing the essential traits of the little guy who'd love to be big if only he was brave enough (and actually he's happy enough leaving the derring-do stuff to Danger Mouse). The stories are as daft as a brush and all the better for it - its hard not be smile when the villain in an episode is a toilet which has gone through an unintended forced software upgrade. The gags come quick and often and many of the quips will surely zoom right over the heads of the supposed core audience. As such Danger Mouse is arguably wasted on CBBC and instead would make a nice piece of tie-in programming with Pointless on BBC One - after all they have the same lead in both! 5 of 6 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	i don't know
Taurophobia is the abnormal fear of which animal?	The Phobia List Amaxophobia- Fear of riding in a car. Ambulophobia- Fear of walking. Amychophobia- Fear of scratches or being scratched. Anablephobia- Fear of looking up. Ancraophobia- Fear of wind. (Anemophobia) Androphobia- Fear of men. Anemophobia- Fear of air drafts or wind.(Ancraophobia) Anginophobia- Fear of angina, choking or narrowness. Anglophobia- Fear of England or English culture, etc. Angrophobia - Fear of anger or of becoming angry. Ankylophobia- Fear of immobility of a joint. Anthrophobia or Anthophobia- Fear of flowers. Anthropophobia- Fear of people or society. Antlophobia- Fear of floods. Anuptaphobia- Fear of staying single. Apeirophobia- Fear of infinity. Aphenphosmphobia- Fear of being touched. (Haphephobia) Apiphobia- Fear of bees. Apotemnophobia- Fear of persons with amputations. Arachibutyrophobia- Fear of peanut butter sticking to the roof of the mouth. Arachnephobia or Arachnophobia- Fear of spiders. Arithmophobia- Fear of numbers. Cainophobia or Cainotophobia- Fear of newness, novelty. Caligynephobia- Fear of beautiful women. Cancerophobia or Carcinophobia- Fear of cancer. Cardiophobia- Fear of the heart. Carnophobia- Fear of meat. Catagelophobia- Fear of being ridiculed. Catapedaphobia- Fear of jumping from high and low places. Cathisophobia- Fear of sitting. Cenophobia or Centophobia- Fear of new things or ideas. Ceraunophobia or Keraunophobia- Fear of thunder and lightning.(Astraphobia, Astrapophobia) Chaetophobia- Fear of hair. Cheimaphobia or Cheimatophobia- Fear of cold.(Frigophobia, Psychophobia) Chemophobia- Fear of chemicals or working with chemicals. Cherophobia- Fear of gaiety. Chiraptophobia- Fear of being touched. Chirophobia- Fear of hands. Cholerophobia- Fear of anger or the fear of cholera. Chorophobia- Fear of dancing. Chrometophobia or Chrematophobia- Fear of money. Chromophobia or Chromatophobia- Fear of colors. Chronophobia- Fear of time. Cibophobia- Fear of food.(Sitophobia, Sitiophobia) Claustrophobia- Fear of confined spaces. Cleithrophobia or Cleisiophobia- Fear of being locked in an enclosed place. Cleptophobia- Fear of stealing. Climacophobia- Fear of stairs, climbing, or of falling downstairs. Clinophobia- Fear of going to bed. Clithrophobia or Cleithrophobia- Fear of being enclosed. Cnidophobia- Fear of stings. Decidophobia- Fear of making decisions. Defecaloesiophobia- Fear of painful bowels movements. Deipnophobia- Fear of dining or dinner conversations. Dementophobia- Fear of insanity. Demonophobia or Daemonophobia- Fear of demons. Demophobia- Fear of crowds. (Agoraphobia) Dendrophobia- Fear of trees. Dermatophobia- Fear of skin lesions. Dermatosiophobia or Dermatophobia or Dermatopathophobia- Fear of skin disease. Dextrophobia- Fear of objects at the right side of the body. Diabetophobia- Fear of diabetes. Didaskaleinophobia- Fear of going to school. Dikephobia- Fear of justice. Dinophobia- Fear of dizziness or whirlpools. Diplophobia- Fear of double vision. Dipsophobia- Fear of drinking. Dishabiliophobia- Fear of undressing in front of someone. Disposophobia- Fear of throwing stuff out. Hoarding. Domatophobia- Fear of houses or being in a house.(Eicophobia, Oikophobia) Doraphobia- Fear of fur or skins of animals. Doxophobia- Fear of expressing opinions or of receiving praise. Dromophobia- Fear of crossing streets. Dutchphobia- Fear of the Dutch. Dysmorphophobia- Fear of deformity. Hagiophobia- Fear of saints or holy things. Hamartophobia- Fear of sinning. Haphephobia or Haptephobia- Fear of being touched. Harpaxophobia- Fear of being robbed. Hedonophobia- Fear of feeling pleasure. Heliophobia- Fear of the sun. Hellenologophobia- Fear of Greek terms or complex scientific terminology. Helminthophobia- Fear of being infested with worms. Hemophobia or Hemaphobia or Hematophobia- Fear of blood. Heresyphobia or Hereiophobia- Fear of challenges to official doctrine or of radical deviation. Herpetophobia- Fear of reptiles or creepy, crawly things. Heterophobia- Fear of the opposite sex. (Sexophobia) Hexakosioihexekontahexaphobia- Fear of the number 666. Hierophobia- Fear of priests or sacred things. Hippophobia- Fear of horses. Hippopotomonstrosesquipedaliophobia- Fear of long words. Hobophobia- Fear of bums or beggars. Hodophobia- Fear of road travel. Hormephobia- Fear of shock. Homophobia- Fear of sameness, monotony or of homosexuality or of becoming homosexual. Hoplophobia- Fear of firearms. Hydrargyophobia- Fear of mercurial medicines. Hydrophobia- Fear of water or of rabies. Hydrophobophobia- Fear of rabies. Hyelophobia or Hyalophobia- Fear of glass. Hygrophobia- Fear of liquids, dampness, or moisture. Hylephobia- Fear of materialism or the fear of epilepsy. Hylophobia- Fear of forests. Hypengyophobia or Hypegiaphobia- Fear of responsibility. Hypnophobia- Fear of sleep or of being hypnotized. Hypsiphobia- Fear of height. Iatrophobia- Fear of going to the doctor or of doctors. Ichthyophobia- Fear of fish. Illyngophobia- Fear of vertigo or feeling dizzy when looking down. Iophobia- Fear of poison. Isolophobia- Fear of solitude, being alone. Isopterophobia- Fear of termites, insects that eat wood. Ithyphallophobia- Fear of seeing, thinking about or having an erect penis. Metrophobia- Fear or hatred of poetry. Microbiophobia- Fear of microbes. (Bacillophobia) Microphobia- Fear of small things. Misophobia or Mysophobia- Fear of being contaminated with dirt or germs. Mnemophobia- Fear of memories. Molysmophobia or Molysomophobia- Fear of dirt or contamination. Monophobia- Fear of solitude or being alone. Monopathophobia- Fear of definite disease. Motorphobia- Fear of automobiles. Musophobia or Muriphobia- Fear of mice. Mycophobia- Fear or aversion to mushrooms. Mycrophobia- Fear of small things. Myctophobia- Fear of darkness. Mythophobia- Fear of myths or stories or false statements. Myxophobia- Fear of slime. (Blennophobia) Nebulaphobia- Fear of fog. (Homichlophobia) Necrophobia- Fear of death or dead things. Nelophobia- Fear of glass. Neopharmaphobia- Fear of new drugs. Neophobia- Fear of anything new. Nephophobia- Fear of clouds. Noctiphobia- Fear of the night. Nomatophobia- Fear of names. Nosophobia or Nosemaphobia- Fear of becoming ill. Nostophobia- Fear of returning home. Novercaphobia- Fear of your step-mother. Nucleomituphobia- Fear of nuclear weapons. Nudophobia- Fear of nudity. Nyctohylophobia- Fear of dark wooded areas or of forests at night Nyctophobia- Fear of the dark or of night. If you appreciate the Phobia List, please help support it. Obesophobia- Fear of gaining weight.(Pocrescophobia) Ochlophobia- Fear of crowds or mobs. Ochophobia- Fear of vehicles. Octophobia - Fear of the figure 8. Odontophobia- Fear of teeth or dental surgery. Odynophobia or Odynephobia- Fear of pain. (Algophobia) Oenophobia- Fear of wines. Oikophobia- Fear of home surroundings, house.(Domatophobia, Eicophobia) Olfactophobia- Fear of smells. Ombrophobia- Fear of rain or of being rained on. Ommetaphobia or Ommatophobia- Fear of eyes. Omphalophobia- Fear of belly buttons. Oneirophobia- Fear of dreams. Oneirogmophobia- Fear of wet dreams. Onomatophobia- Fear of hearing a certain word or of names. Ophidiophobia- Fear of snakes. (Snakephobia) Ophthalmophobia- Fear of being stared at. Opiophobia- Fear medical doctors experience of prescribing needed pain medications for patients. Optophobia- Fear of opening one's eyes. Ornithophobia- Fear of birds. Osmophobia or Osphresiophobia- Fear of smells or odors. Ostraconophobia- Fear of shellfish. Peladophobia- Fear of bald people. Pellagrophobia- Fear of pellagra. Pentheraphobia- Fear of mother-in-law. (Novercaphobia) Phagophobia- Fear of swallowing or of eating or of being eaten. Phalacrophobia- Fear of becoming bald. Phallophobia- Fear of a penis, esp erect. Pharmacophobia- Fear of taking medicine. Phasmophobia- Fear of ghosts. Phengophobia- Fear of daylight or sunshine. Philemaphobia or Philematophobia- Fear of kissing. Philophobia- Fear of falling in love or being in love. Philosophobia- Fear of philosophy. Photoaugliaphobia- Fear of glaring lights. Photophobia- Fear of light. Phonophobia- Fear of noises or voices or one's own voice; of telephones. Phronemophobia- Fear of thinking. Phthiriophobia- Fear of lice. (Pediculophobia) Phthisiophobia- Fear of tuberculosis. Sarmassophobia- Fear of love play. (Malaxophobia) Satanophobia- Fear of Satan. Scatophobia- Fear of fecal matter. Scelerophibia- Fear of bad men, burglars. Sciophobia Sciaphobia- Fear of shadows. Scoleciphobia- Fear of worms. Scopophobia or Scoptophobia- Fear of being seen or stared at. Scotomaphobia- Fear of blindness in visual field. Scotophobia- Fear of darkness. (Achluophobia) Scriptophobia- Fear of writing in public. Selachophobia- Fear of sharks. Selaphobia- Fear of light flashes. Selenophobia- Fear of the moon. Seplophobia- Fear of decaying matter. Sesquipedalophobia- Fear of long words. Sexophobia- Fear of the opposite sex. (Heterophobia) Siderodromophobia- Fear of trains, railroads or train travel. Siderophobia- Fear of stars. Sinistrophobia- Fear of things to the left or left-handed. Sinophobia- Fear of Chinese, Chinese culture. Sitophobia or Sitiophobia- Fear of food or eating. (Cibophobia) Snakephobia- Fear of snakes. (Ophidiophobia) Soceraphobia- Fear of parents-in-law. Social Phobia- Fear of being evaluated negatively in social situations. Sociophobia- Fear of society or people in general. Somniphobia- Fear of sleep. Soteriophobia - Fear of dependence on others. Spacephobia- Fear of outer space. Spectrophobia- Fear of specters or ghosts. Spermatophobia or Spermophobia- Fear of germs. Spheksophobia- Fear of wasps. Stasibasiphobia or Stasiphobia- Fear of standing or walking. (Ambulophobia) Staurophobia- Fear of crosses or the crucifix. Stenophobia- Fear of narrow things or places. Stygiophobia or Stigiophobia- Fear of hell. Suriphobia- Fear of mice. Taeniophobia or Teniophobia- Fear of tapeworms. Taphephobia Taphophobia- Fear of being buried alive or of cemeteries. Tapinophobia- Fear of being contagious. Taurophobia- Fear of bulls. Teleophobia- 1) Fear of definite plans. 2) Religious ceremony. Telephonophobia- Fear of telephones. Teratophobia- Fear of bearing a deformed child or fear of monsters or deformed people. Testophobia- Fear of taking tests. Tetanophobia- Fear of lockjaw, tetanus. Teutophobia- Fear of German or German things. Textophobia- Fear of certain fabrics. Thaasophobia- Fear of sitting. Thalassophobia- Fear of the sea. Thanatophobia or Thantophobia- Fear of death or dying. Theatrophobia- Fear of theatres. Theophobia- Fear of gods or religion. Thermophobia- Fear of heat. Tocophobia- Fear of pregnancy or childbirth. Tomophobia- Fear of surgical operations. Tonitrophobia- Fear of thunder. Topophobia- Fear of certain places or situations, such as stage fright. Toxiphobia or Toxophobia or Toxicophobia- Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned. Traumatophobia- Fear of injury.	Bull
‘Dogsbody’ was the radio call sign for which World War II British fighter pilot?	Tapinophobia- Fear of being contagious. Taurophobia- Fear of - PYSC - 3082 View Full Document This is the end of the preview. Sign up to access the rest of the document. Unformatted text preview: Tapinophobia- Fear of being contagious. Taurophobia- Fear of bulls. Technophobia- Fear of technology. Teleophobia- 1) Fear of definite plans. 2) Religious ceremony. Telephonophobia- Fear of telephones. Teratophobia- Fear of bearing a deformed child or fear of monsters or deformed people. Testophobia- Fear of taking tests. Tetanophobia- Fear of lockjaw, tetanus. Teutophobia- Fear of German or German things. Textophobia- Fear of certain fabrics. Thaasophobia- Fear of sitting. Thalassophobia- Fear of the sea. Thanatophobia or Thantophobia- Fear of death or dying. Theatrophobia- Fear of theatres. Theologicophobia- Fear of theology. Theophobia- Fear of gods or religion. Thermophobia- Fear of heat. Tocophobia- Fear of pregnancy or childbirth. Tomophobia- Fear of surgical operations. Tonitrophobia- Fear of thunder. Topophobia- Fear of certain places or situations, such as stage fright. Toxiphobia or Toxophobia or Toxicophobia- Fear of poison or of being accidently poisoned. Traumatophobia- Fear of injury. Tremophobia- Fear of trembling. Trichinophobia- Fear of trichinosis. Trichopathophobia or Trichophobia- Fear of hair. (Chaetophobia, Hypertrichophobia) Triskaidekaphobia- Fear of the number 13. Tropophobia- Fear of moving or making changes. Trypanophobia- Fear of injections. Tuberculophobia- Fear of tuberculosis. Tyrannophobia- Fear of tyrants. Enter your search terms Submit search form Web phobialist.com U- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z \| Top Uranophobia or Ouranophobia- Fear of heaven. Urophobia- Fear of urine or urinating. V- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z \| Top Vaccinophobia- Fear of vaccination. Venustraphobia- Fear of beautiful women. Verbophobia- Fear of words. Verminophobia- Fear of germs. Vestiphobia- Fear of clothing. Virginitiphobia- Fear of rape. Vitricophobia- Fear of step-father. W- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z \| Top Walloonphobia- Fear of the Walloons. Wiccaphobia: Fear of witches and witchcraft. X- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z \| Top Xanthophobia- Fear of the color yellow or the word yellow. Xenoglossophobia- Fear of foreign languages. Xenophobia- Fear of strangers or foreigners. Xerophobia- Fear of dryness. Xylophobia- 1) Fear of wooden objects. 2) Forests. Xyrophobia-Fear of razors. Y- Z- A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z \| Top Zelophobia- Fear of jealousy. Zeusophobia- Fear of God or gods. Zemmiphobia- Fear of the great mole rat. Zoophobia- Fear of animals.... Abnormal Psychology - Exam 1 Bryan Gros, Ph.D. 50 multiple choice questions Bring sma study guide	i don't know
The Giant panda is native to which country?	Habitat: the land of the panda \| WWF Clic to discover the results of the last panda survey in China © naturepl.com / Eric Baccega / WWF A shrinking refuge The giant panda was once widespread throughout southern and eastern China, as well as neighbouring Myanmar and northern Vietnam. But due to expanding human populations and development, the species is now restricted to around 20 isolated patches of bamboo forest in six mountain ranges in China's Sichuan, Shaanxi and Gansu provinces. Most of the remaining wild pandas live in the Minshan and Qinling mountains. And it is here that WWF has focussed its giant panda conservation work, supporting the Chinese government's efforts to conserve the species. Since habitat loss is the most serious threat to the panda, establishing new reserves and extending existing ones are crucial to its survival. After a significant increase in recent years, China now boasts a network of 67 panda reserves, which safeguard more than 66% of the giant pandas in the wild and almost 54% of their existing habitat. The Chinese government, in partnership with WWF, has also developed bamboo corridors to link isolated pockets of forest, allowing the pandas within them to move to new areas, find more food and meet more potential breeding mates. Sign up for email updates * indicates required Subscribe to WWF Minshan Mountains The mountains form a natural barrier between the densely populated southern and eastern provinces of China and the great wilderness of the Tibetan Plateau, the highest and largest in the world. Spreading through the provinces of Sichuan and Gansu, the Minshan mountains run along the north of the Great Sichuan plain and to the east of the Tibetan Plateau, and form part of one of the most important watersheds in China. They are also home to hundreds of giant pandas with PingWu county boasting the highest density of wild pandas in the world. But the Minshan mountains' magnificent forests are a critical habitat not only for giant pandas but also for a wealth of other species, including the dwarf blue sheep and beautiful multi-coloured pheasants. Giant panda in Wolong Nature Reserve in Sichuan Province © Susan A. Mainka / WWF The Qinling Mountains. Shaanxi, China. © WWF / Michel GUNTHER Qinling Mountains The mountains are part of China's most critical watershed, channeling rainwater into both of the country's great rivers, the Yangtze and the Yellow. Located in Shaanxi Province, the Qinling mountains form a natural barrier between northern and southern China, protecting the south from the cold northern weather. And the warm rains on the southern slopes support a rich variety of plants and animals. Along with a few hundred pandas, the mountains are also home to other endangered species, including the golden monkey, takin and crested ibis. As well as being fantastically rich in natural resources, the mountains also boast a long human history, dating back thousands of years. Qinling sub-species Scientists have discovered that the giant pandas in the Qinling Mountains are actually a different subspecies from the other giant pandas. © naturepl.com / Edwin Giesbers / WWF	China
The 1857 Sepoy Mutiny took place in which country?	Giant Panda Facts - Animals of Asia - WorldAtlas.com Environment Giant Panda Facts - Animals of Asia One of the friendliest bears in the world, the giant panda is also one of the rarest, with fewer than 2,000 in the wild today. The few members of the endangered Giant Panda living in the wild today are to be found within small, fragmented chunks of mountainous Chinese forests. 5. Physical Description The Giant Panda is a member of the bear family. It has a black-and-white-colored, thick, wooly coat covering the torso of its body. Predominately black fur, meanwhile, covers its eyes, muzzle, legs, shoulders, and its long wrist bones. Adult giant pandas weigh up to 330 pounds. From their noses to the hind-parts, they are 150 centimeters (59 inches) long, accentuated by a 10 to 15 centimeter (4-6 inch) tail. Their height to the shoulder is around 90 centimeters (~3 feet). The giant panda is an omnivore, and it eats mainly plants, supplemented by a share of meat from birds and small rodents as well. 4. Diet Bamboo leaves, stems and shoots comprise 98 percent of the Giant Panda’s diet. But, since pandas have digestive systems akin to those of a carnivore, they can and will also occasionally eat small rodents, birds, and the small mammals known as "Pikas". Daily, an adult Giant Panda will consume 26 to 84 pounds of bamboo to meet their energy needs. The Giant Pandas obtain food by foraging through bamboo thickets in their native habitats. Using their elongated wrists that act like thumbs, they pluck bamboo and feed upon its stems, shoots, and leaves. Over the course of a typical day, the Giant Panda will spend a remarkable 12 hours eating. 3. Habitat and Range The ideal habitat for the Giant Panda is that of a temperate broadleaf forest or mixed forest, especially those found in their native southwest China. The predominant Giant Panda population in the wild today is spread across 20 isolated patches of bamboo forest, themselves split between six mountain ranges of the Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces of China. Other, smaller groups are to be found in the Minshan and Qinling Mountains. Habitat loss to deforestation, expanding human populations, and poaching are the main threats the Giant Panda faces today. Due to these threats and others, the Giant Panda has been listed as "Endangered", and is one of the rarest bears in the world today. According to the WWF, who conducted the last Giant Panda census in 2014, 1,864 members of the species remain in the wild today. 2. Behavior The Giant Panda leads a solitary lifestyle. It is largely peaceful and avoids confrontation, but they will fiercely fight back if they or their cubs are threatened. The Giant Panda uses its physical strength and powerful jaws and teeth to fight back.Though bulky in appearance, the Giant Panda can climb trees and swim quite nimbly. At 6 months old, the Giant Panda cubs can already clamber up trees. Unlike other bear breeds, the Giant Panda does not hibernate during winters. When eating, they assume a sitting posture with their hind legs stretched out in front of them. The Giant Panda marks its territorial routes by spraying urine, clawing trees, and rubbing against objects. 1. Reproduction The Giant Panda is sexually active during the breeding season which lasts from March to May, and the reproductive rate is around one cub every two years. A typical cub reaches sexual maturity at between 5.5 and 6.5 years-old. Giant Pandas have a sharp sense of smell which males will use to avoid one another, as well as to locate females "in heat" (during their Estrous cycle) for mating. A female can mate with several males competing for her for 2 to 4 days. The gestation period last between 95 and 160 days, and they usually deliver only one cub. Twins, however, are more likely to be born in captivity, where artificial insemination is often used to impregnate them. This page was last modified on January 21, 2016. On WorldAtlas.com	i don't know
Bohol, Masbate, Luzon and Jolo are all part of which island group?	About the Philippines - Travel Website Travel Website About the Philippines ABOUT THE PHILIPPINES The Philippine archipelago consist of 7,107 islands with a total land area of 300,000 square kilometers or 115,830.60 square miles (about the same size as Italy). The 11 largest islands contain 94% of the total land area. The largest of these islands is Luzon at about 105,000 km². It is where the capital city of Manila is located. The next largest island is Mindanao at about 94,600 km². The Philippines is approximately 800 km from the Asian mainland and is located between Taiwan and Borneo. The Philippine islands are divided into three groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include Luzon itself, Mindoro, Palawan, Masbate, and other smaller islands. The Visayas is a group of several small islands, the largest of which are: Panay, Bohol, Negros, Cebu, Leyte, and Samar. Mindanao island includes Mindanao island itself and the Sulu Archipelago, composed of Tawi-Tawi, Basilan and Sulu. Each island group has a Philippine destination worth visiting. Climate in the Philippines is hot, humid, and tropical. The average yearly temperature is around 26.5° Celsius. Filipinos generally recognize three seasons: Summer: March to May Capital City: Manila (Metro Manila is the National Capital Region or NCR) The National Capital Region comprises the cities and municipalities of: the City of Manila, Caloocan City, Las Piñas, Makati, Malabon, Mandaluyong, Marikina, Muntinlupa, Navotas, Parañaque City, Pasay City, Patros, Pasig, San Juan, Taguig, Quezon City and Valenzuela. Form of Government: Republic with three (3) equal branches of government namely: the Executive, the Legislative and the Judiciary. The islands of the Philippine archipelago are volcanic in origin and are mountainous. The islands are part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. Mt. Apo (2,954 meters above sea level) in Mindanao is the highest peak, while the second highest peak is Mt. Pulog in Luzon. It rises 2,842 meters above sea level. The Philippines have numerous rivers, volcanoes, streams, narrow coastal plains and beautiful sandy beaches which foreign and local tourist enjoy. The country has a total of 36,289 kilometers of coastline. Travel within the Philippines not difficult, if you don't mind riding the sometimes rickety public transportation. There are all kinds of transportation available to tourist and locals: Airplanes and ferries for inter-island transfers, buses & taxis ply in major cities all over the Philippines and the ubiquitous jeepney can be found everywhere. In Metro Manila, modern light rail transit is available on main roads. In tertiary roads & small rural towns the tricycle is the transport of choice. The official languages in the Philippines are Filipino and English. Filipino which is based on the Tagalog dialect (the dialect of national capital region), is the national language. English is also widely used and is the medium of instruction in higher education in the Philippines. There are also 76 major local languages and more than 500 different minor dialects throughout the archipelago. 83% of Filipinos are Roman Catholic. The rest are made up of smaller Christian denominations, Moslems and Buddhist. TRAVEL GUIDE Foreign nationals are allowed to enter and travel within the Philippines for 21 days without a visa provided that they have valid tickets for their return journey to their port of origin or to their next travel destination port and that their passports are valid for a period of at least six (6) months. Extension of stay is available at the Philippine Bureau of Immigration after paying a minimal fee. For stays longer than 21 days, a Temporary Visitors Visa is required. Exceptions: Passport holders of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region (SAR), British National Overseas (BNO) and Macao Special Administrative Region (SAR) passport holders are only allowed up to 7 days stay without a visa. Foreign nationals from Brazil and Israel are allowed up to 59 days without a visa.	Philippines
Which US boxer, born February 1977, has the nickname ‘Pretty Boy’?	Luzon, Philippines \| Backpacking Asia Travel Guide The northernmost island group, center of government, history and economy and home to the capital videos below are provided by YouTube under copyright of their owners. Wikipedia - Luzon Luzon is the largest and most economically and politically important island in the Philippines and one of the three island groups in the country, with Visayas and Mindanao being the other two. Luzon as an island group includes the island of Luzon itself, plus the Batanes and Babuyan groups of islands to the north, and the main and outlying islands of Catanduanes, Marinduque, Masbate, Romblon, and Mindoro in the south. It is home to the capital city, Manila. provided by Wikipedia are under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License Wikitravel - Luzon The chief island of the Philippines, from cobblestone streets of the colonial town of Vigan to the bustling metropolis of Manila to the rice terraces of Banaue, where the seat of the government is located and where the financial and commercial capitals as well as the national capital of the Philippines is located, this is Luzon. ... read more provided by Wikitravel under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License Research Center Not Enough information on travelling to Luzon? Want to know more? Dive into endless sources the internet provides.	i don't know
Which English coastal resort is known as ‘London-by-the-sea’?	English seaside resorts specific towns resorts English Seaside Resorts: Specicfic Towns Figure 1.--This is the Promenade along the beach at Fleetwood. Note Pharos Lighthouse. This postcard is undated, but we would guess the photograph was taken about 1910. Britain is an island. As a result there are quite a number of beach resort towns scattered all along the coast. Some of course are much better known than others. We have begun to compile information on quite a number of the different resorts. our British readers will provoide us some information on their experiences at these resorts. They appear to have been very popular during the late 19th abd early 20th centurues. We note people dressed rather formaslly during thos era. The British today ofcourse take off for the Canary Ilands and other foreign resorts where the water is a good bit warmer. Blackpool (Lancashire) Blackpool is another very well known resort along the northwestern Irish Sea coast. It is perhaps the busiest holiday resort on England. Blackpool was traditionlly part of Lancashire but since 1998 has been an independent unitary authority. There are many nearby towns with popular beach resorts (Fleetwood, Cleveleys, Thornton, Poulton-le-Fylde and Lytham St Anne's). Blackpool was enormously popular in the first half of the 20th century. Geographically it was accesable to the industrial Midlands, northern England, and Glasgow. Factory workers took their annual holidays in Blackppol and other neaby resorts. Huge number of inexpessive accomodations were built for working-class families. Photograph from that era show working-class families and huge crowds on the beach and promenade. One source reports that Blackpool still has more accomodations than the entire country of Portugal. Blackpool itself is the most heavily urbanised of the Irish Coast resort. English seaside resorts are famous for their holiday piers with a range of attractions. Blackpool has three piers. The North pier is the oldest built in 1863. The Central Pier was built soon after in 1868. The South pier is the newest, built in 1893. Blackpool also has a Tower, built in 1894. The Blackpool Tower is a 518-foot replica of Paris' Eiffel Tower. It was painted gold in 1994 as part of a centenary celebration. Blackpool has a popular tramway (trollie) that runs along to the coastvto some of the other beavh communities. The Blackppol Tramway was for many years England's only working tramway. There has been a revival of tramways in England and several other cities in recent years have rebuilt their tramways. Blackpool and other English resorts were adversely affected when cheap air travel became available in the 1960s. Until the 60s working class Britons did not commonly cross the Channel. This changed dramatically when the average Briton found that for aout the same cost he could vacation abroad (especially Spain) where the water was actually warm! Blackpool was especially affected because it was such at important beach resort and the economy was so completely devoted to tourism. There has in recent years, however, been a recival. Blackpool can't compete woth the Mediterrean weather. Onstead to foucus now is on entertainment. Blackpool specializes as a summer entertainment venue. There are popular variety shows. And it is no longer just a summer vacation resort. Blackpool's Winter Gardens routinely hosts conferences and is especially known for political events. The Blackpool Illuminations (fireworks) held during September and October are extremely popular even after the main tourist season. Brighton (East Sussex) Brighton is perhaps the most well known English beach resort. It is located south of London in East Sussex. (Sussex has been divided into two portions, East and West and these are administered as two separate counties. Some little while ago, Brighton was amalgamated with its next door neighbour and great rival--Hove. The two became known as the City of Brighton & Hove, on top of that, the city is what is known as a Unitary Authority, which means that, although it is geographically in the County of Sussex, administratively it is entirely separate from county council control.) Elegant hotels were built facing the beach. More modest boarding houses were built in the town. We notice camping at Brighton as early as the 1880s. Brighton can be reached in a little over an hour by train making it very accessable to the people of London. Thus it is a major destination of day trippers. Brighton is quite famous for a number of other reasons. It was a famous venue for what were known as 'dirty weekends', in the old less-permissive days! The hotels and boarding houses were full of 'Mr & Mrs Smiths', which caused a lot of problems for real Smiths. A colleague of mine said he got quite a lot of 'funny looks' from the staff, when he was on his honeymoon, which does not mean that he had his honeymoon at Brighton. This was a general alias for this activity! Brighton is also famous for the annual rally of vintage cars, which was immortalised in the film "Genevieve" (1953). Brigton is also noted for a BBC film shot out of the train driver's cab, which was speeded up and purported to be "London to Brighton in Four Minutes" (1952). A British reader writes, "This was shown on TV quite a lot of times, but I haven't seen it now for a long time. It was quite impressive in those days as it apparently hurtled through towns and villages en route, at 840 miles per hour. I remember it aways impressed me as it slowed down and gently and sedately slid towards the buffers at Brighton". Another English reader writes, "We took day trips to London. I enjoyed both the beach and pier as well as the train ride. Brighton was also the scene of the 'Mods and Rockers' fights in the early 1960s." Cleveleys (Lancashire) Cleveleys is one of the smaller seaside resorts. It is located along the Fylde Coast of Lancashire. It is located close to the much better known resort of Blackpool. There is no long pier, but a charming promenade along the beach. The towns' website tells us, "... along the promenade you can enjoy the traditional seaside entertainment with amusement arcades and bingo halls, or take the children to Kiddies Corner where they can have hours of fun on all the mini adventure rides." Eastbourne (East Sussex) One of the most popular English seaside resorts was Eastbourne--because it was close to London. The attached postcard (figure 1) was mailed from Eastbourne during August, I would guess around in the early 1920s, which of course could be different then when the photograph for the card was taken. It was sent my a boy named Percy to a friend in London. It reads, Dear Frank, We bathe (Brit speak for swim) every morning now. Altogether we have had fairly nice weather. There have been two waterplanes down here. One has had a slight accident & is still here. Yours Percy. Some of the seaside towns have become noted esorts like Blackpool and Brighton. Others are lesser known but important locally. Fleetwood (Lancashire) Fleetwood is one of several beaches along the Fylde coastal plain. The other beaches include: Blackpool, Cleveleys, Fleetwood, Flyde, Poulton, Rossal, Thornton, ans Wyre. Vacationers fim Liverppol traveled via Bispham, Norbreck, and Cleveleys, a senic journey along Alantic (Irish Sea) coast cliffs. There was also a tram from Blackpool. The attractions at Fleetwood itself included the Promenade, Espplanade, Marine Walk, and Pier. There was also a Marine Garden. The principal street was Bold Street. The most prominant part feature of the beach front was Pharos Lighthouse designed by Sir Decimus Burton. The largest hotel was the North Euston Hotel. Agood view of the sea could be had at The Mount and surrounding gardens. There was also a steamboat ferry, Mona's Queen to the Isle of Man. The sailing was coordinated with the arrival of the 2:15 pm train. There were ships to Scotland and Ireland,Fleetwood was not just a beach resort, it was also a busy port, with freigters arriving from all over the world. There was also an active fishing fleet. There was a white monument to honor the fishermen Abram and Greenall, who lost their lives trying to save another fisherman. Gordon Beach (Sussex?) We note a scene at Gordon Beach in 1950. It shows children's beachwear at the time. Notably many younger boys had bib-front suits. The children are mostly paddling in the water. We don't see many simmers. The cold water of course is a factor. And the Channel is in the south and the warmest water off Britain. We think Gordon's Beach is a Channel beach in Sussex, but are not positive at this time. It looks to be a working-class beach, perjaps day trippers from Londob. Hopefully our British readers will know more. Lowestoft (Suffolk) Lowestoft is a North Sea coast port in Suffolk which is part of East Anglia. At the time it was a fishing port of some importance, but also had a pier and popular beaches. The center of the tourist trade was Claremont Pier built in 1903. It is Lowestoftï¿½s principal pier. It served the local community and touriss staying in local hotels as well as steamers coming from London. There would have been all kinds of entertaiment activities on the pier for these children, but here they are off the beach. The beaches are quite different than the Channel beaches. They are sandy and gently slopeing, ideal for children playing in the sand. And the water as at all North Sea beaches is really cold--even in the Summer. A British reader writes, "We went to the North Sea coast from Yorkshire (to Scarborough) and the North Sea is known for being freezing unlike the channel resorts on the South Coast. It is interesting that they ran steamers to Lowestoft from London!. I didn't know that before." A World War I naval battle was fought off Lowestoft. We have an image showing an unidentified family at Lowestoft durng the early 1930s. A few years after this photograph was taken, World War II broke out and the pier was taken over by the Army. After the War the Army kept it for several years and was then largely abandoned. Ut has since been partially restored. The local authorities explain the state in 2005, "Unfortunately, further damage over the years has left the pier somewhat the worse for wear. Although much has been done to restore the shoreward end, the pier head is very run-down and remains closed to the public. Still, thereï¿½s a fair bit of entertainment to be had on whatï¿½s left of it, with an amusement arcade, take-away food and all the rest of it. Special mention should go to Captain Nemoï¿½s Fish & Chips. Why not get a Blue Raspberry Slush Puppy to go with that battered huss?" Margate (Kent) Margate is a southern North Sea seaside town located at the northeastern tip of Kent. The town's history has been from the beginning associated with the sea. Margate is just north of the entrnce to the Channel at Dover. Dover id of course the closr point between Englnd nd France. As aresult during world War II, small shipsfrom Margate participated in the Dunkirk evacuation. And Dunkirk was was in esence seen as a 'limb' of Dover in the ancient confederation of the Cinque ports. It joined the confederation in the late medieval period (15th century). Margate has been an important British seaside resort from the early period in which the seaside and bathing began to be popular in England during the 18th century. It was not until the coming of the railways (1846), however, that large numbers of Londoners began to take advantage of Margate' beaches. Margate like neighboring Ramsgate, has thus been a popular holiday destination for Londoners because of the wide sandy beaches. Margate's wonderful Victorian era pier was destroyed by a powerful Northsea storm (1978). We note an unidentified boy having his portrait taken in a classic sailor outfit at the W.G. Fair studio. They did not, however, use a beach backdrop or even beach toys. Like Brighton and Southend, Margate was infamous for gang violence between mods and rockers (1960s) and then mods and skinheads (1980s). Morecambe (Lancastershire) Morecambe is a resort town located right within the Lancaster city. The beach faces Morecambe Bay, a part of the Irish Sea. This protected location means that the waves are more gentle than many Brirish beaches. Morecomb provided a wonderful local venue for ciy residents attempting to escape the summer heat. It is easily accessible by bus frm anywhere in the city. Nearby Blackpool is much better known and the poredomant venue for holiday-makers from the Lancashire mill towns. Many visitors to Morecambe came from the nort, Yorkshire and Scotland. The beach in recentyears has has a facelift. There is now glistening golden sands replacing the pebble beaches and a 5 mile stretch of level promenade with innovative bird sculptures and public artworks. The Stone Jetty is now a prominant local attraction. The beach has the Lakeland Hills as a backdrop. St. Ives (Cornwall) Corwall was a source of tin in the ancient world, a vital ingredientb in making bronze. We do not known what part iof any St. Ives was involved, but there were maritime conndections with theMediterranean world. St. Ives first appears in history With the legdend of St. Ia or Hya. She was an Irish princess who introduced Christianity to Corwall (5th century AD). King Edward I granted St Ives a charter (1295). St Ives was an isolated fisjing village in southestern England for most of its history. It was accessable mostly by sea because of the poor roads in England. This how destinctive dialects and accents survived in Corrwall and other places. This only changed with the coming of the railway. The Great Western Railway began running its Broad Gauge trains on a new branch line (1877). This greatly increased the accessibility of the people in Cornwall to the rest of England. For St. Ives, the development was especually important. It went ffom being a relatively poor fishing village to a fashionable holiday destination. People in London could reach St. Ives in a few hours when graveling by rail. And it continues to be popular. St Ives was won the 'Seaside Town of the Year' in the annual Guardian contest (2007). St. Ives and Cornwall boasts Britain's mildest climate, There are wonderfull broad beaches that children enjoy, perfect for building sand castles. Scarborough (Yorkshire) Scarborough is a North Sea beach resprt. A British reader, Bill , had grandparents in Yorkshire. He tells us his experiences along the Yorkshire coast where he especially liked to hunt seashells. He also noted the water was colder than the southern beaches he was used to-although once in the water he didn't seem to mind. Shanklin (Isle of Wight) Shanklin is a popular Channel seaside resort on the Isle of Wight near Sandown along the south coast. In addition to the sandy beach are a charming old village and the chine. Hotels and restaurants are located at the esplanade along the beach. We note an unidentified boy having his portrait taken at the Brown studio some time around the turn of the20th century. The studio of course has seaside backdrops. The boy wears a sailor outfit, popular wear for both boys and girls at these resorts. Skegness (Lincolnshire) Skegness is a beach resort in Lincolnshire along the eastcoast. It was until the 19th century a virtually unknown coastal village where fishing in the North Sea was the major economic activity. The development of the railroad in the mid-19th century was key factor in making Slegness and other coastal towns important beach resorts. The rilroads meant that working people could inexpesively travel to the coast for a seaside vacation. The railroad put workers from the industrial Midlands within esy traveling distance of Skegness. It was a very popular beach resort by the turn of the 20th century and at the height of its popularity in the 1920s and 1930s. After World War II more English families acquired cars opening a wider range of vacation trips. This affected the popularity of Skegness. South Shields (Tyne and Wear) South Shields is a town in Northeast England, which stands on the south bank of the River Tyne estuary. South Shields was part of the County Durham until local government reorganisation in 1974, when it became part of the Metropolitan County of Tyne and Wear. It is a town steeped in history that goes back to the time of the Romans who had a settlement here in an area of the town called the Lawe Top. The settlement had fort known as Arbeia and here was a vast stone built granary. The fort also played an important part as a supply centre for Hadrian's Wall, which stretched from the Soloway Firth in the west of England, to Wallsend in the east. A replica of the fort has been built along with a museum of Roman artefacts on the site of the original fort. At the mouth of the Tyne are the two piers, one on the north side at Tynemouth, which is much shorter than its southern counterpart at South Shields, which measures one mile from beginning to end. While the north pier is straight, the south pier is winding. At the end of the two piers are unmanned lighthouses. Southend-on-Sea (Essex) Southend-on-Sea boasts of 7 miles of broad, sandy beaches. The best known is the Jubilee Beach--always above high tide. The cornerstone of Victorian beach resorts was the amusement piers that jutted out into the sea. Southend-on-Sea has the longest pleasure pier in the world. There are over 80 parks and open spaces of varying size, 40 playgrounds, 6 nature and fourteen historic conservation areas, abnd 16 allotment sites. There are also four museums, two theatres, two art galleries, seven libraries, three casinos, a bowling alley, a sealife centre, the largest fun park in the south-east, a skateboard park, five leisure centres, a watersports centre, even an airport. I'm not sure how much of that was there in Victorian times. We note a family visit about the turn-of-the 20th century. Southend also has a brand new, state of the art building for the South East Essex College, is the site for the new University of Essex, and is served by two major railway networks. Southsea (Hampshire) Southsea is a beachresort in Hampshire adjacent to Portsmouth on the English Channel. In addition to the beach is a castle built by Henry VIII (1544) before the idea of bathing had caught the public's fancy. Southsea Castle was one of a series of fortifications built by Henry to protect the English coast from from foreign invaders. Notably Henry's flagship, the Mary Rose sank in view of the Castle. The only major military action fought in the Castle occurred during the Civil War. Parliamentarian forces besiged and captured the Castle. It is now one of the major actractions of Southsea. Southsea beach is mostly shingle and slopes quite rapidly into the sea. The seafront is one of the most popular recreation areas in Portsmouth area. The beach extends along the whole southern end of Portsea Island from Old Portsmouth to Eastney. Adjacent to the beach and seafront promenade is Southsea Common, an extensive open space. It was once a military preserve but is now used for kite flying, picnics and informal ball games. We have loaded a photograph of South Sea in 1910. Notice all the different outfits the children wear and the activites involved. This is a fantastic scene. Its like one of those paintings you look at and keep finding a human story in the detail. Look for a boy riding his tricycle. Boys walking with mum playing king of the castle on the cannon. (And the sign saying that children are prohibited from climbing on the cannon.) This cannon is still there today. Boys are up to all sorts of things. Two are digging on the beach. Have a look and see what stories I have missed. About the only thing they aren't doing is swiming. Swanage (Dorset) Swanage is a small town on the English Channel that has been a popular seaside resport since the late-19th century when railroads brought even distant resorts in easy travel range from London. It is located at the eastern end of the Isle of Purbeck. Swanage was considered a trendy resort for the rich. Todsay the appeal is more to the average tourist. Swanage and its environs offer a wide range of attractions. First of course are the beaches to the north at Studland Bay with its impressive cliffs as a bsackdrop. A traditional trat was the Punch and Judy shows. There are parks, gardens and museums. Corfe Castle is nearby. The children once well tosted from the beach will enjoy a ride on the Swanage Railway. Moodern viitors can mountainbiking along the Purbeck Hills. And dinosaur-mad boys will enjoy the Purbeck, now billed the Jurassic Coast. The unique geology gives Purbeck a special character and wildlife. Purbeck has been gawarded UNESCO World Heritage Site. Here you will find sedimentary rocks, which were formed over 100 million years ago. Torbay (Devon) Torbay is an important natural hartbor and rare east-facing bay in Devon along the Channel. It is located at the western most end of Lyme Bay midway between the cities of Exeter and Plymouth. Tourist authorities call it the English Riviera because of wonderful sandy beaches and relatively mild climate. The cold Channel water, however, is a far cry from the Riverra. It is one of England's popular beach resort depite the fact it vis located at some distance from London. Younger children in particular delight with playing in the sand. And it is the Torbay beaches that are the big tourist attractuions. A popular modern attraction is the Liiving Coasts (partnered with Paignton Zoo) , the Babbacombe Cliff Railway and the Hi-Flyer tethered helium balloon. And of course a mist for visitors is a Devon cream tea. Weston-Super-Mare (Somerset) An English reader remembers his family caravan trips to the seaside during the 1960s. Weston-Super-Mare was one of several beaches Bill remembers staying at. ---------------------------------- The British, unlike Americans, keep switching around the borders of their counties. We simple colonials might think that after 1,000 years there has been plenty of time to get it right, but our British friends apparently are still working on it. Sussex has been split into two. In addition some towns have become separated from the counties in which they were formerly are located. Blackpool and Eastbourne, for example, were traditionlly part of Lancashire and Sussex but have since become independent unitary authorities. We have placed the counties by the resorts primarily to provide a rough geographic reference for non-English readers.	Brighton
What was the middle name of US inventor Thomas Edison?	Britain's best beaches: 50 of the nation's top stretches of sand \| Daily Mail Online comments According to forecasters, Britain has just embarked on a long-awaited heatwave – finally banishing an interminable period of awful weather. There's only one place the British want to be when the sun breaks through – and to help you make the very most of being beside the sea this summer, we've produced this indispensable guide to Britain's 50 best beaches, along with information on the country's best piers, seaside pubs and restaurants and, of course, fish and chips. This summer's off to a flyer: Let's reignite our love affair with British coastal resorts (pic: Bamburgh in Northumberland) The seaside has always enjoyed a special place in the affections of we Brits. When I was a boy in South Wales, a day trip to Barry Island or Weston-super-Mare was as much fun as any of us had the right to expect. Recalling some of my happiest childhood days, I conjure up those sunbaked afternoons (it was always sunny when we went to the seaside) eating 99s, as trails of ice cream ran down my arm. The British, more than any other nationality, have an unbridled delight in a day at the beach. Sunshine at last: Britain is currently basking in gorgeous temperatures and there's never been a better time to explore our coastline... One of the first tunes I can remember hearing on the radio was Reginald Dixon at the organ of the Tower Ballroom in Blackpool playing Oh I Do Like To Be Beside The Seaside. When industrial labourers first earned the money – and the time – for holidays, they knew they wanted to be beside the sea: on summer's days, millions headed in trains and charabancs for resorts like Blackpool, Brighton and Scarborough. These were places that became wholly devoted to jollity ('There's a famous seaside place called Blackpool,' observed Stanley Holloway in the famous monologue Albert And The Lion, 'That's noted for fresh-air and fun.') For a country once better known for its buttoned-up puritan work ethic than its ability to have a laugh, the seaside provided a rare annual opportunity for the British to loosen their stays. Shakespeare described England as 'this sceptered isle... this precious stone set in a silver sea'. The British are an island race, the sea is in our blood, so it was probably not surprising that a trip to the coast made all our pulses beat a little faster. The English countryside is lovely but there is an excitement in the wide sea views and the rolling waves that we find impossible to resist. With the rise of the package holiday in the 1960s, however, we British began to fall out of love with our seaside. The Mediterranean had no piers, funfairs nor fish and chip shops (and, let's be honest, its beaches are terrible) – but it did have endless sunshine, cheap hotels, bargain booze and the sense of sophistication conferred by the very act of taking a plane to a foreign place. While the likes of Benidorm boomed, British resorts struggled to get by. Boarding houses that once welcomed happy families became dole hostels. But the wheel has turned again. Thanks to a huge rise in the cost of flying, a slump in the value of the pound and a tightening of family budgets, it's the Mediterranean package-holiday resorts that are under pressure now. In 2013, Britain's seaside is enjoying a new lease of life. People who once boasted of their fondness for foreign parts, now express a new passion for Cornwall, Pembrokeshire or Fife. Padstow is the new St Tropez, Cardiganshire has the allure of Tuscany, Dorset the subtle charms of Mykonos. The British seaside, once all candy floss and chips, now has Michelin-starred eating places offering the finest seafood cuisine, affordable gastropubs and mouthwatering 'real food' shops. And where there were once Spartan boarding houses run by Medusan landladies, we can now luxuriate in boutique guest houses today more likely to be scented with potpourri than the reek of fry-ups. The seaside still has its piers and penny arcades but now there are also arts festivals and literary events. So flop down in your deckchair, don a knotted handkerchief against that unfamiliar sunshine, and take a dip into this guide to the best that the British seaside has to offer. SOUTH WEST 1 Blackpool Sands, Devon This is the 'other' Blackpool – in Devon – and it couldn't be more different from Lancashire. Blackpool Sands, set in a sheltered bay surrounded by pines, is an award-winning privately managed family beach three miles west of Dartmouth. It offers family-friendly attractions from sand pits to a bathing raft, a range of delicious food and a beach shop. Not that one! Blackpool Sands in Devon is privately managed and has garnered awards for its facilities 2 Studland Beach, Dorset This picturesque four-mile stretch of golden sand is near the Poole Harbour starting point of the South West coastal path (incredibly it terminates 630 miles away in Minehead). So this is the perfect place to combine a beach visit with a good walk: you can choose everything from a short sandy stroll to a day's hike. The nearby heathland – which appears in Hardy's Wessex novels as Egdon Heath – is brimming with wildlife and offers more walking opportunities. At this time of year the barbecue-friendly, perfect for picnics Dorset beach comes alive, with many taking to the seas in boats available to hire. 3 Bournemouth One of Bournemouth's attractions is that the town overlooks seven miles of golden sand, providing arguably one of the best city beaches in the UK. Its soft sand and acres of space mean it is perfect for families who will also welcome the fact it has won awards for cleanliness. On a clear day you can see the Needles on the Isle of Wight. Not a deserted paradise, but you can't ask for much more so close to a major town. Super sands: Weston-super-Mare continues to be a favourite for British seaside goers and now has its famous pier back 4 Weston-super-Mare, Somerset Weston's star, which burnt so bright until the 1960s, has dimmed since (its low point came in 2008 when the Grand Pier burnt down). The pier is back, however, and so is Weston because it offers all you want from a seaside resort (including donkey rides). A huge beach where at low tide the sea practically disappears, this is a day-trip place par excellence. 5 Woolacombe, Devon People arriving at the beach are horrified when told to pay £6 for a day's parking. But everybody leaves satisfied and delighted with their day by the sea. And why shouldn't they? Woolacombe holds the VisitEngland Awards For Excellence gold award for best family resort and was previously voted the Best British Beach by The Mail on Sunday. Its beach lies between Morte Point and Baggy Point: a three-mile stretch of luscious golden sands famous for their cleanliness, water quality and facilities. 6 Croyde Bay, Devon If your inner Beach Boy is keen to discover what surfing is all about there is no better place to find out than this attractive beach. Powerful waves and excellent surf schools and surf shops have helped establish Croyde Bay's reputation as North Devon's best beach for catching waves. Despite armies of young surfers keen to party, the village still boasts an olde worlde charm. If you're not interested in surfing, there is plenty of room for sunbathers, swimmers and beach cricketers. 7 Saunton Sands, North Devon This three-and-a-half-mile stretch of golden sand, backed by the rolling expanse of Braunton Burrows, provides one of the most impressive dune systems in the country. The beach faces west and is cut off to the south by the combined estuaries of the rivers Taw and Torridge. This vast expanse of sand is perfect for families who want to spread out. It's also a favourite for its excellent surf, while other sports include kite surfing, kayaking and paddle boarding Soft underfoot: Saunton Sands near Braunton on the North Devon coast boasts an impressive dune system 8 Watergate Bay, Cornwall The most fashionable of Cornwall's beaches, two miles north of Newquay, this is where you can try the latest surf craze: last year stand-up paddleboarding, this year 'dually bodyboarding' (two people clinging to a double-sized bodyboard with four handles and launching headfirst into the surf). All this plus the estimable Watergate Bay Hotel and the excellent Jamie Oliver Fifteen restaurant. 9 Crantock, Cornwall Crantock is a short drive from the big resort of Newquay but a world away from all the rough-and-tough surfer dudes and raucous pubs; this is a splendidly delightful hidden cove situated beside a charming village with a brace of equally charming old English pubs. It's a great place for families, nicely sheltered and patrolled by lifeguards in summer. Access is via the National Trust car park. To reach the beach, you need to clamber over a giant sand dune. You'll discover a cove that's more Caribbean than Cornwall. On the right is the tidal River Gannel, where you can catch a ferry to Fern Pit. Here you can order a cooked lobster, caught that morning, or opt for a stunning cliff-top walk. 10 Porthmeor Beach, St Ives, Cornwall Opposite Tate St Ives is one of Cornwall's prettiest beaches. Here, the long white sands are overlooked by the Porthmeor Beach Cafe which serves great tapas and cakes in heated outdoor booths. The Yellow Canary cafe is the place for the best pasties, plus great tea and coffee in relaxed, contemporary surroundings. For a break from the beach, head to the Barbara Hepworth sculpture garden. Cornish beauty: The rugged landscape at Porthcurno, just southeast of Land's End, is a sight to behold 11 St Martin's, Isles of Scilly St Martin's offers you an ideal location for a family break with amazingly secluded, clean beaches and gobsmacking scenery (you have to keep reminding yourself you're just a ten-minute flight away from Penzance). St Martin's is the third largest of the Isles of Scilly, arguably the most seductive, and reached by a frequent boat service from the main island, St Mary's. There are also boat links to other islands. You can take boat trips to the Eastern Isles to view seal and bird colonies, or to the amazing Bishop Rock lighthouse. Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Hanbury's, Babbacombe ( hanburys.net ) has served local fish for three decades. Best pub Old Coastguard, Mousehole ( oldcoastguard hotel.co.uk ), St Austell beer and great views. Best ice cream Treleavens, Polperro ( treleavens.co.uk ). Award-winning Cornish ice creams and sorbets using local cream and milk. Best restaurant Fifteen, Watergate Bay ( fifteencornwall.co.uk ). Jamie Oliver's coastal venture. 12 Porthcurno, Cornwall Three miles southeast of Land's End, this gloriously unspoilt beach, hugged by craggy cliffs, has fine white sand made from millennia of sea shells being ground down. There are spectacular cliff-top paths, rock pools and a stream trickling down the beach. Adjacent is the extraordinary Minack Theatre, which stages open-air plays with the Atlantic Ocean as a backdrop. A large car park 200 yards from the beach leads to a wide footpath which gently slopes to the shore. There is a cafe just across the road from the car park; and the Cable Station Inn, just up the road from the park, serves meals and drinks all day in the holiday season. 13 Kynance Cove, Cornwall This secluded cove two miles north-west of Lizard village has been called one of the most beautiful beaches in the world. The country around is famous for rare wildlife, such as the rare Cornish chough (a red-legged, red-billed crow). At low tide, walk down to the sand and picnic surrounded by multicoloured rocks. Great to relax peacefully No need to bring a picnic Clean sea water Lots of fun and games 14 Slapton Sands, Devon Not sandy, in fact, but a fine three-mile pebble beach with wonderful views. The main access points are at the village of Torcross at the southern end, the memorial car park at mid-point (the memorial commemorates the tragic deaths of 946 US servicemen in an exercise preparing for D-Day) and in the north, the Strete Gate car park (decency warning: the part of Slapton Sands beyond Strete Gate is an unofficial nudist beach). This shingle bar is a wonderfully serene hideaway, the perfect escape if you're looking for some solitude after suffering crowded seaside places. Wales 15 Rhossili Bay, Gower Peninsula Regularly voted the best beach in the UK – and this year chosen as the third best beach in Europe (tenth in the world!) – this is well worth the journey. Rhossili Bay, with its three miles of sand, is one of the finest places on Earth. From the top of Rhossili Down, you can see across the sea to West Wales, Lundy Island and the North Devon coast. From the Rhossili National Trust shop there is a level walk along the cliff-top to the Old Coastguard Lookout. If the tide is out, the adventurous can cross the causeway to the tidal island of Worm's Head, where grey seals laze on the rocks below. A career in construction? Rhossili on the Gower in Wales is perfect for building sandcastles 16 Barafundle Bay, Pembrokeshire There are probably more fabulous beaches in South Wales than in the whole of Greece and its islands. Jump in the car and head for Swansea and points west, and you'll be spoilt for choice. Why not begin your beach hunt at Pembrokeshire's Barafundle Bay? You need to take the cliff path from nearby Stackpole Quay where you can see the green-topped sand dunes and lush woodland scattered throughout the area. Step through a stone archway, and you've entered seaside nirvana. Set among grand limestone cliffs, the blue waters of this secluded beach are popular with families for swimming and kayaking expeditions to explore the many small coves and creeks. Welsh wonders: The seafront of the Victorian resort town of Llandudno (left) and pretty thrift growing on the cliffs above Marloes Sands in Pembrokeshire 17 Marloes Sands, Pembrokeshire This is a beach so stunning, it's a surprise it's taken so long to be signed up by Hollywood, making its first appearance in last year's Snow White And The Huntsman. Locals have been coming here for years, many in the hopes of picking up a fossil, but now Marloes is firmly on the list of 'must visit' beaches for tourists from all over the world. The beach itself is blessedly uncommercialised, but in nearby Marloes village there are toilets, cafes and the excellent pub cuisine of the Lobster Pot Inn. The bay offers fabulous sea views – look out to the uninhabited wildlife reserve island of Skokholm in the distance. Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips D Fecci & Sons, Tenby. Family-owned since 1935 and minutes from the beach. Best pub Stackpole Inn, Stackpole ( stackpoleinn.co.uk ). Great ales near Pembrokeshire coastal path. Best ice cream Red Boat Ice Cream, Beaumaris, Anglesey ( redboatgelato.com ). Serves flavours such as strawberry, mascapone and balsamic. Best restaurant Gwesty Cymru, Aberystwyth ( gwestycymru.com ). Welsh sirloin on the prom. 18 Newgale Sands, Pembrokeshire This is an impressive piece of beach, even by Pembrokeshire standards. Hardpacked sand, flecked with shells and stones, stretching for more than two miles; the scene belongs in an Impressionist painting. There are also spectacular views to Skomer and Ramsey islands. Look out for scoters (sea ducks) and gannets cruising over from their huge colony on Grassholm. There is a large campsite across the road, along with cafes, ice cream shop, pub and a surf shop. There are plenty of car parks, with free parking at the southern end: access to the beach is via a path over the pebble bank. 19 Abersoch, Gwynedd If you think North Wales beaches are all about Llandudno and Rhyl, take a look at this gem on the wonderful Llyn Peninsula. The Abersoch main beach is a glorious sweep of sheltered sand, ideal for bathers and watersports lovers alike. Boat trips are available to the St Tudwal and Bardsey islands. Abersoch beach faces the mountains of West Wales, offering spectacular views from the beach. A motor boat exclusion zone provides a secure area for bathers. There is a shop and cafe, and beach huts are available to rent. 20 Llandudno The Queen of North Wales resorts...the Naples of the North...however you call it, Llandudno is a special place for a breath of sea air. An afternoon on Llandudno's North Shore is a chance to enjoy the seaside as it should be, complete with a Victorian pier and a long promenade. You won't be on your own, of course – this is the most popular beach in the area. The sandy West Shore has a play area on the seafront, impressive views of Anglesey and the mountains, the sea cliffs of the Great Orme and some incredible sunsets over the water. PICK OF THE PIERS: FIVE QUINTESSENTIALLY BRITISH WALKWAYS INTO THE SEA 1. Blackpool Blackpool Central Pier has always been synonymous with British seaside entertainment and fun since it opened in 1868 with the nicknamed ‘The People’s Pier’. Back in the day, the main attraction was open-air dancing but having survived two fires, the pier is now home to a funfair and a 32m-high Big Wheel along with a theatre, bars and amusement arcades. The most fun at sea since Leonardo DiCaprio drew Kate Winslet. Into the sea: The pier at Southend stretches a whopping 1.34miles...and there's a train if your legs can't take it 2. Brighton Unofficially known as the Palace Pier, Brighton Pier opened in 1899 after costing a massive £27,000 to build. The iconic Victorian pier has featured in a host of TV dramas and films, notably Quadrophenia. Free deckchairs, an amusement arcade and fairground attractions: er, what’s not to like? 3. Weston-Super-Mare Grand Pier To be burned down once is a misfortune, to be destroyed by fire twice sounds like carelessness. After its second fire in 2008, the pier has been impressively remodelled as an ‘indoor theme park’ with the biggest ride a 1000ft go-kart track split over two levels. It also houses Britain’s smallest rollercoaster, a 4D cinema and a three-storey helter skelter. 4. Llandudno Pier The listed Victorian pier was opened in 1858 and is the longest in Wales and the fifth longest in Britain. It is said to be Indian Gothic in style and appears to “float” in the water. It is open every day and a fifteen-minute walk to the end of the pier gives a beautiful view of the surrounding coastline. Arcades, ice cream, candy floss and other seaside attractions can be sampled along the way. 5. Southend Pier Sir John Betjeman said “The Pier is Southend, Southend is the Pier”. It’s the longest pleasure pier in the world - measuring 1.34 miles. It has had a troubled history with many fires destroying different parts of the structure. However, in the past decade reinvestment has given the pier a new lease of life. A brand new Cultural Centre is a venue for concerts, exhibitions and comedy festivals and has an in house café. A railway runs the length of it, if the end of the pier seems too far to walk. South East 21 Frinton-on-Sea, Essex A world away from the kiss-me-quick hat world of nearby Clacton or Walton. The hype is that Frinton is Monaco to Clacton's Nice and, boy, does it play on its reputation. It has a certain antique charm: you can imagine Miss Marple stalking its tree-lined avenues, which sweep down to the elegant esplanade. The beach is sandy and secluded and the seafront lined by Victorian-style beach huts, reminiscent of the days when the town was a favourite retreat for the aristocracy. 22 West Beach Clacton-on-Sea, Essex Part of the charmingly branded 'Sunshine Coast of Essex', this is a traditional sandy beach with a pier, the Pavilion Fun Park and a good range of bars and restaurants. The beach is nigh on perfect for children, with gently shelving sand; Clacton also operates a child-safety wristband scheme for those who get lost on the beach. Good road and rail connections. 23 Three Shells Beach, Southend-on-Sea, Essex A compact sandy beach, just a few minutes' walk from the centre of this ultimate Essex resort. Also nearby are Adventure Island, the pier, the High Street and cafes, shops and amusements. It's the perfect spot for anyone who wants to swim or paddle. The beach is thoroughly cleaned daily and family amenities include a shower and play equipment. I'm reminded of a Cleo Laine song 'Sarf-end, just meant for you, from the first cup of tea to the queue for the loo…' Crikey, was that Cleo Laine…? Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Pilot Inn, Dungeness, Kent ( thepilot.uk. com ). A stone's throw from the sea. Best pub The Coastguard, Dover ( thecoastguard.co.uk ). The closest pub to France. Best ice cream Pelosi's, Ramsgate, Kent. Dailies such as tiramisu and right by the harbour. Best restaurant Pebble Beach, Barton-on-Sea, Hampshire ( pebblebeach-uk. com ). Al fresco dining on a cliff top 24 Ramsgate, Kent There's a fine collection of excellent beaches on the Isle of Thanet's coast, running north from Pegwell to Minnis Bay. For ease of access, Ramsgate is hard to beat. The sandy beach is several hundred yards deep, backed by a promenade. There are cafes close to the beach with outdoor tables. A bustling Blue Flag bearer, it's an old-fashioned resort with lifeguards, a bay inspector and a summer dogs ban. 25 Camber Sands, East Sussex If you like your beaches big and bare, this is the place to come to enjoy wide expanses of sand beneath a huge sky. Backed by an alpine range of golden dunes, you will find a beach that stretches for seven miles and, at low tide, the sea retreats for half a mile (practically begging you to bring the football or the cricket bat). If you're planning to bask in the sun, bring a windbreak – for the same reason it's the perfect spot to fly a kite. Easy to park and even easier to find a quiet spot. 26 Brighton This has been London's favourite seaside place since the Prince Regent first came to take the waters 200 years ago. It's been knocked about a bit since (the famous clashes between Mods and Rockers in the 1960s didn't help) but Brighton is still the quintessential beach place for many. It's loud, quirky and brash – but then this is what most of us expect. The pebbles are a bit hard on the feet and the sea can be rough – but it's a short walk from the station and you'll never go hungry or thirsty. 27 Littlehampton, West Sussex The town's rebirth began with a brace of beach cafes designed by leading British architects: the West Beach Cafe masterminded by Asif Khan and the undulating, sculptural East Beach Cafe dreamed up by Thomas Heatherwick, the man behind London's Olympic cauldron. But there is much more to this enchanting place than top-class fish and chips. Families will be delighted with the shingle beach and a child-friendly fun fair. Walk this way...Camber Sands (left) in East Sussex stretches for seven miles while Priory Bay on the Isle of Wight (right) has an almost tropical feel to it 28 West Wittering, West Sussex A devoted band of fans has managed to preserve this as one of the beach world's best-kept secrets. Down a turning off the A27 just beyond Chichester, it's the English seaside as you might remember it. Ample parking and a long beach where you will have plenty of space to stretch out. Bring a kite and a picnic – apart from a perfectly fine small cafe, toilets and shower, there's very little here in the way of organised facilities. But that's what keeps bringing people back. 29 Priory Bay, Isle of Wight An utterley delightful, privately-owned beach accessed via the Priory Bay Hotel. It lies to the east of the village of Nettlestone and faces towards Selsey Bill. If you are keen to visit in style, the hotel has an oyster bar which offers striking sea views. It is surrounded by attractive woodland which gives this quiet spot an intriguing sense of adventure. To make it the perfect location for a Famous Five yarn, all it needs is a mysterious boat and a couple of dodgy-looking strangers. East Lincolnshire lovelies: Cleethorpes and Skegness both offer traditional donkey rides on their wide, sweeping beaches 30 Central Beach, Cleethorpes, Lincolnshire A town on the Humber estuary doesn't sound promising beach resort territory. However, Cleethorpes Central is an unspoilt, fine sandy beach with a gentle gradient perfect for family fun and beach sports. There is a traditional promenade running parallel to Victorian gardens (parking availability on the front is usually pretty good). Nobody will mistake quiet Cleethorpes for Las Vegas but then so much the better. Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Platten's, Wells-Next-The-Sea, Norfolk ( plattensfishandchips.co.uk ). Fresh fish cooked to order for the past 50 years. Best pub The Bell Inn, Walberswick, Suffolk ( bellinnwalberswick. co.uk ). With Adnams ales. Best ice cream Lammiman's Newsagents, Sutton-on-Sea, Lincolnshire. Sells Farmer Brown's tubs. Best restaurant Captain's Table, Cleethorpes ( thecaptainstable.co.uk ). Run by local fishermen. 31 Central Beach, Skegness, Lincolnshire For generations, 'Skeggie' – home of the jolly fisherman ('Skegness is SO bracing!') – was the most perfect seaside place on earth. Soft golden sand between the toes, building giant sandcastles, beach football, a trip down the pier. And no trip to the seaside would be complete without a ride on a Skeggie donkey. The Central Beach is right next to the main promenade so when you've had enough of the beach you can quickly pack up your deck chair and go and have a bit of fun at the fair or take a trip to the shops. Here you will also find ice cream kiosks, cafes and novelty shops, as well as toilet and first aid facilities. 32 Holkham, Norfolk Th is is a beach which invites you to stroll rather than stretch out: the yellow sands have been described as 'mesmerically vast'. Gwyneth Paltrow paced her way across them in Shakespeare In Love while the Queen likes to walk her corgis here. Towards the back of the beach a line of mismatched huts sit in front of a shady pine wood perfect for hide and seek. Wend your way on powdery sand across the maze of shallow lagoons to the sea. Norfolk winner: Holkham has enjoyed moments on the big screen - Shakespeare in Love was filmed here 33 Cley-Next-The-Sea, Norfolk A stretch of coastline that attracts walkers, bird-watchers, artists and food connoisseurs as well as people looking to bask in the sun and do a spot of paddling. Here you will find both a fine beach and a very nice village: perfectly preserved Cley-Next-The-Sea, between Blakeney and Salthouse, is designated an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The pebbly beach is a quieter alternative to busier places along the North Norfolk coast. 34 Southwold, Suffolk This Suffolk town is that rare British phenomenon, a posh seaside place aimed squarely at people who know how to pronounce hors d'oeuvres without making it sound like something unpleasant involving horses. The beach is a treat: a regular winner of the acclaimed Blue Flag award, with its golden sands providing exquisite summer relaxation or long walks all year round. The promenade is a great place for an afternoon stroll. Or you might prefer to take in the view with a glass of Adnams' highly regarded local beer. Scotland Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips The Bay, Stonehaven ( thebayfishand chips.co.uk ). Voted UK No1 takeaway. Best pub The Old Inn, Gairloch, Wester Ross ( theoldinn.net ). Has its own microbrewery. Best ice cream Nardini's Cafe, Largs ( nardinis.co.uk ) – 35 flavours include peach and passion fruit. Best restaurant Three Chimneys, Isle of Skye ( threechimneys.co.uk ). Local crab and oysters. 35 Huisinis, Isle of Harris Situated 30 miles off the north-west coast of Scotland, you might expect something spectacular in its remoteness. But the first sight of Huisinis will astonish you. You won't find anywhere selling choc ices or offering deckchairs for hire – what you will find, however, is an exquisite cuticle of white sand at the end of a 15- mile, single-track road on the mountainous north coast. This beach is overlooked by a cluster of crofts and cottages with views across the Atlantic to the uninhabited island of Scarp. 36 Dornoch, Highlands This is a beautiful expanse of golden sand located on the tranquil Dornoch Firth. Visitors can enjoy vast swathes of open sand that stretch from Dornoch Point, heading past Embo beach to the mouth of Loch Fleet National Nature Reserve. There isn't much in the way of facilities but bring your own food and you can enjoy a sumptuous picnic. Brooding: The wild beach at Huisinis, North Harris on the Outer Hebrides 37 St Andrews, Fife The opening scenes of Chariots Of Fire, which are supposed to be of Broadstairs in Kent, were actually shot on West Sands beach in St Andrews – one of the most glorious stretches of sea and sand in the whole of the United Kingdom. The film's 'Carlton Hotel, Broadstairs' was actually the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, the home of golf. With St Andrews town centre so close to the beach, daytrippers are well served for all their needs. 38 Burntisland, Fife This fine little beach, to the east of Burntisland overlooking the Firth of Forth, has been a Blue Flag winner for 13 consecutive years. There's plenty of ancillary fun: crazy golf, bouncy castles and a summer fairground nearby, and – if the weather fails – there's a swimming pool with flumes and a wave machine a short walk away. 39 Talisker Bay, Skye Talisker Bay stands on the west coast of Skye, one of the most magical places in the UK , and boasts one of the island's few sandy beaches. The beach is quite small, dwarfed by impressive cliffs at either end. This is a beautiful beach of stones and sand, best visited at low tide. There is both black and white sand on the beach, often mottled together to create patterns. A beach to come and be awed by rather than to come and sunbathe. North West Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Richardson's Fish Bar, Fleetwood ( richard sonsfishbar.co.uk ). Family-run favourite. Best pub Taps, Lytham, Lancashire ( thetaps.net ). Eight beers on tap and near the beach. Best ice cream Notarianni, Blackpool ( notarianniicecreamblackpool.co.uk ). Italian institution. Best restaurant The Waterfront, Whitehaven ( waterfrontwhitehaven.co.uk ). Fresh fish. 40 Morecambe Bay Morecambe has been described as a 'mini-Blackpool', which actually doesn't do this classic English seaside town sufficient justice. The first thing that the visitor notices is the spectacular view across the sands of the bay to the Lake District. Check out the wonderful Midland Hotel, a classic piece of Thirties architecture which has been recently restored. Stroll the promenade, admire the statue of comedian Eric Morecambe, fly a kite or simply build sandcastles, a perfect afternoon in the sun beckons. 41 Blackpool Europe's most popular costal town, attracting ten million visitors a year. It's big, it's brash, it's saucy. There's Blackpool Tower, the trams and the Pleasure Beach with white-knuckle rides. It's not everyone's cup of tea, the sea water may not be perfect and there are much quieter places, but you can bet your kiss-me-quick hat nowhere else tries quite so hard to put a smile on your face. 42 Lytham St Annes Ten out of ten for effort for those working to restore St Annes to its former glory. 'Picture a perfect beach with glimmering sea, golden sands; take a deep breath and imagine the freshness of salty sea air and listen to the laughter of family and friends,' runs its hand-out. Not the Costa del Sol but a jolly beach stay. North of the border: Picturesque East Sands in St Andrews (left) and a dramatic sunset highlights the exceptional beauty of Talisker Bay on the Isle of Skye (right) 43 Southport, Merseyside Southport manages to combine being a seaside place at the same time as a grownup town. Step away from busy Lord Street and within minutes find yourself wandering among deserted sand dunes next to the sea. The beach is the ideal antidote to the hustle and bustle of the town centre. Marvel at the coastal views through the seaside telescopes. 44 Formby, Merseyside On a clear day you can probably spot Blackpool Tower from here, but Formby's no Blackpool. The sweeping sands of Formby beach are big and broad and families can run and play to their hearts' content. Spectacular skyscapes can be glimpsed at sunset and, if you stand on top of a sand dune, the beach stretches as far as the eye can see. A closer look reveals thickets of pine woodland, home to local celebrities, the red squirrels. North East Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Pantrini's, Whitley Bay ( pantrinis.co.uk ). A classic, just yards from the seafront. Best pub Olde Ship Inn, Seahouses ( seahouses.co.uk ). Garden overlooks harbour. Best ice cream Harbour Bar, Scarborough ( theharbourbar.co.uk ). Unchanged since 1945. Best restaurant The Ship Inn, Low Newton-by-the- Sea ( shipinnnewton.co.uk ). Lobster served straight from Newton Bay. 45 Bamburgh, Northumberland The stretch of Northumbrian coastline north of Newcastle is quietly spectacular – someone described it as 'sombre and strangely exhilarating'. My favourite bit is Bamburgh beach, where the horseshoeshaped stretch of sand is overlooked by the turrets and towers of Bamburgh Castle. The beach stretches three miles from Bamburgh to Seahouses and, from the shoreline, there are views of Lindisfarne and the Farne Islands. Don't expect a café selling mozzarella paninis and glasses of merlot, this is simply a great beach offering spectacular views. 46 West Cliff Beach, Whitby, North Yorkshire A sandy and rocky beach backed by cliffs, this is a place to enjoy the traditional charms of the seaside. There is a wealth of traditional amusements, including a summer theatre and a museum close to the majestic ruins of Whitby Abbey on the cliff top. Take children to the beach-side shop selling buckets, spades and ice creams, buy several of each and head to the sand for immediate fun. Perhaps best not to mention Dracula: Author Bram Stoker stayed here in the 1890s and took vampiric inspiration from Whitby and its abbey. Sands and spectacles: The whale bones on Whitby's West Cliff frame Whitby Abbey and, right, the limestone cliffs behind Whiterocks beach in Portrush, County Antrim 47 South Bay, Scarborough The busiest of Scarborough's beaches offers fine, soft sand and calm water sheltered from the north by the castle headland. The arching bay almost faces south at the harbour, creating a fabulous sun trap. The beach is handily placed for the town centre shops, theatres, amusement arcades, eateries and harbour. The tide rarely reaches the promenade, so more often than not you'll find a part of the beach untouched by the sea, giving you true soft sand, perfect for sunbathing. Rainbow resort: Scarborough's multi-coloured beach chalets on the North Bay seafront 48 Filey Bay, North Yorkshire Situated between Bridlington and Scarborough on the North Yorkshire coast, this was a fishing village that became a busy tourist resort, becoming well known as the home of a Butlin's Holiday Camp (at its peak, the camp was catering for 10,000 people a week – it closed in 1984 and the site has since been redeveloped for housing). The beach is sandy, safe and well cleaned and scenically outstanding. N.Ireland Need a break from the sand? Try the... Best fish and chips Pit-Stop Fast Food 26 Bridge St, Kilkeel, Co Down ( pitstopfastfood.com ). Best pub Harbour Bar, Portrush, County Antrim ( ramorerestaurant.com/harbour-bar.htm ). Best ice cream Morelli's, The Promenade, Portstewart.morellisofportstewart.co.uk ) Best restaurant 55 North, Causeway Street, Portrush (55-north.com) 49 Portstewart Strand, Co Londonderry People tend not to associate Northern Ireland with great seaside places, but here you will find beaches to equal the best in the whole of the British Isles. Portstewart offers a glorious two-mile stretch of golden sand known locally as The Strand, a much-loved regional treasure. You will enjoy plenty of open space if you are looking to have a family picnic while you spend a day making sandcastles or kicking a football. 50 Whiterocks, Portrush, Co Antrim Not just a great beach – here you will also enjoy the spectacular limestone cliffs of the White Rocks, which stretch from Curran Strand to Dunluce Castle. These are soft rocks, carved through centuries into a labyrinth of caves and arches. On the main coast road, you will find pull-in areas and a large car park where you can take in the incredible views to the Giant's Causeway. Portstewart Strand Whiterocks, Portrush	i don't know
Which year saw the first commercial Concorde flight?	First Concorde Commercial Flight 30 Years Ago - Airliners.net Airliners.net Thu Jan 19, 2006 12:18 am Tuesday January 21st 1976 - Saturday January 21st 2006. 30 years ago ... On that day, the two sole operators of the Supersonic Jetliner Concorde, Air France and British Airways, inaugurated their supersonic flights from London-Heathrow to Bahrein for B.A, and from Paris-Charles de Gaulle to Rio de Janeiro, via Dakar, for A.F. Air France Concorde 085 took off at 12:40PM. The 100 lucky passengers boarded Air France Concorde F-BVFA from the Satellite 5 at the brand new CDG airport, just opened two years previously. 77 of them were French, 8 Americans, 6 Germans, 2 Spanish, 2 Scandinavians, 4 Italians, 1 Swiss. The oldest passenger was an 82 years old lady from Toulouse, who booked her seat several years in advance. To symbolize 13 years of Franco-British cooperation, the two BA & AF Concorde took off at the same time. Captain Pierre Chanoine landed F-BVFA at Dakar-Yoff airport at 3:27PM, welcomed by the President Leopold Sedar-Senghor. They took off again at 4:45PM , to land in GIG at 8:06PM (Paris time). It took exactly 7 hours 26minutes (including the 1h18mn stopover in DKR ) to cover the 9200km/57736mi between Paris and Rio. Concorde F-BVFA was donated by Air France in May 2003 to the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum's Udvar-Hazy Center, at Washington Dulles Airport. Thu Jan 19, 2006 2:28 am Backfire, cannot remember! But, my school was a few miles from LHR , it was only 4 storeys high, but you got a decent view. Our teacher, Mr Morris, was it seems an aerospace buff. The previous year he had got us into the assembly hall to watch live TV coverage of the Apollo/Soyuz link-up. Projects included painting what we thought some of the planets in the Solar system might look on the surface, "but no 25 headed monsters please". Why '2001' was a great space film, (not that us 8-10 year olds would like it, or had even seen it). So the first supersonic service nearby was very anticipated, for good measure, Mr Morris brought in his airband radio, to help with tracking movements. It was a wet day, visibility was not great, I do remember a Trident taxing and taking off first, at least that is what Mr Morris gleaned from his radio. Then came G-BOAA, even at that distance, on a grey day, the arrow like shape was just visible at it took off for Bahrain, our collective eyes were fixed on it straining to see. Not long after, I often started to cycle to the crossing at the BA Long Haul Engineering base, waiting for the then siren to sound before an aircraft crossed over. B747-136's, VC -10's, B707's, the odd L1011, less often but magically, Concorde. My interest in aviation started here. Quoting EGTESkyGod ( Reply 6 ): Would have loved to add to this thread, yesterday, but I was flying from Exeter to Filton to see G-BOAF, in the glorious sunshine. She looks wonderful. Certainly a poignant day for anyone associated with Concorde. Even though I wasn't born yet to have witnessed the '76 event, I must say that I first went on board Concorde G-BOAD (U.S.S. Intrepid) last spring and it was amazing. I will never forget the morning that I was taking the "A" train (subway) across Jamaica Bay when AF002 was taking off 31L. I didn't know it was even in line for take-off until the train literally started to rattle (afterburners/reheats must have been on, but quickly shut off as it was passing overhead when I was headed for Howard Beach.) It sounded like a B-1 bomber taking off 300 feet above over our train. All I can say it was not only an awesome site, but an awesome sound when I turned my head to look out the window to see AF002 taking off in all her glory. Truly made my day as any one of ours! Quoting Afconcorde1 ( Reply 7 ): Truly made my day I know how you feel. It made my day when G-BOAC (my favourite Concorde) did a flypast of my first cricket match as Captain in 1999. I last saw a Concorde departure from runway 08 at Exeter, G-BOAA, on 15th July 2000.... Just 10 days before the disaster in Paris. I'll never forget the sound. However, I made it my business that 15th July 2000 wasn't the last Concorde landing I saw, and made sure I was at Filton on November 26th 2003 for G-BOAF's final flight. Seeing her yesterday sat in a pen instead of roaring overhead choked me up slightly, but credit to the guys at Filton, she is well kept. I may well be working on her soon too, which I cannot wait for if it happens. Looking at her in the winter sunshine, on the 30th anniversary of the first commercial flights from LHR and CDG , was indescribable. Makes me be proud to be British. I came, I saw, I Concorde! RIP Michael Jackson #10 Sun Jan 22, 2006 8:12 pm I still chokes me up as well when I think these beautiful machines are not doing what they were designed to do and it feels like the heart and soul of aviation was ripped out when Concorde was retired. These modern two engine clones just have no life to them that I've hardly visited LHR for photography since Concorde was pulled from service. I still fail to believe that one frame could not be kept in flying condition for special occasions, I'm sure there is plenty of people in this country with expertise and money who could of done it, where there is a will there is a way. British Airways may of owned the aircraft but they belonged to the British people. British Airways - The Way To Fly Mon Jan 23, 2006 1:22 am Sorry Guam94, but BA looked long and hard into maintaining, or part maintaining, a 'Heritage' aircraft. The agreements needed at least two aircraft from one airline in service to get support, that's in regular service. Simply put, if the revenue paying fleet were now too costly to support, so would a non revenue 'Heritage' aircraft, the costs were broadly similar doing either. They were ours, we paid full price for the 1st 5 in 1972, after some half heartedness at first, once Lord King when he took over, we made it work. We had to, or Concorde would never survive BA Privatisation. Had we not taken that risk, in taking on the support costs from a UK government keen to exit from this, they'd have been in museums 15-20 years ago. In return, we got to keep all the profits, not have, under the prior arrangement, 80% go to the Treasury as their fee for subsidizing the support costs. An unsustainable state of affairs. However, being directly involved, I do understand how you feel. But, my perspective was of an in service supersonic airliner, not some limited, neutered subsonic doing the airshow circuit. It was operational, doing what is was designed to do, or nothing, at least that's how I see it. But I still really miss it, from both work and enthusiast standpoints. Ultimately, blame Bin Laden, but for that infamous day, we'd still be operating, but be retiring this year or next. That day pretty much wrecked the long planned Re-launch, BA really needed the full double daily JFK 's, but we just would not fill a second daily service. Also blame the regular customers who en-mass cancelled 1st Class and Concorde from their travel budgets in 2002/3. We could still get good loads, but with yields way too low.	one thousand nine hundred and seventy six
In medicine, a spirometer is an instrument for measuring the air capacity of which part of the body?	CNN.com - Last Concorde flights touch down - Oct. 24, 2003 Last Concorde flights touch down Captain Mike Bannister, right, and Senior First Officer Jonathan Napier wave after Concorde touches down. Story Tools How long will it be before we see another supersonic commercial plane in service? 10 years Manage alerts \| What is this? LONDON, England (CNN) -- Three Concordes have touched down in London in a spectacular finale to the era of supersonic travel. To tears and cheers from thousands of enthusiasts on board and on the ground, the needle-nosed jets landed at Heathrow Airport, west of the British capital, in a carefully choreographed curtain-call on Friday. The flights -- from Edinburgh, around the Bay of Biscay and finally from New York -- touched down at two-minute intervals, signaling the end to one of commercial aviation's most exciting -- and expensive -- experiments. On the last transatlantic Concorde, pilot Mike Bannister told the applauding passengers: "Concorde was born from dreams, built from vision and operated with pride." "Concorde is a fabulous aircraft and it has become a legend today," Reuters quoted him as saying after soaring for the last time to the edge of space and flying at twice the speed of sound. Champagne and vintage wines flowed during the flight as 100 passengers, including actress Joan Collins and model Christie Brinkley, enjoyed lobster, caviar and smoked salmon. ( Full story ) CNN's Richard Quest, who also traveled on the trans-Atlantic flight, said there was a party mood on board. "Champagne was going everywhere and no one minded. "It was very emotional as we left New York where the plane taxied through an arch of water but my favorite moment was as we flew over Heathrow and we saw thousands watching on the ground." Tens of thousands of enthusiasts had lined the roads around the airport to see the gleaming white jets land just after 4 p.m. (1500 GMT). One of the two jets that landed before the last trans-Atlantic flight was filled with contest winners who flew to London from the Scottish capital, and the other carried passengers on a jaunt around the Bay of Biscay, off France and Spain, before returning to Heathrow. The plane, with its pointed nose -- and �8,000 ($11,000) a seat price tag -- was the choice of celebrities and businessmen, before ordinary passengers were given the opportunity of claiming a ride during its last months. Concorde, which made its first commercial flight in January 1976, was a joint Anglo-French enterprise. The aircraft has been lauded for its technical innovation, but condemned for being too expensive to make as well as too noisy and uneconomic to run. Only a handful were ever made, and only Air France and British Airways flew the planes. Concorde failed to recover from a series of disasters, beginning with a crash outside Paris in July 2000 when an Air France plane crashed, killing all 109 people on board as well as four people on the ground. Although Concorde was back up and running after an expensive safety overhaul, the timing coincided with the fall in passengers caused by the September 11 attacks, and a general economic downturn. Concorde touches down in London at the end of its 27-year service. British Airways' Concorde never resumed its twice-a-day service between London and New York, and was limited to one daily journey. Air France had five Concordes remaining after the crash, while BA had seven, although only five flew once services resumed in November 2001. Air France ended its Concorde flights in May. It is believed the Concordes will be distributed around the world to various museums after their retirement, but one might be kept for air shows and fly-pasts. "The decision to retire Concorde was a tough one, but it is the right thing to do at the right time," said British Airways Chairman Colin Marshall. CNN's Quest said: "This is the first time in history that aviation history is taking a step backwards. Everyone on today's flight is well aware of that fact." Story Tools	i don't know
How many legs does a wasp have?	How many legs does a bee have? \| Reference.com How many legs does a bee have? A: Quick Answer Honeybees and bumblebees both have three pairs of legs, for a total of six, connected to their thorax. Each leg is made up of five segments separated by joints. The closest segment to the body, called the coxa, is followed in descending order by the trochanter, femur, tibia and tarsus. Full Answer Bee legs are typically equipped with specialized features, such as basket-like hairs for pollen collection, a claw for manipulating objects, a tool for removing pollen from antenna and a pollen press. Bumblebee legs differ from honeybee legs in that bumblebees have pollen baskets, special cavities on their hind legs for the collection of pollen and nectar, and honeybees do not.	six
What is the middle name of British singer David Bowie?	Beneficial insects in the landscape: #54 Digger Wasp Yes (mounted specimen for viewing available in insect collection at County Extension Office) Within the insect order Hymenoptera, family Sphecidae, is the Sphex genus with over 130 recognized species and subspecies. One of the larger and more impressive thread-waisted is the Great Golden Digger Wasp or Sphex ichneumoneus. Aptly named, as the term "ichneumoneus" is Greek for tracker, these robust wasps are known for tracking their prey. Great Goldens are one-half to over an inch in length, though some sightings have reported seeing them as large as two inches. Great Goldens are easily spotted during the summer. Their black head and thorax are covered with short golden hair. Half of the back segment of their abdomen is also black with their front segment and legs a reddish-orange. Great Goldens have large amber wings that actually make a rustling noise when they fly. This wasp is related to the Giant Cicada Killer Wasp ( Sphecius speciosus , which is common in the Galveston-Houston area) although Great Goldens are a little more wasp-like. Occurring in North America, Mexico, Central America, South America and the Caribbean, Great Goldens are usually seen in parks, gardens, fields and meadowsï¿½anywhere that is sunny, has compacted clay and sand, flower nectar for adults to feed on, and crickets, grasshoppers and katydids for their larvae. The adult wasps subside strictly on sap fluids and a variety of flower nectars that bloom during their flying time. Spotting them is one thing, but observing them can be dicey. Great Goldens do not linger around a bloom for very long and are quite wary of anything larger than they are. Fortunately, though they may look scary, these wasps are not aggressive unless handled and should be left alone. Great Goldens are solitary wasps, live independently and do not share in either nest maintenance or in the caring of their young. Between May and August, the female Great Golden, in preparation for egg laying, constructs as many as half a dozen nests. The building of, and provisions for, the nests is done in a concise, methodical manner, which she never deviates from. Rarely is there vegetation around the nests. Most sites are exposed to the sun in an open locale. The female begins digging, almost vertically, by cutting the earth with her mandibles. She walks about an inch backwards from the nesting site with a section of soil between her forelegs and head and flips the soil with her forelegs beneath her body, scattering it to the sides with her hindlegs. Great Golden nests have a cylinder shaped main tunnel that is one-half inch in diameter and four to six inches deep. From the main tunnel, she extends secondary tunnels that lead to individual larval cells where she will store anesthetized prey. The cells are broader than the tunnels and parallel to the soil. Once completed, she temporarily closes it after excavation by using the earth that remains by the nest entrance. The female throws it towards the entry with movements identical to those she made when she dug the nest. After constructing the burrow, she flies from the nesting area to open fields and hunts for any number of small locally available species of Orthoptera. Great Goldens hunt for crickets (Gryllidae), grasshoppers (Trimerotropis) and katydids (Tettigoniidae) to serve as a food source for her young. [Katydid is a general name given to several species of American large green long-horned grasshoppers. Male katydids have stridulating organs on the forewings that produce a loud shrill sound. The eggs are rather distinctive and are oftentimes deposited along leaf margins in rows usually in large trees but also on shrubs. Even katydid eggs can be heavily parasitized by a small wasp, Anastatus mirabilis, which makes a small round exit hole when the adult wasp emerges from the katydid egg.] Upon capturing a suitable prey, the female Great Golden will paralyze it with toxins in her sting. If the prey is small, she flies it directly to the nest. If prey is too large to transport aerially, the wasp will walk with it across the ground. The prey is clasped beneath her body by grasping its antennas with her mandibles. Once the Great Golden reaches the opening of her nest, she sets the paralyzed insect down. Leaving the prey outside, she goes into the tunnel for inspection. When satisfied that all is well, she comes partially out from the nest and again grasps the preyï¿½s antennas pulling it backwards into the nestï¿½s interior where it is deposited in a cell with its head turned to the bottom. Though the prey is permanently paralyzed, it is able to eliminate feces and slightly move its antennas and mouthparts. Great Golden females close the nest each time prey is placed inside. When she re-enters for egg laying, she emits a set of buzzing sounds as she compacts the earth closing the entrance. There are several behavioral aspects to this ï¿½self-programmedï¿½ wasp that continue to fascinate as humans tend to think such rote habits denote forethought and logic. Douglas Hofstadter and Daniel Dennett, two professors of Cognitive Science, created a controlled environment to study the Sphex routines more closely. After the Great Golden dropped her prey and was inspecting her nestï¿½s interior, the professors moved the prey a few inches away from the opening. When the wasp emerged ready to drag the prey in, she found it missing. Quickly locating the prey, the professors believe her ï¿½behavioral program had been resetï¿½ as they found that, once again, she dragged the prey back to the threshold of the nest, dropped it and repeated the nest inspection procedure. During one study, this was done 40 times, always with the same result. This test can be replicated again and again, with the Sphex never seeming to notice what is going on, never able to escape from its genetically programmed sequence of behaviors. The wasp never "thinks" of pulling the prey straight in, but continually drops it outside until she is done with her nest inspection. Using this as an example of what may seem as thoughtful behavior can actually be quite mindless, the opposite of what is considered free will (or, as Hofstadter described it, ï¿½antisphexishnessï¿½). In addition to this apparent inborn, programmed behavior, Sphex has been shown, in some studies, not to count how many insects it collects for its nest. Although she may instinctively search for a certain number of insects, she is not an able take into account one that is lost. After the Great Golden has dragged all her paralyzed prey into the nest hole, she lays one egg on each insect, placing it horizontally on the preyï¿½s thorax. The eggs are yellow, less than a ï¿½ inch long and has a slightly curved cylindrical shape. They hatch within 2-to-3 days of oviposition, and without moving, they begin to feed on the preyï¿½s abdomen or at the junction of its leg. The feeding phase is very rapid. In one of the observed cases, the larva consumed even the more rigid parts of the preyï¿½s exoskeleton. There is one generation per year with the developing Great Goldens spending the winter in their nests and emerging in summer. Once this new generation of adults comes out, they contain the inbred behavior that is only seen in this species. As a side note there is a reference to birds stealing prey from Great Goldens. House sparrows (Passer domesticus) and American robins (Turdus migratorius) were observed stealing from them at a large nesting site. The birds chased wasps that were carrying prey to their nests, causing them to drop the food, which the birds then retrieved and ate. In another instance, a male Scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) flew directly at a flying wasp causing her to drop an insect, but this time the bird did not pick it up. After being robbed of its prey, the wasp either left or flew in tight circles around the back of the bird until it flew away, or if the bird was on the ground, dove back and forth around its head. The waspï¿½s behavior never scared the bird. Large concentrations of Great Golden females are quite vulnerable to attacks by birds as the prey the wasps bring in are an easy food source for the birds. There is no record of any other species of digger wasps known to be harassed by birds in such a fashion. Unfortunately, homeowners, who have these foraging wasps around their landscape and dig holes in their lawn, usually reach for a can of insecticide. Great Goldens are benign, do not defend their nests, are not aggressive and definitely do more good than harm. Hold that can for a moment and realize that like many other wasps, the Great Golden Digger Wasp is quite beneficial to both gardeners and farmers. So please leave them alone to do their job. Beneficials in the Garden & Landscape is an Earth-KindTM program coordinated through Extension Horticulture at Texas A&M University. Earth-Kind uses research-proven techniques to provide maximum gardening and landscape enjoyment while preserving and protecting our environment. This web site is maintained by Master Gardener Laura Bellmore, under the direction of William M. Johnson, Ph.D., County Extension Agent-Horticulture & Master Gardener Program Coordinator. All digital photographs are the property of the Galveston County Master Gardener Association, Inc. (GCMGA) 2002-2015 GCMGA - All Rights Reserved.	i don't know
The painting entitled ‘The View if Tinherir’ is a work by which British Prime Minister?	History of 10 Downing Street - GOV.UK GOV.UK Larry, Chief Mouser to the Cabinet Office Introduction – by Sir Anthony Seldon 10 Downing Street, the locale of British prime ministers since 1735, vies with the White House as being the most important political building anywhere in the world in the modern era. Behind its black door have been taken the most important decisions affecting Britain for the last 275 years. In the 20th century alone, the First and Second World Wars were directed from within it, as were the key decisions about the end of the empire, the building of the British nuclear bomb, the handling of economic crises from the Great Depression in 1929 to the great recession, and the building up of the welfare state. Some of the most famous political figures of modern history have lived and worked in Number 10, including Robert Walpole, Pitt the Younger, Benjamin Disraeli, William Gladstone, David Lloyd George, Winston Churchill and Margaret Thatcher. Number 10 has 3 overlapping functions. It is the official residence of the British Prime Minister: it is their office, and it is also the place where the Prime Minister entertains guests from Her Majesty The Queen to presidents of the United States and other world leaders. The Prime Minister hosts countless receptions and events for a whole range of British and overseas guests, with charitable receptions high up the list. The building is much larger than it appears from its frontage. The hall with the chequered floor immediately behind the front door lets on to a warren of rooms and staircases. The house in Downing Street was joined to a more spacious and elegant building behind it in the early 18th century. Number 10 has also spread itself out to the left of the front door, and has taken over much of 12 Downing Street, which is accessed by a corridor that runs through 11 Downing Street – the official residence of the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Explore 10 Downing Street Downing Street Approach Entrance Hall Many famous feet have trodden across this entrance hall: from world leaders to sporting heroes. But this is also where the PM's staff enter each day to work among the myriad corridors and staircases which snake around the building. 10 Downing Street fulfils many roles – as meeting place, home and office. The Prime Minister does not have keys to Number 10 but there is always someone on duty to let him in. Grand Staircase Sir Robert Walpole took up residence as Prime Minister in 1735 and wanted the design of Number 10 to match his status. He employed a famous architect of the day to renovate the crumbling building and many of the features he installed, including the central staircase, still exist. Portraits of every Prime Minister line the walls in chronological order, with the most recent incumbents at the top and group photographs from past Cabinets and Imperial Conferences at the bottom. White Drawing Room Until the 1940s Prime Ministers and their wives kept the White Room for their private use. It was here that Edward Heath kept his grand piano. The room contains works by one of the most important English landscape painters of the nineteenth century, J M W Turner. These days it is often used as the backdrop for television interviews and is in regular use as a meeting room for Downing Street staff. The room links through to the Terracotta Room next door. Cabinet Room Gordon Brown held Cabinet meetings every Tuesday but they were previously held on Thursday mornings. The only exceptions were during the Second World War and when the house was being renovated. The room was extended in 1796 by knocking a wall down and inserting columns to carry the extra span. The Cabinet room is separated from the rest of the house by soundproof doors. A terrorist bomb exploded in the garden of Number 10 in 1991, only a few metres from where John Major was chairing a Cabinet meeting. Terracotta Room This was used as the dining room when Sir Robert Walpole was PM. The name of this room changes according to the colour it is painted. When Margaret Thatcher came to power it was the Blue Room and she had it re-decorated and re-named the Green Room. It is now painted terracotta. There are many famous works of art in this room, on loan from the Government Art Collection. Pillared Room The Pillared Room is the largest of the three rooms and is used when international agreements are being signed or as the main staging area for receptions. This is where the England Rugby Union team was entertained after winning the World Cup in 2003. The inventor John Logie Baird used the room to demonstrate one of his new-fangled television sets to Ramsey MacDonald and his children. The room contains a striking Persian carpet, copied from a 16th century original which can be found in the Victoria and Albert Museum Small Dining Room The Small Dining Room was once known as the breakfast room. Prime Ministers and their families used this room to have their meals until the flat upstairs was renovated. This was a favourite room of Lloyd George and can hold up to 12 people. Sir John Soane designed it in 1827 following a commission from PM Viscount Goderich. The most unusual feature of this room is the fireplace without a chimney breast. The flues used to get so hot that the substance holding the window together would melt, causing the glass to fall out. State Dining Room Double doors lead you from the Small Dining Room to the larger State Dining room, which is built over the original vaulted stone kitchen. As with the small dining room, this room was designed by Sir John Soane in 1827. On the 250th anniversary of Number 10, in 1985, all the surviving Prime Ministers had dinner together here. This room is used to host the PM's press conferences, where he is quizzed by the world's media. The Study The study was a regular workplace for Harold Wilson and also Margaret Thatcher (later Lady Thatcher), who worked on important documents held in her “red boxes” and held meetings with her officials, a tradition restored by Gordon Brown. Sir Winston Churchill used the room as sleeping quarters. The Garden The Number 10 garden is in constant use. Often used to host events it is kept in pristine condition by a small team of gardeners. 10 Downing Street Hundreds of people enter 10 Downing Street every week to attend meetings and receptions and to hand petitions over to the Prime Minister’s Office. Downing Street Approach Walking up Downing Street from Whitehall you have the imposing Foreign and Commonwealth building to your left and the Prime Minister’s residence on your right. Explore 10 Downing Street's most famous rooms and significant events in more detail at the Google Cultural Institute . Origins and early inhabitants The area around Downing Street was home to ancient Roman, Anglo-Saxon and Norman settlements, and was already a prestigious centre of government 1,000 years ago. The Romans first came to Britain under the command of Julius Caesar in 55 BC. Making their capital at Londinium downriver, the Romans chose Thorney Island – a marshy piece of land lying between two branches of the river Tyburn that flowed from Hampstead Heath to the Thames – as the site for their early settlement. These Roman settlements, and those of the Anglo-Saxons and Normans who supplanted them, were not very successful. The area was prone to plague and its inhabitants were very poor. A charter granted by the Mercian King Offa in the year 785 refers to “the terrible place called Thorney Island”. It took royal patronage to give the area prestige. King Canute (reigned 1017 to 1035) built a palace in the area, and Edward the Confessor (reigned 1042 to 1066) and William the Conqueror (reigned 1066 to 1087) maintained a royal presence there. The position of Westminster (as the area became known) as the centre of government and the church was solidified following the construction of the great abbey nearby, on Edward's orders. Whitehall from St James's Park – Hendrick Danckerts c.1675 The earliest building known to have stood on the site of Downing Street was the Axe brewery owned by the Abbey of Abingdon in the Middle Ages. By the early 1500s, it had fallen into disuse. Henry VIII (reigned 1509 to 1547) developed Westminster's importance further by building an extravagant royal residence there. Whitehall Palace was created when Henry VIII confiscated York House from Cardinal Wolsey in 1530 and extended the complex. Today's Downing Street is located on the edge of the Palace site. The huge residence included tennis courts, a tiltyard for jousting, a bowling green, and a cockpit for bird fights. Stretching from St James's Park to the Thames, it was the official residence of Tudor and Stuart monarchs until it was destroyed by fire in 1698. It made the surrounding real estate some of the most important and valuable in London – and the natural home of power. The first domestic house known to have been built on the site of Number 10 was a large building leased to Sir Thomas Knyvet in 1581 by Queen Elizabeth I (reigned 1558 to 1603). He was one of the Queen's favourites and was an MP for Thetford as well as a justice of the peace for Westminster. His claim to fame was the arrest of Guy Fawkes for his role in the gunpowder plot of 1605. He was knighted in 1604 by Elizabeth's successor, King James I (reigned 1603 to 1625), and the house was extended. After the death of Sir Knyvet and his wife, the house passed to their niece, Elizabeth Hampden, who continued to live there for the next 40 years. The middle of the 17th century was a period of political upheaval and Mrs Hampden's family was right in the middle of it. Her son, John Hampden, was one of the MPs who opposed King Charles I (reigned 1625 to 1649), and Oliver Cromwell, the Lord Protector, was Mrs Hampden's nephew. Hampden House, as it was then known, gave Mrs Hampden a prime view of the tumultuous events during the Civil War and the Commonwealth and the early years of the Restoration. The execution of Charles I in 1649 took place on a scaffold in front of Banqueting House in Whitehall, within earshot of the house. Mrs Hampden was still living there when King Charles II (reigned in Scotland from 1649 to 1685) was restored to the English throne in 1660. The Parliamentary Commissioners, who took over Crown lands during the time of the Commonwealth, described the house in 1650: “Built part of Bricke and part with Tymber and Flemish qalle and covered with Tyle, consistinge of a Large and spacious hall, wainscoted round, well lighted, and Paved with brick Pavements, two parls wherof one is Wainscoted round from the seelinge to ye floor, one Buttery, one seller, one Large kitchen well paved with stone and well fitted and Joynted and well fitted with dresser boards… And above stayres in the first story one large and spacious dyneinge Roome, Wainscoted round from the seelinge to the floore, well flored, Lighted and seeled, and fitted with a faire Chimney with a foote pace of paynted Tyle in the same. Also 6 more Roomes and 3 Closetts in the same flore all well lighted and seeled. And in the second story 4 garretts…” The emergence of Downing Street George Downing gave his name to the most famous street in the world. It is unfortunate that he was such an unpleasant man. Able as a diplomat and a government administrator, he was miserly and at times brutal. However, George Downing was responsible for the street, its name and the building we know today. A former diplomat at The Hague serving the Commonwealth, he changed allegiance with finesse. He traded enough secrets to gain a royal pardon in March 1660 and, by the Restoration in May 1660, to be rewarded with a knighthood. Interested in power and money, he saw an opportunity to make his fortune in property. He had already gained the Crown interest in the land around Hampden House, but could not take possession as it was under lease to Knyvet's descendants. In 1682 he secured the leases to the property and employed Sir Christopher Wren to design the houses. Between 1682 and 1684, existing properties were pulled down and in their place a cul-de-sac of 15 to 20 terraced houses was built along the north side of the new street, Downing Street. In order to maximise profit, the houses were cheaply built, with poor foundations for the boggy ground. Instead of neat brick façades, they had mortar lines drawn on to give the appearance of evenly spaced bricks. In the 20th Century, Prime Minister Winston Churchill wrote that Number 10 was: Shaky and lightly built by the profiteering contractor whose name they bear. A rather important neighbour complained, however. The new houses were built directly behind a large and impressive house overlooking Horse Guards. Its occupier, the Countess of Lichfield, daughter of Charles II, was less than pleased with the emergence of the unwelcome terrace behind. She complained to her father, who wrote back with advice: I think that it is a very reasonable thing that other houses should not look into your house without your permission, and this note will be sufficient for Mr Surveyor to build up your wall as high as you please. The original numbering of the Downing Street houses was completely different from what we see today. The sequence of numbers was haphazard, and the houses tended to be known by the name or title of their occupants. The current Number 10 started out life as Number 5, and was not renumbered until 1779. The Downing Street house had several distinguished residents. The Countess of Yarmouth lived at Number 10 between 1688 and 1689, and was followed by Lord Lansdowne from 1692 to 1696 and the Earl of Grantham from 1699 to 1703. The last private resident of Downing's terrace was one Mr Chicken. Little is known about him except that he moved out in the early 1730s. King George II presented both the house on Downing Street and the house overlooking Horse Guards to Sir Robert Walpole, who held the title First Lord of the Treasury and effectively served as the first Prime Minister. Walpole refused the property as a personal gift. Instead, he asked the king to make it available as an official residence to him and to future First Lords of the Treasury – starting the tradition that continues today. The brass letterbox on the black front door is still engraved with this title. Walpole took up residence on 22 September 1735, once the townhouse on Downing Street and the house overlooking Horse Guards had been joined together and completely refurbished. Walpole employed architect William Kent – who had already worked on Walpole's Norfolk home, Houghton Hall – to undertake the work. Kent carried out extensive work on the 2 houses, connecting them on 2 storeys. The main entrance now faced onto Downing Street rather than towards Horse Guards, and the Downing Street building became a passageway to the main house. At the back of the house, where the Walpoles lived, Kent created grand new rooms suitable for receiving important guests, and built an unusual, 3-sided staircase. It is still one of the most impressive features of the building. Walpole used the ground floor for business, taking the largest room, on the north-west side of the house, as his study. This is now the Cabinet Room. Upstairs on the first floor, the Walpoles lived in the rooms facing onto Horse Guards Parade. Lady Walpole used today's White Drawing Room as her sitting room, and the present day Terracotta Room served as their dining room. The Walpoles were soon entertaining important guests in their smart house, including George II's wife Queen Caroline, politicians, writers and soldiers. Number 10 became – as it continues to be today – a place for politics and entertainment. Pelham to Pitt When Walpole left Downing Street in 1742, it was over 20 years before another First Lord of the Treasury moved in. His successors saw the house as a perk of the job, and Prime Ministers Henry Pelham (1743 to 1754) and the Duke of Newcastle (1757 to 1762) preferred to live in their own residences. In 1763 George Grenville (1763 to 1765) took up residence but was sacked by King George III in 1765 for imposing stamp duty on the American colonies. The next Prime Minister to move into Downing Street was Lord North (1770 to 1782). He was very fond of the house and often entertained there. Visitors included the writer Samuel Johnson and Thomas Hansard, founder of the parliamentary reporting system that is still in use today. One guest, Clive of India, was so popular that furniture was made for him, which is still present today in the first floor anteroom and Terracotta Room. During one memorable dinner party held by Lord North on 7 June 1780, civil unrest broke out in the street outside when angry Protestants unhappy with North's policy towards Roman Catholics rioted all over London, in what became known as the Gordon Riots. The Grenadier Guards held off a large mob, a situation that might have ended with bloodshed had North not gone outside to warn the protestors of the dangers of being shot, following which the crowd dispersed. North's dinner guests climbed to the top of the house to view the fires burning all over London. Major improvements were made to the house during North's time, including the addition of many distinctive features: the black and white chequerboard floor in the entrance hall, the lamp above the front door and the famous lion's head door knocker. Following the loss of the American colonies, North resigned and was followed by the Duke of Portland, who was Prime Minister for only 9 months in 1782. Fall and rise of Number 10 At the turn of the 19th century, Downing Street had fallen on hard times. Although Number 10 continued to serve as the Prime Minister's office, it was not favoured as a home. Most prime ministers preferred to live in their own townhouses. But by the 1820s, Downing Street had emerged as the centre of government. Prime Minister Viscount Goderich employed the brilliant, quirky architect Sir John Soane, designer of the Bank of England , to make the house more suitable for its high-profile role. Soane created the wood-panelled State Dining Room and the Small Dining Room for elegant entertaining. But this wasn't good enough for his successor, Lord Wellington, who only moved in while his own lavish home, Apsley House , was being refurbished. Later leaders such as Lord Melbourne and Viscount Palmerston used Number 10 only as an office and for Cabinet meetings. In 1828, Number 11 became the Chancellor of the Exchequer's official residence, but the surrounding area was becoming seedier, with brothels and gin parlours multiplying. Things became so bad that by 1839 there were plans to demolish Number 10 and the other buildings on the north side of Downing Street to make way for a remodelled Whitehall. Security also became an issue. In 1842, Edward Drummond, secretary to Prime Minister Robert Peel (1841-1846), was murdered in Whitehall on his way back to his home in Downing Street by an assassin who mistook him for Peel. The prestige of Downing Street was reduced even further by the building of the magnificent new Foreign Office building at the end of the 1860s. George Gilbert Scott's creation, with a huge open court and elaborate state rooms, dwarfed Number 10 opposite. It even had its own Cabinet Room in which the Cabinet sometimes met, rather than at Number 10. By the time Benjamin Disraeli became Prime Minister, the house was in poor shape. The living quarters had not been used for 30 years and Disraeli described it as “dingy and decaying”. It was time for modernisation. The late 19th and early 20th century saw 10 Downing Street transformed from a humble terraced house into a grand residence with modern facilities – a home and office fit for the most powerful politician in the country. Disraeli persuaded the state to pay for renovation to the entrance halls and public rooms, though he paid for the refurbishment of the private rooms himself. His own first floor bedroom and dressing room were improved, and a bath with hot and cold water in the First Lord's Dressing Room was installed for the sum of £150.3s.6d. When William Gladstone moved into the house for the first time in 1880, he insisted on redecorating, spending £1,555.5s.0d – an enormous sum for the time – on furniture. During his occupancy in 1884, electric lighting was fitted and the first telephones were installed. The Marquess of Salisbury, who succeeded Gladstone on one occasion, was the last Prime Minister not to live at Number 10. Salisbury never liked the Cabinet Room, describing it as a “cramped close room”. Preferring to work in the larger Cabinet Room in the Foreign Office and live in Arlington Street, he offered Number 10 to his nephew, Arthur Balfour, who would later become Prime Minister himself. Balfour was the first inhabitant of Number 10 to bring a motor car to Downing Street. Over the years, more and more changes and improvements were made to the house. When Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald first entered the house, he wanted Number 10 to regain some of the grandeur it had during the times of Walpole and Pitt. Missing a proper library (or at least, one containing more than just Hansard reports), MacDonald set about creating one. He started the Prime Minister's Library, originally housed in the Cabinet Room. The custom of the Prime Minister and other ministers donating books to the library continues to this day. Central heating was installed in 1937 and work began to convert the labyrinth of rooms in the attic, which had formerly been used by servants, into a flat for the Prime Minister. Number 10 at war World War One In 1912, Herbert Henry Asquith found himself at odds with Ulster and the Tory opposition following renewed attempts to introduce Irish Home Rule. This unrest and fierce opposition would continue, and civil war in Ireland was only averted with the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914. The Cabinet Room at Number 10 was the nerve centre of Britain's war effort. Asquith's Cabinet included future Prime Ministers David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, in their posts as Chancellor and First Lord of the Admiralty respectively. Asquith had been forced to take on the additional role of Secretary of State for War following the resignation of the incumbent in March 1914, but quickly appointed Lord Kitchener following the outbreak of war. On 15 April 1916, Number 10 was the site of a meeting between General Haig, Commander-in-Chief of British forces in France, and the Cabinet to go over the detail of the planned Somme offensive, later known as the Battle of the Somme. During a Cabinet split on 25 May 1915 (caused by public outcry at allegations the army had been under-supplied with shells and the failed offensive in the Dardanelles, for which Kitchener and Churchill respectively were blamed), Kitchener was stripped of his control over munitions and strategy, and Churchill lost his post as First Lord of the Admiralty. As a result of the split, Asquith formed a coalition government with the opposition Conservatives, whose leader was future Prime Minister, Andrew Bonar Law. Asquith remained leader of the coalition until his resignation on 5 December 1916. After Andrew Bonar Law refused to form a government, David Lloyd George became leader of the coalition and Prime Minister on 7 December 1916. Under Prime Minister Lloyd George the number of staff at Number 10 expanded and offices spilled out into the garden to cope with the demands of the administration of the war. Lloyd George immediately formed his ‘War Cabinet’, whose members included Lord Curzon, Bonar Law and Arthur Henderson. In the first 235 days of its existence, the War Cabinet met 200 times. This cabinet took total responsibility for the war, and on 3 occasions it sat as the Imperial War Cabinet when prime ministers from the Dominions attended. It provided a vigour previously lacking from the war effort. Highly able young men were appointed to collect and collate data and to bypass slow moving government departments. These men were nicknamed the ‘Garden Suburb’ because they lived in huts at the end of gardens near to Downing Street. They were not liked by diehard civil servants, who they continually bypassed. However, the men from the Garden Suburb gave Lloyd George the one thing Asquith seemingly never had – up-to-date, meaningful statistics. Their work was invaluable, providing the War Cabinet with data on merchant ships sunk and UK farm production, issues essential to address if the country was not to be starved into defeat. When armistice was finally declared on 11 November 1918, crowds thronged Downing Street chanting ‘LG’. Lloyd George made an appearance at one of the first floor windows to acknowledge them. World War Two – Chamberlain During the 1930s the world's eyes rested on Europe. With rising tensions between Germany and Czechoslovakia, the prime ministers of France and Britain did what they could in an attempt to avoid another war. On 12 September 1938, thousands gathered at Downing Street to listen to Hitler's speech on the final night of the Nuremberg Rally, convinced Britain stood on the brink of war. As tension mounted further in Europe, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain made several attempts to appease the situation, and Number 10 became the focus of international attention. On the morning of 29 September 1938, Chamberlain travelled to Germany for the final time as Prime Minister to hold talks with the French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier, Hitler, and Mussolini. The Munich Agreement was signed and war – for now – had been averted. Before leaving for England, Chamberlain held a private meeting with Hitler where he obtained his signature on the famous “Peace in our Time” document, which declared that any future disputes between Britain and Germany would be settled peacefully. Upon Chamberlain's return to Heston Airfield, he was mobbed by large crowds and gave the resounding “Peace in Our Time” speech, waving aloft the document signed by Hitler. When he returned to Downing Street following a meeting with George VI, the Prime Minister found Downing Street and Number 10 itself packed with people. Chamberlain gave the speech a second time, from a first floor window of Number 10: My good friends, this is the second time there has come back from Germany to Downing Street peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time. We thank you from the bottom of our hearts. Now I recommend you go home, and sleep quietly in your beds. But over the following 12 months tension did not lift, and on 3 September 1939, Chamberlain broadcast to the nation from the Cabinet Room at Number 10, announcing that the country was now at war with Germany. Chamberlain resigned as Prime Minister on 10 May 1940 and advised King George VI to ask Winston Churchill to form a government. When Winston Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister, he and his wife moved into Downing Street's second-floor flat, where Churchill did much of his work. He often dictated speeches, memos and letters to his secretary while lying propped up in bed in the morning or late in the evening, cigar in hand. By October 1940, the intense bombing period known as the Blitz began. On 14 October, a huge bomb fell on Treasury Green near Downing Street, damaging the Number 10 kitchen and state rooms, and killing three Civil Servants doing Home Guard duty. Churchill was dining in the Garden Rooms when the air raid began. As he recalled in his memoir Their Finest Hour (1949): We were dining in the garden-room of Number 10 when the usual night raid began. The steel shutters had been closed. Several loud explosions occurred around us at no great distance, and presently a bomb fell, perhaps a hundred yards away, on the Horse Guards Parade, making a great deal of noise. Suddenly I had a providential impulse. The kitchen in Number 10 Downing Street is lofty and spacious, and looks out through a large plate-glass window about 25 feet high. The butler and parlour maid continued to serve the dinner with complete detachment, but I became acutely aware of this big window. I got up abruptly, went into the kitchen, told the butler to put the dinner on the hot plate in the dining-room, and ordered the cook and the other servants into the shelter, such as it was. I had been seated again at the table only about 3 minutes when a really loud crash, close at hand, and a violent shock showed that the house had been struck. My detective came into the room and said much damage had been done. The kitchen, the pantry and the offices on the Treasury were shattered. Keeping Downing Street safe became the priority of the Prime Minister and the War Cabinet. Steel reinforcement was added to the Garden Rooms, and heavy metal shutters were fixed over windows as protection from bombing raids. The Garden Rooms included a small dining room, bedroom and a meeting area which were used by Churchill throughout the war. In reality, though, the steel reinforcement would not have protected him against a direct hit. In October 1939, the Cabinet had moved out of Number 10 and into secret underground war rooms in the basement of the Office of Works opposite the Foreign Office, today's Churchill War Rooms . Following near misses by bombs, in 1940, Churchill and his wife moved out of Downing Street and into the Number 10 Annex above the war rooms. Furniture and valuables were removed from Number 10 and only the Garden Rooms, Cabinet Room and Private Secretaries' office remained in use. Churchill disliked living in the Annex and, despite it being almost empty, he continued to use Number 10 for working and eating. A reinforced shelter was constructed under the house for up to 6 people, for use by those working in the house. Even George VI sought shelter there when he dined with Churchill in the Garden Rooms. Although bombs caused further damage to Number 10, there were no direct hits to the house, allowing Churchill to continue to work and eat there right up until the end of the war. As soon as war was over, Churchill and his wife moved back to Number 10, where he made his Victory in Europe (VE) Day broadcast, which was delivered from the Cabinet Room at 3pm on 8 May 1945. Falklands Conflict – Margaret Thatcher On 19 March 1982, the Argentinian flag was raised by a group of scrap metal merchants on the island of South Georgia, a British overseas territory and dependant of the Falkland Islands. There had been a lengthy dispute between Argentina and the United Kingdom over the sovereignty of the Islands and this action was seen as a precursor to the Argentinian invasion which would follow. Argentine General Leopoldo Galtieri ordered the invasion of the Falklands to be brought forward to 2 April 1982, pre-empting any reinforcement of the United Kingdom's military presence in the area. Margaret Thatcher responded by sending a naval task force to recapture the islands, which set sail from Portsmouth on 5 April following a meeting of the Cabinet and the granting of a UN Resolution. The Prime Minister stayed up all night in the Downing Street flat for the entire Falklands conflict. Margaret Thatcher's personal assistant, Cynthia Crawford, who moved into the flat at Number 10 to keep the Prime Minister company during the all-night vigils, recalls the 74 days of the conflict inside Number 10: She did not once change into her nightclothes in the flat for the duration of the war. We would sit in the flat listening to the BBC World Service for news of the task force. She couldn’t sleep because she wanted to be ready in case anything happened. She wanted to be able to go to any briefings with the naval commanders at any time without the fuss and bother of having to get dressed. She also wanted to know everything that was happening, every single detail, so she could keep on top of events. She had to know how the soldiers, sailors and airmen were getting on. She was so worried about them. It was awful when we heard any reports of our ships being hit. Her determination and powers of endurance were unbelievable. Denis was in the room next door. The 2 of us would sit in armchairs either side of a two-bar electric fire, listening to the radio. Crawford recalls the Prime Minister leaving Downing Street at 8am each morning to attend military briefings for an update of events during the night and to discuss the next part of the campaign: I would take advantage of that and jump into bed at the flat so I could get some sleep. I'd tell the Downing Street switchboard to wake me when she was on her way back so I could be ready for work. We don't all have her energy. The conflict ended with Argentinian surrender on 14 June 1982. Margaret Thatcher looked back on this period: When I became Prime Minister I never thought that I would have to order British troops into combat and I do not think I have ever lived so tensely or intensely as during the whole of that time. Margaret Thatcher – The Downing Street Years. Restoration and modernisation By the 1950s, the material state of 10 Downing Street had reached crisis point. Bomb damage had worsened existing structural problems: the building was suffering from subsidence, sloping walls, twisting door frames and an enormous annual repair bill. The Ministry of Works carried out a survey in 1954 into the state of the structure. The report bounced from Winston Churchill (1951 to 1955) to Anthony Eden (1955 to 1957) to Harold Macmillan (1957 to 1963) as one Prime Minister followed the other. Finally, a committee set up by Macmillan concluded that drastic action was required before the building fell or burnt down. The committee put forward a range of options, including the complete demolition of Number 10, 11 and 12 and their replacement with a new building. That idea was rejected and it was decided that Number 12 should be rebuilt, and Numbers 10 and 11 should be strengthened and their historic features preserved. The architect Raymond Erith was selected to supervise the work, which was expected to take 2 years and cost £500,000. It ended up taking a year longer than planned and costing double the original estimate. The foundations proved to be so rotten that concrete underpinning was required on a massive scale. Number 10 was completely gutted. Walls, floors and even the columns in the Cabinet Room and Pillared Room proved to be rotten and had to be replaced. New features were added too, including a room facing onto Downing Street and a veranda at Number 11 for the Chancellor. It was also discovered that the familiar exterior façade was not black at all, but yellow. The blackened colour was a product of two centuries of severe pollution. To keep the familiar appearance, the newly cleaned yellow bricks were painted black to match their previous colour. Erith's work was completed in 1963, but not long afterwards, dry rot became apparent and further repairs had to be undertaken. Margaret Thatcher (1979 to 1990) appointed architect Quinlan Terry to refurbish the state drawing rooms at the end of the 1980s. Two of the rooms, the White Drawing Room and Terracotta Room, gained ornate plasterwork ceilings. In the White Drawing Room, this included adding the national emblems of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. All the building work of the past few decades could have been ruined when a terrorist bomb exploded in 1991. An IRA mortar bomb was fired from a white transit van in Whitehall and exploded in the garden of Number 10, only a few metres away from where Prime Minister John Major (1990 to 1997) was chairing a Cabinet meeting to discuss the Gulf War. Although no one was killed, it left a crater in the Number 10 gardens and blew in the windows of neighbouring houses. John Major and some of his staff moved into Admiralty Arch while damage caused by the bomb was repaired. By 2006, it was clear that the Downing Street complex was no longer able to support the business of the Prime Minister's Office reliably. Independent surveys established that the building was no longer weather-tight, the heating system was failing, and the information and communications technology (ICT) network was at the limits of its operation. Power outages and water leaks were frequent occurrences and impacted significantly on the day-to-day operation of the Prime Minister's Office. In addition to deterioration through age, pressures on the buildings had increased dramatically over recent years, through an increase in occupancy (stable at around 50 for many years) to around 170. In 2006, Prime Minister Tony Blair (1997 to 2007) authorised a new programme of improvements, with the building remaining operational throughout. Work was launched to address structural failure, renew the infrastructure, improve access and enhance the building's sustainability. Structural issues were among the first to be tackled, and a phased exterior repair project was launched to address failing lead guttering, cracking brickwork and other structural issues. The distinctive black colourwash was also renewed, as it had faded away in many areas to reveal the yellow brickwork beneath. During the course of the works it was discovered that the façade of 11 Downing Street was unstable, and had to be secured using 225 stainless steel pins. All work was carried out in consultation with English Heritage . Other projects have been undertaken to renew the building's ageing infrastructure and to replace many of the building's key services, including heating, fire protection and electrical power distribution. Sustainability is a key feature of the programme and a 10% reduction in carbon emissions was achieved during 2011. Rainwater harvesting was introduced in 2009, providing a sustainable source of water for the garden. Accessibility for disabled visitors has been significantly improved through the introduction of ramps and modernisation of lifts. Many of the public areas of the building have also been restored, including the front entrance hall, the state and small dining rooms and the study. An ongoing programme is in place to upgrade facilities to modern standards, and to ensure the preservation of this historic building for years to come. A place of entertainment Every week, Number 10 is the venue for official functions including meetings, receptions, lunches and dinners. It is not only heads of state and official dignitaries who visit – functions are held for people from all areas of UK society, including notable achievers, public service employees and charity workers. Receptions tend to be informal gatherings. Lunches and dinners are more formal events. The Small Dining Room will sit a maximum of 12, and the State Dining Room up to 65 around a large, U-shaped table. The dining table is laid with items from the state silver collection: a range of modern silverware pieces commissioned by the Silver Trust to promote modern British craftsmanship. Installations at Number 10 timeline Since 10 Downing Street became the official residence of the premier, the building has performed the dual role of both residence and place of work for Britain's Prime Ministers. Number 10 has been upgraded – including new technology – throughout its history, to ensure both an acceptable standard of living for its residents and to keep the Prime Minister at the heart of decision making within government. Often, the prompt for new technology or an upgrade was the arrival of a new Prime Minister. Here are some of the more notable developments across 3 centuries of history, from the arrival of hot running water to the first tweet: Timeline 1877 – hot and cold running water installed. The living quarters were renovated for Benjamin Disraeli – including a bath. 1894 – installation of electric lighting and first telephones. Following Disraeli's departure William Gladstone redecorated the building and oversaw the installations. 1902 – first motor-car driven onto Downing Street. Arthur Balfour brought the first car and since then, Prime Ministers have looked to select British marques for their official car, with a procession of Wolseleys, Humbers, Rovers, Daimlers and Jaguars sweeping successive Prime Ministers into – and out of – Downing Street. 1937 – first central heating. 1963 – electrical and telephone systems were replaced. 1963 was a major period of renovation for the building. 1982 – the first direct hotline between No10 and Washington was established during Margaret Thatcher's first term of office. 1982 – first ‘micro-computer’ and microfilm reader installed. 1983 – wider roll-out of computers machines for Number 10 staff following a review of the building's needs. 1990s – first video conference. John Major used the technology from his study. 1996 – desktop PCs installed at all workstations.	Winston Churchill
A caldera is a feature of which natural structure?	Winston Churchill - Wikiquote Winston Churchill Jump to: navigation , search Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour.' Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill KG OM CH TD FRS PC (Can) ( November 30 , 1874 – January 24 , 1965 ) was a British politician and statesman, best known for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II. He was Prime Minister of the UK from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. Contents Early career years (1898–1929)[ edit ] To improve is to change, so to be perfect is to have changed often. Every influence, every motive, that provokes the spirit of murder among men, impels these mountaineers to deeds of treachery and violence. The strong aboriginal propensity to kill, inherent in all human beings, has in these valleys been preserved in unexampled strength and vigour. That religion, which above all others was founded and propagated by the sword — the tenets and principles of which are instinct with incentives to slaughter and which in three continents has produced fighting breeds of men — stimulates a wild and merciless fanaticism. The love of plunder, always a characteristic of hill tribes, is fostered by the spectacle of opulence and luxury which, to their eyes, the cities and plains of the south display. A code of honour not less punctilious than that of old Spain, is supported by vendettas as implacable as those of Corsica. Description of the tribal areas of what is now Pakistan , commonly referred to as Waziristan Downloadable etext version(s) of this book can be found online at Project Gutenberg It is, thank heaven, difficult if not impossible for the modern European to fully appreciate the force which fanaticism exercises among an ignorant, warlike and Oriental population. Several generations have elapsed since the nations of the West have drawn the sword in religious controversy, and the evil memories of the gloomy past have soon faded in the strong, clear light of Rationalism and human sympathy. Indeed it is evident that Christianity, however degraded and distorted by cruelty and intolerance, must always exert a modifying influence on men's passions, and protect them from the more violent forms of fanatical fever, as we are protected from smallpox by vaccination. But the Mahommedan religion increases, instead of lessening, the fury of intolerance. It was originally propagated by the sword, and ever since, its votaries have been subject, above the people of all other creeds, to this form of madness. In a moment the fruits of patient toil, the prospects of material prosperity, the fear of death itself, are flung aside. The more emotional Pathans are powerless to resist. All rational considerations are forgotten. Seizing their weapons, they become Ghazis—as dangerous and as sensible as mad dogs: fit only to be treated as such. While the more generous spirits among the tribesmen become convulsed in an ecstasy of religious bloodthirstiness, poorer and more material souls derive additional impulses from the influence of others, the hopes of plunder and the joy of fighting. Thus whole nations are roused to arms. Thus the Turks repel their enemies, the Arabs of the Soudan break the British squares, and the rising on the Indian frontier spreads far and wide. In each case civilisation is confronted with militant Mahommedanism. The forces of progress clash with those of reaction. The religion of blood and war is face to face with that of peace. Luckily the religion of peace is usually the better armed. The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (1898), Chapter III. I pass with relief from the tossing sea of Cause and Theory to the firm ground of Result and Fact. The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (1898), Chapter III. It is better to be making the news than taking it; to be an actor rather than a critic. The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (1898), Chapter VIII. Nothing in life is so exhilarating as to be shot at without result. The Story of the Malakand Field Force: An Episode of Frontier War (1898), Chapter X. How dreadful are the curses which Mohammedanism lays on its votaries! Besides the fanatical frenzy, which is as dangerous in a man as hydrophobia in a dog, there is this fearful fatalistic apathy. The effects are apparent in many countries. Improvident habits, slovenly systems of agriculture, sluggish methods of commerce, and insecurity of property exist wherever the followers of the Prophet rule or live. A degraded sensualism deprives this life of its grace and refinement; the next of its dignity and sanctity. The fact that in Mohammedan law every woman must belong to some man as his absolute property, either as a child, a wife, or a concubine, must delay the final extinction of slavery until the faith of Islam has ceased to be a great power among men. Individual Moslems may show splendid qualities. Thousands become the brave and loyal soldiers of the Queen; all know how to die; but the influence of the religion paralyses the social development of those who follow it. No stronger retrograde force exists in the world. Far from being moribund, Mohammedanism is a militant and proselytizing faith. It has already spread throughout Central Africa, raising fearless warriors at every step; and were it not that Christianity is sheltered in the strong arms of science, the science against which it had vainly struggled, the civilisation of modern Europe might fall, as fell the civilisation of ancient Rome. (This passage does not appear in the 1902 one-volume abridgment, the version posted by Project Gutenberg.) Downloadable etext version(s) of this book can be found online at Project Gutenberg It is the habit of the boa constrictor to besmear the body of his victim with a foul slime before he devours it; and there are many people in England, and perhaps elsewhere, who seem to be unable to contemplate military operations for clear political objects, unless they can cajole themselves into the belief that their enemy are utterly and hopelessly vile. To this end the Dervishes, from the Mahdi and the Khalifa downwards, have been loaded with every variety of abuse and charged with all conceivable crimes. This may be very comforting to philanthropic persons at home; but when an army in the field becomes imbued with the idea that the enemy are vermin who cumber the earth, instances of barbarity may easily be the outcome. This unmeasured condemnation is moreover as unjust as it is dangerous and unnecessary. The River War: An Historical Account of the Reconquest of the Soudan (1899), Volume II pp. 394–395 (This passage does not appear in the 1902 one-volume abridgment, the version posted by Project Gutenberg). What is the true and original root of Dutch aversion to British rule? It is the abiding fear and hatred of the movement that seeks to place the native on a level with the white man … the Kaffir is to be declared the brother of the European, to be constituted his legal equal, to be armed with political rights. On the Boer War , London to Ladysmith via Pretoria (1900). I think we shall have to take the Chinese in hand and regulate them. I believe that as civilized nations become more powerful they will get more ruthless, and the time will come when the world will impatiently bear the existence of great barbaric nations who may at any time arm themselves and menace civilized nations. I believe in the ultimate partition of China — I mean ultimate. I hope we shall not have to do it in our day. The Aryan stock is bound to triumph. Speech and interview at the University of Michigan, 1902. In former days, when wars arose from individual causes, from the policy of a Minister or the passion of a King, when they were fought by small regular armies of professional soldiers, and when their course was retarded by the difficulties of communication and supply, and often suspended by the winter season, it was possible to limit the liabilities of the combatants. But now, when mighty populations are impelled on each other, each individual severally embittered and inflamed—when the resources of science and civilisation sweep away everything that might mitigate their fury, a European war can only end in the ruin of the vanquished and the scarcely less fatal commercial dislocation and exhaustion of the conquerors. Democracy is more vindictive than Cabinets. The wars of peoples will be more terrible than those of kings. House of Commons, 13 May 1901, Hansard vol. 93 col. 1572. The ability to foretell what is going to happen tomorrow, next week, next month, and next year – and to have the ability afterwards to explain why it didn’t happen. Newspaper interview (1902), when asked what qualities a politician required, Halle, Kay, Irrepressible Churchill. Cleveland: World, 1966. cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 489 ISBN 1586486381 Governments create nothing and have nothing to give but what they have first taken away — you may put money in the pockets of one set of Englishmen, but it will be money taken from the pockets of another set of Englishmen, and the greater part will be spilled on the way. Every vote given for Protection is a vote to give Governments the right of robbing Peter to pay Paul and charging the public a handsome commission on the job. “Why I am a Free Trader,” Chapter I in T.W. Stead’s journal Coming Men on Coming Questions (April 13, 1905), bottom p. 9. The doctrines that by keeping out foreign goods more wealth, and consequently more employment, will be created at home, are either true or they are not true. We contend that they are not true. We contend that for a nation to try to tax itself into prosperity is like a man standing in a bucket and trying to lift himself up by the handle. [1] :9 From "Why I am a Free Trader" (1905), Churchill revised this several times, the earliest recorded version coming from the speech "For Free Trade" at the Free Trade Hall, Manchester, 19 February 1904: It is the theory of the Protectionist that imports are an evil. He thinks that if you shut out the foreign imported manufactured goods you will make these goods yourselves, in addition to the goods which you make now, including those goods which we make to exchange for the foreign goods that come in. If a man can believe that he can believe anything. (Laughter.) We Free-traders say it is not true. To think you can make a man richer by putting on a tax is like a man thinking that he can stand in a bucket and lift himself up by the handle. (Laughter and cheers.) [2] :Vol.I: 261 Politics are almost as exciting as war, and – quite as dangerous … [I]n war, you can only be killed once. But in politics many times. From a conversational exchange with Harold Begbie, as cited in Master Workers, Begbie, Methuen & Co. (1906), p. 177. For my own part I have always felt that a politician is to be judged by the animosities which he excites among his opponents. I have always set myself not merely to relish but to deserve thoroughly their censure. November 17, 1906, Institute of Journalists Dinner, London; in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 392 ISBN 1586486381 The conditions of the Transvaal ordinance under which Chinese Labour is now being carried on do not, in my opinion, constitute a state of slavery. A labour contract into which men enter voluntarily for a limited and for a brief period, under which they are paid wages which they consider adequate, under which they are not bought or sold and from which they can obtain relief on payment of seventeen pounds ten shillings, the cost of their passage, may not be a healthy or proper contract, but it cannot in the opinion of His Majesty's Government be classified as slavery in the extreme acceptance of the word without some risk of terminological inexactitude. In the House of Commons , February 22, 1906 "King’s Speech (Motion for an Address)" , as Under-Secretary of the Colonial Office , repeating what he had said during the 1906 election campaign. This is the original context for terminological inexactitude, used simply literally, whereas later the term took on the sense of a euphemism or circumlocution for a lie. As quoted in Sayings of the Century (1984) by Nigel Rees . I submit respectfully to the House as a general principle that our responsibility in this matter is directly proportionate to our power. Where there is great power there is great responsibility, where there is less power there is less responsibility, and where there is no power there can, I think, be no responsibility. In the House of Commons , February 28, 1906 speech South African native races The Times is speechless, and takes three columns to express its speechlessness. Speech at Kinnaird Hall, Dundee, Scotland ("The Dundee Election"), May 14, 1908, in Liberalism and the Social Problem (1909), Churchill, BiblioBazaar (Second Edition, 2006), p. 148 ISBN 1426451989 What is the use of living, if it be not to strive for noble causes and to make this muddled world a better place for those who will live in it after we are gone? How else can we put ourselves in harmonious relation with the great verities and consolations of the infinite and the eternal? And I avow my faith that we are marching towards better days. Humanity will not be cast down. We are going on swinging bravely forward along the grand high road and already behind the distant mountains is the promise of the sun. Speech at Kinnaird Hall, Dundee, Scotland ("Unemployment"), October 10, 1908, in Liberalism and the Social Problem (1909), Churchill, Echo Library (2007), p. 87 ISBN 1406845817 The unnatural and increasingly rapid growth of the feeble-minded and insane classes, coupled as it is with steady restriction among all the thrifty, energetic and superior stocks constitutes a national and race danger which is impossible to exaggerate. I feel that the source from which the stream of madness is fed should be cut off and sealed before another year has passed. ( Home Secretary ) Churchill to Prime Minister Asquith on compulsory sterilization of ‘the feeble-minded and insane’; cited, as follows (excerpted from longer note) : It is worth noting that eugenics was not a fringe movement of obscure scientists but often led and supported, in Britain and America, by some of the most prominent public figures of the day, across the political divide, such as Julian Huxley, Aldous Huxley, D.H. Lawrence, John Maynard Keynes and Theodore Roosevelt. Indeed, none other than Winston Churchill, whilst Home Secretary in 1910, made the following observation: [text of quote] (quoted in Jones, 1994: 9)., in ‘Race’, sport, and British society (2001), Carrington & McDonald, Routledge, Introduction, Note 4, p. 20 ISBN 0415246296 'I propose that 100,000 degenerate Britons should be forcibly sterilized and others put in labour camps to halt the decline of the British race.' As Home Secretary in a 1910 Departmental Paper. The original document is in the collection of Asquith's papers at the Bodleian Library in Oxford. Also quoted in Clive Ponting , "Churchill" (Sinclair Stevenson 1994). Everything tends towards catastrophe and collapse. I am interested, geared up and happy. Is it not horrible to be made like this? In a letter to his wife Clemmie, during the build up to World War I. Like chasing a quinine pill around a cow pasture. On playing golf : as cited in The quote verifier: who said what, where, and when (2006), Keyes, Macmillan, p. 27 ISBN 0312340044 Sure I am of this, that you have only to endure to conquer. You have only to persevere to save yourselves, and to save all those who rely upon you. You have only to go right on, and at the end of the road, be it short or long, victory and honor will be found. Remarks at the Guildhall, 4 September 1914, after the first British naval victory of World War I, the sinking of three German cruisers in the Battle of Heligoland Bight , as cited in Churchill: A Life, Martin Gilbert, Macmillan (1992), p. 279 : ISBN 0805023968 I am finished. On losing his position at the Admiralty in 1915. Said to Lord Riddell , as cited in Maxims and Reflections, Chapter I (On Himself), Churchill, Houghton Mifflin Company (1947). [The] truth is incontrovertible. Panic may resent it, ignorance may deride it, malice may distort it, but there it is. Speech in the House of Commons, May 17, 1916 "Royal Assent" . I think a curse should rest on me — because I love this war. I know it's smashing and shattering the lives of thousands every moment — and yet — I can't help it — I enjoy every second of it. A letter to a friend (1916). No compromise on the main purpose; no peace till victory; no pact with unrepentant wrong -- that is the Declaration of July 4th, 1918. At a joint Anglo-American rally in Westminster, July 4, 1918, speaking against calls for a negotiated truce with Germany. As printed in War aims & peace ideals: selections in prose & verse (1919), edited by Tucker Brooke & Henry Seidel Canby, Yale University Press, p. 138. The Great War differed from all ancient wars in the immense power of the combatants and their fearful agencies of destruction, and from all modern wars in the utter ruthlessness with which it was fought. … Europe and large parts of Asia and Africa became one vast battlefield on which after years of struggle not armies but nations broke and ran. When all was over, Torture and Cannibalism were the only two expedients that the civilized, scientific, Christian States had been able to deny themselves: and they were of doubtful utility. From The World Crisis, 1911–1918 : Chapter I (The Vials of Wrath), Churchill, Butterworth (1923). One might as well legalise sodomy as recognise the Bolsheviks. Paris, 24 January 1919. Churchill: A Life. Gilbert, Martin (1992). New York: Holt, p. 408. ISBN 9780805023961 I do not understand this squeamishness about the use of gas. We have definitely adopted the position at the Peace Conference of arguing in favour of the retention of gas as a permanent method of warfare. It is sheer affectation to lacerate a man with the poisonous fragment of a bursting shell and to boggle at making his eyes water by means of lachrymatory gas. I am strongly in favour of using poisoned gas against uncivilised tribes. The moral effect should be so good that the loss of life should be reduced to a minimum. It is not necessary to use only the most deadly gases: gases can be used which cause great inconvenience and would spread a lively terror and yet would leave no serious permanent effects on most of those affected … We cannot, in any circumstances acquiesce to the non-utilisation of any weapons which are available to procure a speedy termination of the disorder which prevails on the frontier. Statement as president of the Air Council, War Office Departmental Minute ( 1919-05-12 ); Churchill Papers 16/16, Churchill Archives Centre , Cambridge . Many argue that quotes from this passage are often taken out of context, because Churchill is distinguishing between non-lethal agents and the deadly gasses used in World War I and emphasizing the use of non-lethal weapons; however Churchill is not clearly ruling out the use of lethal gases, simply stating that "it is not necessary to use only the most deadly". It is sometimes claimed that gas killed many young and elderly Kurds and Arabs when the RAF bombed rebelling villages in Iraq in 1920 during the British occupation. For more information on this matter, see Gas in Mesopotamia . Lenin was sent into Russia by the Germans in the same way that you might send a phial containing a culture of typhoid or cholera to be poured into the water supply of a great city, and it worked with amazing accuracy. On Vladimir Ilyich Lenin , in the House of Commons, November 5, 1919 as cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), Ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 355 ISBN 1586486381 First there are the Jews who, dwelling in every country throughout the world, identify themselves with that country, enter into its national life and, while adhering faithfully to their own religion, regard themselves as citizens in the fullest sense of the State which has received them. Such a Jew living in England would say, 'I am an English man practising the Jewish faith.' This is a worthy conception, and useful in the highest degree. We in Great Britain well know that during the great struggle the influence of what may be called the 'National Jews' in many lands was cast preponderatingly on the side of the Allies; and in our own Army Jewish soldiers have played a most distinguished part, some rising to the command of armies, others winning the Victoria Cross for valour. There is no need to exaggerate the part played in the creation of Bolshevism and in the actual bringing about of the Russian Revolution, by these international and for the most part atheistical Jews, it is certainly a very great one; it probably outweighs all others. With the notable exception of Lenin, the majority of the leading figures are Jews. Moreover, the principal inspiration and driving power comes from the Jewish leaders. Thus Tchitcherin, a pure Russian, is eclipsed by his nominal subordinate Litvinoff, and the influence of Russians like Bukharin or Lunacharski cannot be compared with the power of Trotsky, or of Zinovieff, the Dictator of the Red Citadel (Petrograd) or of Krassin or Radek -- all Jews. In the Soviet institutions the predominance of Jews is even more astonishing. And the prominent, if not indeed the principal, part in the system of terrorism applied by the Extraordinary Commissions for Combating Counter-Revolution has been taken by Jews, and in some notable cases by Jewesses. The same evil prominence was obtained by Jews in the brief period of terror during which Bela Kun ruled in Hungary. The same phenomenon has been presented in Germany (especially in Bavaria), so far as this madness has been allowed to prey upon the temporary prostration of the German people. Although in all these countries there are many non-Jews every whit as bad as the worst of the Jewish revolutionaries, the part played by the latter in proportion to their numbers in the population is astonishing. "Zionism versus Bolshevism", Illustrated Sunday Herald (February 1920) (A note: Churchill viewed Bolshevism as a heavily Jewish phenomenon. He contrasted the Jewish role in the creation of Bolshevism with a more positive view of the role that Jews had played in England. [1] ). …the schemes of the International Jews. The adherents of this sinister confederacy are mostly men reared up among the unhappy populations of countries where Jews are persecuted on account of their race. Most, if not all of them, have forsaken the faith of their forefathers, and divorced from their minds all spiritual hopes of the next world. This movement among the Jews is not new. From the days of Spartacus-Weishaupt to those of Karl Marx, and down to Trotsky (Russia), Bela Kun (Hungary), Rosa Luxembourg (Germany), and Emma Goldman (United States), this world-wide conspiracy for the overthrow of civilisation and for the reconstitution of society on the basis of arrested development, of envious malevolence, and impossible equality, has been steadily growing. It played, as a modern writer, Mrs. Webster, has so ably shown, a definitely recognisable part in the tragedy of the French Revolution. It has been the mainspring of every subversive movement during the Nineteenth Century; and now at last this band of extraordinary personalities from the underworld of the great cities of Europe and America have gripped the Russian people by the hair of their heads and have become practically the undisputed masters of that enormous empire. Rt. Hon. Winston Churchill ‘Bolshevism versus Zionism; a struggle for the soul of the Jewish people’ in Illustrated Daily Herald, 8 February 1920. However we may dwell upon the difficulties of General Dyer during the Amritsar riots, upon the anxious and critical situation in the Punjab, upon the danger to Europeans throughout that province, … one tremendous fact stands out – I mean the slaughter of nearly 400 persons and the wounding of probably three to four times as many, at the Jallian Wallah Bagh on 13th April. That is an episode which appears to me to be without precedent or parallel in the modern history of the British Empire. … It is an extraordinary event, a monstrous event, an event which stands in singular and sinister isolation. Speech in the House of Commons, July 8, 1920 "Amritsar" ; at the time, Churchill was serving as Secretary of State for War under Prime Minister David Lloyd George Men who take up arms against the State must expect at any moment to be fired upon. Men who take up arms unlawfully cannot expect that the troops will wait until they are quite ready to begin the conflict. Speech in the House of Commons, July 8, 1920 "Amritsar" ; at the time, Churchill was serving as Secretary of State for War under Prime Minister David Lloyd George Frightfulness is not a remedy known to the British Pharmacopaeia. Speech in the House of Commons, July 8, 1920 "Amritsar" ; at the time, Churchill was serving as Secretary of State for War under Prime Minister David Lloyd George I yield to no one in my detestation of Bolshevism, and of the revolutionary violence which precedes it. … But my hatred of Bolshevism and Bolsheviks is not founded on their silly system of economics, or their absurd doctrine of an impossible equality. It arises from the bloody and devastating terrorism which they practice in every land into which they have broken, and by which alone their criminal regime can be maintained. … Governments who have seized upon power by violence and by usurpation have often resorted to terrorism in their desperate efforts to keep what they have stolen, but the august and venerable structure of the British Empire … does not need such aid. Such ideas are absolutely foreign to the British way of doing things. Speech in the House of Commons, July 8, 1920 "Amritsar" Let me marshal the facts. The crowd was unarmed, except with bludgeons. It was not attacking anybody or anything. It was holding a seditious meeting. When fire had been opened upon it to disperse it, it tried to run away. Pinned up in a narrow place considerably smaller than Trafalgar Square, with hardly any exits, and packed together so that one bullet would drive through three or four bodies, the people ran madly this way and the other. When the fire was directed upon the centre, they ran to the sides. The fire was then directed to the sides. Many threw themselves down on the ground, and the fire was then directed on the ground. This was continued for 8 or 10 minutes ... [i]f the road had not been so narrow, the machine guns and the armoured cars would have joined in. Finally, when the ammunition had reached the point that only enough remained to allow for the safe return of the troops, and after 379 persons … had been killed, and when most certainly 1,200 or more had been wounded, the troops, at whom not even a stone had been thrown, swung round and marched away. … We have to make it absolutely clear … that this is not the British way of doing business. … Our reign, in India or anywhere else, has never stood on the basis of physical force alone, and it would be fatal to the British Empire if we were to try to base ourselves only upon it. Speech in the House of Commons, July 8, 1920 "Amritsar" I cannot pretend to feel impartial about the colours. I rejoice with the brilliant ones, and am genuinely sorry for the poor browns. In "Painting as a Pastime", first published in the Strand Magazine in two parts (December 1921/January 1922), cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 456 He ought to be lain bound hand and foot at the gates of Delhi, and then trampled on by an enormous elephant with the new Viceroy seated on its back. Referring to Mahatma Gandhi in conversation with Edwin Montagu, Secretary of State for India, 1921. [3] [4] Every day you may make progress. Every step may be fruitful. Yet there will stretch out before you an ever-lengthening, ever-ascending, ever-improving path. You know you will never get to the end of the journey. But this, so far from discouraging, only adds to the joy and the glory of the climb. In "Painting as a Pastime", the Strand Magazine (December 1921/January 1922), cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 568 ISBN 1586486381 I am most anxious that in dealing with matters which every Member knows are extremely delicate matters, I should not use any phrase or expression which would cause offence to our friends and Allies on the Continent or across the Atlantic Ocean. Speaking on inter-Allied debts in the House of Commons (December 10, 1924); reported in Parliamentary Debates (Commons) (1925), 5th series, vol. 179, col. 259. The choice was clearly open: crush them with vain and unstinted force, or try to give them what they want. These were the only alternatives, and though each had ardent advocates, most people were unprepared for either. Here indeed was the Irish spectre — horrid and inexorcisable. The World Crisis, Volume V : the Aftermath (1929), Churchill, Butterworth (London). No hour of life is lost that is spent in the saddle. My early life, 1874–1904 (1930), Churchill, Winston S., p. 45 (1996 Touchstone Edition), Might a bomb no bigger than an orange be found to possess a secret power to destroy a whole block of buildings — nay to concentrate the force of a thousand tons of cordite and blast a township at a stroke?. Pall Mall Gazette (1924) on HG Wells' suggestion of an atomic bomb, in "BBC Article" Too often the strong, silent man is silent only because he does not know what to say, and is reputed strong only because he has remained silent. Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches (1974), Chelsea House, Volume IV: 1922–1928, p. 3462 ISBN 0835206939 I decline utterly to be impartial as between the fire brigade and the fire. Speech in the House of Commons, July 7, 1926 "Emergency Services" , responding to criticism that he edited the British Gazette in a biased manner during the General Strike , as cited in The Yale Book of Quotations (2006), ed. Fred R. Shapiro, Yale University Press, p. 152 ISBN 0300107986 Make your minds perfectly clear that if ever you let loose upon us again a general strike, we will loose upon you — another " British Gazette ." Speech in the House of Commons, July 7, 1926 "Emergency Services" ; at this time, Churchill was serving as Chancellor of the Excheqer under Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin . Threatening the Labour Party and trade union movement with a return of the Government-published newspaper he edited during that May's General Strike. If I had been an Italian, I am sure I would have been entirely with you from the beginning to the end of your victorious struggle against the bestial appetites and passions of Leninism. To Benito Mussolini in a press conference in Rome (January 1927), as quoted in Churchill : A Life (1992) by Martin Gilbert. A sheep in sheep's clothing. On Ramsay MacDonald . This is often taken as referring to Clement Attlee , but Scottish historian D. W. Brogan is cited in Safire’s Political Dictionary (2008), William Safire , Oxford University Press US, p. 352 ISBN 0195343344 as follows: ‘Sir Winston Churchill never said of Clement Attlee that he was a sheep in sheep’s clothing. I have this on the excellent authority of Sir Winston himself. The phrase was totally inapplicable to Mr. Attlee. It was applicable, and applied, to J. Ramsay MacDonald, a very different kind of Labour leader.’ To improve is to change, so to be perfect is to have changed often. Winston Churchill, “His complete speeches, 1897–1963”, edited by Robert Rhodes James, Chelsea House ed., vol. 4 (1922–1928), p. 3706. Lors d’un débat avec Philipp Snowden, chancelier de l’Echiquier, à propos des droits de douane sur la soie. Often misquoted as: To improve is to change, to be perfect is to change often. An infected Russia, a plague-bearing Russia; a Russia of armed hordes not only smiting with bayonet and with cannon, but accompanied and preceded by swarms of typhus-bearing vermin which slew the bodies of men, and political doctrines which destroyed the health and even the souls of nations. The Aftermath, by Winston Churchill (published 1929), p. 274 She shone for me like the Evening Star. I loved her dearly — but at a distance. On his mother, Lady Randolph Churchill, Chapter 1 (Childhood). Where my reason, imagination or interest were not engaged, I would not or I could not learn. Chapter 1 (Childhood). Thus I got into my bones the essential structure of the ordinary British sentence, which is a noble thing. On studying English rather than Latin at school, Chapter 2 (Harrow). Headmasters have powers at their disposal with which Prime Ministers have never yet been invested. Chapter 2 (Harrow). Mr. Gladstone read Homer for fun, which I thought served him right. Chapter 2 (Harrow). I then had one of the three or four long intimate conversations with him which are all I can boast. On his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, Chapter 3 (Examinations). In retrospect these years form not only the least agreeable, but the only barren and unhappy period of my life. I was happy as a child with my toys in my nursery. I have been happier every year since I became a man. But this interlude of school makes a sombre grey patch upon the chart of my journey. It was an unending spell of worries that did not then seem petty, of toil uncheered by fruition; a time of discomfort, restriction and purposeless monotony. This train of thought must not lead me to exaggerate the character of my school days … Harrow was a very good school … Most of the boys were very happy … I can only record the fact that, no doubt through my own shortcomings, I was an exception. … I was on the whole considerably discouraged … All my contemporaries and even younger boys seemed in every way better adapted to the conditions of our little world. They were far better both at the games and at the lessons. It is not pleasant to feel oneself so completely outclassed and left behind at the very beginning of the race. Chapter 3 (Examinations). Certainly the prolonged education indispensable to the progress of Society is not natural to mankind. It cuts against the grain. A boy would like to follow his father in pursuit of food or prey. He would like to be doing serviceable things so far as his utmost strength allowed. He would like to be earning wages however small to help to keep up the home. He would like to have some leisure of his own to use or misuse as he pleased. He would ask little more than the right to work or starve. And then perhaps in the evenings a real love of learning would come to those who are worthy — and why try to stuff in those who are not? — and knowledge and thought would open the ‘magic casements’ of the mind. Chapter 3 (Examinations). I had a feeling once about Mathematics, that I saw it all—Depth beyond depth was revealed to me—the Byss and the Abyss. I saw, as one might see the transit of Venus—or even the Lord Mayor's Show, a quantity passing through infinity and changing its sign from plus to minus. I saw exactly how it happened and why the tergiversation was inevitable: and how the one step involved all the others. It was like politics. But it was after dinner and I let it go! Chapter 3 (Examinations), p. 27. Although always prepared for martyrdom, I preferred that it should be postponed. Chapter 4 (Sandhurst), p. 72. You will make all kinds of mistakes; but as long as you are generous and true, and also fierce, you cannot hurt the world or even seriously distress her. Chapter 4 (Sandhurst). I wonder whether any other generation has seen such astounding revolutions of data and values as those through which we have lived. Scarcely anything material or established which I was brought up to believe was permanent and vital, has lasted. Everything I was sure or taught to be sure was impossible, has happened. Chapter 5 (The Fourth Hussars). I have no doubt that the Romans planned the time-table of their days far better than we do. They rose before the sun at all seasons. Except in wartime we never see the dawn. Sometimes we see sunset. The message of sunset is sadness; the message of dawn is hope. The rest and the spell of sleep in the middle of the day refresh the human frame far more than a long night. We were not made by Nature to work, or even play, from eight o’clock in the morning till midnight. We throw a strain upon our system which is unfair and improvident. For every purpose of business or pleasure, mental or physical, we ought to break our days and our marches into two. Chapter 6 (Cuba). I do think unpunctuality is a vile habit, and all my life I have tried to break myself of it. Chapter 7 (Hounslow). I now began for the first time to envy those young cubs at the university who had fine scholars to tell them what was what; professors who had devoted their lives to mastering and focusing ideas in every branch of learning; who were eager to distribute the treasures they had gathered before they were overtaken by the night. But now I pity undergraduates, when I see what frivolous lives many of them lead in the midst of precious fleeting opportunity. After all, a man’s Life must be nailed to a cross either of Thought or Action. Without work there is no play. Chapter 9 (Education At Bangalore). I accumulated in those years so fine a surplus in the Book of Observance that I have been drawing confidently upon it ever since. Chapter 9 (Education At Bangalore). It is a good thing for an uneducated man to read books of quotations. Bartlett's Familiar Quotations is an admirable work, and I studied it intently. The quotations when engraved upon the memory give you good thoughts. They also make you anxious to read the authors and look for more. Chapter 9 (Education At Bangalore). I had been brought up and trained to have the utmost contempt for people who got drunk — and I would have liked to have the boozing scholars of the Universities wheeled into line and properly chastised for their squalid misuse of what I must ever regard as a gift of the gods. Chapter 10 (The Malakand Field Force). Never, never, never believe any war will be smooth and easy, or that anyone who embarks on the strange voyage can measure the tides and hurricanes he will encounter. The statesman who yields to war fever must realise that once the signal is given, he is no longer the master of policy but the slave of unforeseeable and uncontrollable events. Antiquated War Offices, weak, incompetent, or arrogant Commanders, untrustworthy allies, hostile neutrals, malignant Fortune, ugly surprises, awful miscalculations — all take their seats at the Council Board on the morrow of a declaration of war. Always remember, however sure you are that you could easily win, that there would not be a war if the other man did not think he also had a chance. Chapter 18 (With Buller To The Cape), p. 246 A jibe at Prime Minister (and First Lord of the Treasury ) Ramsay MacDonald during a speech in the House of Commons, January 28, 1931 "Trade Disputes and Trade Unions (Amendment) Bill" . India is a geographical term. It is no more a united nation than the equator. Speech at Royal Albert Hall, London (18 March 1931). It is alarming and also nauseating to see Mr. Gandhi , a seditious Middle Temple lawyer of the type well-known in the East, now posing as a fakir , striding half naked up the steps of the Viceregal palace to parley on equal terms with the representative of the King-Emperor . Comment on Gandhi's meeting with the Viceroy of India , addressing the Council of the West Essex Unionist Association (23 February 1931); as quoted in "Mr Churchill on India" in The Times (24 February 1931). We shall escape the absurdity of growing a whole chicken in order to eat the breast or wing, by growing these parts separately under a suitable medium. "Fifty Years Hence", The Strand Magazine (December 1931). We are stripped bare by the curse of plenty. Lecture at Cleveland, Ohio (February 3, 1932), reported in Robert Rhodes James, ed., Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963 (1974), vol. 5, p. 5130; referring to the theory that over-production caused the Depression. We know that he has, more than any other man, the gift of compressing the largest number of words into the smallest amount of thought. A jibe directed at Ramsay MacDonald , during a speech in the House of Commons, March 23, 1933 "European Situation" . This quote is similar to a remark (“He can compress the most words into the smallest ideas of any man I ever met”) made by Abraham Lincoln . [Frederick Trevor Hill credits Lincoln with this remark in Lincoln the Lawyer (1906), adding that ‘History has considerately sheltered the identity of the victim’.] One may dislike Hitler's system and yet admire his patriotic achievement. If our country were defeated, I hope we should find a champion as indomitable to restore our courage and lead us back to our place among the nations. "Hitler and His Choice", The Strand Magazine (November 1935). We cannot tell whether Hitler will be the man who will once again let loose upon the world another war in which civilisation will irretrievably succumb, or whether he will go down in history as the man who restored honour and peace of mind to the Great Germanic nation. "Hitler and His Choice", The Strand Magazine (November 1935). Mr. Gandhi has gone very high in my esteem since he stood up for the untouchables … I do not care whether you are more or less loyal to Great Britain … Tell Mr. Gandhi to use the powers that are offered and make the thing a success. Letter to G.D. Birla (1935); published in Winston S. Churchill, Volume Five: The Coming of War 1922–1939 (1979) by Sir Martin Gilbert The world looks with some awe upon a man who appears unconcernedly indifferent to home, money, comfort, rank, or even power and fame. The world feels not without a certain apprehension, that here is some one outside its jurisdiction; someone before whom its allurements may be spread in vain; some one strangely enfranchised, untamed, untrammelled by convention, moving independent of the ordinary currents of human action. At an unveiling of a memorial to T. E. Lawrence at the Oxford High School for Boys (3 October 1936); as quoted in Lawrence of Arabia: The Authorized Biography of T.E. Lawrence (1989) by Jeremy M Wilson. Occasionally he stumbled over the truth, but hastily picked himself up and hurried on as if nothing had happened. On Stanley Baldwin , as cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), Ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 322 Also quoted by Kay Halle in Irrepressible Churchill: A Treasury of Winston Churchill's Wit (1966). Anyone can see what the position is. The Government simply cannot make up their mind, or they cannot get the Prime Minister to make up his mind. So they go on in strange paradox, decided only to be undecided, resolved to be irresolute, adamant for drift, solid for fluidity, all powerful to be impotent. So we go on preparing more months and years — precious, perhaps vital to the greatness of Britain — for the locusts to eat. Speech in the House of Commons, November 12, 1936 "Debate on the Address" , criticizing the Government of Stanley Baldwin for its conciliatory stance toward Hitler . The era of procrastination, of half-measures, of soothing and baffling expedients, of delays, is coming to its close. In its place we are entering a period of consequences. Speech in the House of Commons, November 12, 1936 "Debate on the Address" Cited in Al Gore 's documentary An Inconvenient Truth This speech is also commonly known by the name "The Locust Years" . Courage is rightly esteemed the first of human qualities, because, as has been said, 'it is the quality which guarantees all others.' In Great Contemporaries , "Alfonso XIII" (1937). The essence and foundation of House of Commons debating is formal conversation. The set speech, the harangue addressed to constituents, or to the wider public out of doors, has never succeeded much in our small wisely-built chamber. To do any good you have got to get down to grips with the subject and in human touch with the audience. In Great Contemporaries, "Clemenceau" (1937). Whatever one may think about democratic government, it is just as well to have practical experience of its rough and slatternly foundations. No part of the education of a politician is more indispensable than the fighting of elections. In Great Contemporaries, "Lord Rosebery" (1937). I do not agree that the dog in a manger has the final right to the manger even though he may have lain there for a very long time. I do not admit that right. I do not admit for instance, that a great wrong has been done to the Red Indians of America or the black people of Australia. I do not admit that a wrong has been done to these people by the fact that a stronger race, a higher-grade race, a more worldly wise race to put it that way, has come in and taken their place. To the Peel Commission (1937) on a Jewish Homeland in Palestine. Dictators ride to and fro on tigers from which they dare not dismount. And the tigers are getting hungry. "Armistice - or Peace?", published in The Evening Standard (11 November 1937). For five years I have talked to the House on these matters – not with very great success. I have watched this famous island descending incontinently, fecklessly, the stairway which leads to a dark gulf. It is a fine broad stairway at the beginning, but after a bit the carpet ends. A little farther on there are only flagstones, and a little farther on still these break beneath your feet. [ … ] Look back upon the last five years – since, that is to say, Germany began to rearm in earnest and openly to seek revenge … historians a thousand years hence will still be baffled by the mystery of our affairs. They will never understand how it was that a victorious nation, with everything in hand, suffered themselves to be brought low, and to cast away all that they had gained by measureless sacrifice and absolute victory – gone with the wind! Now the victors are the vanquished, and those who threw down their arms in the field and sued for an armistice are striding on to world mastery. That is the position – that is the terrible transformation that has taken place bit by bit. Speech in the House of Commons (24 March 1938) "Foreign Affairs and Rearmament" , 12 days after the Anschluss (the Nazi annexation of Austria). [O]ur loyal, brave people … should know the truth. … they should know that we have sustained a defeat without a war, … and that the terrible words have for the time being been pronounced against the Western democracies; ‘Thou art weighed in the balance and found wanting.’ And do not suppose that this is the end. This is only the beginning of the reckoning. This is only the first sip, the first foretaste of a bitter cup which will be proferred to us year by year unless by a supreme recovery of moral health and martial vigour, we arise again and take our stand for freedom as in the olden time. Speech in the House of Commons (5 October 1938) "Policy of His Majesty’s Government" , a week after the announcement of the Munich Accords. The stations of uncensored expression are closing down; the lights are going out; but there is still time for those to whom freedom and parliamentary government mean something, to consult together. Let me, then, speak in truth and earnestness while time remains. BBC broadcast (“The Russian Enigma”), London, October 1, 1939 ( partial text , transcript of the "First Month of War" speech ). First, Poland has been again overrun by two of the great powers which held her in bondage for 150 years but were unable to quench the spirit of the Polish nation. The heroic defense of Warsaw shows that the soul of Poland is indestructible, and that she will rise again like a rock which may for a spell be submerged by a tidal wave but which remains a rock. BBC broadcast (“The Russian Enigma”), London, October 1, 1939 ( First Month of War (excerpt) , transcript of the full text ). I would say to the House, as I said to those who have joined this Government: 'I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat.' We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind. We have before us many, many long months of struggle and of suffering. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us: to wage war against a monstrous tyranny, never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival. Speech in the House of Commons , after taking office as Prime Minister (13 May 1940) This has often been misquoted in the form: "I have nothing to offer but blood, sweat and tears ..." The Official Report, House of Commons (5th Series), 13 May 1940, vol. 360, c. 1502. Audio records of the speech do spare out the "It is" before the in the beginning of the "Victory"-Part. Side by side … the British and French peoples have advanced to rescue … mankind from the foulest and most soul-destroying tyranny which has ever darkened and stained the pages of history. Behind them … gather a group of shattered States and bludgeoned races: the Czechs, the Poles, the Norwegians, the Danes, the Dutch, the Belgians -- upon all of whom the long night of barbarism will descend, unbroken even by a star of hope, unless we conquer, as conquer we must; as conquer we shall. Radio broadcast, Be Ye Men of Valour , May 19, 1940 ( partial text ). Every morn brought forth a noble chance, and every chance brought forth a noble knight. Speech in the House of Commons, June 4, 1940; passage praising the airmen of the Royal Air Force and their efforts during the evacuation of Dunkirk . This is a close paraphrase of Tennyson: When every morning brought a noble chance, And every chance brought out a noble knight. We shall fight on the beaches We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving, then our Empire beyond the seas, armed and guarded by the British Fleet, would carry on the struggle, until, in God's good time, the New World, with all its power and might, steps forth to the rescue and the liberation of the Old. Speech in the House of Commons (4 June 1940). Bearing ourselves humbly before God … we await undismayed the impending assault … be the ordeal sharp or long, or both, we shall seek no terms, we shall tolerate no parlay; we may show mercy – we shall ask for none. BBC Broadcast, London, July 14, 1940 "War of the Unknown Warriors" . Of this I am quite sure, that if we open a quarrel between the past and the present, we shall find that we have lost the future. Speech in the House of Commons, June 18, 1940 "War Situation" . Upon this battle depends the survival of Christian civilisation. Upon it depends our own British life and the long continuity of our institutions and our Empire. The whole fury and might of the enemy must very soon be turned on us now. Hitler knows that he will have to break us in this island or lose the war. If we can stand up to him, all Europe may be free and the life of the world may move forward into broad, sunlit uplands. But if we fail, then the whole world, including the United States, including all that we have known and cared for, will sink into the abyss of a new Dark Age, made more sinister, and perhaps more protracted, by the lights of perverted science. Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour.' Speech in the House of Commons, June 18, 1940 "War Situation" . The gratitude of every home in our Island, in our Empire, and indeed throughout the world, except in the abodes of the guilty, goes out to the British airmen who, undaunted by odds, unwearied in their constant challenge and mortal danger, are turning the tide of the World War by their prowess and by their devotion. Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few. All hearts go out to the fighter pilots, whose brilliant actions we see with our own eyes day after day; but we must never forget that all the time, night after night, month after month, our bomber squadrons travel far into Germany, find their targets in the darkness by the highest navigational skill, aim their attacks, often under the heaviest fire, often with serious loss, with deliberate careful discrimination, and inflict shattering blows upon the whole of the technical and war-making structure of the Nazi power. Speech in the House of Commons , also known as " The Few ", made on 20 August 1940. However Churchill first made his comment, "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few" to General Hastings Ismay as they got into their car to leave RAF Uxbridge on 16 August 1940 after monitoring the battle from the Operations Room.. Farewell to RAF Uxbridge . Global Aviation Resource (6 April 2010). Retrieved on 12 September 2010. Crozier, Hazel. RAF Uxbridge 90th Anniversary 1917–2007. RAF High Wycombe: Air Command Media Services. Churchill repeated the quote in a speech to Parliament four days later complimenting the pilots in the Royal Air Force during the Battle of Britain . The speech in the House of Commons is often incorrectly cited as the origin of the popular phrase " never was so much owed by so many to so few ". Queen Elizabeth II during her speech in Polish Parliament 26.03.1996 said that Churchill said "so few" about unforgettable and brave Polish pilots from Battle of Britain. We are waiting for the long-promised invasion. So are the fishes. Radio broadcast, London, Dieu Protège La France [God protect France], October 21, 1940 ( partial text ). Goodnight then: sleep to gather strength for the morning. For the morning will come. Brightly will it shine on the brave and true, kindly upon all who suffer for the cause, glorious upon the tombs of heroes. Thus will shine the dawn. Vive la France! Long live also the forward march of the common people in all the lands towards their just and true inheritance, and towards the broader and fuller age. Radio broadcast, London, Dieu Protège La France [God protect France], October 21, 1940 ( partial text ). These cruel, wanton, indiscriminate bombings of London are, of course, a part of Hitler’s invasion plans. He hopes, by killing large numbers of civilians, and women and children, that he will terrorise and cow the people of this mighty imperial city … Little does he know the spirit of the British nation, or the tough fibre of the Londoners. Radio broadcast during the London Blitz, September 11, 1940. Quoted by Martin Gilbert in Churchill: A Life, Macmillan (1992), p. 675 Radio broadcast to German occupied , Vichy , and Free France (21 October 1940) The hour has come; kill the Hun. How Churchill said he would end his speech if Germany invaded Britain ( John Colville 's diary entry for January 25, 1941). In The Churchill War Papers : 1941 (1993), ed. Gilbert, W.W. Norton, pp. 132–133 ISBN 0393019594 Here is the answer which I will give to President Roosevelt: Put your confidence in us. … We shall not fail or falter; we shall not weaken or tire. Neither the sudden shock of battle, nor the long-drawn trials of vigilance and exertion will wear us down. Give us the tools and we will finish the job. BBC radio broadcast, February 9, 1941. In The Churchill War Papers : 1941 (1993), ed. Gilbert, W.W. Norton, pp. 199–200 ISBN 0393019594 I must point out … that the British nation is unique in this respect. They are the only people who like to be told how bad things are, who like to be told the worst, and like to be told that they are very likely to get much worse in the future and must prepare themselves for further reverses. Speech in the House of Commons, June 10, 1941 "Defence of Crete" , in The Churchill War Papers : 1941 (1993), Churchill/Gilbert, Norton, p. 785 ISBN 0393019594 . If Hitler invaded Hell, I would make at least a favourable reference to the devil in the House of Commons. To his personal secretary John Colville the evening before Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . As quoted by Andrew Nagorski in The Greatest Battle (2007), Simon & Schuster, pp. 150–151 ISBN 0743281101 Hitler is a monster of wickedness, insatiable in his lust for blood and plunder. Not content with having all Europe under his heel, or else terrorised into various forms of abject submission, he must now carry his work of butchery and desolation among the vast multitudes of Russia and of Asia. The terrible military machine — which we and the rest of the civilised world so foolishly, so supinely, so insensately allowed the Nazi gangsters to build up year by year from almost nothing — cannot stand idle lest it rust or fall to pieces. … So now this bloodthirsty guttersnipe must launch his mechanized armies upon new fields of slaughter, pillage and devastation. Radio broadcast on the German invasion of Russia, June 22, 1941. In The Churchill War Papers : 1941 (1993), W.W. Norton, pp. 835–836 ISBN 0393019594 We ask no favours of the enemy. We seek from them no compunction. On the contrary, if tonight the people of London were asked to cast their votes as to whether a convention should be entered into to stop the bombing of all cities, an overwhelming majority would cry, "No, we will mete out to the Germans the measure, and more than the measure, they have meted out to us." {applause} The people of London with one voice would say to Hitler: "You have committed every crime under the sun. Where you have been the least resisted there you have been the most brutal. It was you who began the indiscriminate bombing. We remember Warsaw! In the first few days of the war. We remember Rotterdam. We have been newly reminded of your habits by the hideous massacre in Belgrade. We know too well the bestial assaults you're making upon the Russian people, to whom our hearts go out in their valiant struggle! {cheers} We will have no truce or parley with you, or the grisly gang who work your wicked will! You do your worst! — and we will do our best! {sustained cheering} Perhaps it may be our turn soon. Perhaps it may be our turn now." July 14 , 1941 , in a speech before the London County Council. The original can be found in Churchill's The Unrelenting Struggle (English edition 187; American edition 182) or in the Complete Speeches VI:6448. Never give in — never, never, never, never, in nothing great or small, large or petty, never give in except to convictions of honour and good sense. Never yield to force; never yield to the apparently overwhelming might of the enemy. Speech given at Harrow School , Harrow, England, October 29, 1941. Quoted in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, 2008, p. 23 We have not journeyed all this way across the centuries, across the oceans, across the mountains, across the prairies, because we are made of sugar candy. Speech before Joint Session of the Canadian Parliament, Ottawa ( December 30 , 1941 ) The Yale Book of Quotations, ed. Fred R. Shapiro, Yale University Press (2006), p. 153 ISBN 0300107986 When we consider the resources of the United States and the British Empire compared to those of Japan, when we remember those of China, which has so long and valiantly withstood invasion and when also we observe the Russian menace which hangs over Japan, it becomes still more difficult to reconcile Japanese action with prudence or even with sanity. What kind of a people do they think we are? Is it possible they do not realise that we shall never cease to persevere against them until they have been taught a lesson which they and the world will never forget? Members of the Senate and members of the House of Representatives, I turn for one moment more from the turmoil and convulsions of the present to the broader basis of the future. Here we are together facing a group of mighty foes who seek our ruin; here we are together defending all that to free men is dear. Twice in a single generation the catastrophe of world war has fallen upon us; twice in our lifetime has the long arm of fate reached across the ocean to bring the United States into the forefront of the battle. If we had kept together after the last War, if we had taken common measures for our safety, this renewal of the curse need never have fallen upon us. Do we not owe it to ourselves, to our children, to mankind tormented, to make sure that these catastrophes shall not engulf us for the third time? Speech to a joint session of the United States Congress, Washington, D.C. (26 December 1941) . 'It is not given to us to peer into the mysteries of the future. Still, I avow my hope and faith, sure and inviolate, that in the days to come the British and American peoples will for their own safety and for the good of all walk together side by side in majesty, in justice, and in peace. Ending of the Speech to a joint session of the United States Congress, Washington, D.C. (26 December 1941); reported in Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963, ed. Robert Rhodes James (1974), vol. 6, p. 6541. The Congressional Record reports that this speech was followed by "Prolonged applause, the Members of the Senate and their guests rising"; Congressional Record, vol. 87, p. 10119. When I warned them that Britain would fight on alone whatever they did, their generals told their Prime Minister and his divided Cabinet, "In three weeks England will have her neck wrung like a chicken." Some chicken! Some neck! ISBN 0300107986 The most dangerous moment of the War, and the one which caused me the greatest alarm, was when the Japanese Fleet was heading for Ceylon and the naval base there. The capture of Ceylon, the consequent control of the Indian Ocean, and the possibility at the same time of a German conquest of Egypt would have closed the ring and the future would have been black. Quote about the (April 5, 1942) Easter Sunday Raid on Colombo, Ceylon (Sri Lanka). From a conversation at the British Embassy, Washington D.C., as described by Leonard Birchall , RCAF, in Battle for the Skies (2004), Michael Paterson, David & Charles, ISBN 0715318152 It was an experience of great interest to me to meet Premier Stalin … It is very fortunate for Russia in her agony to have this great rugged war chief at her head. He is a man of massive outstanding personality, suited to the sombre and stormy times in which his life has been cast; a man of inexhaustible courage and will-power and a man direct and even blunt in speech, which, having been brought up in the House of Commons, I do not mind at all, especially when I have something to say of my own. Above all, he is a man with that saving sense of humour which is of high importance to all men and all nations, but particularly to great men and great nations. Stalin also left upon me the impression of a deep, cool wisdom and a complete absence of illusions of any kind. I believe I made him feel that we were good and faithful comrades in this war – but that, after all, is a matter which deeds not words will prove. Speech in the House of Commons, September 8, 1942 "War Situation" . I hate Indians. They are a beastly people with a beastly religion. In conversation to Leo Amery , Secretary of State for India. This quotation is widely cited as written in "a letter to Leo Amery" (e.g., in "Jolly Good Fellows and Their Nasty Ways" by Vinay Lal in Times of India (15 January 2007)) but it is actually attributed to Churchill as a remark, in an entry for September 1942 in Leo Amery : Diaries (1988), edited John Barnes and David Nicholson, p. 832 : "During my talk with Winston he burst out with: 'I hate Indians. They are a beastly people with a beastly religion'." Now this is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning. Referring to the British victory over the German Afrika Korps at the Second Battle of El Alamein in Egypt. The problems of victory are more agreeable than those of defeat, but they are no less difficult. Speech in the House of Commons , November 11, 1942 Debate on the address . I have not become the King’s First Minister in order to preside over the liquidation of the British Empire. speech at Lord Mayor’s Luncheon, Mansion House, London, November 10 , 1942 The Yale Book of Quotations, ed. Fred R. Shapiro, Yale University Press (2006), p. 153 Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein, we never had a defeat. The Second World War, Volume IV : The Hinge of Fate (1951) Chapter 33 (The Battle of Alamein) BBC News story on the 60th anniversary of Alamein . The maxim ‘Nothing avails but perfection’ may be spelt shorter: ‘Paralysis.’ Minute [brief note] to General Ismay, December 6 , 1942 , on proposed improvements to landing-craft. In The Second World War, Volume IV : The Hinge of Fate (1951), Appendix C. I am sure it would be sensible to restrict as much as possible the work of these gentlemen, who are capable of doing an immense amount of harm with what may very easily degenerate into charlatanry. The tightest hand should be kept over them, and they should not be allowed to quarter themselves in large numbers among Fighting Services at the public expense. On psychiatrists, in a letter to John Anderson , Lord President of the Council (December 19, 1942) In The Second World War, Volume IV : The Hinge of Fate (1951), Appendix C. There is no finer investment for any community than putting milk into babies. Radio broadcast (March 21, 1943), cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 21 ISBN 1586486381 By its sudden collapse, … the proud German army has once again proved the truth of the saying, 'The Hun is always either at your throat or at your feet'. Speech before a Joint Session of Congress (May 19, 1943), Washington, D.C., in Never Give In! : The best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches (2003), Hyperion, p. 352 ISBN 1401300561 The empires of the future are the empires of the mind. Speech at Harvard University , September 6, 1943, in The Oxford Dictionary of Quotations (1999), Knowles & Partington, Oxford University Press, p. 215 ISBN 0198601735 To achieve the extirpation of Nazi tyranny there are no lengths of violence to which we will not go. Speech to Parliament, September 21, 1943. Quoted in Churchill, Hitler, and the Unnecessary War (2008) by Patrick J Buchanan , p. 396. I have nothing to add to the reply which has already been sent. Response to Dundee Council after refusing to expand on his reasons for not accepting the Freedom of the City Memo ( October 27 , 1943 ). I hate nobody except Hitler — and that is professional. Churchill to John Colville during WWII, quoted by Colville in his book The Churchillians (1981) ISBN 0297779095 Everyone is in favour of free speech. Hardly a day passes without its being extolled, but some people's idea of it is that they are free to say what they like, but if anyone says anything back, that is an outrage "The Coalmining Situation", Speech to the House of Commons (October 13, 1943) [5] We shape our buildings, and afterwards our buildings shape us. Speech to the House of Commons (October 28, 1943), on plans for the rebuilding of the Chamber (destroyed by an enemy bomb May 10, 1941), in Never Give In! : The best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches (2003), Hyperion, p. 358 ISBN 1401300561 The essence of good House of Commons speaking is the conversational style, the facility for quick, informal interruptions and interchanges. Harangues from a rostrum would be a bad substitute for the conversational style in which so much of our business is done. But the conversational style requires a fairly small space, and there should be on great occasions a sense of crowd and urgency. There should be a sense of the importance of much that is said and a sense that great matters are being decided, there and then, by the House. … It has a collective personality which enjoys the regard of the public, and which imposes itself upon the conduct not only of individual Members but of parties. Speech in the House of Commons, October 28, 1943 "House of Commons Rebuilding" . The House of Commons has lifted our affairs above the mechanical sphere into the human sphere. It thrives on criticism, it is perfectly impervious to newspaper abuse or taunts from any quarter, and it is capable of digesting almost anything or almost any body of gentlemen, whatever be the views with which they arrive. There is no situation to which it cannot address itself with vigour and ingenuity. It is the citadel of British liberty; it is the foundation of our laws; its traditions and its privileges are as lively today it broke the arbitrary power of the Crown and substituted that Constitutional Monarchy under which we have enjoyed so many blessings. Speech in the House of Commons, October 28, 1943 "House of Commons Rebuilding" . You might however consider whether you should not unfold as a background the great privilege of habeas corpus and trial by jury, which are the supreme protection invented by the English people for ordinary individuals against the state. The power of the Executive to cast a man in prison without formulating any charge known to the law, and particularly to deny him the judgment of his peers is in the highest degree odious and is the foundation of all totalitarian government, whether Nazi or Communist. In a telegram (November 21, 1942) by Churchill from Cairo, Egypt to Home Secretary Herbert Morrison ; cited in In the Highest Degree Odious (1992), Simpson, Clarendon Press, p. 391 ISBN 0198257759 When I make a statement of facts within my knowledge I expect it to be accepted. To Joseph Stalin in 1944, on the fact that there had been no plot between Britain and Germany to invade the Soviet Union. The Grand Alliance, Winston S. Churchill. The object of presenting medals, stars, and ribbons is to give pride and pleasure to those who have deserved them. At the same time a distinction is something which everybody does not possess. If all have it it is of less value … A medal glitters, but it also casts a shadow. Speech in the House of Commons, March 22, 1944 "War Decorations" . I have left the obvious, essential fact to this point, namely, that it is the Russian Armies who have done the main work in tearing the guts out of the German army. In the air and on the oceans we could maintain our place, but there was no force in the world which could have been called into being, except after several more years, that would have been able to maul and break the German army unless it had been subjected to the terrible slaughter and manhandling that has fallen to it through the strength of the Russian Soviet Armies. Speech in the House of Commons, August 2, 1944 "War Situation" . The Russians will sweep through your country and your people will be liquidated. You are on the verge of annihiliation. To Stanisław Mikołajczyk in Moscow, October 14, 1944. Quoted in Churchill, Hitler, and the Unnecessary War (2008) by Patrick J Buchanan , p. 380. A love of tradition has never weakened a nation, indeed it has strengthened nations in their hour of peril; but the new view must come, the world must roll forward … Let us have no fear of the future. Speech in the House of Commons, November 29, 1944 "Debate on the Address" . It seems to me that the moment has come when the question of bombing of German cities simply for the sake of increasing the terror, though under other pretexts, should be reviewed. After the devastation of Dresden by aerial bombing, and the resulting fire storm (February 1945). Quoted in Where the Right Went Wrong (2004) by Patrick J Buchanan , p. 119 ISBN 0826261221 The very first thing the President did was to show me the new Presidential Seal , which he had just redesigned. He explained, 'The seal has to go everywhere the President goes. It must be displayed upon the lectern when he speaks. The eagle used to face the arrows but I have re-designed it so that it now faces the olive branches … what do you think?' I said, 'Mr. President, with the greatest respect, I would prefer the American eagle's neck to be on a swivel so that it could face the olive branches or the arrows, as the occasion might demand.' An exchange (March 4, 1946) with Harry S. Truman aboard the Presidential train in Washington, D.C. 's Union Station before journeying to Fulton, Missouri ; as quoted in "The Genius and Wit of Winston Churchill" by Robin Lawson. When I was a young subaltern in the South African War, the water was not fit to drink. To make it palatable we had to put a bit of whiskey in it. By diligent effort I learned to like it. Aboard the Presidential train during the journey to Fulton, Missouri (March 4, 1946); quoted in Conflict and Crisis by Robert Donovan, University of Missouri Press (1996), p. 190 ISBN 082621066X A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied victory…. From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. On Soviet communism and the Cold War, in a speech at Fulton, Missouri on March 5, 1946 ( complete text ). Churchill did not coin the phrase "iron curtain", however; the 1920 book Through Bolshevik Russia by English suffragette Ethel Snowden contained the line "We were behind the ‘iron curtain’ at last!" (This fact is mentioned in the article 'Anonymous was a Woman' , Yale Alumni Magazine Jan/Feb 2011). We must build a kind of United States of Europe. Speech at Zurich University (September 19, 1946) ( partial text ) ( [2] ). We must all turn our backs upon the horrors of the past. We must look to the future. We cannot afford to drag forward cross the years that are to come the hatreds and revenges which have sprung from the injuries of the past. Speech at Zurich University (September 19, 1946) ( partial text ) ( [3] ). Some people regard private enterprise as a predatory tiger to be shot. Others look on it as a cow they can milk. Not enough people see it as a healthy horse, pulling a sturdy wagon. As quoted in The Economist (6 July 2012) Is there any need for further floods of agony? Is the only lesson of history to be that mankind is unteachable? Let there be justice, mercy and freedom. The people have only to will it, and all will achieve their hearts' desire. Speech at Zurich University (September 19, 1946) ( partial text ) ( [4] ). The salvation of the common people of every race and of every land from war or servitude must be established on solid foundations and must be guarded by the readiness of all men and women to die rather than submit to tyranny. Speech at Zurich University (September 19, 1946) ( partial text ) ( [5] ). There is less there than meets the eye. On Prime Minister Clement Attlee , to President Truman , in 1946. When Truman defended Attlee (‘He seems a modest sort of fellow’), Churchill replied ‘He’s got a lot to be modest about.’ As cited in The Origins of the Cold War in Europe (1994), Reynolds, Yale University Press, p. 93 ISBN 0300105622 I gather, young man, that you wish to be a Member of Parliament. The first lesson that you must learn is that, when I call for statistics about the rate of infant mortality, what I want is proof that fewer babies died when I was Prime Minister than when anyone else was Prime Minister. That is a political statistic. When Churchill was in opposition after 1945, he led the Conservative Party in a debate about the Health Service. As he listened to Aneurin Bevan ’s opening speech, he called for some statistics about infant mortality … [which were] supplied, copiously and accurately, by Iain Macleod , then working in the back rooms of the Conservative Research Department . But, in his speech, Churchill made only one bold and sweeping use … [of Macleod’s detailed research]. Encountering MacLeod afterward, Churchill made the above statement. As cited in The Life of Politics (1968), Henry Fairlie, Methuen, pp. 203-204. When I am abroad I always make it a rule never to criticize or attack the Government of my country. I make up for lost time when I am at home. In the House of Commons (April 18, 1947), cited in The Oxford Dictionary of Political Quotations (1996), Jay, Oxford University Press, p. 93. When I was younger I made it a rule never to take strong drink before lunch. It is now my rule never to do so before breakfast. Reply to King George VI , on a cold morning at the airport. The King had asked if Churchill would take something to warm himself. As cited in Man of the Century (2002), Ramsden, Columbia University Press, p. 134 ISBN 0231131062 All the greatest things are simple, and many can be expressed in a single word: Freedom; Justice; Honour; Duty; Mercy; Hope. United Europe Meeting, Albert Hall, London (May 14, 1947). Cited in Churchill by Himself, ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs (2008), p. 26 ISBN 1586486381 Many forms of Government have been tried and will be tried in this world of sin and woe. No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been tried from time to time. Speech in the House of Commons (11 November 1947), published in 206–07 The Official Report, House of Commons (5th Series), 11 November 1947, vol. 444, cc. . Socialism is the philosophy of failure, the creed of ignorance and the gospel of envy. Speech (May 28, 1948) at the Scottish Unionist Conference, Perth, Scotland, in Never Give In! : The best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches (2003), Hyperion, p. 446 ISBN 1401300561 For my part, I consider that it will be found much better by all Parties to leave the past to history, especially as I propose to write that history. Speech in the House of Commons (January 23, 1948), cited in The Yale Book of Quotations (2006), Fred R. Shapiro, Yale University Press, p. 154 This quote may be the basis for a statement often attributed to Churchill : History will be kind to me. For I intend to write it. I am shocked by this wicked crime. The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948) Moral of the Work, p. ix One day President Roosevelt told me that he was asking publicly for suggestions about what the war should be called. I said at once 'The Unnecessary War'. The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948). Their horse cavalry, of which they had twelve brigades, charged valiantly against the swarming tanks and armoured cars but could not harm them with their swords and lances. On the Polish defense against Germany, in The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948). I felt as if I were walking with destiny, and that all my past life had been but a preparation for this hour and for this trial. On his appointment as Prime Minister, May 10, 1940; The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948). Those who are prone, by temperament and character, to seek sharp and clear-cut solutions of difficult and obscure problems, who are ready to fight whenever some challenge comes from a foreign power, have not always been right. On the other hand, those whose inclination is to bow their heads, to seek patiently and faithfully for peaceful compromise, are not always wrong. On the contrary, in the majority of instances they may be right, not only morally, but from a practical standpoint. How many wars have been averted by patience and persisting good will! Religion and virtue alike lend their sanctions to meekness and humility, not only between men but between nations. How many wars have been precipitated by firebrands! How many misunderstandings which led to wars could have been removed by temporizing! How often have countries fought cruel wars and then after a few years found themselves not only friends but allies! The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948) Chapter 17 (The Tragedy of Munich), p .287 Still, if you will not fight for the right when you can easily win without bloodshed; if you will not fight when your victory will be sure and not too costly; you may come to the moment when you will have to fight with all the odds against you and only a precarious chance of survival. There may even be a worse case. You may have to fight when there is no hope of victory, because it is better to perish than to live as slaves. The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948) Chapter 19 (Prague, Albania, and the Polish Guarantee). Baldwin, Stanley … confesses putting party before country, 169-70; ... Index entry, The Second World War, Volume I : The Gathering Storm (1948). Broadly speaking, short words are best, and the old words, when short, are best of all. Speech on receiving the London Times Literary Award November 2 , 1949 Never Give In! The Best of Winston Churchill’s Speeches, Hyperion (2003), p. 453 We are masters of the unsaid words, but slaves of those we let slip out. Quoted in Words of Wisdom: Winston Churchill, Students’ Academy, Lulu Press (2014), Section Three : ISBN 1312396598 If you make 10,000 regulations you destroy all respect for the law. In the House of Commons (3 February 1949), as quoted in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 17 ISBN 1586486381 The reason for having diplomatic relations is not to confer a compliment, but to secure a convenience. In the House of Commons (17 November 1949) "Foreign Affairs" , on diplomatic recognition of the People’s Republic of China, as cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 16 When I look back on all these worries I remember the story of the old man who said on his deathbed that he had had a lot of trouble in his life, most of which had never happened. The Second World War, Volume II : Their Finest Hour (1949) Chapter 8 (September Tensions). War is mainly a catalogue of blunders. On the Soviet Union’s failure to form a united Balkan front against Hitler ; in The Second World War, Volume III : The Grand Alliance (1950) Chapter 20 (The Soviet Nemesis). No American will think it wrong of me if I proclaim that to have the United States at our side was to me the greatest joy. I could not foretell the course of events. I do not pretend to have measured accurately the martial might of Japan, but now at this very moment I knew the United States was in the war, up to the neck and in to the death. So we had won after all! … Hitler's fate was sealed. Mussolini's fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they would be ground to powder. The Second World War, Volume III : The Grand Alliance (1950) Chapter 32 (Pearl Harbor). Some people did not like this ceremonious style. But after all when you have to kill a man it costs nothing to be polite. Churchill ended his December 8, 1941 letter to the Japanese Ambassador, declaring that a state of war now existed between the United Kingdom and Japan, with the courtly flourish "I have the honour to be, with high consideration, Sir, Your obedient servant". The Second World War, Volume III : The Grand Alliance (1950) Chapter 32 (Pearl Harbor). It excites world wonder in the Parliamentary countries that we should build a Chamber, starting afresh, which can only seat two-thirds of its Members. It is difficult to explain this to those who do not know our ways. They cannot easily be made to understand why we consider that the intensity, passion, intimacy, informality and spontaneity of our Debates constitute the personality of the House of Commons and endow it at once with its focus and its strength. Speech in the House of Commons, October 24, 1950 "Motion for Address in Reply" . I am reminded of the professor who, in his declining hours, was asked by his devoted pupils for his final counsel. He replied, "Verify your quotations." The Second World War, Volume IV : The Hinge of Fate (1951). Let me have the best solution worked out. Don’t argue the matter. The difficulties will argue for themselves. Memo (May 30, 1942) to the Chief of Combined Operations on the design of floating piers (which later became Mulberry Harbours) for use on landing beaches; in The Second World War, Volume V : Closing the Ring (1952) Chapter 4 (Westward Ho! Synthetic Harbours). There are two main characteristics of the House of Commons which will command the approval and the support of reflective and experienced Members. The first is that its shape should be oblong and not semicircular. Here is a very potent factor in our political life. The semicircular assembly, which appeals to political theorists, enables every individual or every group to move round the centre, adopting various shades of pink according as the weather changes. I am a convinced supporter of the party system in preference to the group system. I have seen many earnest and ardent Parliaments destroyed by the group system. The party system is much favoured by the oblong form of chamber. It is easy for an individual to move through those insensible gradations from left to right, but the act of crossing the Floor is one which requires serious attention. I am well informed on this matter for I have accomplished that difficult process, not only once, but twice. On the rebuilding of the House of Commons after a bomb blast. The Second World War, Volume V : Closing the Ring (1952) Chapter 9. Of course, when you are winning a war almost everything that happens can be claimed to be right and wise. In The Second World War, Volume V : Closing the Ring (1952) Chapter 12 (Island Prizes Lost). ‘In war-time,’ I said, ‘truth is so precious she should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies.’ Discussion of Operation Overlord with Stalin at the Teheran Conference (November 30, 1943); in The Second World War, Volume V : Closing the Ring (1952), Chapter 21 (Teheran: The Crux), p. 338. Personally, I am always ready to learn, although I do not always like being taught, but I shall not attempt to foreshadow the proposals which will be brought before the House tomorrow. Today it will be sufficient and appropriate to deal with the obvious difficulties and confusion of the situation as we found it on taking office. In debate in the House of Commons, 4 Nov 1952 A number of social problems arose. I had been told that neither smoking nor alcoholic beverages were allowed in the [Saudi] Royal Presence. As I was the host at luncheon I raised the matter at once, and said to the interpreter that if it was the religion of His Majesty [Ibn Saud] to deprive himself of smoking and alcohol I must point out that my rule of life prescribed as an absolutely sacred rite smoking cigars and also the drinking of alcohol before, after, and if need be during all meals and in the intervals between them. The King graciously accepted the position. His own cup-bearer from Mecca offered me a glass of water from its sacred well, the most delicious I had ever tasted. Discussion of an audience with Saudi King Ibn Saud at the Fayoum oasis, Egypt, on February 17, 1945; in The Second World War, Volume VI : Triumph and Tragedy (1953), Chapter 23 (Yalta: Finale), pp. 348-349. By noon it was clear that the Socialists would have a majority. At luncheon my wife said to me, 'It may well be a blessing in disguise.' I replied, 'At the moment it seems quite effectively disguised.' On the (July 26, 1945) landslide electoral defeat that turned him out of office near the end of WWII, in The Second World War, Volume VI : Triumph and Tragedy (1953), Chapter 40 (The End of My Account), p. 583. The Chinese said of themselves several thousand years ago: “China is a sea that salts all the waters that flow into it.” There’s another Chinese saying about their country which is much more modern—it dates only from the fourth century. This is the saying: “The tail of China is large and will not be wagged.” I like that one. The British democracy approves the principles of movable party heads and unwaggable national tails. It is due to the working of these important forces that I have the honour to be addressing you at this moment. Address to a joint session of Congress, Washington, D.C. (January 17, 1952); reported in Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897–1963, ed. Robert Rhodes James (1974), vol. 8, p. 8326. The object of Parliament is to substitute argument for fisticuffs. Speech in the House of Commons (June 6, 1951) ; in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 22 ISBN 1586486381 But now let me return to my theme of the many changes that have taken place since I was last here. There is a jocular saying: ‘To improve is to change; to be perfect is to have changed often.’ I had to use that once or twice in my long career. Address to a joint session of Congress, Washington, D.C., January 17, 1952 "We Must Not Lose Hope", in The Great Republic : A History of America (2000), Churchill, Random House, p. 399 Dogs look up to you, cats look down on you. Give me a pig! He looks you in the eye and treats you as an equal. As cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 535 Churchill's black cat, Nelson, is reputed to have had a chair at Cabinet. Without tradition, art is a flock of sheep without a shepherd. Without innovation, it is a corpse. From a speech given at the Royal Academy of Art in 1953; quoted in Time magazine ( 1954-05-11 ). To jaw-jaw is always better than to war-war. Remarks at a White House luncheon ( 1954-06-26 ) Quoted in Has been falsely attributed to Otto von Bismarck . For myself, I am an optimist — it does not seem to be much use being anything else. Speech at the Lord Mayor's banquet in London ( 1954-11-09 ). An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile — hoping it will eat him last. In Reader's Digest (December 1954). I have taken more out of alcohol than alcohol has taken out of me. As cited in The Forbes Book of Business Quotations (2007), Ed. Goodwin, Black Dog Publishing, p. 49, It’s not enough that we do our best; sometimes we have to do what’s required. As cited in The Forbes Book of Business Quotations (2007), Ed. Goodwin, Black Dog Publishing, p. 168, ISBN 1579127215 I am a sporting man. I always give them a fair chance to get away. Asked why he missed so many trains and aeroplanes, as cited in My Darling Clementine (1963), Fishman, W.H. Allen : Star Books edition (1974), p. 218 ISBN 0352300191 "Keep England White" is a good slogan. On Commonwealth immigration, recorded in Harold Macmillan's diary entry for 1955-01-20 (Peter Catterall (ed.), The Macmillan Diaries: The Cabinet Years, 1950-57 (Macmillan, 2003), p. 382). This Treasury paper, by its very length, defends itself against the risk of being read. As cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 50, ISBN 1586486389 I want no criticism of America at my table. The Americans criticize themselves more than enough. As cited in Churchill By Himself (2008), Ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 128 ISBN 1586486381 My ability to persuade my wife to marry me [was] quite my most brilliant achievement … Of course, it would have been impossible for any ordinary man to have got through what I had to go through in peace and war without the devoted aid of what we call, in England, one’s better half. As cited in Churchill by Himself (2008), ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs, p. 511, ISBN 1586489577 We have surmounted all the perils and endured all the agonies of the past. We shall provide against and thus prevail over the dangers and problems of the future, withhold no sacrifice, grudge no toil, seek no sordid gain, fear no foe. All will be well. We have, I believe, within us the life-strength and guiding light by which the tormented world around us may find the harbour of safety, after a storm-beaten voyage. At Chateau Laurier, Ottawa, Canada, November 9, 1954 ; as cited at The Churchill Centre . The day may dawn when fair play, love for one's fellow men, respect for justice and freedom, will enable tormented generations to march forth triumphant from the hideous epoch in which we have to dwell. Meanwhile, never flinch, never weary, never despair. From the ending of Churchill's last major speech in the House of Commons on ( 1955-03-01 ). I think it is the most important subject facing this country, but I cannot get any of my ministers to take any notice. To Sir Ian Gilmour on Commonwealth immigration to England in 1955 (Gilmour, Inside Right (Hutchinson, 1977), p. 134). I am ready to meet my Maker. Whether my Maker is prepared for the great ordeal of meeting me is another matter. On his 75th birthday, in reply to a question on whether he was afraid of death, quoted in the N. Y. Times Magazine on November 1, 1964, p. 40 according to Quote It Completely! (1998), Gerhart, Wm. S. Hein Publishing, p. 262 ISBN 1575884003 We are all worms. But I do believe I am a glow-worm. As quoted by Violet Bonham-Carter in Winston Churchill as I Knew Him (1965), according to The Yale Book of Quotations (2006), Fred R. Shapiro, Yale University Press, p. 155 ISBN 0300107986 In the course of my life I have often had to eat my words, and I must confess that I have always found it a wholesome diet. Quoted by Lord Normanbrook in Action This Day: Working With Churchill. Memoirs by Lord Norman Brook (And Others) (1968) Often misquoted as: Eating my words has never given me indigestion. [6] . I have worked very hard with Nehru. I told him he should be the light of Asia, to show all those millions how they can shine out, instead of accepting the darkness of Communism. 18 February 1955, WSC to Eden’s private secretary Evelyn Shuckburgh. Historians are apt to judge war ministers less by the victories achieved under their direction than by the political results which flowed from them. Judged by that standard, I am not sure that I shall be held to have done very well. Quoted by Robert Boothby in Robert Boothy, Recollections of a Rebel (London: Hutchison, 1978), pp. 183–84. Take away that pudding – it has no theme. As cited in Oxford Dictionary of Quotations by Subject (2010), ed. Susan Ratcliffe, Oxford University Press, p. 193 : ISBN 0199567069 ; reported in The Way the Wind Blows (1976), Lord Home , Quadrangle, p. 217. [Magna Carta provided] “a system of checks and balances which would accord the monarchy its necessary strength, but would prevent its perversion by a tyrant or a fool.” ISBN 0-88029-423-X Thus ended the great American Civil War , which upon the whole must be considered the noblest and least avoidable of all the great mass conflicts of which till then there was record. No one can understand history without continually relating the long periods which are constantly mentioned to the experiences of our own short lives. Five years is a lot. Twenty years is the horizon to most people. Fifty years is antiquity. To understand how the impact of destiny fell upon any generation of men one must first imagine their position and then apply the time-scale of our own lives. Vol I; The Birth of Britain At this point the march of invention brought a new factor upon the scene. Iron was dug and forged. Men armed with iron entered Britain from the Continent and killed the men of bronze. At this point we can plainly recognise across the vanished millenniums a fellow-being. A biped capable of slaying another with iron is evidently to modern eyes a man and a brother. On the end of the Bronze Age and start of the Iron Age , Vol I; The Birth of Britain. We see the crude and corrupt beginnings of a higher civilisation blotted out by the ferocious uprising of the native tribes. Still, it is the primary right of men to die and kill for the land they live in, and to punish with exceptional severity all members of their own race who have warmed their hands at the invaders' hearth. On the sack of Verulamium (St. Albans) by Queen Boadicea Apparently, as in so many ancient battles, the beaten side were the victims of misunderstanding and the fate of the day was decided against them before the bulk of the forces realised that a serious engagement had begun. Reserves descended from the hills too late to achieve victory, but in good time to be massacred in the rout. On the Battle of Mons Graupius, which ended British resistance to Roman rule, Vol I; The Birth of Britain. Like other systems in decay, the Roman Empire continued to function for several generations after its vitality was sapped. For nearly a hundred years our Island was one of the scenes of conflict between a dying civilisation and lusty, famishing barbarism. The cities are everywhere in decline. Trade, industry and agriculture bend under the weight of taxation. The contrast between the morals at the centre of power and those practiced by wide communities in many subject lands presented problems of ever growing unrest. On the last years of Rome and Roman Britain; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. And wherever men are fighting against barbarism, tyranny, and massacre, for freedom, law, and honour, let them remember that the fame of their deeds, even though they themselves be exterminated, may perhaps be celebrated as long as the world rolls round. Let us then declare that King Arthur and his noble knights, guarding the Sacred Flame of Christianity and the theme of a world order, sustained by valour, physical strength, and good horses and armour, slaughtered innumerable hosts of foul barbarians and set decent folk an example for all time. On King Arthur Vol I; The Birth of Britain. The picture rises before us vivid and bright: the finely carved, dragon-shaped prow; the high, curving stern; the long row of shields, black and yellow alternately, ranged along the sides; the gleam of steel; the scent of murder. On the Viking Long Ships , Vol I; The Birth of Britain. When we reflect upon the brutal vices of these salt-water bandits, pirates as shameful as any whom the sea has borne, or recoil from their villainous destruction and cruel deeds, we must also remember the discipline, the fortitude, the comradeship and martial virtues which made them at this period beyond all challenge the most formidable and daring race in the world. On The Vikings , Vol I; The Birth of Britain. When the next year the raiders returned and landed near Jarrow they were stoutly attacked while harassed by bad weather. Many were killed. Their "king" was captured and put to a cruel death, and the fugitives carried so grim a tale back to Denmark that for forty years the English coasts were unravaged. On a Viking Raid in 794 A.D.; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. "872, Ivar , King of the Northmen of all Ireland and Britain , ended his life." He had conquered Mercia and East Anglia. He had captured the major stronghold of the kingdom of Strathclyde, Dumbarton. Laden with loot and seemingly invincible, he settled in Dublin and died there peacefully two years later. The pious chroniclers report that he "slept in Christ." Thus it may be that he had the best of both worlds. On Ivar , a Viking King (c. 872 ); Vol I; The Birth of Britain. A group of pagan ruffians and pirates had gained possession of an effective military and naval machine, but they faced a mass of formidable veterans whom they had to feed and manage, and for whom they must provide killings. Such men make plans, and certainly their descent upon England was one of the most carefully considered and elaborately prepared villainies of that dark time. On the Danish invasion of England in 892 ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. Without any coherent national organisation to repel from the land on which they had settled the ever-unknowable descents from the seas, the Saxons, now for four centuries entitled to be deemed the owners of the soil, very nearly succumbed completely to the Danish inroads. That they did not was due--as almost every critical turn of historic fortune has been due--to the sudden apparition in an era of confusion and decay of one of the great figures of history. On King Alfred the Great ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. It was Twelfth Night, and the Saxons, who in these days of torment refreshed and fortified themselves by celebrating the feasts of the Church, were off their guard, engaged in pious exercises, or perhaps even drunk. Down swept the ravaging foe. The whole army of Wessex , sole guarantee of England south of the Thames , was dashed into confusion. Many were killed. On King Alfred's defeat by the Danes in January, w:878 ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. Civilisation had been restored to the Island. But now the political fabric which nurtured it was about to be overthrown. Hitherto strong men armed had kept the house. Now a child, a weakling, a vacillator, a faithless, feckless creature, succeeded to the warrior throne. On Ethelred the Unready ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. We have seen that Alfred in his day had never hesitated to use money as well as arms. Ethelred used money instead of arms. He used it in ever-increasing quantities, with ever-diminishing returns … There is the record of a final payment to the Vikings in 1012. This time forty-eight thousand pounds' weight of silver was extracted, and the oppressors enforce the collection by the sack of Canterbury , holding Archbishop Alphege to ransom, and finally killing him at Greenwich because he refused to coerce his flock to raise the money. The Chronicle states: "All these calamities fell upon us through evil counsel, because tribute was not offered to them at the right time, nor yet were they resisted; but, when they had done the most evil, then was peace made with them. And notwithstanding all this peace and tribute they went everywhere in companies, harried our wretched people, and slew them" On Ethelred the Unready's policy; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. It is vain to recount further the catalogue of miseries. In earlier ages such horrors remain unknown because unrecorded. Just enough flickering light plays upon this infernal scene to give us the sense of its utter desolation and hopeless wretchedness and cruelty. On a series of Viking raids; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. The lights of Saxon England were going out, and in the gathering darkness a gentle, grey-beard prophet foretold the end. When on his death-bed Edward spoke of a time of evil that was coming upon the land his inspired mutterings struck terror into the hearers. On the death of King Edward the Confessor in January, 1066 , months before the Norman Invasion ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. On September 28 the fleet hove in sight, and all came safely to anchor in Pevensey Bay . There was no opposition to the landing. The local " fyrd " had been called out this year four times already to watch the coast, and having, in true English style, come to the conclusion that the danger was past because it had not yet arrived had gone back to their homes. On the landing of William the Conqueror at Pevensey ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. William now directed his archers to shoot high into the air, so that the arrows would fall behind the shield-wall, and one of these pierced Harold in the right-eye, inflicting a mortal wound. He fell at the foot of the royal standard, unconquerable except by death, which does not count in honour. The hard-fought battle was now decided. On the death of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings on October 14 , 1066 ; Vol I; The Birth of Britain. Joan was a being so uplifted from the ordinary run of mankind that she finds no equal in a thousand years. She embodied the natural goodness and valour of the human race in unexampled perfection. Unconquerable courage, infinite compassion, the virtue of the simple, the wisdom of the just, shone forth in her. She glorifies as she freed the soil from which she sprang. On Saint Joan of Arc ; Vol I: The Birth of Britain, p. 422 Time after time, history ran over the luddites and romanticists, those who sought to restore the old and delay the new. And every time, history did it with faster, more reliable and more advanced vehicles. On the w:Luddites ; Vol II: The New World, p. 121 By an uncompleted process of terror, by an iniquitous land settlement, by the virtual proscription of the Catholic religion, by the bloody deeds already described, he cut new gulfs between the nations and the creeds. 'Hell or Connaught' were the terms he thrust upon the native inhabitants, and they for their part, across three hundred years, have used as their keenest expression of hatred 'The Curse of Cromwell on you.' … Upon all of us there still lies 'the curse of Cromwell'. On Oliver Cromwell's policies in Ireland ; Vol II: The New World, p. 232 Disputed[ edit ] America should have minded her own business and stayed out of the World War. If you hadn't entered the war the Allies would have made peace with Germany in the Spring of 1917. Had we made peace then there would have been no collapse in Russia followed by Communism, no breakdown in Italy followed by Fascism, and Germany would not have signed the Versailles Treaty, which has enthroned Nazism in Germany. If America had stayed out of the war, all these 'isms' wouldn't today be sweeping the continent of Europe and breaking down parliamentary government — and if England had made peace early in 1917, it would have saved over one million British, French, American, and other lives. Published as having been made in an (August 1936) interview with William Griffin, editor of the New York Enquirer , who was indicted for sedition by F.D.R.'s Attorney General Francis Biddle in 1942. In a sworn statement before Congress in 1939 Griffin affirmed Churchill had said this; Congressional Record ( 1939-10-21 ), vol. 84, p. 686. In 1942, Churchill admitted having had the 1936 interview but disavowed having made the statement (The New York Times, 1942-10-22 , p. 13). In his article "The Hidden Tyranny," Benjamin Freedman attributed this quotation to an article in the isolationist publication Scribner's Commentator in 1936. However, that magazine did not exist until 1939. He may have gotten the date wrong or might have been referring to one of its predecessors, Scribner's Monthly or Payson Publishing's The Commentator . This is the type of arrant pedantry up with which I will not put. "Churchill on Prepositions" , and alt.english.usage at google groups have been the most immediate sources for much of the information which indicates this remark or others like it were probably not remarks actually made by Churchill. The earliest known version makes no mention of Churchill, and appeared in the Strand Magazine, later quoted in the "Pepper and Salt" section of the Wall Street Journal on 1942-09-30 : When a memorandum passed round a certain Government department, one young pedant scribbled a postscript drawing attention to the fact that the sentence ended with a preposition, which caused the original writer to circulate another memorandum complaining that the anonymous postscript was "offensive impertinence, up with which I will not put." The earliest known attribution of this to Churchill appears to be in Plain Words (1948) by Sir Ernest Gowers, who writes: It is said that Mr. Winston Churchill once made this marginal comment against a sentence that clumsily avoided a prepositional ending: "This is the sort of English up with which I will not put". A far more elaborate version also appeared in the Wall Street Journal on the December 9 that same year: The carping critic who can criticize the inartistic angle of the firemen's hose while they are attempting to put out the fire, has his counterpart in a nameless individual in the British Foreign Office who once found fault with a projected speech by Winston Churchill. It was in the most tragic days of World War II, when the life of Britain, nay, of all Europe, hung in the balance. Churchill prepared a highly important speech to deliver in Parliament, and, as a matter of custom, submitted an advanced draft to the Foreign Office for comment. Back came the speech with no word save a notation that one of the sentences ended with a preposition, and an indication where the error should be eliminated. To this suggestion, the Prime Minister replied with the following note: "This is the type of arrant pedantry up with which I will not put." Over the years many variants that seem to have been based on informal anecdotes have arisen including: "This is the type of pedantry up with which I will not put." "This is the sort of bloody nonsense up with which I will not put." The substance of the eminent Socialist gentleman’s speech is that making a profit is a sin, but it is my belief that the real sin is taking a loss. Reported in James C. Humes, Speaker's Treasury of Anecdotes About the Famous (1978), p. 45, as a remark made in the House of Commons responding to a Laborite speech on the evils of free enterprise; reported as unverified in Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations (1989). It is always wise to look ahead – but difficult to look further than you can see. Appears in Churchill By Himself, ed. Langworth, PublicAffairs , p. 576 (“Appendix I : Red Herrings”) : ISBN 158648577 , with the following explanatory note ; "Reported by the usually reliable Graham Cawthorne, but not in Hansard; possibly an aside to a colleague, however" You are a small exclamation mark at the end of a very long and insignificant sentence in the book of history. a remark made in the House of Commons responding to a Laborite speech; reported as unverified in Respectfully Quoted: A Dictionary of Quotations (1989). Bessie Braddock: Winston, you are drunk, and what's more you are disgustingly drunk. Churchill: Bessie, my dear, you are ugly, and, what's more, you are disgustingly ugly. But tomorrow I shall be sober and you will still be disgustingly ugly. Churchill's bodyguard Ronald Golding claims that he witnessed Churchill say this in 1946 to Labour MP w:Bessie Braddock . Golding's claim, made to Churchill expert Richard Langworth, was reported in Langworth's collection Churchill by himself . Langworth adds that Churchill's daughter Lady Soames doubted the story. The basic idea of this joke was published as early as 1882, although it was used to ridicule the critic's foolishness rather than ugliness: " ... are you Mr. —-, the greatest fool in the House of Commons?" "You are drunk," exclaimed the M.P. "Even if I am,” replied the man, "I have the advantage over you – I shall be sober to-morrow, whereas you will remain the fool you are to-day." (1882 August 05, The Daily Republican-Sentinel, His Advantage, p. 5, col. 2, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, cited by Quote Investigator ). Reported as false by George Thayer, The Washington Post (April 27, 1971), p. B6. Often given in a shorter form, e.g " Winston, you are drunk." "Indeed, Madam, and you are ugly—but tomorrow I'll be sober." Churchill's interlocutor may be given as Lady Astor rather than Braddock. Misattributed[ edit ] The Balkans produce more history than they can consume (also reported in the form: The peoples of the Balkans produce more history than they can consume, and the weight of their past lies oppressively on their present.) Although widely attributed to Winston Churchill (e.g. by the President of the British Academy, Professor Sir Adam Roberts [6] ), the quote is spurious. The remark was quoted - although without attribution, and concerning East Central Europe instead - by Margaret Thatcher in her speech, "New Threats for Old," in Westminster College, Fulton, Mo., at a joint commemoration with the Churchill Centre of the "Iron Curtain" speech's 50th anniversary, on 9 March 1996: "It is, of course, often the case in foreign affairs that statesmen are dealing with problems for which there is no ready solution. They must manage them as best they can. That might be true of nuclear proliferation, but no such excuses can be made for the European Union's activities at the end of the Cold War. It faced a task so obvious and achievable as to count as an almost explicit duty laid down by History: namely, the speedy incorporation of the new Central European democracies--Poland, Hungary and what was then Czechoslovakia--within the EU's economic and political structures. Early entry into Europe was the wish of the new democracies; it would help to stabilize them politically and smooth their transition to market economies; and it would ratify the post-Cold War settlement in Europe. Given the stormy past of that region--the inhabitants are said to produce more history than they can consume locally--everyone should have wished to see it settled economically." [7] The sources of Thatcher's quote is likely a passage in the 1911 "Chronicles of Clovis", by Hector Hugh Munro (Saki), referring actually to Crete : "It was during the debate on the Foreign Office vote that Stringham made his great remark that "the people of Crete unfortunately make more history than they can consume locally." It was not brilliant, but it came in the middle of a dull speech, and the House was quite pleased with it. Old gentlemen with bad memories said it reminded them of Disraeli." [8] Power will go to the hands of rascals, rogues and freebooters. All Indian leaders will be of low calibre and men of straw. They will have sweet tongues and silly hearts. They will fight amongst themselves for power and India will be lost in political squabbles. Often cited as from a speech "on the eve of Indian Independence in 1947", e.g. "Anything multiplied by zero is zero indeed!" in Rediff India Abroad (11 April 2007), or even from a speech in the house of Commons, but it does not appear to have any credible source. May have first appeared in the Annual Report of P. N. Oak 's discredited "Institute for Rewriting Indian History" in 1979, and is now quoted in at least three books, as well as countless media and websites. There is no such thing as a good tax. The correct attribution is Oklahoma Senator Thomas Gore, in his speech to the National Tax Association in 1935. [9] [10] . Though it is often attributed to Churchill, there is no evidence he ever said it. If you're not a liberal when you're 25, you have no heart. If you're not a conservative by the time you're 35, you have no brain. The earliest example of this quotation is found in Jules Claretie's Portraits Contemporains (1875), where the following remark is ascribed to lawyer and academic Anselme Polycarpe Batbie: "Celui qui n’est pas républicain à vingt ans fait douter de la générosité de son âme; mais celui qui, après trente ans, persévère, fait douter de la rectitude de son esprit" (English: "He who is not a republican at twenty compels one to doubt the generosity of his heart; but he who, after thirty, persists, compels one to doubt the soundness of his mind"). [11] [12] According to research by Mark T. Shirey, citing Nice Guys Finish Seventh: False Phrases, Spurious Sayings, and Familiar Misquotations by Ralph Keyes, 1992, this quote was first uttered by mid-nineteenth century French historian and statesman François Guizot when he observed, Not to be a republican at 20 is proof of want of heart; to be one at 30 is proof of want of head. (N'être pas républicain à vingt ans est preuve d'un manque de cœur ; l'être après trente ans est preuve d'un manque de tête.) However, this ascription is based in an entry in Benham’s Book of Quotations Proverbs and Household Words (1936): the original place where Guizot said this has not been located. This quote has been attributed variously to George Bernard Shaw , Benjamin Disraeli , Otto von Bismarck , and others. Furthermore, the Churchill Centre , on its Falsely Attributed Quotations page, states "there is no record of anyone hearing Churchill say this." Paul Addison of Edinburgh University is quoted as stating: "Surely Churchill can't have used the words attributed to him. He'd been a Conservative at 15 and a Liberal at 35! And would he have talked so disrespectfully of Clemmie, who is generally thought to have been a lifelong Liberal?" Variants: Any man who is under 30, and is not a liberal, has no heart; and any man who is over 30, and is not a conservative, has no brains. Show me a young conservative and I'll show you someone with no heart. Show me an old liberal and I'll show you someone with no brains. If you are not a socialist by the time you are 25, you have no heart. If you are still a socialist by the time you are 35, you have no head. There is nothing better for the inside of a man than the outside of a horse. According to The quote verifier: who said what, where, and when (2006), Keyes, Macmillan, p. 91 Mark Riebling , "Churchill's Finest Hour," City Journal (November 27, 2009). Full essay online Winston Churchill led the life that many men would love to live. He survived 50 gunfights and drank 20,000 bottles of champagne. [...] And of course, by resisting Hitler, he saved Europe and perhaps the world. Following the pattern set by Julius Caesar in The Gallic War, Churchill wrote books to vindicate policy; but he may also have made policy with an eye toward writing books. If so, the implications are alarming. Did Churchill conceive bold operations, such as the disastrous 1915 Dardanelles offensive, because these would make exciting episodes in the text of his life? A. J. Balfour once joked that Winston had written an enormous book about himself and called it The World Crisis. Was there more truth in that joke than we have so far known? He was the outlier of a new type: the first twentieth-century personality to be famous for being famous. If he toured Africa with 17 pieces of matched luggage, or got hit by a car crossing Fifth Avenue in New York, he wrote about it. His life became a forerunner of reality TV; in today’s terms, he did everything to seek celebrity but release a sex tape. A great question of Churchill biography, therefore, is how this Paris Hilton of British politics became the second coming of King Arthur. What then is the moral of Churchill’s life? He was the twentieth century’s great man, but we must sharply circumscribe his greatness. Because he drew the sword from the stone in 1940, what he did before and after seems admirable. Through his steadfast stance, Churchill rallied the English to die with honor—therefore they deserved to win. Whoever shall seek to save his life shall lose it; and whoever shall lose his life shall preserve it (Luke 17:33). Yet were it not for this one courageous triumph, we might now say of him: Never had one man done so little with so much.	i don't know
In the US, National Ice Cream Day, the third Sunday in July, was designated by which President?	July is National Ice Cream Month \| International Dairy Foods Association July is National Ice Cream Month July is National Ice Cream Month July is National Ice Cream Month In 1984, President Ronald Reagan designated July as National Ice Cream Month and the third Sunday of the month as National Ice Cream Day. He recognized ice cream as a fun and nutritious food that is enjoyed by over 90 percent of the nation's population. In the proclamation , President Reagan called for all people of the United States to observe these events with "appropriate ceremonies and activities." The International Ice Cream Association (IICA) encourages retailers and consumers to celebrate July as National Ice Cream Month. In 2016, National Ice Cream Day will be Sunday, July 17. About 10 percent of all the milk produced by U.S. dairy farmers is used to produce ice cream, contributing significantly to the economic well-being of the nation's dairy industry. Founded in 1900, IICA is the trade association for manufacturers and distributors of ice cream and other frozen dessert products. The association's activities range from legislative and regulatory advocacy to market research, education and training. Its 60 member companies manufacture and distribute an estimated 85 percent of the ice cream and frozen dessert products consumed in the United States. IICA is a constituent organization of IDFA. International Dairy Foods Association Milk Industry Foundation • National Cheese Institute • International Ice Cream Association 1250 H Street, NW, Suite 900 Washington, DC 20005	Ronald Reagan
Bayer Designations relate to which celestial bodies?	National Ice Cream Month 2017 - July, 2017 National Ice Cream Month 2017 National Ice Cream Month on July, 2017: Did you know it's National Ice Cream Month? July, 2017 is National Ice Cream Month 2017. National Ice Cream Month is celebrated each year in July in the United States. President Ronald Reagan designated July 1984 as National Ice Cream Month and July 15, 1984 as National Ice Cream Day with Presidential Proclamation 5219 in 1984. President Reagan recognized the popularity of ice cream in the United States (90% of the nation's population consumes ice cream) and stated that these two events should be observed with "appropriate ceremonies and activities." Today, National Ice Cream Month is celebrated each July and National Ice Cream Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in July, even though the presidential proclamation only mentioned the month and date in 1984. National Ice Cream Month is celebrated each year in July in the United States. President Ronald Reagan designated July 1984 as National Ice Cream Month and July 15, 1984 as National Ice Cream Day with Presidential Proclamation 5219 in 1984. President Reagan recognized the popularity of ice cream in the United States (90% of the nation's population consumes ice cream) and stated that these two events should be observed with "appropriate ceremonies and activities." Today, National Ice Cream Month is celebrated each July and National Ice Cream Day is celebrated on the third Sunday in July, even though the presidential proclamation only mentioned the month and date in 1984. No I didn't! Now I have an excuse to eat loads of ice cream this month(: Which places are giving free ice cream on National Ice Cream Day? The 3rd Sunday in July is National Ice Cream Day according to the following links: (I know the above is overkill but I can't find a link to who maybe giving ice cream out for free. You might phone the ice cream places in your area. That's the only thing I can think of to do.) Good luck and Enjoy! funny national holidays? This is just for the month of July! There's a whole list at the link below National Blueberry Month 3 Compliment Your Mirror Day 3 Disobedience Day 3 Stay out of the Sun Day 4 Independence Day (U.S.) 4 National Country Music Day 4 Sidewalk Egg Frying Day- Hmmmm, I wonder why!?! 5 Work-a-holics Day - even though everyone is on holiday 6 National Fried Chicken Day 7 Chocolate Day 7 National Strawberry Sundae Day 8 Video Games Day 9 National Sugar Cookie Day 10 Teddy Bear Picnic Day 11 Cheer up the Lonely Day 11 World Population Day 12 Different Colored Eyes Day 12 Pecan Pie Day 13 Barbershop Music Appreciation Day 13 Embrace Your Geekness Day 13 Fool's Paradise Day	i don't know
Bump, Campfire, Joust and Pancake are all terms used in which sport?	Glossary of Volleyball Terms Glossary of Volleyball Terms Just heard a word that is unfamiliar? Find the definitions of several common volleyball terms here. Sign Up for Our Free Newsletters Thanks, You're in! Health Tip of the Day Recipe of the Day There was an error. Please try again. Please select a newsletter. Please enter a valid email address. Did you mean ?	Volleyball
According to the television advert, which website gets confused with ‘Compare The Market’?	Volleyball glossary Volleyball glossary The Words, Terms, and Slangs of Volleyball (Additions are encouraged) A first tempo set in the middle of the court just in front of the setter. ABSORPTION Giving with the ball as it is contacted by the passer. (Cushioning) It can take place with certain parts of the body or with the entire body. Using a cushioning effect with the momentum of the ball’s rebound enough to carry it forward or upward with little if any backswing or follow through. A served ball that directly results in a POINT. ANTENNAE Thin poles attached to the net cables placed above the sideline. A ball touching the antennae or their extensions is out of bounds. Balls passing within the antennae are still in play. ATTACK n. the offense v. any method used to return the ball across the net in an attempt to score. The act of jumping into the air to hit the ball from above the level of the net into the opponent’s court A hitter’s “window” in which he/she is capable of attacking a ball in control. BACK-ROW ATTACK A violation committed when a back court player jumps with their foot touching any part of the 3 meter line (or its extension) and attacks a ball above the height of the net. The violation is also committed when a libero hand sets from in front of the 3 meter line and someone jumps to attack it. BACK-ROW BLOCK A violation committed when a back row player contacts an attacked ball from the other team above the height of the net. BACK-ROW PLAYER (back court player) Left Back (LB); Middle Back (MB); Right Back (RB) – according to the serving order. (Serving order positions 5, 6 and 1.) The area between the line 10 feet from the net back to the end line. A type of overhand pass used in setting the ball in a backward direction. Execution of any passing fundamental BLOCK A play by one or more front line players who attempt to intercept the ball just before or as it crossed the net. It can stop, obstruct or decrease the intensity of the opponent’s attack ATTACK BLOCK (HARD BLOCK, OFFENSIVE BLOCK) 1 – returning the ball immediately to the attacker’s court 2 – usually in this type of block, the arms and hands are extended over the net. IT is usually used when the opponent’s sets are tight on the net. AREA BLOCK (SOFT BLOCK, DEFENSIVE BLOCK) 1 – deflecting the ball so that it can be played by a teammate. This type of block protects a defensive area of the court. 2 – blocking with arms and hands extended straight upward. Utilized when a blocker is late or when the opponent’s set is far from the net. It is also used when an attacker is considerably higher than the blocker. See PASS and FOREARM PASS CENTER LINE A four-inch line in width, located directly under the net and running to the sidelines. It divides the court into two equal halves. The international center line is two inches in width. A spike that is hit at a sharp angle toward the side-line. 1 – CUT (See SERVING ORDER POSITIONS for international ZONE numbers) Ex: A player spiking from zone 4 would hit the ball towards zone 4 on the other side. A player hitting from zone 2 would hit the ball towards zone 2 on the other side. 2 – CUT-BACK: a hit going back across the spiker’s body. Ex: A player hitting from zone2 would hit towards zone 5. DEAD BALL A ball not in play following a point, side-out or any other decision of the referee temporarily suspending play. DEFENSE The action by a team when the ball is controlled by its opponents. Defense is primarily a matter of team tactics. However, there are certain individual techniques which attempt to convert the defense to the offense. These include the block, the dig, the dive and the roll. DEFENSIVE SPECIALIST Similar to the libero but with much fewer restrictions, a defensive specialist is used to receive serve or strictly defend. Utilized for their above average ball control, they must follow normal substitution rules. They are permitted to serve and attack the ball from above the height of the net when they are in the backrow. Should the need arise, they can rotate to the front court and play as a front row player if required. DIG 1 – The recovery of an opponent’s spike, made by playing the ball with one or two hands. 2 – A contact of the ball below the waistline with a solid surface formed by the forearms of the heels of the hand. It is used to meet forcefully propelled balls (from serves to spikes) with a cushioning effect (See ABSORPTION). Often a player falls back (half rolls) as he contacts the ball. DINK 1 – An attack in which the ball is hit with relatively little force from the fingertips or wrist. 2 – A faked spike in which the attacking player merely placed the ball on the opposite side of net over the out-stretched hands of the waiting blockers. A defensive technique employed to increase the forward range of motion (ZONE OF EFFECTIVENESS). DIVE AND CATCH The defensive player dives forward, recovers a difficult shot and then lands on his chest and abdomen after being cushioned by his arms and hands. DIVE AND SLIDE The defensive player dives forward, recovers a difficult shot and then touches the floor with his hands and arms, and by their impetus slides forward on his chest and abdomen. This is the who cushioning effect. Most of the energy of the impact is transferred into the sliding motion. DOUBLE-HIT Two hits by the same player separated by the time interval. The legality is embodied in a number of rules, some of which make the double-hit legal and others illegal. A common call by the referee happens when the ball out of a player's hands comes out in a spinning motion. DOWN-BALL A ball which is attacked so weakly that the defnse has a higher percentage recovery by digging rather than blocking. This should be distinguished from a “free-ball.” "Down" is a call for the blockers to stay down and not jump. DOWN-THE-LINE-SHOT A spike directly down the sideline, the sideline from which the spiker is hitting the ball. DRIFTING A common error by blockers. There is undue lateral body movement, as opposed to the desired vertical jump. ENDLINES (BACKLINES) The lines two inches in width running parallel to the net and 30 feet (9 meters) from it. They define the ends of the court. FOOT FAULT An illegal placement of the feet with respect to court lines. 1- SERVING FOOT FAULT (Server): Server’s last contact with the floor, as he strikes the ball, must be within the serving area (and behind the end line). 2- SERVING FOOT FAULT (Other players): All the players, other than the server have to be within the boundaries of the court, but may touch the boundary lines 3- CROSSING THE CENTER LINE – The player may cross the center line so long as a part of the body remains in contact with the center line and the action does not interfere with play or cause a safety concern (discretion by the referee). FOREARM PASS A ball played off the forearms in an underhand manner. The forearms, (UNDERHAND PASS, BUMP) held away from the body, will act as a surface from which the pass can be made. It is used to play served balls, hard-driven spikes and any loose balls dropping near the floor. Usually, this pass is the first contact by a team within its own court. A rule infraction, also called a violation. FOUR HITS A team foul resulting from the ball being hit four times on one side of the net during a normal play. FOUR-TWO (4-2) OFFENSE An offensive system consisting of a line-up of four spikers and two setters. The setter is one of the front-line players who normally rotates into the middle front position after the serve. FREE BALL A non-spiked return of a ball by the opponent that should be easily handled and turned into an offensive play. This should be distinguished from a “down-ball.” Generally speaking a free ball travels in an upward trajectory as it crosses the net. The area from the net back to the line 10 feet from the net. FRONT SET A type of overhand pas used in setting the ball in a forward direction, i.e. the direction that the person setting the ball is facing. FRONT-LINE (FRONT ROW) PLAYER Left – front (LF), Middle Front (MF), and Right Front (RF): according to the serving order. (Serving order positions 2,3 and 4). A set made by a player who has jumped off of the floor. JUMP SERVE - TOPSPIN The server initiates this serve with a high toss as if setting himself. An approach is used to attack the serve giving it the appearance of a spike. JUMP SERVE - FLOAT The server takes an approach similar footwork as an attack approach and contacts the center of the ball so it travels with little to no spin. KILL A spike that cannot be returned and thus directly results in a point or side-out for the spiking team. LATERAL SET A set made in which the setter’s shoulders are approximately parallel to the direction of the path of the ball. Normally, the setter’s shoulders are approximately perpendicular to the path of the ball. LET SERVE A serve contacting the net and continuing into play. Under old rule systems, let serves were a loss of rally and serve was given to receiving team. Nowadays the served ball may touch the net on its way over and the rally continues. LIBERO An Italian word meaning “free,” is a defensive player designated by a contrasting colored jersey who can come on and off the court for any back-row player. Their main responsibilities include receiving serve and playing defense. Rules limit them from overhead setting in front of the 3-meter line and attacking a ball above the plane of the net. Liberos may serve under certain rule systems and may not in others. LIFT A foul in which the ball visibly comes to rest on some part of the body. A ball which hits the line. It is considered to be in bounds. LINE OF FORCE Many techniques, when executed properly, require a virtual straight line between the lowest extremity of the body (the average foot position when setting and the “opposite leg” when spiking), the center of gravity of the body and point of contact with the ball. The initial flight of a set should follow the line of force. The initial flight of a spike should be perpendicular to the line of force. See DOWN THE LINE SHOT LINESMAN/LINESWOMAN The official positioned at the end of the court, responsible for indicated whether a ball is inbounds or out of bounds. The best of two of three, or the best three out of five sets. MATCH-UP BLOCKING A system of blocking where teams manipulate the positions of their front row players to gain an advantage on the other teams attackers. For example: A left side attacker may be blocking in the middle, a middle blocker on the right, and the setter on the left. MIDDLE-BACK DEEP DEFENSE (WHITE OR PERIMETER DEFENSE) A defensive formation displaying two blockers at the net and four men in a cup formation near the court perimeter. The middle back is at the end-line and is responsible for all the deep shots. MIDDLE-BACK-UP DEFENSE (RED) A defensive formation displaying two blockers at the net, one player (the middle back) right behind the block and the three remaining players near the court perimeter. The middle back is responsible for all dinks. MIDDLE BLOCKER Normally a team will display all three of their front court players in preparation to block the opponent’s attack, even though only one or two players may block. The MIDDLE BLOCKER is that blocker who is deployed between the other two blockers as the team is ready to block. MULTIPLE OFFENSE (6-0 or three hitter attack) An offensive system in which all three front court players are expected to attack and a back row player is used as the setter. A three spiker offense in which the ball is set by a back-row player. NET – n. The basic dividing plane between two halves of the court. The volleyball net is 36 inches wide and 32 feet long. It is made of cord meshes 4 inches square. On top of the net is a canvas band 2 inches wide. The net height is 8 feet for men; 7 feet 4-1/4” inches for women. It is supported by a cable attached to suitable anchoring equipment. 1 – to touch the net which constitutes a foul The non-blocking front court player is most standard defensive patterns. OFFENSE The techniques and tactics by the team controlling the ball. IT includes reception of the serve (bump or forearm pass), setting and attacking (spiking) the ball. The serve is also an offensive action. OFFENSIVE PLAYS Virtually all teams run coordinate team patterns or plays much the same as a basketball or football team might run. The following are a few common examples used by teams employing a multiple offense. (Refer to ZONES OF NET AREA). 1 – OPTION FOUR: A play designed to isolate (free from blockers) the left front spiker. Left front expects a 4 set (shoot), middle front expects a 1 set (Jap) and right front expects a regular set. 2 – DOUBLE QUICK: A play designated to isolate the right front spiker. Left front expects a regular set, middle front expects a 1 set and right front expects a back set 2. 3 – X PLAY: A play designated to isolate the right front spiker hitting from the middle front position. Left front expects a regular set, center front expects a Jap set and right front takes a move similar to the double quick but then crosses, behind the CF spikes and hits a 2 set in the middle of the court. OFFENSIVE SYSTEM Many times this term is defined in terms of the number of spikers and setters used. In common definition, the first number referse to the number of spikers and the second refers to the number of setters. For example: 4-2 = a system using 4 spikers and 2 setters ( a two setter attack) 3-3 = three spikers and three setters (the common system of the 1930’s, 40’s and 50’s) 6-6 = a two hitter attack; MF is always the setter – standard in physical education (gym) class procedure - an offensive system of the simplest nature. It can also have a 3-hitter attack (multiple offense) – 6 spikers, 6 setters (back row) 5-1 = five spikers and one setter (sometimes called the International 4-2 – where setter is in the RF position) 6-0 = this term has commonly been used to indicate a multiple offense (see MULTIPLE OFFENSE), in reality according to the above definition, it should be called a 6-2; six spikers – three setters 6-3 = multiple offense – six spikers - three setters. This system avoids the complications found in bringing the setter in from the left back position. OUTSIDE HITTER Primarily used as a left-side attacker and primary passers in serve receive, conventional systems of play use two outside-hitters OH1 follows the setter while OH2 follows the opposite-hitter. In less conventional systems they may be utilized as swing hitters. The act of attacking the second touch. OPPOSITE-HITTER Primarily used to attack from the right sight of the court. They are opposite the setter, denoted by “opposite”-hitter. This position is the most versatile on the court. This players position in the rotational order allows for this player to be a primary passer, passing from the center of the court in every rotation, primary attacker, or the ability to be hidden on the court. OVERHAND PASS A ball played from above the forehead usually with fingertips of both hands. The hands must be in such a position that the passer is able to see the back of his hands. OVERLAP 1 – An illegal placement of the feet with respect to the positioning of players before the ball is served. 2 – A foul committed as players stand in incorrect rotational order before the ball is served. A player’s feet may not overlap the players on either side of him or the players in front and behind him. A first contact that is sent over the net unintentionally. PASS The controlled movement of the ball usually from one player to another on the same team. It may be either a forearm pass or an overhand pass. Usually, this term is applied to the first play of the ball after it has crossed the net and often is applied only to the serve reception (commonly called the BUMP). PANCAKE An emergency defensive move where a player anticipatorally lays his/her hand on the floor (palm facing down) with the intention of having the ball bounce off his/her hand instead of the floor. POINT A point is awarded when an active rally is terminated, the serving team or the receiving team may win the point. PENETRATION 1 – The movement of a back court player into the front court for the purpose of setting. Usually this is done as the team is attempting to execute a multiple offense. 2 – The act of reaching over the net on the block. PLAY-OVER A play-over is the act of putting the ball into play again without awarding a point or side-out. POINT A point is awarded to the serving team only when the receiving team commits a foul. The receiving team cannot earn a point. More than one point scored while maintaining the same server on the baseline. The channel inside the block into which most power spikes are directed. POWER VOLLEYBALL This level of volleyball differs from recreational volleyball in the amount of organization necessary for the highly refined application of team strategy and individual skills. Power volleyball demands a quick and alert, extremely well-coordinated athlete, with great stamina to master its complex skills and playing situations. PURSUIT The act of playing a ball that has traveled outside of the antenae onto the other side of the net and played back to correct side. RALLY (VOLLEY) The chain of events while the ball is in play. The rally begins with the service and ends when the ball is dead (unless there is a question of equilibrium following the dead ball). RANGE OF MOTION (ZONE of EFFECTIVENESS) That part of the playing area in which the player has high probability of making a successful play. RALLY SCORING Unlike sideout scoring where points can only be scored by the serving team, points are scored on each dead ball in rally-scoring whether the team is serving or receiving. This rule was first introduced in 1999 by FIVB (international volleyball federation). READ BLOCKING A system of blocking where the blockers wait and react to the set ball, cueing on clues from the setter while judging the trajectory off the set ball. The body position of a player as he anticipates executing a particular technique. See MIDDLE BACK UP DEFENSE REFEREE The head or chief official, positioned with a view across the top of the net. Also called the 1st referee. A defensive technique often employed to increase the sideward range of motion (ZONE OF EFFECTIVENESS). - FULL (COMPLETE) ROLL – The defensive player lunges sideward, recovers a difficult shot then rolls (360 degrees) over the back and shoulder to regain a defensive position. - HALF-ROLL – A player falls to his back, reverses directions and comes up on his feet again. ROTATION The clockwise movement of players on the court after a side-out has occurred and the opponents have lost the serve. ROUNDHOUSE Action used to strike the ball on a serve or spike. The ball is struck with the arm approximately fully extend which moves generally upward through a large arc of about 180 degrees. SAVE A recover of a ball which would have hit the floor except for an extreme effort of the player, moving well beyond his normal range of coverage. The official charged with accurately recording the score of the game. SCREW-UNDER PASS (BUMP) (SET) A forearm pass or an overhand set made as the passer (setter) is pivoting as he passes (sets) the ball. Usually this pass is concluded by a half roll by the passer. SERVING AREA An area that is equal in width to the baseline and extends infinitely deep behind the endline. The service area shall be a minimum of six feet in depth. In the event that the playing area does not provide space for such a depth, the service area should extend into the court to whatever distance is necessary to provide the minimum six feet. SERVING FOOT FAULT (SERVER) and (OTHER PLAYERS) See FOOT FAULT SERVING ORDER POSITIONS (FLOOR POSITIONS) Starting from the first server, they are Right Back (RB-1), Middle Back (MB-2), Left Back (LB-3), Left Front (LF-4), Middle Front (MF-5), Right Front (RF-6). Serving order should be (RB-1), (RF-2), (MF-3), (LF-4), (LB-5), (MB-6). SERVING SPECIALIST A player who is substituted into the match with the sole purpose of serving. After receiving team sides out, the serving specialist is promptly removed from the match SET To win a set, a team must score 25 points and be ahead by at least 2 points. If the score reaches 24-24 or 14-14 in the 5th set (3rd set under some rule systems), play continues until the winner achieves a two point advantage. However, it is sometimes necessary to use time limits or other maximum scores to determine the winner. SET VARIATIONS The definitions here refer to setting zones: 1 – A low set, usually in the center of the net (zone #5), that travels nearly straight up and is quickly hit by the spiker who is already in the air. It is hit just above the net as it leaves the setter’s hands. Ideally, it is set in such a manner that a spiker attacks the ball while ascending. 2 – A medium low set that travels nearly straight up from the setter’s hands to a height 2 or 3 feet above the net. 3 – A medium set traveling 2-4 feet above the netand coming down half way between the setter and spiker; sometimes used interchangeably with the 31 set (See 31 SET). Regular Set – A high set coming down near the sideline (vertical tape marker). 4 SET (SHOOT SET) – A medium low set traveling 2-4 feet above the net and coming down near the sideline. 31 SET – A low, very quick set (usually in zone #3) just above the net. SETTER (TOSSER) The player assigned to set the ball into the air for the purpose of placing the ball in position for the attack. SET THE BLOCK In most defensive patterns, a particular person will be designated to position the block on any specific offensive player. The player designated to position the block on any specific offensive player. The player designated to position the block has the assignment to SET the BLOCK. See ZONES OF NET AREA. SHADE An adjustment before a rally by blockers. Blockers take one or two steps to either sideline to give themselves a small advantage on an attacker they think may be set. SHORT-SERVE A tactic in which the server serves the ball into zone 2, 3, or 4 (right front, middle front and left front respectively) preferably inside of the 3-meter line. It is designed to upset a team’s offense by pulling attackers out of an ideal position for an approach. SIDE-OUT Side-out occurs when the receiving team wins the point, giving them the serve. In rally-scoring, the team is awarded a point, unlike in side-out scoring. SIDELINES The two lines running the length of the court (60 feet in length) which are parallel to each other and perpendicular to the net. They are two inches in width. SOFT SPIKE (HALF SPEED SHOT, OFF-SPEED SHOT, CHANGE OF PACE) A spike made with considerable less force than a normal spike, often very carefully placed. It is used to gain some tactical advantage. SPIKE (HITTER, ATTACKER) 1 – A forceful method of returning the ball across the net. Usually the third contact by a team within its own court. 2 – The act of jumping in the air and hitting a set ball from above the level of the net. SPIKE COVERAGE A position taken by the offensive players as the spiker spikes the ball, so as to field any ball rebounding from the block. SPIKER The offensive player driving the ball over the net (spiking) in to the opponent’s court. SPLIT BLOCK A team tactic in which there is an intentionally wide space left between the blockers. The space may often be from 1-4 feet. SPRAWL A defensive move where a player places his/her forearms on the floor, while moving forward or side to side, preventing the ball from contacting the floor. When finished, if executed correctly, the player will be sprawled out on his/her stomach. STRONG SIDE (ON SIDE) These are terms indicating spiking or attack zones along the net. The strong side is the left hand side of the net for a right handed spiker and the right side of the net for a left handed spiker. The act of one player entering the game to replace another player. SWING-BLOCKING A rhythm timed blocking method, where the blockers begin “bunched” into the middle of the court and turning, dropping their hands and swinging them like the back swing of an approach. arms to play a ball finishing on the side of his/her hips and torso. SWING OFFENSE Developed by Bill Neville and Doug Beal for the 1984 Olympics, the swing offense utilizes one or two swing hitters who are capable of hitting multiple sets in multiple net zones. They are used to fool blockers by rarely hitting the same set twice. They may pass a ball on the left side of the net and attack a ball on the right. SWITCH An intentional strategic interchange of positions on the court. It can take place only after the ball is contacted by the server. Generally switching occurs amongst the players that are in the same zones of the court, i.e. back row players switching with back row players only, front row players switching with front row players only. A group of six players on one half of the court. The coordinated pattern of a team either on offense or on defnse. A spiker who also functions as a secondary setter. The act of attacking a ball intentionally off the blockers hands/forearms to earn a point A forward spin imparted to the ball during the serve or spike. An international term for the set, similarly tosser means setter. TRAJECTORY The trajectory of an object, such as a ball, must follow the path of a parabola unless object is subject to outside forces. There are two types of deviations which commonly act upon the parabolic arc of a volleyball: 1 – Any spin placed upon the ball causes the deviation to be in a predictable direction 2 – Any non-spinning ball may deviate from the theoretical path in an unpredictable manner. TRANSITION The movement of a team as it changes from one team pattern to another. Normally the term is applied as a team changes from offense to defense or from defense to offense. TRIPLE BLOCK Using the 3 available blockers all at once to block an attacker. Usually occurs on out of system sets where the setter’s intentions are clear early. Also used to stop a dominant attacker. A term commonly applied when playing the 4-2 or 6-6 offenses. See OFFENSIVE SYSTEMS. The governing body of the volleyball in the United States. Official who assists the referee and is positioned on the floor opposite the referee. ZONES OF THE NET AREA (SETTING ZONES) The net is divided into a symmetrical system of nine zones (passing target zone #7). Click here to see a PDF visual of all nine zones. In this system, the height of the set is designated by the second digit. The first digit indicates the zone in which the set is begun. For example: A 23 set will be in zone 2, 3 feet above the net at the peak of its arc. A 68 set will be in zone 6, 8 feet above the net at the peak of its arc. Note – When 0 is the second digit – the set is a normal high set; when 9 is the second digit – the set is a super high set. For example: 10 is a regular set in Zone 1 while 99 is a super-high set in Zone 9. If these numbers are followed by a third number (23-3), this third number indicates how far the set should be from the net. An 82-1 is Zone 8, two feet high and one foot away from the net. This system is now commonly used by the U.S. National Team. Patrick Kohan	i don't know
How many cards are in each suit in a standard deck of cards?	Playing Card Frequencies We use MathJax Playing Card Frequencies A standard deck of 52 playing cards consists of 4 suits, with 13 kinds in each suit. In many card games, the kinds are ranked, and are often referred to as the ranks of the cards. In some games, the suits are also ranked. Image from www.jfritz.com/cards In the picture above, the four rows are the four suits. The clubs are all in the first row, followed by the spades, then the hearts, and last the diamonds. Among the 13 kinds, we find the numbers 2 through 10, and four other kinds. The A stands for ace, the J for jack, the Q for queen, and the K for king. The jack, queen, and king are often referred to as face cards. In many card games, a player has a number of cards, and this is referred to as his hand. In a few card games, the order in which the cards are received will matter, but more often a player receives all of the cards for his hand at one time. It should be noted that when cards make up a hand, the same card cannot appear twice. In other words, selections of cards to create a hand are done "without replacement" (that is, without returning the first card to the deck and replacing it with a second). Determining Frequencies of Different Events The number of ways any particular event can happen will depend upon the number of cards that form a hand. Let us begin with the simplest possible hand, a single card. (Most players would not even consider this a hand, since it has only one card, but mathematicians always include the extreme cases when creating their definitions.) The number of ways to have a heart is 13, since there are 13 hearts. The number of ways to not have a heart is 39, since there are 39 cards that are not hearts. The number of ways to have a queen is 4, since there are 4 queens. The number of ways to not have a queen is 48, since there are 48 cards that are not queens. The number of ways to have a face card is 12, since there are 3 kinds that are face cards, in four suits each. When a hand consists of multiple cards, the events are much more interesting. Suppose a hand consists of three cards. There are ${}_{52} C_3 = 22100$ ways to choose such a hand. Let us consider a single suit, say hearts. The number of ways to have three hearts is ${}_{13} C_3 = 286$, since any three hearts can be chosen from the 13 available hearts to make up the hand. The number of ways to have two hearts and one other card that is not a heart is $({}_{13} C_2)({}_{39} C_1) = 78 \times 39 = 3328$. In this computation, we chose 2 of the 13 available hearts, and one of the other 39 cards to make up the hand. The number of ways to have one heart and two other cards is $({}_{13} C_1)({}_{39} C_2) = 13 \times 741 = 9633$. We chose 1 of the 13 hearts, and two of the other 39 cards to make up the hand. The number of ways to have no hearts at all is ${}_{39} C_3 = 9139$, where we have chosen all 3 cards from the 39 that are not hearts. It can be verified that the four results above in fact add to 22100, the total number of ways that something can happen. The fact that we used hearts as the suit was irrelevant, the same frequencies would occur if the suit had been spades (or diamonds, or clubs). We can do variations on that theme as well. The number of ways to have two hearts and one diamond is $({}_{13} C_2)({}_{13} C_1) = 78 \times 13 = 1014$. Here, we chose 2 of the 13 hearts, and one of the 13 diamonds. The number of ways to have at least two hearts is $({}_{13} C_2)({}_{39} C_1) + {}_{13} C_3 = 78 \times 39 + 286 = 3328$. To do this problem, we had to break "at least two" into the cases "exactly two" and "exactly three". The number of ways to have at least one heart is ${}_{52} C_3 - {}_{39} C_3 = 22100 - 9139 = 12961$. Rather than to break this problem into three cases ("one heart", "two hearts", "three hearts"), we decided it would be easier to recognize "at least one" as the complement of "no hearts", so we subtracted the "no heart" case from the "anything" case. We can also count various groupings of suits, without identifying specific suits. The number of ways to have three cards in the same suit is $({}_4 C_1)({}_{13} C_3) = 4 \times 286 = 1144$. In this computation, we first chose which one suit of the 4 available would be represented, then chose the 3 cards out of the 13 available in that suit. The number of ways to have two cards of one suit and one of another is $({}_4 C_1)({}_{13} C_2)({}_3 C_1)({}_{13} C_1) = 4 \times 78 \times 3 \times 13 = 12168$. Here, we chose one of the 4 suits to be a pair, then 2 cards of the 13 in that suit, then one of the three remaining suits for the single card, then one of the 13 cards in that suit. The number of ways to have three cards of three different suits is $({}_4 C_3)({}_{13} C_1)^3 = 4 \times 13^3 = 8788$. Here, we chose the three suits all at once, then for each suit, identified which one of the 13 cards we would use. Again, we can verify that these three values do add to 22100. Listing all possibilities on a theme, then checking to see that all of the possible combinations have been accounted for, is a very effective way of avoiding errors in your computations. Now let us consider a single kind, say queens. The number of ways to have three queens is ${}_4 C_3 = 4$, since any three queens can be chosen from the 4 available queens to make up the hand. The number of ways to have two queens and one other card that is not a queen is $({}_4 C_2)({}_{48} C_1) = 6 \times 48 = 288$. In this computation, we chose 2 of the 4 available queens, and one of the other 48 cards to make up the hand. The number of ways to have one queen and two other cards is $({}_4 C_1)({}_{48} C_2) = 4 \times 1128 = 4512$. We chose 1 of the 4 queens, and two of the other 48 cards to make up the hand. The number of ways to have no queens at all is ${}_{48} C_3 = 17296$, where we have chosen all 3 cards from the 48 that are not queens. These four values also add to 22100. We can also consider a single kind, without identifying the specific card being sought. The number of ways to have three of the same kind (often simply called "three of a kind" by card players) is $({}_{13} C_1)({}_4 C_3) = 13 \times 4 = 52$. The computation involved identifying the particular kind, then choosing 3 of the 4 cards of that kind. The number of ways to have two of one kind and one of another (known as "one pair" to card players) is $({}_{13} C_1)({}_4 C_2)({}_{12} C_1)({}_4 C_1) = 13 \times 6 \times 12 \times 4 = 3744$. Here, we determined which kind would be the pair, then chose 2 of the 4 of that kind, then which of the 12 remaining kinds would be the other card, and which of the 4 suits for that card. The number of ways to have three cards of all different kinds is $({}_{13} C_3)({}_4 C_1)^3 = 286 \times 4^3 = 18304$. We first chose 3 of the 13 kinds, then for each of those 3 cards, identified which one of the 4 suits would be represented. And as before, we can verify that these three values add up to 22100.	13
What is the name of cartoon character Mickey Mouse’s pet dog?	A standard deck of playing cards contains 52 card... - OpenStudy AccessDenied 5 years ago A standard deck has 13 of each suit. Hearts: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A Diamonds: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A Clubs: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A Spades: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K A We removed the 3 of spades. Our deck of cards now has 51 cards, including only 12 spades. Here I mark the outcomes we want with brackets: Hearts: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q [K] A Diamonds: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q [K] A Clubs: 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q [K] A Spades: [2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q] K [A] "spades or king" => cannot be king and spades We are looking at two events that are not mutually exclusive (we can draw a card that matches both conditions, which would not fit the "or") There is a 12/51 chance of drawing a spades and a 4/51 chance of drawing a king. We cannot include the fourth king of spades as an option (1/51). 4/51 + 12/51 - 1/51 = 15/51 You'd just have to simplify 15/51 Show full answer Not the answer you are looking for? Search for more explanations.	i don't know
Who sang the 1964 hit single ‘Chapel of Love’?	The Dixie Cups, best known for the 1964 hit Chapel of Love \| OldiesMusicBlog The Dixie Cups Posted by diana Nov - 12 - 2010 0 Comment The Dixie Cups are an American pop music girl group of the 1960s. They are best known for their 1964 million selling disc, “ Chapel of Love “. The group hit the top of the charts in 1964 with “Chapel of Love,” a song that Phil Spector, Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich had originally written for The Ronettes. The trio consisted of sisters Barbara Ann and Rosa Lee Hawkins, plus their cousin Joan Marie Johnson, . They first sang together in grade school. Originally they were to be called Little Miss and the Muffets :), but were named The Dixie Cups just prior to their first release. By 1963 the trio had decided to pursue a career in music and began singing locally as the Meltones. Within a year Joe Jones, a successful singer in his own right with the Top Five 1960 single “You Talk Too Much,” became their manager. After working with them for five months, Jones took them to New York, where record producers / songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller signed them to their new Red Bird Records. Their first release, “Chapel of Love,” proved to be their biggest hit, although they had other hits with “People Say” (no. 12, 1964), “You Should Have Seen the Way He Looked at Me” (no. 39, 1964), “Iko Iko” (no. 20, 1965), and “Little Bell” (no. 51, 1965). “Chapel of Love” sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. Source: wikipedia.org	The Dixie Cups
Who played the chimney sweep Bert in the 1964 film ‘Mary Poppins’?	The Dixie Cups · 2017 Tour Dates and Concert Tickets \| Thrillcall Track Artist for New Show Alerts The Dixie Cups are an American pop music girl group of the 1960s. They are best known for a string of hits including their 1964 million-selling record "Chapel of Love", "People Say", and "Iko Iko". Career: The group hit the top of the charts in 1964 w... The Dixie Cups are an American pop music girl group of the 1960s. They are best known for a string of hits including their 1964 million-selling record "Chapel of Love", "People Say", and "Iko Iko". Career: The group hit the top of the charts in 1964 with "Chapel of Love," a song that Phil Spector, Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich had originally written for The Ronettes. The trio consisted of sisters Barbara Ann and Rosa Lee Hawkins; plus their cousin Joan Marie Johnson, from New Orleans. They first sang together in grade school. Originally they were to be called Little Miss and the Muffets, but were named the Dixie Cups just prior to their first release. In 1963 the trio decided to pursue a professional career in music and began singing locally as the Meltones. Within a year Joe Jones, a successful singer in his own right with the Top Five 1960 single "You Talk Too Much," became their manager. After working with them for five months, Jones took them to New York, where record producers/songwriters Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller signed them to their new Red Bird Records. The Dixie Cups debut single was the release, "Chapel of Love," which became their biggest hit reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart in June 1964. "Chapel of Love" sold over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc. In 1987, the song "Chapel of Love" appeared on the Full Metal Jacket soundtrack and in the 1991 film, Father of the Bride. The hit single by The Dixie Cups was ranked #279 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The group also had several other hits including, "People Say" (#12, 1964), "You Should Have Seen the Way He Looked at Me" (#39, 1964), "Little Bell" (#51, 1965), and "Iko Iko" (#20, 1965). "Iko Iko", a New Orleans traditional song, was recorded in 1964 but later was released as a single early in 1965. Barbara Hawkins had heard her grandmother sing the song, first recorded in 1953 as "Jock-a-Mo" by James "Sugar Boy" Crawford. Barbara Hawkins: "We were just clowning around with it during a session using drumsticks on ashtrays. We didn't realize that Jerry and Mike had the tapes running". Leiber and Stoller overdubbed a bassline and percussion, and released it. It was The Dixie Cups' fifth and last hit. In 1965, the Dixie Cups moved to the ABC-Paramount record label before a recording hiatus in 1966 temporarily halted their careers. In 1974 the Hawkins sisters moved from New York to New Orleans, where they both began successful modelling careers. The Hawkins also worked as make-up artists. The Dixie Cups continued to tour as a trio with another New Orleans singer, Beverly Brown, replacing Joan Johnson who became a Jehovah's Witness and left her music career. Brown who had recorded two solo discs in the early 1960s stayed as the third member until the early 80s when she became ill and was replaced by Dale Mickle. The Dixie Cups continue to perform and make personal appearances. The current line-up consists of the same Hawkins sisters along with Athelgra Neville, sister of the singing Neville Brothers. On August 29, 2005, Hurricane Katrina swept through Louisiana, flooding and flattening most of New Orleans and displacing Barbara and Rosa Hawkins, who subsequently relocated to Florida. Joan Johnson relocated to Texas. Two years later in April 2007, The Louisiana Music Hall Of Fame honored The Dixie Cups for their contributions to Louisiana music by inducting them into The Louisiana Music Hall of Fame.	i don't know
Harry Redknapp is associated with which British sport?	Harry Redknapp talks about why he has no faith in the FA - BBC Sport BBC Sport BBC Sport - Harry Redknapp talks about why he has no faith in the FA Harry Redknapp: ‘Why I have no faith in the FA’ 28 Jun 2016 From the section Football Harry Redknapp says he has lost faith in the Football Association and backs Glenn Hoddle to be next England manager. Redknapp said: "I don’t really have a lot of faith in them, we’ve had Sven-Goran Eriksson. It’s scary, they’re going to make the right decision someday but I won’t be alive to see it.” This clip is originally from 5 live Daily on Tuesday 28 June 2016.	Football
How many events make up a pentathlon?	Sports Sports Matt Bai 1 / 501 New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady celebrates a touchdown by running back Dion Lewis during the second half of an NFL divisional playoff football game against the Houston Texans, Saturday, Jan. 14, 2017, in Foxborough, Mass. (AP Photo/Charles Krupa) Reblog	i don't know
In the children’s novel ‘Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland’ by Lewis Carroll, which birds are used as croquet mallets?	SparkNotes: Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland: Chapter 8: The Queen’s Croquet Ground Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland Lewis Carroll Chapter 8: The Queen’s Croquet Ground → Chapter 7: A Mad Tea Party Chapter 9: The Mock Turtle’s Story Summary Alice enters the garden and meets three gardeners in the shape of playing cards. The gardeners Two, Five, and Seven bicker with each other as they paint the white roses on the rose trees red. Upon noticing Alice, the gardeners explain that they have planted white rose trees by mistake and must paint them red before the Queen of Hearts finds out. Just then, the Queen arrives, surrounded by a great entourage of living playing cards. The gardeners scramble to their bellies to bow before the Queen, who asks for Alice’s name with great severity. Alice answers the Queen graciously and realizes she should not be afraid, as they are simply a pack of cards. The Queen asks Alice about the trembling gardeners. Alice responds flippantly, prompting the Queen to call for Alice’s beheading until the King calms her down. Upon discovering what the gardeners were doing, she orders their decapitation and moves on. Alice saves the gardeners by hiding them in a flower pot and going off with the Queen to play croquet. When she arrives at the croquet match, Alice finds out from the White Rabbit that the Duchess is under sentence of execution for boxing the Queen’s ears. Alice has a difficult time adjusting to the curious version of croquet played by the Queen. The croquet ground is ridged, the croquet balls are live hedgehogs, and the mallets are live flamingos. The various playing cards stand on all fours to form the arches that the balls are hit through. As she plays, the Queen apoplectically shouts for everyone’s decapitation. Alice attempts to slip away from the croquet match, but catches sight of the Cheshire Cat’s grin. The Cheshire Cat asks her how she is getting on, and Alice begins to complain about the Queen’s unusual behavior. The King notices the conversation and attempts to bully the Cheshire Cat, but it refuses to give in to the King’s taunts. The King becomes aggravated and calls for the Queen to remove the Cheshire Cat. The Queen carelessly orders its decapitation, but the executioner and the King cannot agree on how to execute the Cheshire Cat, who at this point is only a head floating in midair. They appeal to Alice, who suggests that they get the advice of the Duchess, who owns the Cheshire Cat. By the time the Duchess arrives, the Cheshire Cat has completely vanished. Analysis When Alice reaches the garden, she hopes that it will fulfill her desires, but her experience in the garden proves to be as frustrating as the rest of Wonderland. Alice has sought out the garden since she first glimpsed it in chapter one. The garden occupies a central role not only in Alice’s quest but also in Wonderland. The garden is the seat of power for the King and Queen of Hearts, and the use of the card suit of hearts underscores the idea that the garden is the heart of Wonderland. Alice quickly discovers that the garden provides no great experience of enlightenment. The rules and practices of the garden are just as idiosyncratic and maddening as the rest of the locales she has visited. The beds of bright flowers she pined for are nothing more than ridges and furrows, and the roses are painted red rather than being naturally beautiful. The garden is not an idyllic place of calm pastoral beauty, but an artificially constructed space that becomes a source of anxiety and fear for Alice. Alice has grown accustomed the unusual social hierarchy of Wonderland, but the discovery that an inanimate object rules as Queen shakes Alice’s fragile understanding of her surroundings. Before her arrival in the garden, Alice experienced an inverted hierarchy in which animals have a measure of authority and treat her as an inferior. Alice has become accustomed to following the orders of the likes of the White Rabbit. She discovers in the garden that all of these animals are the subjects of an inanimate object, a Queen who is a playing card. In Alice’s world, inanimate objects register below animals in the social hierarchy (assuming that inanimate objects would fit into a “social” hierarchy at all). The Queen acts not only as a ruler, but as a ruthless authoritarian with a penchant for ordering her subjects’ beheadings. She utilizes living creatures as objects, playing croquet using hedgehogs, flamingos, and her playing-card subjects as equipment. Wonderland completely reverses the conventions of the aboveground world, so that inanimate objects rule the land and use living creatures as tools. Alice starts to realize that she may have more power in Wonderland than she realized. Once she figures out that the Queen and her procession are merely a “pack of cards,” she demonstrates a previously unseen courage. She talks to the Queen with great insolence, attacking the illusion of Wonderland’s power. Though she stands up for herself, she doesn’t yet attempt to assert control over the Queen. However, the fact that the gardeners, the king, and the executioner have deferred to Alice and asked her for help in mediating conflict indicates that they believe she has some measure of authority. Ultimately, Alice only has to wake up to destroy Wonderland and all of its inhabitants. However, she remains “uneasy” as she plays croquet with the Queen, since a dispute might bring an early end to her dream and prohibit Alice from ever figuring out the point of Wonderland.	Flamingo
Which is the only bird in the Chinese Zodiac?	'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' Review 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' Review 'Alice's Adventures in Wonderland' Review Books. Levent / iStockphoto By James Topham About.com Rating Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is one of the most famous and enduring children's classics. The novel is full of whimsical charm, and a feeling for the absurd that is unsurpassed. But, who was Lewis Carroll? Lewis Carroll (Charles Dodgson) was a mathematician and logician who lectured at Oxford University. He balanced both personas, as he used his study in the sciences to create his eminently strange book. Alice's Adventures in Wonderland is a charming, light book--that reputedly pleased the Queen Victoria (she asked to receive the author's next work, and was swiftly sent a copy of An Elementary Treatment of Determinants). Alice's Adventures in Wonderland: Overview The book begins with a young girl, Alice, bored whilst sat by a river, reading a book with her sister. Everything seems perfectly normal and serene; there could be nothing more in keeping with the bourgeois Victorian world in which Carroll lived. Then Alice catches sight of a small white figure, a rabbit dressed in a waistcoat and holding a pocket watch, murmuring to himself that he is late. continue reading below our video What are the Seven Wonders of the World Alice runs after the rabbit and follows it into a hole. After falling down into the depths of the earth she finds herself in a corridor full of doors. At the end of the corridor there is a tiny door with a tiny key through which Alice can see a beautiful garden that she is desperate to enter. She then spots a bottle labeled "DRINK ME" (which she does), and begins to shrink until she is large enough to fit through the door. Unfortunately, she has left the key that fits the lock on a table, now well out of her reach. She then finds a cake labeled "EAT ME" (which, again, she does), and is restored to her normal size. Disconcerted by this frustrating series of events, Alice begins to cry and, caught unawares by a change in size not precipitated by food or drink, she shrinks and is washed away in her own tears. This strange beginning leads to a series of progressively "curiouser and curiouser" events, which see Alice baby-sit a pig, take part in a tea party that is held hostage by time (and so never ends), and engage in a game of croquet in which flamingos are used as mallets and hedgehogs as balls. She meets a number of extravagant and incredibly characters--from the Cheshire Cat (whose habit of making enigmatic pronouncements is only matched by his tendency to disappear) to a caterpillar smoking a hookah, and being decidedly contradictory. She also, famously, meets the Queen of Hearts who has a penchant for execution (almost continually proclaiming of those who she does not like, "Off with their heads"). The book reaches its climax in the trial of the Knave of Hearts, who is accused of stealing the Queen's tarts. A good deal of evidence is given against the unfortunate man (most of which is entirely nonsensical), and a letter is produced which only refers to events by pronouns (but which is supposedly damning evidence). Alice, who by now has grown to a great size, stands up for the Knave and the Queen, predictably, demands her execution. As she is fighting off the Queen’s card soldiers, Alice awakes, realizing she has been dreaming all along. Carroll's book is episodic and revels more in the situations that it contrives than in any serious attempt at plot or character analysis. Like a series of nonsense poems or stories, created more for their puzzling nature or illogical delightfulness, the events of Alice's adventure are people with incredible but immensely likable characters and a master's feel for the eccentricities of language. One feels that Carroll is never more at home than when he is playing, punning, or otherwise messing around with the English tongue. Although the book has been interpreted in numerous ways (from a allegory of semiotics theory to a drug-fueled bad trip), perhaps it is this playfulness that has ensured it success over the last century. Brilliant for children, but with enough hilarity and joy for life in it to please adults too, Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, is a love book with which to take a brief respite from our over-rational and sometimes dreary world. Study Guide	i don't know
How many ‘Steps’ are there in the novel by John Buchan?	The Thirty-Nine Steps eBook by John Buchan - 9786050311983 \| Kobo Show more Show less The Thirty-Nine Steps is an adventure novel by the Scottish author John Buchan. It first appeared as a serial in Blackwood's Magazine in August and September 1915 before being published in book form in October that year by William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh. It is the first of five novels featuring Richard Hannay, an all-action hero with a stiff upper lip and a miraculous knack for getting himself out of sticky situations. The novel is set during May and June 1914; Europe is close to war and spies are everywhere. Richard Hannay has just returned to London from Rhodesia in order to begin a new life, when a freelance spy called Franklin P. Scudder calls on him to ask for help. Scudder reveals to Hannay that he has uncovered a German plot to murder the Greek Premier and steal British plans for the outbreak of war. Scudder claims to be following a ring of German spies called the Black Stone. John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir (1875–1940) was a Scottish novelist and historian. Buy the eBook	39
What is the cube root of 1,000?	The Thirty-nine Steps : John Buchan : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive Topics librivox , audiobook , mystery , spies LibriVox recording of The Thirty-nine Steps by John Buchan. Reading by Adrian Praetzellis. Richard Hannay’s boredom is soon relieved when the resourceful engineer is caught up in a web of secret codes, spies, and murder on the eve of WWI. This exciting action-adventure story was the inspiration for Alfred Hitchcock’s 1939 classic film of the same name. John Buchan (1875-1940) was Governor General of Canada and a popular novelist. Although condemned by some for anti-Semitic dialog in The Thirty-Nine Steps, his character’s sentiments do not represent the view of the author who was identified in Hitler’s Sonderfahndungsliste (special search list) as a “Jewish sympathiser.” (Summary by Adrian Praetzellis) For further information, including links to online text, reader information, RSS feeds, CD cover or other formats (if available), please go to the LibriVox catalog page for this recording. Reviewer: notmyname - favoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - May 16, 2010 Subject: Fun book, very good recording Enjoyable mystery/adventure book -- the last chapter in particular builds tension to great effect. The reader struck me as excellent and very appropriate. The recording quality is very good, except for a few distortions (mainly in chapters 5 and 6, when some Scottish accents come into play). Reviewer: forprogress - favoritefavoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - April 7, 2010 Subject: Much Better Than the Hitchcock Movie (and the Movie is Pretty Good) This is the most exciting reading of a book that I've come across. Mr. Praetzellis an archaeologist by trade like the arch-villain the chief of the Black Stone in this book is brilliant in his reading. It has taken several listenings to understand that the novel is all about safe-cracking and acccess to state secrets-- with The 39 Steps being the combination to cracking the master safe crackers' safe. As a psycholgical and intellectual thriller it is very satisfying to see the hero who has wasted talents at the beginning of the novel rise to the occasion and show what can be done when ego does not get in the way of doing one's best work. Reviewer: macropod - favoritefavoritefavorite - April 23, 2009 Subject: Great voice Umm. Not sure I agree with the last reviewer. I found the story lacked continuity in places, and the ending was for me a fizzler. However, the reader (Adrian Praetzellis) was excellent and I aggree that his voice characterisations were first class, especially the Scottish farmer. It was truly unintelligibly authentic. Reviewer: FNH - favoritefavoritefavoritefavoritefavorite - July 24, 2008 Subject: Free Audio, Review As a fan of the story, the moment I saw this I was hitting the download button. I find the story exciting, thrilling and a real joy. The hero is a man of action, not a trained spy, not a dyed in the wool hero, just Johnny on the Spot who's prepared to do his bit. There are chases, disguises and secret codes to top it off with all of the standard spy story requirements. It's an excellently put together story and I have to say the reader in this case was just as excellent as the story itself. The story opens with the protagonist bored out of his skull, and the reader portrays this perfectly. Later when things start to liven up, the reader lives up to that as well with excitement and threat(!) in his voice. As a huge bonus his voice characterisations are a delight. This is a MUST LISTEN title from Librivox. To read more of my reviews visit ( http://freeaudioreview.blogspot.com/ ) DOWNLOAD OPTIONS	i don't know
By what name is British DJ Norman Cook better known?	Fatboy Slim - Music on Google Play Fatboy Slim About the artist Norman Quentin Cook, also known by his stage name Fatboy Slim, is an English DJ, musician and record producer/mixer. As a solo electronic act, he has won ten MTV Video Music Awards and two Brit Awards. His records as Fatboy Slim also helped to popularise the big beat genre, which achieved mainstream popularity in the 1990s. Cook first rose to fame in the 1980s as the bassist of the indie rock band The Housemartins who scored a UK number-one single with their a cappella cover of Isley-Jasper-Isley's "Caravan of Love". After the band split, Cook formed Beats International whose début album spawned their signature hit, "Dub Be Good to Me" which was another UK number-one as well as going on to become the seventh best-selling single of 1990 in the UK. Cook then went on to join numerous other acts including Freak Power, Pizzaman and The Mighty Dub Katz to moderate success. Cook adopted the Fatboy Slim moniker in 1996 and released Better Living Through Chemistry to critical acclaim. 1 $9.49 Palookaville is the fourth studio album by English big beat musician Fatboy Slim, released on 4 October 2004, approximately four years after the previous one. Football club Brighton and Hove Albion... 1 1 $8.99 Better Living Through Chemistry is the debut studio album by the English big beat producer Fatboy Slim, released on 23 September 1996 by Skint Records internationally and by Astralwerks in the Unit... 1 1 $16.49 Here Lies Love is a concept album and rock musical made in collaboration between David Byrne and Fatboy Slim, about the life of the former First Lady of the Philippines Imelda Marcos along with the... 1 The Chemical Brothers 0 The Chemical Brothers are an English electronic music duo composed of Tom Rowlands and Ed Simons, originating in Manchester in 1989. Along with The Prodigy, Fatboy Slim, The Crystal Method, and fel... 0 The Prodigy 0 The Prodigy are an English electronic music group from Braintree, Essex, formed by Liam Howlett in 1990. The members were originally Liam Howlett, Keith Flint, Maxim, Leeroy Thornhill, and a female... 0 Basement Jaxx 0 Basement Jaxx are an English electronic music duo consisting of Felix Buxton and Simon Ratcliffe. The pair got their name from the regular night club they held in their hometown of Brixton, London,... 0 0 Pizzaman were a British electronic music duo consisting of John Reid and Norman Cook. Their debut album, 'Pizzamania', was released in 1995. The album spawned three singles; all of which reached th... 0 Groove Armada 0 Groove Armada are an English electronic music duo, composed of Andy Cato and Tom Findlay. They achieved chart success with their singles "I See You Baby" and "Superstylin'". The group has released ... 0 Apollo 440 0 Apollo 440 are an English band formed in Liverpool in 1990. Apollo 440 have written, recorded and produced five albums, collaborated with and produced other artists, remixed as Apollo 440 and as am... 0 Propellerheads 0 Propellerheads were a British big beat musical ensemble, formed in 1995 and made up of electronic producers Will White and Alex Gifford. The term propellerhead is slang for a nerd, and when Gifford... 0 Armand Van Helden 0 Armand van Helden is an American DJ, record producer, remixer and songwriter from Boston, Massachusetts. He was one of the main proponents of the speed garage genre, remixing various artists such a... 0 Utah Saints 0 Utah Saints are an English electronic music group based in Leeds, Yorkshire. The band's members, Jez Willis and Tim Garbutt, were joined on-stage by additional musicians when they played live from ... 0 Leftfield 0 Leftfield is a British electronic music group formed in 1989. It began as the duo of Neil Barnes and Paul Daley. In January 2010 Barnes resurrected Leftfield without Daley and, after touring for a ... 0 Audio Bullys 0 Audio Bullys are an electronic music act from London, originally consisting of Simon Franks and Tom Dinsdale. The group were once managed by the DJ and presenter George Lamb. Franks and Dinsdale re...	Norman Cook
Who plays Stephen in the 2012 film ‘Django Unchained’?	Famous at 50 - Telegraph MORE... Norman Cook is better known as British DJ and musician Fatboy Slim. After starting his career with indie band The Housemartins, he came to fame in 1996 with the release of debut album Better Living Through Chemistry. As a DJ, Cook has won 10 MTV Video Music Awards and two Brit Awards. Picture: Rex and PA	i don't know
An Austringer is a person who hunts with which creature?	Hunting mythical creatures \| Stuff.co.nz Hunting mythical creatures Last updated 00:51 27/01/2008 Relevant offers Big cats, `extinct' songbirds, moa, native otters there's a zoo-ful of shy and mysterious creatures roaming the countryside if New Zealand's cryptozoologists are to be believed. Are they just chasing dreams or is the truth out there? Kim Knight reports. It was a dark and stormy night. OK, says Vicki Hyde, president of the New Zealand Skeptics, so it wasn't stormy. But it was dark. And there was something out there. Big, black, bulky. Just sitting there, watching. "We stared. It stared back." She threw a shoe. It didn't move. "Too big for an ordinary cat. Too still for a dog. Too quiet for a possum." A quick dash inside and the outside lights went on to reveal: an upended bucket. "Did we feel silly? You bet." It can happen to anyone, says Hyde. Mistaken identification leads to incorrect assumptions and misperceptions, she writes in her new book Oddzone. "It doesn't mean you're foolish or stupid or insane. Just human." And humans love a good mystery. Is there a yeti in the Himalayas? A Nessie in the Loch? A moose in Fiordland? The hunt for a remnant population of moose liberated in New Zealand bush in the early 1900s is more than three decades old. So is the search for the South Island kokako, last reliably sighted in the 1950s and 60s. Student filmmakers recently went on the trail of a mysterious black cat in Canterbury. And now moa are back in the headlines, with news that next month, an Australian researcher will cross the ditch to find a colony of the giant birds in Te Urewera. Who are these people who devote lifetimes to the hunt for the unknown? Ken Tustin, 62, has amassed around 600 nights in the Fiordland bush trying to prove the existence of moose. The closest he has come is the collection of stray hairs, DNA-tested by scientists in Canada, who say his theory is almost certainly correct. "I read articles saying I'm obsessed," says Tustin. "I think [my story] tells kids, hey, in 2008, there are some great adventures still to be had. There are unsolved things and wonderful mysteries out there." He knows he'll need photographs to silence the critics some people say the hairs prove nothing more than that the hunter has been hoaxed. Tustin, and his wife Marg, have had remote cameras in the bush for years. "We've probably put about 10,000 camera nights into it." So far, no moose "and about 2000 red deer". He says it's a lovely personal challenge. Ad Feedback "Man thinks he controls the planet but, in effect, we're being outfoxed by a very large, charismatic animal." For researchers like Tustin, and 60-year-old Rhys Buckingham, who is convinced the South Island kokako still exists, the common thread is begrudging admiration for their prey. "How come you can't find a thing the size of a horse?" Buckingham asks Tustin. "How is it you can't find a stupid squawking crow?" retorts Tustin. What keeps the pair going? "You've got to have some mystery in your life," says Buckingham who is fitting in a phone interview around two three-day dance parties. He says the South Island kokako is an incredible songbird and he believes he has collected numerous tape recordings of the bird that's been dubbed "the grey ghost". Naysayers reckon he's simply recorded tui. "I used to be more obsessed when I thought there was a chance to save it from extinction," says Buckingham. "I'm getting more disillusioned now, with what appears to be a calamity facing much more common birds, with stoat and rat plagues. I think I'm too late, I haven't been successful... it would be so magnificent to save it from extinction." THE MOOSE and the kokako did, at least, once exist. But are there other, more mysterious creatures roaming New Zealand? In 1966, the Encyclopaedia of New Zealand included a section headed "Animals, Mythical". "Numerous tales of monsters, ogres, goblins and fairies, and weird `hairy men' who devoured unwary travellers and waylaid hunting parties have long been part of Maori lore," it said. "In all probability, such tales of water-dwelling monsters and other huge reptiles known as kumi were nothing more than distorted folk memories of the crocodile of the western Pacific or Asia." The entry gives slight credence to the waitoreke an aquatic, otter-like creature. Julius von Haast was believed to have acquired a portion of skin from the supposed animal. Charles Darwin wrote a letter, now held by the Alexander Turnbull Library, querying its existence: "If I have not utterly exhausted your patience, I should be particularly obliged if you would inform me whether you think the evidence is really good that there formerly existed some animal (with hair?) like an otter or Beaver: I am much surprised at this. Could it not have been any water bird or reptile?" Lemuel Lyes, archival researcher with Natural History New Zealand, says the existence (or otherwise) of the waitoreke is important even if it is now extinct. "If it could be proven to have existed once, then perhaps that would shatter some conceptions about New Zealand's natural history." Here's a theory: New Zealand is rumoured to have been visited by Tamil explorers. Te Papa Museum records the 1836 discovery of a ship's bell, inscribed with ancient (at least 500 years old) Tamil script, being used by Whangarei Maori as a cooking pot. As it happens, says Lyes, Tamil sailors were known to use tame otters to catch fish. "Maybe, pre-Tasman days, some Tamil lost their otter?" Lyes says it's feasible a small number of the animals could exist undetected. "We're supposed to have this huge population of stoats and weasels and things, yet how many New Zealanders have actually seen them? What's to stop small pockets of otters living in some sanctuary down south?" Cryptozoologists the name given to people who study creatures whose existence has not been substantiated say there is a very good chance of discovering unknown animals in New Zealand. According to Hawke's Bay-based researcher Tony Lucas, "We still have many areas in the South Island which remain relatively unexplored. These remote regions hold the best hope of harbouring a new, or previously thought extinct, species." This is the country, after all, that gave up the takahe half a century after it was thought to be extinct. The Chatham Islands taiko had not been seen for 111 years until it was dramatically rediscovered on New Year's Day in 1978. And as recently as 2003, the New Zealand storm petrel, gone for 150 years, was sighted off the coast of Whitianga. But how about those reports of a giant black cat in Canterbury? Last year, Mark Orton, a former film student who now works for Natural History New Zealand, trekked the region collecting eyewitness sightings for a documentary called Prints of Darkness. "I can only tell you what I saw," Toni May tells the camera. "I can't tell you what it is." If it was a feral cat, says another interviewee, "it was an Arnold Schwarzenegger of a cat". The rogue panther is an international cryptozoology mystery similar stories frequently circulate in United Kingdom and Australian media. "The characters we featured in our film were not nutters," says Orton. "They firmly believe in what they saw." His personal theory? "I think there's possibly a rather large breed of feral cats. They've probably thrown up the black gene through years of interbreeding. Through their stealth and willingness to survive, the black cats have had the biggest success and they're the ones thrown up more often than not." The filmmakers based themselves at Panther's Rock Tavern, Mayfield. The pub got its name in retrospect and now hangs a mock big-cat road sign in the bar. Orton says locals laugh at the story of giant felines. "They've made fun of people in the community who have been open enough to admit the story. Some of the people we ended up putting in the film didn't go to the mainstream media because they didn't want the exposure." REX GILROY knows how they feel. The 64-year-old bills himself as the "father of Australian cryptozoology". Next month, he and his wife Heather will travel to New Zealand to search for moa in Te Urewera where they claim to have previously found moa tracks and a nesting site. "A lot of people are frightened to go to the media," says Gilroy. "They [the media] play it up as a joke but it may affect the life's work of some serious researcher. I just say we've got to be prepared to keep an open mind and investigate the evidence. "You've got to be born for this sort of work," Gilroy tells the Star-Times. "As an open-minded field researcher, I prefer to look for the evidence rather than dismiss something out of hand because a textbook says it's extinct." He will go back to a site he says is home to "maybe half a dozen" small, scrub moa. And that's not all. Gilroy says years ago, he found "tracks of bare human footprints, not too large ... but I've often wondered who was getting around in the middle of nowhere, in the forest." Could it be the mysterious Moehau New Zealand's version of the Big Foot mystery? Gilroy is keeping an open mind. "It's difficult for me, because I've got to differentiate between hoax sightings and believable ones ... like some road workers, in the pouring rain, about 10 years ago, in the Eglinton Valley before the Milford Tunnel. They were in a shed, waiting for the rain to stop, and on the edge of the jungle were two birds emerging from the bush, about eight feet [2.4m] in height. And they were chewing leaves off trees ... I get to know when someone's telling the truth. You can tell embellishments." Gilroy says "you've got to be a bit eccentric in this business. If people think you're a little bit crazy, they leave you alone so you can do your work. "I want people to question, to draw their own conclusions. I think you can do no more greater service to man than make him think." - Sunday Star Times	Hawk
What is the surname of Roger Daltry’s character Tommy in the 1975 film ‘Tommy’?	Predators: Facts (Science Trek: Idaho Public Television) Predators: Facts What is a Predator? Predators are wild animals that hunt, or prey on, other animals. All animals need food to live. Predator animals need the flesh of the animals that they kill to survive. Weasels, hawks, wolves, mountain lions, and grizzly bears are all predators. Predators are carnivores , which means their diet consists of meat. Some predators, such as coyotes and bears, are also scavengers , meaning they will eat the carcasses of animals that they didn't hunt themselves. Opposite of predator, you have prey — the animals predators hunt and eat. Prey animals can be anything from the smallest insect to a 1400 pound bull moose. Some prey animals are herbivores , meaning they eat plants. Other prey species are omnivores , which means they will eat plants or animals. Most times, the word predator brings to mind an image of snarling teeth and slashing claws. While many predators fit this image, many others do not. Predators come in many sizes and shapes. They can be as tiny as a bug or as large as a polar bear. What does a ladybug eat? You're right, other animals! What about that beautiful American robin that we welcome spring with? Yes, another predator! Are you getting the idea? Predators are animals that eat other animals. They're not bad guys. They're just creatures trying to feed themselves; they get hungry just like you and me. “Making a living” to them is finding enough food to eat. They don't have the option of going to the grocery store or the drive-in. The Role of Predators Predators are part of a food chain , the process of passing energy from one organism to the next. Plants are the first link in the food chain; they use the sun's energy to make food. Plants are called the producers . Plant eaters, also called herbivores, enter the picture next. Predators such as birds and foxes join the food chain by eating the plant eaters and are known as primary consumers . These predators may become food for the next animal up the chain. Predators that eat primary consumers are known as secondary consumers, which are also eaten by tertiary consumers or quaternary consumers . All of these are just layers of animals that eat from the lower layers. Finally you have your apex predator . This is the predator at the top of the food chain. Most natural communities have several food chains that interconnect. This is called a food web . When a food web is drawn, it looks like a pyramid with the apex predator at the top and the plants eaters at the bottom. Plant eaters are the most abundant part of the web. A food chain or a food web allows a small amount of the sun's energy to be passed along through each animal. When an animal dies, it decomposes , or breaks down, and provides the soil with nutrients that help plants to transform the sun's energy into food once again. Balance of Nature The relationship between predators and prey is often described as the balance of nature. A natural ecosystem does have a degree of balance — the number of plants and animals in an ecosystem tends to remain within a certain limit, which is not too great or not too small. Predators, however, are not the only factor that affects a population. A variety of things cause the abundance of a species, including predators, food availability, the competition with other species, disease, and even the weather. It is said that the predators in a particular area control the populations of prey species. In this way, the prey species won't overpopulate and destroy the habitat. This seems logical enough, but it is too simple to fully explain what goes on in nature. One thing to remember is that populations of predators and prey do not remain constant. There are many factors which cause their respective numbers to rise and fall. Where Do Predators Live? Predators can be found on any continent of the world. Hot desert climates, icy cold polar climates, rainforests, jungles, mountain tops, valleys, oceans, and lakes. Predators are found in nearly every habitat known to us. Vertebrate Predators Animals with an internal skeleton made of bone are called vertebrates . Vertebrates include mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and fish. Although vertebrates represent only a very small percentage of all animals, their size and mobility often allow them to dominate their environment. Invertebrate Predators Animals that do not have a back bone are called invertebrates . Invertebrates are cold-blooded — this means their body temperature depends on the temperature of their environment. Some major groups of invertebrates include amoebas, sponges, jellyfish, corals, tapeworms, flukes, insects, arachnids, crustaceans, mollusks, and echinoderms. There are more species of invertebrates than any other group on the earth. Learn more about invertebrates and find out about the kinds of animals that fall into this category by visiting The National Wildlife Federation . Carnivorous Plants Did you know there are even plants that are “meat-eaters”? The Venus fly trap is one you've probably heard of. They are small plants found in North and South Carolina. They grow in nutrient poor soil, so they need insects to provide what they need to survive. In Idaho, we have two carnivorous plants, sundews and bladderworts. They can be found in bogs near wetlands. Each plant has unique ways to catch and eat food. To learn more about carnivorous plants, visit botany.org . Hunting Strategies The way a predator hunts, catches and kills food is determined by many factors such as the adaptations of the predator and the prey, and the type of habitat they live in. The strategies commonly used by predators are: The Chase Hawks are among the many predators that catch their prey by chasing it. Chasing takes both time and effort to make a successful capture. To be successful, predators that chase their prey must concentrate on species that will provide enough nutrition to offset the energy burned while chasing. This is one reason why the hawk tends to eat more rodents and birds than grasshoppers. Grasshoppers just don't provide enough food value to justify the effort it takes to catch them. The Stalk Herons use a different technique, the stalk . Standing motionless in shallow water or wading slowly along the shore, the heron patiently searches for prey. When a heron sees its prey it captures it with a quick lunge of its long, sharp beak. This method does not require much energy. The downfall is the amount of time it takes to search for food. A stalking predator can afford to choose smaller prey and still meet its energy requirements. The Ambush The alligator prefers to lie still and wait. This method of hunting requires little effort, but chances of getting food are low. The cold-blooded alligator has minimal energy requirements. It can get by with infrequent meals. Most ambush hunters are fairly small because a successful ambush depends on the predator avoiding detection until it strikes. Teamwork Some animals hunt in teams. Wolves, lions, hyenas, coyotes and killer whales will usually live and hunt in family teams. Not only can they pursue larger and sometimes faster prey, but family groups can protect their little ones from other large predators. There's even a tropical insect that hunts as part of a team. South American army ants travel in the tens of thousands and devour every living thing in their path — insects, snakes, livestock, rats and mice. There aren't many creatures that can withstand marching army ants! Tools of the Predators and Prey Adaptations are physical characteristics or behaviors that help a plant or animal survive. Adaptations may help an animal move, reproduce, secure its food, or defend itself against its enemies. Brought together by a common need — to locate, subdue, and consume their prey — many predators display similar adaptations. Vision Vision is often the most important sense for a predator. A predator's eyes are usually located in front of its head. The forward location of the eyes gives an animal binocular-type vision. The area that each eye sees overlaps, so the brain receives two slightly different messages about the same scene. This helps a predator determine how far away prey is. It also tells the predator how fast its prey is moving. Birds and insects must have the ability to catch prey in the air. A bird of prey's telescope-like vision can be eight times stronger than ours. Some predators rely on more sets of eyes than just one! Spiders and scorpions have clusters of six to eight eyes. Some of the eyes form the image. Others estimate distance, and still others detect motion. It's amazing though, even with eight eyes, a spider can only see about 1 foot in front of its face. Predators which hunt at night ( nocturnal predators) have special mirror-like structures in the back of their eyes. These structures help the animal to see in the dark. Deep sea animals have the same structures. Hearing Most predators have a very good sense of hearing. In mammals, external ear flaps can be swiveled forward or backward in order to pinpoint the direction of a sound. The ears of bats are often highly specialized, with strange shapes that help catch the echoes of the calls they make as they fly. Birds can hear very well, too. Owls are thought to have the most outstanding hearing of any animal. Their ears are offset, which means one is higher than the other. Some animals don't need ears to hear. Instead, they rely on vibrations they feel in their bodies. This is another way of pinpointing the source of sounds. Ground vibrations from moving prey animals are transmitted through the bones of salamanders and snakes to the nerves near their ears. Sharks can monitor vibrations in the water with a lateral-line system. Fluid-filled canals lie just beneath the shark's skin along the sides of its head and body. The canals are filled with small pores open to the water. Underwater noises or motion cause a vibration that strikes these open pores. A shark tunes into the vibration and looks for its next meal. Smell Some predators can smell a meal from a mile away! Foxes are even able to smell food which is buried under two feet of soil. Some use their sense of smell to follow the footsteps or tracks of an animal. A shark has outstanding smelling ability, but it works a bit differently. Their nostrils are not for breathing, but are used for sensing odor. Water flows in and out of the nostrils. A shark is able to identify the different smells found in the water from 2 miles away! Snakes use their tongues to smell. You might see a snake flicking its tongue around. The snake is not getting ready to bite, it is smelling the air by picking up dust particles. These particles are carried to taste detectors in the snake's mouth. The taste tells snakes what animals are near. How Predators Prey Predators have different weapons that are used to kill and eat prey. The specific “weapons” they have are also considered adaptations. Three of a predator's main weapons are sharp teeth, claws and jaws. The teeth are used to help kill the prey and are used as “knives and forks” while eating the prey. Most animals have three kinds of teeth. In the front, you'll find incisors . These are used to cut food. On the sides, you'll see longer teeth, called canines , which are used for tearing chunks of flesh off of the prey. Canine teeth can also be used to kill the prey by piercing the neck or throat. Molars are found towards the back of the mouth. They are flat and strong and used to chew or grind. Some animals, such as crocodiles and sharks, have long, cone shaped teeth. These are used for grasping the prey and pulling it underwater. When underwater, the prey will drown enabling the predator to eat it. Jaws, as well as teeth are important adaptations to seize and subdue their prey. Powerful muscles provide leverage and gripping power at the front part of the jaws. Some snakes are able to unhinge their jaws. This allows them to swallow a meal which is much larger than the snake's own head! In some cases, beaks take the place of teeth. Each beak tells a story about its owner. Long beaks are used for probing, hooked beaks are for tearing, thick ones are for crunching seeds, thin ones are for picking insects. Beaks provide birds with a lightweight alternative to a mouthful of teeth. Like hollow bones, they are an adaptation for flying. Sharp claws are also powerful weapons. Birds of prey have powerful claws, called talons , which help the raptor to grab its prey. Most big cats have claws that they use to grip and tear. They are able to pull in these claws when walking or running. This keeps them sharp. Moles and hedgehogs use their claws to dig up insects. In the same manner, grizzly bears dig up roots and burrowing rodents. Of course, on the grizzly, the claws are on the “tip of the weapon.” A grizzly's powerful paw can bring an animal down with one swipe. Some predators use their tongues as effective weapons. A chameleon has one of the fastest tongues. It shoots its sticky tongue, which is coated with a glue-like substance, out towards the prey to capture it for swallowing. Did you know anteaters have tongues as long as a person's arm? This adaptation helps an anteater to reach areas where he or she needs to reach. Another hunting weapon is poison. Snakes use their poison, which comes from their fangs, to paralyze or kill their prey. A spider releases strong digestive enzymes that turn their prey's insides to liquid. A straw-like mouth enables the spider to suck up the liquid. Wasps and scorpions paralyze their prey by using powerful stingers. A jellyfish uses its deadly tentacles to inject venom into its prey. Camouflage Camouflage is an adaptation that is used both by predators and by prey. Nature provides many ways for animals to make themselves hard to see. Both predators and prey use camouflage. Prey use it to hide themselves from predators, and predators use it to keep their prey from knowing they're coming after them! See how camouflage works at The Exploratorium . One type of camouflage is when an animal's coloring is similar to its surroundings. Now you know why desert animals are often brown and jungle animals are often green. Another type is called counter-shading. A counter-shaded animal is darkest on the top of its body and lightest on the bottom. From a distance these animals seem to turn into one color and look flat. A third type of camouflage is called disruptive coloration — this is patterns of strongly contrasting, non-repeating markings such as spots or stripes. A zebra has this type. Its stripes help it to hide when it is grazing near trees and bushes. Does a tiger have disruptive coloration? Why? Here are some more camouflage stategies: Some animals change color with the season. This helps them to blend in with their surroundings when their surroundings change. Imitation, or mimicry, is another form of camouflage. This is when an animal looks like a member of another species or like an object in its environment, such as when a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf. Bright coloration, which seems the opposite of camouflage, is another form of self-defense when used to warn animals to stay away. Brightly colored animals are often poisonous or have an unpleasant taste.	i don't know
Which 1975 Judith Rossner novel is based on the events surrounding the brutal murder of 28 year old New York school teacher Roseann Quinn?	Roseann Quinn \| Crime scene \| Mediander \| Topics image credit Roseann Quinn Roseann Quinn (November 17, 1944 – January 2, 1973) was an American schoolteacher in New York City who was stabbed to death in 1973. Her murder inspired Judith Rossner's 1975 novel Looking for Mr. Goodbar, which was adapted as a 1977 film directed by Richard Brooks and starring Diane Keaton. Quinn's murder also inspired the 1977 account Closing Time: The True Story of the "Goodbar" Murder by New York Times journalist Lacey Fosburgh. Roseann Quinn (November 17, 1944 – January 2, 1973) was an American schoolteacher in New York City who was stabbed to death in 1973. Her murder inspired Judith Rossner's 1975 novel Looking for Mr. Goodbar, which was adapted as a 1977 film directed by Richard Brooks and starring Diane Keaton. Quinn's murder also inspired the 1977 account Closing Time: The True Story of the "Goodbar" Murder by New York Times journalist Lacey Fosburgh. How Roseann Quinn Connects to Crime scene The crime scene had been effectively sanitized. from Roseann Quinn The crime scene had been effectively sanitized. from Roseann Quinn Crime scene A crime scene is any location that may be associated with a committed crime. Crime scenes contain physical evidence that is pertinent to a criminal investigation.This evidence is collected by crime scene investigators (CSIs) and Law enforcement.The location of a crime scene can be the place where the crime took place, or can be any area that contains evidence from the crime itself. Scenes are not only limited to a location, but can be any person, place, or object associated with the criminal behaviors that occurred. After a crime scene has been discovered, it is important that measures are taken to secure and protect the scene from contamination. In order to maintain the integrity of the scene, law enforcement must take action to block off the surrounding area as well as keep track of who comes in and goes out. By taking these precautions, officers can ensure that evidence that is collected can be used in court. Evidence that has become contaminated, tampered with, or mistreated can pollute the scene and cause a case to be thrown out of court. It is important that everything that occurs during the analysis of a crime scene is documented. It is the job of the initial responding officer to make sure that the scene has an extremely coherent and summarized documentation. The documentation should include the officers observations and actions while at the scene. The initial responder is in charge of documenting the appearance and condition of the scene upon arrival. The initial responder will also gather statements and comments from witnesses, victims, and possible suspects. Several other documents are also generated so that a crime scene's integrity is kept intact. These documents include a list of who has been in contact with evidence (chain of custody), as well as a log of what evidence has been collected.	Looking for Mr. Goodbar
St Andrews Road, Anderson Bridge and Raffles Boulevard are all sections of the Formula One Grand Prix track in which country?	Looking for Mr. Goodbar (1977) - ShareTV Looking for Mr. Goodbar Add to My Movies This film has gained historic value, being one of Richard Gere's very first in a major part as a bipolar, crazy sex-athlete - two years before 'American Gigolo'. But it is really Diane Keaton's film. Based on the novel from 1975 by Judith Rossner, which provoked much discussion, because a woman back then was not supposed to lead a double life as a precious school teacher during the day and a bar-cruiser at night. Also noteworthy for being one of the very first films with Tom Berenger,… Read More This film has gained historic value, being one of Richard Gere's very first in a major part as a bipolar, crazy sex-athlete - two years before 'American Gigolo'. But it is really Diane Keaton's film. Based on the novel from 1975 by Judith Rossner, which provoked much discussion, because a woman back then was not supposed to lead a double life as a precious school teacher during the day and a bar-cruiser at night. Also noteworthy for being one of the very first films with Tom Berenger, here as a naked gay transvestite, perhaps regretted later in his career of action films. Nudity and sex, and the plot starts off with harsh social realism until Gere's interesting character enters after 44 minutes. Read Less	i don't know
Which animal is known as River Horse?	The animal known as river horse is the ----- :: Answer it on Navbharattimes QnA The animal known as river horse is the ----- अतिरिक्त जानकारी कुल व्यूज: 120 \| कुल जवाब: 2 \| रेटिंग सवाल को रेट करें आपकी रेटिंग दर्ज हो गई है। इसे ईमेल करें क्या आप इस पेज को अपने दोस्तों के साथ शेयर करना चाहेंगे सिर्फ इस फॉर्म को भरें और उन्हें अपना एक लिंक भेजें आपका नाम कोमा द्वारा दूसरे ईमेल आईडी को अलग करें आपका मेसेज हिंदी (इन्स्क्रिप्ट) \| हिंदी (अंग्रेज़ी अक्षरों में) \| English लिंक हिंदी (इन्स्क्रिप्ट) \| हिंदी (अंग्रेज़ी अक्षरों में) \| English दिखाएँ जवाब को रेट करें दरियाई घोड़ा जवाब को रेट करें जानते हैं जवाब, यहां पोस्ट करें भड़काऊ, अभद्र और अश्लील कॉमेंट करनेवालों को ब्लॉक कर दिया जाएगा। कृपया इस आसान-से सवाल का जवाब दें. पूछें सवाल अक्षर बाकी हैं: 300/300 कॉलेज शिक्षा के अन्य सवाल i am doing bsc(hons.) biotechnology(2nd year) so can i do msc(hons) in agriculture biotech ??? \| 1 जवाब how to learn to speak english? \| 1 जवाब दिल्ली विश्व विद्यालय के कई कॉलेजो की कट ऑफ लिस्ट 98% से 100% हैतो ऐसे मे क्या यह अधिक उचित नही होता कि कॉलेज एडमिशन के लिये... \| 1 जवाब साइन इन मेडल जीतने के लिए थर्ड अंपायर QnA स्टार थर्ड अंपायर वेबसाइट पर आपत्तिजनक कॉमेंट खोजें और दर्ज करें। अगर आपकी आपत्ति सटीक पाई जाती है और ऐसा करते हुए आप इस मेडल के लेवल 5 पर पहुंच जाते हैं तो आपको आपत्तिजनक कॉमेंट डिलीट करने का अधिकार दिया जाएगा। कॉमेंटेटर कॉमेंट कीजिए और मेडल जीतिए। किसी खबर, फोटो या ब्लॉग पर कॉमेंट करके आप बन सकते हैं एनबीटी कॉमेंटेटर। भंवरा nbt.in पर रोज मंडराएं और भंवरा बन जाएं। वेबसाइट को बनाएं अपना खबरों का अड्डा। रोज आएं। बिग बॉस आप अगर अपनी राय से दूसरों को प्रभावित कर सकते हैं, तो जीत सकते हैं बिग बॉस का मेडल। आपके कॉमेंट्स से अगर लोग सहमत होते हैं, उन्हें रिकमेंड करते हैं तो आपको मिलेगा बिग बॉस। सुपर रीडर ज्यादा से ज्यादा खबरें पढ़िए, विडियो देखिए, फोटो गैलरी देखिए और बन जाइए एनबीटी सुपर रीडर। इनबॉक्स चैंप अपने इनबॉक्स में पाएं टॉप खबरें। हमारा न्यूजलेटर सब्सक्राइब करें और पाएं यह मेडल - इनबॉक्स चैंप। मेंबर Nbt.in पर रजिस्टर कीजिए और मेंबर बन जाइए। मेंबर बनने के बाद ही आप एनबीटी पर कोई मेडल पा सकते हैं। इसलिए अभी रजिस्टर कीजिए और सबसे पहले जीतिए मेंबर मेडल। रीडर्स लीडर nbt.in पर रीडर लीडर बनने के लिए अपना नेटवर्क बढ़ाएं। जितने ज्यादा लोग आपको फॉलो करेंगे, उतना ही बड़ा होगा आपका नेटवर्क। जितना बड़ा नेटवर्क, उतना बड़ा लीडर। शेयर किंग शेयर करके आप जीत सकते हैं शेयर किंग का मेडल। nbt.in पर ज्यादा से ज्यादा खबरों, तस्वीरों या ब्लॉग्स को शेयर और रिकमेंड कीजिए। सोशल गुरु nbt.in पर अपने अकाउंट को अपने फेसबुक और ट्विटर अकाउंट से जोड़कर आप पा सकते हैं सोशल गुरु का मेडल। ध्यान रहे, दोनों अकाउंट्स को जोड़ना होगा। दर्शक नंबर 1 फिल्म देखिए, nbt.in पर उसका रिव्यू लिखिए, रेटिंग कीजिए और बन जाइए एनबीटी के दर्शक नंबर 1। मास्टरमाइंड nbt.in अपना ब्लॉग परिवार के सदस्य बनिए। अपना ब्लॉग बनाइये और पोस्ट लिखकर जीतिए मास्टरमाइंड का मेडल। QnA स्टार nbt.in QnA सेक्शन का हिस्सा बनिए। सवाल पूछिए और बन जाइए QnA स्टार।	Hippopotamus
In the Painting ‘The Last Supper’ by Leonardo Da Vinci, who is said to be seated on the right-hand side of Jesus?	Horse Magic, Folklore and Legends Horse Magic, Folklore and Legends Horse Magic, Folklore and Legends Horses appear in numerous myths and legends. Image by Arctic Images/Stone/Getty Images Updated April 18, 2016. The Magic of the Horse Over the course of time, many animals have developed a great deal of magical symbolism. The horse in particular has been found in folklore and legend in a variety of cultures; from the horse gods of the Celtic lands to the pale horse found in Biblical prophecy, the horse features prominently in many myths and legends. How can you capture the magical energy of horses, and incorporate it into your magical workings? A Celtic Goddess Epona was a goddess of horses honored by the Celtic tribe known as the Gauls. Interestingly, she was one of the few Celtic deities who were celebrated by the Romans, and they celebrate her in an annual festival every December 18. The Festival of Epona was a time when worshipers paid tribute to horses, erecting shrines and altars in their stables, and sacrificing animals in Epona's name. Scholars say that the reason Epona was adopted by Romans was because of their military's love of the horse. Roman cavalry members honored her with temples of her own. Legend holds that Epona was born to a white mare who was impregnated by a man who didn't much like women. According to Plutarch, Fulvius Stella "loathed the company of women," and so decided to focus his desire on the mare instead. Although this story of Epona's birth is the popular one, it is a very unusual beginning for a Celtic deity. In many sculptures, Epona is represented by symbols of fertility and abundance, such as cornucopias, along with young foals. She is typically portrayed either riding, usually side-saddle, or taming a wild horse. Many households, particularly those who kept horses or donkeys, had statues of Epona on their household shrines. Epona is venerated in other areas; the Welsh Rhiannon is an adaptation of Epona's role as goddess of the horse. The Magical Horse of Odin In Norse mythology, Odin, the father of all gods , rides on an eight-legged horse named Sleipnir. This powerful and magical creature appears in both the Poetic and Prose Eddas. Images of Sleipnir have been found on stone carvings dating back as far as the eighth century. Many scholars believe that Sleipnir, with his eight legs instead of the usual four, is representative of the shamanic journey, which implies that this horse’s origins may go far back into Proto-Indo-European religion. Horses in Divination In Old Norse Religion in Long-Term Perspectives, authors Anders Andren, Kristina Jennbert, and Catharina Raudvere tell of the use of the horse as a divinatory tool by early Western Slavic tribes. This method, called hippomancy, involved the breeding of sacred horses to be used as oracles. Divination was performed when a horse walked over two spears placed in the ground in front of a temple. The pattern in which the horse stepped over the spears - including whether or not a hoof touched the spears - all helped the shamans determine the outcome of the matter at hand. Sometimes, a horse is representative of doom and despair. Death is one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse, and each of the four rides a different colored horse. In the Book of Revelations, Death arrives on a pale horse: "And I looked, and behold a pale horse: and his name that sat on him was Death, and Hell followed with him. And power was given to them over the fourth part of the earth, to kill with sword, and with hunger, and with death, and with the beasts of the earth." Interestingly, this Death image is repeated in the Tarot , as the Death card is typically portrayed as arriving on the back of a pale horse. However, it's important to remember that this card doesn't actually mean physical death - instead, it's symbolic of transformation and rebirth. In that context, one might almost look at the horse as a guide on the journey to a new beginning. If horses are magical, and can walk or fly between the worlds, perhaps the horse's presence indicates a recognition that this change is not just material or physical, but that it goes all the way into our soul. Horses and Fertility Magic During the Beltane season, there are Hobby Horse celebrations in many parts of the United Kingdom and Europe. Beltane is a time of lust and sex and fertility, and few symbols are as representative of this as the hobby horse. In England, the hobby horse tradition goes back to the island's early Pagan roots, as the hobby horse welcomes in the fertility season. These festivals are tied to early pre-Christian fertility rituals , as the horse symbolizes the masculine energy of the season. The early Romans recognized the horse as a symbol of fertility as well. Jack Tresidder says in his Complete Dictionary of Symbols that every year in the fall, Romans sacrificed a horse to Mars, who was not only a god of war but of agriculture as well. This was done in thanks for a bountiful harvest, and the horse's tail was kept in a place of honor over the winter, to ensure fertility the following spring. Later, the horse evolved from a fertility symbol into a role as messengers from the spirit world. Horses and Protection Magic Hang an iron horseshoe , open end facing down, to keep evil spirits out of your home. A horseshoe found along the side of a road was particularly powerful, and was known to provide protection against disease. In addition to the horseshoe, the skull of a horse is often found in folk magic. In some countries, it is believed that the horse is able to detect malevolent spirits, so keeping a skull around once your horse has died makes sense. Horse skulls have been found under hearthstones and doorways in several locations in England and Wales. In fact, in Elsdon, Rothbury, an interesting discovery was made in 1877 during the renovation of the town church. According to the town’s official website , "When the church was being repaired in 1877 three horses' skulls were discovered in a small cavity just above the bells. Possibly placed there as a pagan protection against lightning or to improve the acoustics or even as an act of sanctification they are now in a case in the church." In his work Teutonic Mythology, Jacob Grimm explains some of the magic behind the head of a horse. He relays the tale of a Scandinavian bard who was banish ed from the kingdom by King Eirek and Queen Gunhilda. As revenge, he created what was called a nithing-post, designed to put a curse upon an enemy. He placed a stake in the ground, stuck a horse's head on it, and turned it to face into the kingdom, sending a hex to Eirek and Gunhilda. This apparently wasn't a new idea, even at that time. According to folklorist Robert Means Lawrence, in his work The Magic of the Horse Shoe, the "Roman general Caecina Severus reached the scene of Varus' defeat by the German tribes under their chieftain Arminius, in the year 9 A.D., near the river Weser, he saw numbers of horses' heads fastened to the trunks of trees. These were the heads of Roman horses which the Germans had sacrificed to their gods."	i don't know
Which US fashion designer directed the 2009 film ‘A Single Man’?	A Single Man (Soundtrack) - 01 Stillness of the Mind - YouTube A Single Man (Soundtrack) - 01 Stillness of the Mind Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Jan 10, 2010 A Single Man is a 2009 American drama film based on the Christopher Isherwood novel of the same name. It was directed by famous fashion designer Tom Ford, who had to finance it himself, as it was his directorial debut. The film stars Colin Firth as the protagonist George Falconer, a gay British university professor living in Southern California in 1962. Music Composer: Abel Korzeniowski & Shigeru Umebayashi Performer : Various Artists	Tom Ford
‘El Draque’ was the Spanish nickname of which English sea captain and privateer?	A Single Man (2009) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error From $9.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC An English professor, one year after the sudden death of his boyfriend, is unable to cope with his typical days in 1960s Los Angeles. Director: Christopher Isherwood (novel), Tom Ford (written for the screen by) \| 1 more credit » Stars: a list of 28 titles created 18 Feb 2012 a list of 21 titles created 14 Mar 2014 a list of 21 titles created 05 Aug 2014 a list of 24 titles created 21 Aug 2014 a list of 32 titles created 08 Jun 2015 Title: A Single Man (2009) 7.6/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 1 Oscar. Another 34 wins & 51 nominations. See more awards » Videos A wealthy art gallery owner is haunted by her ex-husband's novel, a violent thriller she interprets as a symbolic revenge tale. Director: Tom Ford Larry Gopnik, a Midwestern physics teacher, watches his life unravel over multiple sudden incidents. Though seeking meaning and answers amidst his turmoils, he seems to keep sinking. Directors: Ethan Coen, Joel Coen Stars: Michael Stuhlbarg, Richard Kind, Sari Lennick The story of how the novel "Mrs. Dalloway" affects three generations of women, all of whom, in one way or another, have had to deal with suicide in their lives. Director: Stephen Daldry A linguistics professor and her family find their bonds tested when she is diagnosed with Alzheimer's Disease. Directors: Richard Glatzer, Wash Westmoreland Stars: Julianne Moore, Alec Baldwin, Kristen Stewart The story of Harvey Milk , and his struggles as an American gay activist who fought for gay rights and became California's first openly gay elected official. Director: Gus Van Sant The story of a forbidden and secretive relationship between two cowboys, and their lives over the years. Director: Ang Lee Strange events happen in a small village in the north of Germany during the years before World War I, which seem to be ritual punishment. Who is responsible? Director: Michael Haneke Two girlfriends on a summer holiday in Spain become enamored with the same painter, unaware that his ex-wife, with whom he has a tempestuous relationship, is about to re-enter the picture. Director: Woody Allen Two children conceived by artificial insemination bring their biological father into their non-traditional family life. Director: Lisa Cholodenko Colin's a sad-eyed British artist holed up in a rundown hotel in small-town Vermont after being dumped by his fiancée. The hotel owner plays matchmaker and introduces him to a local girl. ... See full summary » Director: Mark Herman Edit Storyline It's November 30, 1962. Native Brit George Falconer, an English professor at a Los Angeles area college, is finding it difficult to cope with life. Jim, his personal partner of sixteen years, died in a car accident eight months earlier when he was visiting with family. Jim's family were not going to tell George of the death or accident, let alone allow him to attend the funeral. This day, George has decided to get his affairs in order before he will commit suicide that evening. As he routinely and fastidiously prepares for the suicide and post suicide, George reminisces about his life with Jim. But George spends this day with various people, who see a man sadder than usual and who affect his own thoughts about what he is going to do. Those people include Carlos, a Spanish immigrant/aspiring actor/gigolo recently arrived in Los Angeles; Charley, his best friend who he knew from England, she who is a drama queen of a woman who romantically desires her best friend despite his sexual ... Written by Huggo Rated R for some disturbing images and nudity/sexual content \| See all certifications » Parents Guide: 5 February 2010 (USA) See more » Also Known As: $217,332 (USA) (11 December 2009) Gross: Did You Know? Trivia In the original novel, George is only known by his first name. The original screenplay gives him a full name, George Carlyle Falconer. Carlyle director Tom Ford 's middle name. Falcone is the surname of Ford's first lover, illustrator Ian Falconer, and the name of a brand of sunglasses Ford's company makes. See more » Goofs The white Corvette in the parking lot is a 1963 Stingray. The split rear window was only available in 1963. Production started in 1962, and it could be an early delivery. See more » Quotes George : The bathroom's just down the hall, if you'd like to take a shower. Kenny : Aren't you taking a shower too, Sir? George : Oh, I'm fine, I'm English, we like to be cold and wet. Cinema doesn't get much better than this 24 September 2009 \| by larry-411 (United States) – See all my reviews I attended the North American Premiere of "A Single Man" at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival. This is the first foray into film for esteemed fashion designer Tom Ford, directing from his own script based on the Christopher Isherwood novel. In a word, "A Single Man" is a triumph. It is easily one of the most Oscar-deserving films of the year. Colin Firth's performance screams "Best Actor" (which he did win at the Venice Film Festival), Julianne Moore is exquisite, and Nicholas Hoult (About a Boy, Skins) is on his way to stardom. I was simply awestruck. The curtain rises on a despondent George (Firth) having lost his longtime partner. Sapped of energy and will, he struggles to wake each day and function as the brilliant college professor he's expected to be. Few notice the change in him, but one student sees George as a magnet pulling him forward to a place even he doesn't understand. Kenny (Hoult) seems to glow like an angel in George's dark world and, yet, is a puzzle and presents a challenge which he doesn't necessarily want to confront at this stage in his life. As is his custom, he turns to Charlotte (Moore) for a warm shoulder but the temperature drops amidst the chill surrounding George's bleak existence. Everything about this film -- the look, colors, pacing, shots, composition, cinematography, costumes, soundtrack -- says that an extraordinary amount of love and care went into it. Special mention to director of photography Eduard Grau and editor Joan Sobel for their keen abilities to work lockstep with Ford in projecting his vision onto the screen. Abel Korzeniowski's score is haunting and moving. Despite his design genius, Ford was generous enough to entrust costume designer Arianne Phillips with the freedom to work unencumbered. Production designer Dan Bishop, with art direction by Ian Phillips and set decorator Amy Wells, created two worlds -- a cold, stark one in which George sees only hopelessness, and another warm, colorful one in which he has hope. What stays with the viewer, though, is the enigmatic friendship between George and Kenny. Nicholas Hoult is absolutely mesmerizing in this. The way Ford shot him made people gasp. He's lit, framed, and shot like an Adonis. Of course, that's the idea here. This will definitely be a break out role for the 19-year-old. The camera loves him, and it's a pretty daring performance. Most of all, this is a tour de force for Firth and a stunning achievement which is destined to be a highlight of his distinguished career. The range of emotions and the extent to which his character must convey them through his eyes and facial expressions, with the copious use of long takes without dialogue, left me wide-eyed with wonder. This is the stuff of great movies. They don't get much better than this. 236 of 305 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	i don't know
In the Jewish calendar, what is the third month of the religious year called?	What are the names of the Jewish months? - miscellaneous the jewish calendar What are the names of the Jewish months? Although the Jewish New Year is on the first of the Jewish month Tishrei refers to the Jewish months as beginning from Nissan (around March), the month in which the Jewish people left Egypt. So here they are beginning from Nissan: 1. Nissan (March/April), contains the holiday Passover —pronounced ee-yahr—(April/May), contains the Second Passover and Lag b'Omer .* 3. (June/July), contains the fast day 17th of Tammuz .* 5. (July/August), contains the fast day Tishah B’av .* 6. (August/September), month of introspection leading up to the New Year. 7. Tishrei (September/October), contains (October/November)—commonly known as Cheshvan. 9. (December/January), contains the fast day 10th of Tevet .* 11. (January/February), contains Tu Bishvat (New Year for trees).* 12. (Febuary/March), contains the fast of Esther and the holiday of Purim Please email me when new comments are posted (you must be logged in ). Email to a friend Loading... Torah Torah is G–d’s teaching to man. In general terms, we refer to the Five Books of Moses as “The Torah.” But in truth, all Jewish beliefs and laws are part of the Torah. Passover A Biblically mandated early-spring festival celebrating the Jewish exodus from Egypt in the year 1312 BCE. Rosh Hashanah The Jewish New Year. An early autumn two day holiday marking the creation of Adam and Eve. On this day we hear the blasts of the ram's horn and accept G-d's sovereignty upon ourselves and the world. On Rosh Hashanah we pray that G-d should grant us all a sweet New Year. Sukkot A seven day autumn festival commemorating the miracle of the Heavenly Clouds which enveloped the Jews while traveling in the desert for forty years. On this holiday we dwell in makeshift booths and shake the Four Species. Shevat The eleventh month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to January-February. Tishrei The seventh month of the Jewish calendar. This month, which arrives in early autumn, has more holidays than any other month: Rosh Hashanah, Yom Kippur, Sukkot and Simchat Torah. Yom Kippur Day of Atonement. This late-autumn high-holiday is the holiest day of the year. We devote this day to repentance and all healthy adults are required to fast. Purim A one-day holiday celebrated in late winter commemorating the miraculous deliverance of the Jewish people from a decree of annihilation issued by Persian King Ahasuerus in the year 356 BCE. Chanukah An eight day mid-winter holiday marking: 1) The miraculous defeat of the mighty Syrian-Greek armies by the undermanned Maccabis in the year 140 BCE. 2) Upon their victory, the oil in the Menorah, sufficient fuel for one night only, burned for eight days and nights. Adar The twelfth month on the Jewish calendar. This month (which falls out approx. February-March), is the most joyous month on the calendar due to the holiday of Purim which is on the 14th and 15th of this month. Nissan The first month of the Jewish calendar. This month, which falls out in early spring, is known for the holiday of Passover which starts on the 15th of Nissan. Tevet The tenth month on the Jewish calendar. Falls out in mid-winter. Shavuot Early summer festival marking the day when the Jews received the Torah at Mount Sinai in the year 2448 (1312 BCE). Iyar The second month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to April-May. The 18th of this month is the holiday of Lag b'Omer. Sivan The third month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to May-June. This month features the holiday of Shavuot. Kislev The ninth month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to November-December. The holiday of Chanukah starts on the 25th of this month. Elul The 6th month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to August-September. This is the month which precedes Tishrei, the month of the High Holidays, and is a month of introspection and repentance. Cheshvan The eighth month of the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to October-November. Av The fifth month of the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to July-August. The saddest month of the year due to the destruction of the Temples, and the many other tragedies which befell the Jews in this month. Tammuz The fourth month on the Jewish calendar, normally corresponding to June-July.	Sivan
During which year did the first RHS Chelsea Flower Show take place?	Jewish calendar month - definition of Jewish calendar month by The Free Dictionary Jewish calendar month - definition of Jewish calendar month by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Jewish+calendar+month Related to Jewish calendar month: Hebrew Year ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: 1. Jewish calendar month - a month in the Jewish calendar Hebrew calendar , Jewish calendar - (Judaism) the calendar used by the Jews; dates from 3761 BC (the assumed date of the Creation of the world); a lunar year of 354 days is adjusted to the solar year by periodic leap years calendar month , month - one of the twelve divisions of the calendar year; "he paid the bill last month" Tishri - the first month of the civil year; the seventh month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in September and October) Heshvan - the second month of the civil year; the eighth month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in October and November) Chislev , Kislev - the third month of the civil year; the ninth month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in November and December) Tebet , Tevet - the fourth month of the civil year; the tenth month of the ecclesiastical year (in December and January) Shebat , Shevat - the fifth month of the civil year: the eleventh month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in January and February) Adar - the sixth month of the civil year; the twelfth month of the ecclesiastic year in the Jewish calendar (in February and March) Adar Sheni , Veadar - included seven times in every 19 years Nisan , Nissan - the seventh month of the civil year; the first month of the ecclesiastic year (in March and April) Iyar , Iyyar - the eighth month of the civil year; the second month of the ecclesiastical year (in April and May) Sivan , Siwan - the ninth month of the civil year; the third month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in May and June) Tammuz , Thammuz - the tenth month of the civil year; the fourth month of the ecclesiastic year (in June and July) Av , Ab - the eleventh month of the civil year; the fifth month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in July and August) Ellul , Elul - the twelfth month of the civil year; the sixth month of the ecclesiastical year in the Jewish calendar (in August and September)	i don't know
Who played George Russell in the 1960’s UK television series ‘George and the Dragon’?	George and the Dragon (TV Series 1966–1968) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error a list of 521 titles created 11 Jun 2011 a list of 1320 titles created 20 Nov 2014 a list of 58 titles created 4 months ago Title: George and the Dragon (1966–1968) 7.6/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Add Image Add an image Do you have any images for this title? 19 November 1966 (UK) See more » Filming Locations: (Hertford, England) – See all my reviews Skirt-chasing chauffeur George (wizened dirty old man Sid James) meets his match when his employer hires the formidable Gabrielle Dragon (the scarily ferocious Peggy Mount) as a new housekeeper. The ATV sitcom ran from 1966-68 for 26 episodes, no small achievement for a programme effectively based on one long mother-in-law joke and James' trademark lecherous cackle. James and Mount are a fine match and the banter sparking off every locking of horns has lost none of its comedy value. Meanwhile, John Le Mesurier is at his vague, dry best as the retired colonel who referees their sparring. It's dated, inevitably, but there're still plenty of laughs in the Odd Couple friction 16 of 16 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Sid James
Pearl Jem is a tribute band to which well known band?	George And The Dragon - 1966 - British Classic Comedy 1960's , 1960's ITV Comedy , ITV Comedy , TV Comedy An early Sid James sitcom that ran for four series between 1966 and 1968. Sid plays George Russell a chauffeur and handyman at the home of Colonel Maynard. It’s notable that this one of very few instances that James doesn’t play a character called Sid. In the series James’ character George Russell is an incorrigible lech, whose sexual advances have seen no fewer than 16 housekeepers resign. In a final attempt to put a stop to his chauffeur’s antics, his employer, Colonel Maynard, sends George to the Premier Domestic Agency to find the ideal candidate that will put an end to his wandering hands. However, whilst George is plotting to install another of his ‘dolly birds’, fate intervenes with the appointment of a new housekeeper: a fierce dragon, that goes by the name of Miss Gabriel Dragon, a widowed forty-something no-nonsense battle-axe. George is about to find himself in the heat of battle. Summary The story revolves around George’s attempts to rid himself of Gabriel Dragon, a woman with a force ten voice and a fearsomely battling bluster. Unfortunately for George she manages to scupper every plan he comes up with. As time goes by the relationship begins to mellow and a grudging respect begins to grow as the pair join forces to ensure that anything but order descends on the Maynard household. Clips Here’s a full episode to enjoy	i don't know
Which is the fifth largest country in the world by area?	10 Largest Countries In The World - 10 Most Today 10 Largest Countries In The World 2 Comments The following is a list of the largest countries by area in the world: 1. Russia – Largest country in the world by far with a size of 17,098,242 square km (6,601,668 square mi) St. Basil Cathedral near the Kremlin, Moscow (source: wiki) 2. Canada – Second largest in the world and largest in the Americas with 9,984,670 square km (3,855,100 sq ml). It is also the country with the most water in the world (8.93% of it’s total size is water) The Skyline of Toronto, Canada (source: wiki) 3. China – Third in the world and the largest in Asia: 9,706,961 sq km (3,747,879 sq mi) China is the third largest country in the world. Shanghai, China (source: wiki)Shanghai, China (source: wiki) 4. United States – Fourth largest in the world: 9,629,091 sq km (3,717,813 sq mi). It is only slightly smaller than China The United States is the fourth largest country in the world (Skyline of Manhattan) (source: wiki) 5. Brazil – 5th largest in the world and the largest country in South America and in the Southern Hemisphere: 8,514,877 sq km (3,287,612 sq mi) Corcovado statue in Rio, Brazil (source: wiki) 6. Australia – 6th largest in the world and the largest country in Oceania, as well as the largest country without land borders: 7,692,024 sq km (2,969,907 sq mi) Sydney, Australia. Australia is the 6th largest country in the world (source: Rodney Haywood) 7. India – 7th largest in the world but less than half the size of Australia: 3,166,414 sq km (1,222,559 sq mi) The Taj Mahal – a symbol of India – 7th largest country (source: wiki) 8. Argentina – 8th in the world with a size of 2,780,400 sq km (1,073,500 sq mi) The Casa Rosada (pink house) in Plaza de Mayo, known landmark in Buenos Aires (source: wiki) 9. Kazakhstan – In the 9th place and just slightly smaller than Argentina: 2,724,900 sq km (1,052,100 sq mi) Downtown Astana – the capital of Kazakhstan (source: wiki) 10. Algeria – 10th largest in the world but the largest country in Africa: 2,381,741 sq km (919,595 sq mi) The Monument Of The Martyrs in Algiers – capital of Algeria (source: wiki)	Brazil
In which year was British monarch Queen Victoria born?	Brazil Country Profile - National Geographic Kids AREA: 3,286,470 square miles (8,511,965 square kilometers) MAJOR MOUNTAIN RANGES: Serra do Mar, Serra do Espinhaço MAJOR RIVERS: Amazon, São Francisco, Paraná, Tocantins Brazilian Flag Map of Brazil GEOGRAPHY Brazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth largest nation in the world. It forms an enormous triangle on the eastern side of the continent with a 4,500-mile (7,400-kilometer) coastline along the Atlantic Ocean. It has borders with every South American country except Chile and Ecuador . The Brazilian landscape is very varied. It is most well known for its dense forests, including the Amazon, the world's largest jungle, in the north. But there are also dry grasslands (called pampas), rugged hills, pine forests, sprawling wetlands, immense plateaus, and a long coastal plain. Northern Brazil is dominated by the Amazon River and the jungles that surround it. The Amazon is not one river but a network of many hundreds of waterways. Its total length stretches 4,250 miles (6,840 kilometers), making it the longest river on Earth. Thousands of species live in the river, including the infamous piranha and the boto, or pink river dolphin. Southeastern Brazil was once completely covered with dense forest. Now it is the country's industrial capital, home to Brazil's biggest cities: São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. It covers only 11 percent of the country but houses 43 percent of its population. PEOPLE & CULTURE Most Brazilians are descended from three ethnic groups: Amerindians, European settlers (mainly from Portugal), and Africans. Starting in the 19th century, waves of immigrants from Europe, the Middle East, and even Japan added to this mix. This diversity of cultures has created a rich religious, musical, and culinary culture. Brazilians are soccer crazy, and their country has produced some of the best players. The most famous of all is Edson Arantes do Nascimento, better known as Pelé. Brazil has won the World Cup soccer finals five times, more than any other nation, and is hosting the tournament this year. NATURE Brazil has the greatest variety of animals of any country in the world. It is home to 600 mammal species, 1,500 fish species, 1,600 bird species, and an amazing 100,000 different types of insects . Brazil's jungles are home to most of its animal life, but many unique species also live in the pampas and semidesert regions. In the central-western part of Brazil sits a flat, swampy area called the Pantanal. This patchwork of flooded lagoons and small islands is the world's largest wetland. Here live giant anacondas , huge guinea pig relatives called capybaras, and fierce South American alligators called caimans . For thousands of years, people have been exploiting the jungles of Brazil. But since Europeans arrived about five centuries ago, forest destruction has been rampant. Most of Brazil's Atlantic rain forest is now gone, and huge tracts of the Amazon are disappearing every year. The government has established many national parks and refuges, but they only cover about 7 percent of the country. Real, Photograph by Glauco Meneghelli, iStockphoto GOVERNMENT & ECONOMY Brazil is a federal republic with a president, a National Congress, and a judiciary. From 1888 until recently, the country struggled with democracy. But in 1985, the military government was peacefully removed, and by 1995, Brazil's politics and economy had become fairly stable. Brazil has many different soils and climates, so it can produce a great variety of crops. Its agricultural exports include sugarcane, latex, coffee, cocoa beans, cotton, soybeans, rice, and tropical fruits.	i don't know
Thermophobia is the abnormal fear of what?	Thermophobia \| definition of thermophobia by Medical dictionary Thermophobia \| definition of thermophobia by Medical dictionary http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/thermophobia Also found in: Dictionary , Encyclopedia . ther·mo·pho·bi·a (ther'mō-fō'bē-ă), Psychology Fear of heat. See Phobia . thermophobia (thĕr″mō-fō′bē-ă) [″ + phobos, fear] An abnormal dread of heat. Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.	Heat
A square knot is another term for which type of knot?	April \| 2014 \| c: Games c: Games Woo! Finally! Thermophobia is done! Thermophobia is a game about a mailman who has Thermophobia (an abnormal fear of heat). Send the mail and survive. Go to the shade, stand in water, get ice cream, get a fan, avoid the clinging mud, watch out for cars, and don’t step on broken glass bottles! Instructions: Arrow keys to move, spacebar to stand, and p to pause. I got the idea of Thermophobia when I was in Washington D.C. It was super hot and humid and I was moving from shade to shade because I couldn’t stand the heat. I started this on July 9, 2013, it’s been almost 10 months. 10 months is a long time, I think it should’ve been a lot shorter. It really was mostly school that got in the way, I also did some new things I haven’t learned yet in Thermophobia so it took me a while. I also got interrupted with One Legged Jonny for Ludum Dare in August. The 10 months went by really fast though. So I guess Thermophobia’s anniversary will be the same day as Dye’s. I finished Dye on April 30th, 2013 for my first Ludum Dare entry. Well, enjoy! c: Started: July 9, 2013	i don't know
What was the middle name of late US author Truman Capote?	Truman Capote - Author - Biography.com Truman Capote Truman Capote was a trailblazing writer of Southern descent known for the works Breakfast at Tiffany’s and In Cold Blood, among others. IN THESE GROUPS quotes “I don't care what anybody says about me as long as it isn't true.” “To me the greatest pleasure of writing is not what it is about but the inner music that words make.” “My major regret in life is that my childhood was unnecessarily lonely.” “Writing has laws of perspective, of light and shade, just as a painting does, or music. If you are born knowing them, fine. If not, learn them. Then rearrange the rules to suit yourself.” “Life is a moderately good play with a badly written third act.” Truman Capote Truman Capote - Mini Bio (TV-14; 3:32) Known as the originator of the true-crime novel, Truman Capote was both a renowned author as well as a controversial celebrity. His non-fiction novel, "In Cold Blood," became an international best-seller. Synopsis Born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on September 30, 1924, Truman Capote went on to become a professional writer, making waves with his debut novel Other Voices, Other Rooms. His novella Breakfast at Tiffany’s (1958) was adapted into a popular film, and his book In Cold Blood (1966) was a pioneering form of narrative non-fiction. Capote spent his later years pursuing celebrity and struggled with drug addiction. He died in 1984 in Los Angeles, California. Early Life Acclaimed writer Truman Capote was born Truman Streckfus Persons on September 30, 1924, in New Orleans, Louisiana. One of the 20th century's most well-known writers, Capote was as fascinating a character as those who appeared in his stories. His parents were an odd pair—a small-town girl named Lillie Mae and a charming schemer called Arch—and they largely neglected their son, often leaving him in the care of others. Capote spent much of his young life in the care of his mother's relatives in Monroeville, Alabama. In Monroeville, Capote befriended a young Harper Lee. The two were opposites—Capote was a sensitive boy who was picked on by other kids for being a wimp, while Lee was a rough and tumble tomboy. Despite their differences, Lee found Capote to be a delight, calling him "a pocket Merlin" for his creative and inventive ways. Little did these playful pals know that they would both become famous writers one day. While he had fun with his friends, Capote also had to struggle with his nightmarish family life. Seeing little of his mother and his father over the years, he often wrestled with feeling abandoned by them. One of the few times he caught their interest was during their divorce with each of them fighting for custody as a way to hurt the other. Capote finally did get to live with his mother full time in 1932, but this reunion did not turn out as he had hoped. He moved to New York City to live with her and his new stepfather, Joe Capote. His once-doting mother was quite different once he started to encounter her on a daily basis. Lillie Mae—now calling herself Nina—could easily be cruel or kind to Truman, and he never knew what to expect from her. She often picked on him for his effeminate ways, and for not being like other boys. His stepfather seemed to be a more stable personality in the home, but Truman was not interested in his help or support at the time. Still, he was officially adopted by his stepfather, and his name was changed to Truman Garcia Capote in 1935. A mediocre student, Capote did well in the courses that interested him and paid little attention in those that did not. He attended a private boys' school in Manhattan from 1933 to 1936, where he charmed some of his classmates. An unusual boy, Capote had a gift for telling stories and entertaining people. His mother wanted to make him more masculine, and thought that sending him to a military academy would be the answer. The 1936-1937 school year proved to be a disaster for Capote. The smallest in his class, he was often picked on by the other cadets. Returning to Manhattan, Capote started to attract attention for his work at school. Some of his teachers noted his promise as a writer. In 1939, the Capotes moved to Greenwich, Connecticut, where Truman enrolled at Greenwich High School. He stood out among his classmates with his ebullient personality. Over time, Capote developed a group of friends who would often go over to his house to smoke, drink, and dance in his room. He and his group would also go out to nearby clubs. Seeking adventure as well as an escape, Capote and his good friend Phoebe Pierce would also go into New York City and scheme their way into some of the most popular nightspots, including the Stork Club and Café Society. While living in Greenwich, his mother’s drinking began to escalate, which made Capote’s home life even more unstable. Capote did not do well in school and had repeat the 12th grade at the Franklin School after he and his family returned to Manhattan in 1942. Instead of studying, Capote spent his nights at the clubs, making friends with Oona O'Neill, the daughter of playwright Eugene O'Neill and writer Agnes Boulton, and her friend heiress Gloria Vanderbilt, among others. First Published Writings While still a teen, Capote got his first job working as a copyboy for The New Yorker magazine.During his time with the publication, Capote tried to get his stories published there with no success. He left The New Yorker to write full time, and started the novel Summer Crossing, which he shelved to work on a novella entitled Other Voices, Other Rooms. Capote’s first successes were not his novels, but several short stories. In 1945, editor George Davis selected Capote's story "Miriam" about a strange little girl for publication in Mademoiselle. In addition to befriending Davis, Capote became close to his assistant Rita Smith, the sister of famous southern author Carson McCullers. She later introduced the two, and Capote and McCullers were friends for a time. Capote's story in Mademoiselle attracted the attention of Harper's Bazaar fiction editor Mary Louise Aswell. The publication ran another dark and eerie story by Capote, "A Tree of Light" in its October 1945. These stories as well as "My Side of the Matter" and "Jug of Silver" helped launch Capote's career and gave him entrée into the New York literary world. While struggling to work on his first novel, Capote received some assistance from Carson McCullers. She helped him get accepted at Yaddo, a famous artists' colony in New York State. Capote spent part of the summer of 1946 there, where he did some work on his novel and completed the short story, "The Headless Hawk," which was published by Mademoiselle that fall. Capote also fell in love with Newton Arvin, a college professor and literary scholar. The bookish academic and the effervescent charmer made quite an interesting pair. Arvin, as with most of the others at Yaddo, was completely taken by Capote’s wit, manner, and appearance. That same year, Capote won the prestigious O. Henry Award for his short story "Miriam." Career Highlights His first novel, Other Voices, Other Rooms, was published in 1948 to mixed reviews. In the work, a young boy is sent to live with his father after the death of his mother. His father's home is a decrepit old plantation. For a time the boy does not get to see his father and instead must deal with his stepmother, her cousin, and some other unusual characters that inhabit this desolate place. While some criticized elements of the story, such as its homosexual theme, many reviewers noted Capote's talents as a writer. The book sold well, especially for a first-time author. In addition to receiving accolades and publicity, Capote found love in 1948. He met author Jack Dunphy at a party in 1948, and the two began what was to be a 35-year relationship. During the early years of their relationship, Capote and Dunphy traveled extensively. They spent time in Europe and other places where they both worked on their own projects. Capote followed the success of Other Voices, Other Rooms with a collection of short stories, A Tree of Light, published in 1949. Not one to stay out of the public eye for long, his travel essays were put out in book form in 1950 as Local Color. His much-anticipated second novel, The Grass Harp, was released to in the fall of 1951. The fanciful tale explored an unlikely group of characters who take refuge from their troubles in a large tree. At the request of Broadway producer Saint Subber, Capote adapted his novel for the stage. The sets and costumes were designed by Capote's close friend, Cecil Beaton. The comedy opened in March 1952, closing after 36 performances. In 1953, Capote landed some film work. He wrote some of Stazione Termini (later released as Indiscretion of an American Wife in the United States), which starred Jennifer Jones and Montgomery Clift. During the filming in Italy, Capote and Clift developed a friendship. After that project wrapped, Capote was soon working on the script for the John Huston-directed Beat the Devil, starring Humphrey Bogart, Jennifer Jones and Gina Lollobrigida, during its production. His best screenplay, however, was done years later when he adapted the Henry James novel The Turn of the Screw into The Innocents (1961). Undeterred by his past failure, Capote adapted his story about a Haitian bordello, "House of Flowers," for the stage at Subber’s urging. The musical debuted on Broadway in 1954 with Pearl Bailey as its star and had Alvin Ailey and Diahann Carroll in the cast as well. Despite the best efforts of Capote and the show's fine performers, the musical failed to attract enough critical and commercial attention. It closed after 165 performances. That same year, Capote suffered a great personal loss when his mother died. Always fascinated by the rich and social elite, Capote found himself a popular figure in such circles. He counted Gloria Guinness, Babe and Bill Paley (the founder of CBS Television), Jackie Kennedy and her sister Lee Radziwell, C. Z. Guest, and many others among his friends. Once an outsider, Capote was invited for cruises on their yachts and for stays on their estates. He loved gossip—both hearing and sharing it. In the late 1950s, Capote began discussing a novel based on this jet-set world, calling it Answered Prayers. In 1958, Capote scored another success with Breakfast at Tiffany's. He explored the life of a New York City party girl, Holly Golightly—who was a woman who depended on men to get by. With his usual style and panache, Capote had created a fascinating character within a well-crafted story. Three years later, the film version was released, starring Audrey Hepburn as Holly. Capote had wanted Marilyn Monroe in the lead role, and was disappointed with this adaptation. In Cold Blood Capote's next big project started out as an article for The New Yorker. He set out with friend Harper Lee to write about the impact of the murder of four members of the Clutter family on their small Kansas farming community. The two traveled to Kansas to interview townspeople, friends and family of the deceased, and the investigators working to solve the crime. Truman, with his flamboyant personality and style, had a hard time initially getting himself into his subjects' good graces. Without using tape recorders, the two would write up their notes and observations at the end of each day and compare their findings. During their time in Kansas, the Clutters' suspected killers, Richard Hickock and Perry Smith, were caught in Las Vegas and brought back to Kansas. Lee and Capote got a chance to interview the suspects not long after their return in January 1960. Soon after, Lee and Capote went back to New York. Capote started working on his article, which would evolve into the non-fiction masterpiece, In Cold Blood. He also corresponded with the accused killers, trying them to reveal more about themselves and the crime. In March 1960, Capote and Lee returned to Kansas for the murder trial. While the two convicted and sentenced to death, their execution was staved off by a series of appeals. Hickock and Smith hoped that Capote would help them escape the hangman's noose and were upset to hear that the book's title was In Cold Blood, which indicated that the murders had been premeditated. Writing this non-fiction masterwork took a lot out of Capote. For years, he labored on it and still had to wait for the story to find its ending in the legal system. Hickock and Smith were finally executed on April 14, 1965, at the Kansas State Penitentiary. At their request, Capote traveled to Kansas to witness their deaths. He refused to see them the day before, but he visited with both Hickock and Smith shortly before their hangings.In Cold Blood became a huge hit, both critically and commercially. Capote used a number of techniques usually found in fiction to bring this true story to life for his readers. It was first serialized in The New Yorker in four issues with readers anxiously awaiting each gripping installment. When it was published as a book, In Cold Blood was an instant best-seller. While In Cold Blood brought him acclaim and wealth, Capote was never the same after the project. Digging into such dark territory had taken a toll on him psychologically and physically. Known to drink, Capote began drinking more and started taking tranquilizers to soothe his frayed nerves. His substance abuse problems escalated over the coming years. Final Years Despite his problems, Capote did, however, manage to pull off one of the biggest social events of the 20th century. Attracting his society friends, literary notables, and stars, his Black and White Ball garnered a huge amount of publicity. The event was held in the Grand Ballroom at the Plaza hotel on November 28, 1966 with publisher Katharine Graham as the guest of honor. In choosing a dress code, Capote decided that the men should dress in black tie attire while women could wear either a black or white dress. Everyone had to wear a mask. One of the evening's more memorable moments was when actress Lauren Bacall danced with director and choreographer Jerome Robbins. Those society friends that flocked to the ball were in for a nasty shock several years later. Considered one of the notorious instances of biting the hand that feeds, Capote had a chapter from Answered Prayers published in Esquire magazine in 1976. That chapter, "La Cote Basque, 1965," aired a lot of his society friends’ secrets as thinly veiled fiction. Many of his friends, hurt by his betrayal, turned their back on him. He claimed to be surprised by their reactions and was hurt by their rejection. By the late 1970s, Capote had moved on to the party scene at the famous club Studio 54 where he hung out with the likes of Andy Warhol, Bianca Jagger, and Liza Minnelli. By this time, Capote's relationship with Jack Dunphy was becoming strained. Dunphy wanted Capote to stop drinking and taking drugs, which—despite numerous trips to rehabilitation centers over the years—Capote seemed unable to do. While no longer physically intimate, the two remained close, spending time together at their neighboring homes in Sagaponack, Long Island. Capote also had other relationships with younger men, which did little to improve his emotional and psychological state. Published in 1980, Capote's last major work, Music for Chameleons, was a collection of non-fiction and fictional pieces, including the novella Handcarved Coffins. The collection did well, but Capote was clearly in decline, battling his addictions and physical health problems. In the final year of his life, Capote had two bad falls, another failed stint in rehab, and a stay in a Long Island hospital for an overdose. Capote traveled to California to stay with old friend Joanne Carson, the ex-wife of Johnny Carson. He died at her Los Angeles home on August 25, 1984. After Capote's death, Joanne Carson received some of her beloved friend's ashes. When Carson passed away in 2015, Capote's ashes became part of her estate, and in what some media observers saw as a fitting end for the headline-grabbing author, his remains were sold at auction in Los Angeles for $43,750 in September 2016. An anonymous buyer purchased Capote's remains which were contained in a wooden Japanese box. “With some celebrities this wouldn’t be tasteful, but I know 100 percent he would love it,” Darren Julien, president of Julien’s Auctions , told The Guardian . “He loved to create press opportunities and to read his name in the paper. I think he would love it that he’s still grabbing headlines today.” Related Videos Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us ! Citation Information	streckfus
The Stotinka is a unit of currency of which European country?	Truman Capote - Biography - IMDb Truman Capote Biography Showing all 37 items Jump to: Overview (4) \| Mini Bio (1) \| Trade Mark (1) \| Trivia (18) \| Personal Quotes (10) \| Salary (3) Overview (4) 25 August 1984 , Los Angeles, California, USA (liver disease complicated by phlebitis and multiple drug intoxication) Birth Name 5' 3" (1.6 m) Mini Bio (1) Truman Capote was born on September 30, 1924 in New Orleans, Louisiana, USA as Truman Streckfus Persons. He was a writer and actor, known for Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961), In Cold Blood (1967) and The Innocents (1961). He died on August 25, 1984 in Los Angeles, California, USA. Trade Mark (1) His characters were often emotionally isolated and/or confused about their sexuality Trivia (18) He frequently visited legendary New York disco Studio 54 in the late '70s. He was the inspiration for the character "Dill" in Harper Lee 's novel "To Kill a Mockingbird". He and Lee were childhood friends. His most famous work is the book "In Cold Blood". He is one of several famous and tragic figures from history to be featured on the sleeve artwork of the album "Clutching at Straws" by rock band Marillion (released in 1987). His longtime partner was Jack Dunphy. He was a distant relative (seventh cousin once removed) of playwright Tennessee Williams . Although he wrote only a handful of books during his lifetime, he produced 25 full-length plays, two novels, 60 short stories, more than 100 poems and an autobiography. The film rights to his novella, "Hand Carved Coffins" were held by producer Dino De Laurentiis and the project was offered to directors Michael Cimino and David Lynch but to date, the project has not been produced. He rests in a mausoleum next to Heather O'Rourke and Mel Tormé . His aunt, who helped raise him as a boy, is Marie Rudisill , aka The Fruitcake Lady from the The Tonight Show with Jay Leno (1992). He was called as a defense witness in the second trial of Claus von Bülow , testifying about Sunny's ( Martha Sunny von Bulow ) history of substance abuse. He was portrayed by Sam Street in Isn't She Great (2000), Philip Seymour Hoffman in Capote (2005), by Toby Jones in Infamous (2006), by Michael J. Burg in The Audrey Hepburn Story (2000) and by Robert Morse in the award-winning one-man show "Tru" (and the subsequent made-for-TV film, American Playhouse: Tru (1992)). According to George Plimpton 's biography "Truman Capote: In Which Various Friends, Enemies, Acquaintences and Detractors Recall His Turbulent Career," one of Capote's eccentricities was to walk into a liquor store and ask for a bottle of "Justerini and Brooks" scotch, which is more familiarly known as J&B, which is one of the most famous brand names in the liquor business. Even if a merchant told him the store did not carry the brand (as most people didn't know what the initials stood for), even when it was likely it did carry the brand, Capote would not call it "J&B", even if it meant that he went without it. Biography in: "The Scribner Encyclopedia of American Lives". Volume One, 1981-1985, pages 128-130. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1998. He is mentioned in Walter Kirn 's novel "Thumbsucker" and the Allan Sherman song "Oh Boy". His life was touched by tragedy. His mother committed suicide and, according to the coroner's report, Capote himself died from "liver disease complicated by phlebitis and multiple drug intoxication". "Capote" was actually his stepfather's last name. Despite his diminutive size, he was said to have been an excellent arm wrestler. Personal Quotes (10) It's a scientific fact ... For every year a person lives in Hollywood, they lose two points of their IQ. I think I've written one masterpiece in my career and that's "In Cold Blood". It is a masterpiece and I don't care what anyone says. I think I've also written three or four short stories that are as good as anything written in the English language. The greatest thing about masturbation is that you don't have to dress up for it. [on Meryl Streep ] She looks like a chicken! [on Marilyn Monroe ] She is pure Alice in Wonderland, and her appearance and demeanor are a nicely judged mix of the Red Queen and a flamingo. New York is a diamond iceberg floating in river water. [on Marlon Brando ] No actor of my generation has possessed greater natural gifts; but none other has transported intellectual falsity to higher levels of hilarious pretension. [on Humphrey Bogart ] He had an image of sophisticated virility and he projected it remarkably well. And with such humor. At last, he had such style that it doesn't wither, it doesn't age, it doesn't date. Like Billie Holiday . Do you want to know the real reason why I push my hair down on my forehead? Because I have two cowlicks. If I didn't do that it would make me look as though I had two feathery horns. I don't care what anybody says about me, as long as it isn't true. Salary (3)	i don't know
A Spartan is what type of fruit?	Apple - Spartan - tasting notes, identification, reviews (Use the form at the bottom to add your own comments about this variety) 31 Oct 2016 John, WILTSHIRE, United Kingdom This is probably my favourite eating apple, which surprises me as I normally don't like McIntosh-style apples at all. In fact this is the apple the McIntosh probably wishes it could be - sweet and acid in really good balance with a hint of burnt caramel, almost toffee-apple flavour. Grows well and always gives a good crop. 02 Nov 2015 [email protected], HERTS, United Kingdom Yuk too sweet and not enough acidity for my taste. 24 Jul 2014 Kelly Albert, ALBERTA, Canada The Spartan is by far my favorite apple. I found our stores are carrying so many different varieties of apples but the Spartan is hard to find. WHY? Nothing compares to it! 30 Aug 2013 John Murren, OR, United States I love this apple! I grow about 8 or 10 different kinds of apples, and this one is ALWAYS the best producer AND the one tree that is the least affected by scab or insects (I only spray minimally). Plus it has the most beautiful fruit while on the tree. An all around winner! 15 Jan 2013 Bo and Brent, NY, United States Brent - a sweet apple with a crisp bright white flesh. also has a very small core which means more appley goodness for you to enjoy. 19 Mar 2012 M. Reed, TX, United States Just tried my first Spartan. This is March and it was a bit mealy from storage, but the flavor was excellent. Very reminiscent of a Mac--sweet and tart together. Bet it's fantastic right off the tree! 01 Dec 2011 Bmckechnie, FIFE, United Kingdom I have just eaten one of the tastiest apples out of a Sainsbury family pack, I never thought that I would be so interested to find out what type of apple it was . The Spartan now has my vote for a snack or an addition to a ploughman's lunch. 22 Oct 2011 Fritz Dygert, OREGON, United States We just bought our tree last week and planted it. Hopefully next year it will bear fruit. 20 Oct 2011 N. Buck, CAMBRIDGESHIRE, United Kingdom My Spartan remain very healthy and completely pest and disease-free (Eastern UK) despite the claims that they are supposed to be prone to canker or other diseases - but perhaps that will come as the trees age. The tree itself is about medium vigour or perhaps slightly less than medium if allowed to crop heavily at a young age - which can happen because it is quite precocious and fertile. The fruit is remarkably free from pest or fungal damage, although if the skin (which is quite thick and has a yeasty "bloom") is broken, the fruits succumb surprisingly quickly to brown rot. With us having an unusually warm spring followed by an unusually cool summer, the fruits have been of inferior quality this year; developing the notorious "metallic" and "woody" taste (woody as in the taste when you lick your ice-lolly stick) which can happen occasionally. In most years, the Spartan fruit produced here is good, and palatable to most people; fairly sweet and juicy, with hints of melon and strawberry. Fruit tends to lose its quality after a few months of storage - tasting fermented and losing its texture, although, like Red Delicious, can still look excellent on the outside. 05 Oct 2009 Gina Sherwood, United Kingdom I purchased some of these the other day from a farmers market, who come to our local town once a month. This is the first time that I have tried them and they were recommended and I must admit they were absolutely gorgeous. 23 Aug 2009 Carole Gedney, United Kingdom I have a family apple tree where Spartan is the dominant apple. It is usually a prolific flowerer/fruiter with the odd year off for recuperation. Although the apple is good, every year I lose most of the crop due to a worm parasite which seems to burrow into virtually evey apple on the tree. For this reason, most of the apples end up in pies or discarded. 16 Mar 2009 Craig, VANCOUVER, Canada My neighbour has one in his garden and it fruits well and is resistent to the typical Pacific Northwest crop of diseases. Tastey too. 06 Oct 2008 Geoff Howle, CREWE, United Kingdom Have 4 spartan in my garden. Oldest one is now 5 years,fruiting well,cover with netting to prevent attacks by birds,(they are not having MY spartan)!!!!! What a great apple,picked one or two this morning for eating latter in day.Question, Do they store? 30 May 2008 Lee, HONOLULU, United States ALOHA ~~ EXCELLENT APPLE. RAISED IN RHODE ISLAND, OLDEST OF SIX, ONE OF MANY FAMILY TRADITIONS WAS THE HAPPY WEEKEND TREK TO THE RI COUNTRYSIDE FOR A BUSHEL OF McINTOSH APPLES. LIVING IN HONOLULU NOW FOR 20 YRS, SPARTANS ARE REALLY THE CLOSEST I'VE EVER GOTTEN TO THE TASTE OF MY BELOVED McINTOSH. 17 Jan 2008 Linda, TROON AYRSHIRE, SCOTLAND, United Kingdom Inherited this apple tree and over the years it has yielded a lot of fruit - never tasted an apple so good - bumper crop this year so brought apples into work - everyone raved about the taste,colour,texture etc yummee OP: Yes, this is an easy apple to grow, and great straight from the tree. 27 Nov 2007 Bea Muir, SEQUIM, WA. USA, United States This apple has the best taste for cooking or eating and I would like to grow my own tree's, but cannot find where to buy them in Clallam County? 02 Nov 2007 Jenny, CO. DURHAM, United States We like spartans very much but it seems to be a very short season. We've found them in Waitrose and Sainsbury's. Is it possible to buy a box from an English grower? OP: Yes, Spartans are great straight from the tree, but don't really keep. 27 Oct 2007 Robi, CAMBRIDGE, United Kingdom Every year we pick apples at a friend's orchard, but we never knew what they were until we had them identified at the apple day at the botanical gardens last week end. The ones we love, aka "the purple ones", as my children call them, were identified as Spartan, but they are almost plum colour, with white flesh tinted pink in places, and not as squashed in shape as the one in your photo. Nothing like it really...anyway we absolutely adore them, eat them every day and have made quite a lot of juice. The others, which we also like but not as much, are Queen cox and Crispin Mutsu - these were probably ready a bit earlier and have gone a bit soft, but the taste is quite nice. We also picked some Howgate Wonder for baking, and they are nice and sharp, but I quite like to eat them raw too! Orangeippin: yes, Spartan can go very deep crimson/purple if left on the tree as late as possible. 22 Oct 2007 Richard, ENGLAND, United Kingdom My first experience of a Spartan apple, and its certianly a good one. Seems to be available in Waitrose at the moment - at least until I buy them all! 21 Oct 2007 Pat, ENGLAND, United Kingdom I have just had the apples growing in our garden identified as Spartans. I love the way they have a whitish bloom on the skin until you polish them, then they glow deep red, much darker than the picture above. They make a wonderful sunset coloured apple juice, keep well when stored - altogether, a great apple! 15 Oct 2007 Jackie, BETHEL CT, United States I recently went apple picking in Washington CT Averill Farm. I picked all Spartan apples, they are the BEST so far!! 15 Oct 2007 Andrew Allison, OXFORD, ENGLAND, United Kingdom I grow Spartan apples in my back garden. This year was an exceptional crop. One medium tree yielded nearly 200 kg of the little gems, which I shall shortly be pressing to make some Spartan Cider! 14 Oct 2007 Patsy, PA, United States I love the spartan apple, but I haven't been able to find them in a long time, I finally got some at an Amish roadside stand I frequent near my home. I ate one on the way home and couldn't get over how good it was, I'm going back to get some more. 11 Oct 2007 Elizabeth, ENGLAND, United Kingdom Bought 3 of these. My children hated them! I however adored them as they brought back memories of my childhood. No idea why. Will buy them again. 07 Oct 2007 Pat Robbins, PENNSYLVANIA, United States I absolutely love this apple, but it is extremely hard to find where I live. Every year I ask various growers from around my area, but it seems noone has them. I would appreciate knowing where I can find these delicious apples. Thanks, Pat Robbins	Apple
Bee, Giant and Broad-tailed are all species of which bird?	Fruit & Nuts \| MSU Extension Michigan State University Extension helps people improve their lives by bringing the vast knowledge resources of MSU directly to individuals, communities and businesses. Fruit & Nuts MSU Extension provides educational programs and publications based on applied research for Michigan fruit crops including apples, pears, blueberries, chestnuts, brambles, plums, cherries, grapes, peaches, strawberries and hops. These educational resources help Michigan growers and consumers regarding fruit pest management, food safety, business management, food processing, horticultural practices, irrigation and weed management.	i don't know
Who founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870?	Standard Oil Company - Ohio 1870 Standard Oil Company - Ohio 1870 Product #: newitem1135976214 PRODUCT DESCRIPTION Beautiful SCARCE unissued certificate from the Standard Oil Company printed in 1870 when the company was founded. This historic document has an ornate border around it with a vignette of the U. S. Capitol and patriotic vignette of a woman brandishing a sword and a large American flag. This item is over 146 years old. The Standard Oil Company preceded the Standard Oil Trust Company. Issued certificates from the Standard Oil Company that are signed by Rockefeller sell for from $6000 to $10000 each. Certificate Vignette Certificate Vignette John. D. Rockefeller John Davison Rockefeller (July 8, 1839 - May 23, 1937) was the guiding force behind the creation and development of the Standard Oil Company, which grew to dominate the oil industry and became one of the first big trusts in the United States, thus engendering much controversy and opposition regarding its business practices and form of organization. Rockefeller also was one of the first major philanthropists in the U.S., establishing several important foundations and donating a total of $540 million to charitable purposes. Rockefeller was born on farm at Richford, in Tioga County, New York, on July 8, 1839, the second of the six children of William A. and Eliza (Davison) Rockefeller. The family lived in modest circumstances. When he was a boy, the family moved to Moravia and later to Owego, New York, before going west to Ohio in 1853. The Rockefellers bought a house in Strongsville, near Cleveland, and John entered Central High School in Cleveland. While he was a student he rented a room in the city and joined the Erie Street Baptist Church, which later became the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church. Active in its affairs, he became a trustee of the church at the age of 21. He left high school in 1855 to take a business course at Folsom Mercantile College. He completed the six-month course in three months and, after looking for a job for six weeks, was employed as assistant bookkeeper by Hewitt & Tuttle, a small firm of commission merchants and produce shippers. Rockefeller was not paid until after he had worked there three months, when Hewitt gave him $50 ($3.57 a week) and told him that his salary was being increased to $25 a month. A few months later he became the cashier and bookkeeper. In 1859, with $1,000 he had saved and another $1,000 borrowed from his father, Rockefeller formed a partnership in the commission business with another young man, Maurice B. Clark. In that same year the first oil well was drilled at Titusville in western Pennsylvania, giving rise to the petroleum industry. Cleveland soon became a major refining center of the booming new industry, and in 1863 Rockefeller and Clark entered the oil business as refiners. Together with a new partner, Samuel Andrews, who had some refining experience, they built and operated an oil refinery under the company name of Andrews, Clark & Co. The firm also continued in the commission business but in 1865 the partners, now five in number, disagreed about the management of their business affairs and decided to sell the refinery to whoever amongst them bid the highest. Rockefeller bought it for $72,500, sold out his other interests and, with Andrews, formed Rockefeller & Andrews. THE STANDARD OIL COMPANY Rockefeller�s stake in the oil industry increased as the industry itself expanded, spurred by the rapidly spreading use of kerosene for lighting. In 1870 he organized The Standard Oil Company along with his brother William, Andrews, Henry M. Flagler, S.V. Harkness, and others. It had a capital of $1 million. By 1872 Standard Oil had purchased and thus controlled nearly all the refining firms in Cleveland, plus two refineries in the New York City area. Before long the company was refining 29,000 barrels of crude oil a day and had its own cooper shop manufacturing wooden barrels. The company also had storage tanks with a capacity of several hundred thousand barrels of oil, warehouses for refined oil, and plants for the manufacture of paints and glue. Standard prospered and, in 1882, all its properties were merged in the Standard Oil Trust, which was in effect one great company. It had an initial capital of $70 million. There were originally forty-two certificate holders, or owners, in the trust. After ten years the trust was dissolved by a court decision in Ohio. The companies that had made up the trust later joined in the formation of the Standard Oil Company (New Jersey), since New Jersey had adopted a law that permitted a parent company to own the stock of other companies. It is estimated that Standard Oil owned three-fourths of the petroleum business in the U.S. in the 1890s. In addition to being the head of Standard, Rockefeller owned iron mines and timberland and invested in numerous companies in manufacturing, transportation, and other industries. Although he held the title of president of Standard Oil until 1911, Rockefeller retired from active leadership of the company in 1896. In 1911 the U.S. Supreme Court found the Standard Oil trust to be in violation of the anti-trust laws and ordered the dissolution of the parent New Jersey corporation. The thirty-eight companies which it then controlled were separated into individual firms. In his biography, Study in Power, John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist, the historian Allan Nevins reports that Rockefeller at that time owned 244,500 of the company�s total of 983,383 outstanding shares. Henry M. Flagler Henry Morrison Flagler was born on January 2, 1830 in Hopewell, New York to Reverend Isaac and Elizabeth Caldwell Harkness Flagler. At the age of 14, after completing the eighth grade in 1844, Flagler decided to move to Bellevue, Ohio where he found work in the grain store of L.G. Harkness and Company at a salary of $5 per month plus room and board. By 1849, Flagler was promoted to sales staff of the company at a salary of $400 per month. Flagler became a partner in the newly organized D. M. Harkness and Company with his half-brother, Dan Harkness in 1852. The following year, on November 9, he married Mary Harkness. On March 18, 1855, their first child, Jennie Louise, was born. Jennie Louise lived until 1889, when at the age of 34, she died following complications from child birth. A second child, Carrie, was born on June 18, 1858. She died three years later. On December 2, 1870, the Flaglers' only son, Harry Harkness Flagler, was born. Flagler founded the Flagler and York Salt Company, a salt mining and production business in Saginaw, Michigan in 1862 with his brother-in-law Barney York. By 1865, the end of the Civil War caused a drop in the demand for salt and the Flagler and York Salt Company collapsed. Heavily in debt, Flagler returned to Bellevue, Ohio. He had lost his initial $50,000 investment and an additional $50,000 he had borrowed from his father-in-law and Dan Harkness. The next year Flagler reentered the grain business as a commission merchant. Flagler had become acquainted with John D. Rockefeller, who worked as a commission agent with Hewitt and Tuttle for the Harkness Grain Company. By the mid 1860s, Cleveland had become the center of the oil refining industry in America and Rockefeller left the grain business to start his own oil refinery. In 1867, Rockefeller, needing capital for his new venture, approached Flagler. Flagler obtained $100,000 from a relative on the condition that Flagler be made a partner. A Rockefeller, Andrews and Flagler partnership was formed with Flagler in control of Harkness' interest. On January 10, 1870, the Rockefeller, Andrews and Flagler partnership emerged as a joint-stock corporation named Standard Oil and by 1872, Standard Oil led the American oil refining industry, producing 10,000 barrels per day. Five years later Standard Oil moved its headquarters to New York City, and the Flaglers moved to their new home at 509 Fifth Avenue in New York City. By 1878, Flagler's wife, who had always struggled with health problems, was very ill. On advice from Mary's physician, she and Flagler visited Jacksonville, Florida for the winter. Mary's illness grew worse, however, and she died on May 18, 1881 at age 47. Two years after Mary's death, Flagler married Ida Alice Shourds. Soon after their wedding, the couple traveled to St. Augustine, Florida where they found the city charming, but the hotel facilities and transportation systems inadequate. Flagler recognized Florida's potential to attract out-of-state visitors. Though Flagler remained on the Board of Directors of Standard Oil, he gave up his day-to-day involvement in the corporation in order to pursue his interests in Florida. He returned to St. Augustine in 1885 and began construction on the 540-room Hotel Ponce de Leon. Realizing the need for a sound transportation system to support his hotel ventures, Flagler purchased the Jacksonville, St. Augustine & Halifax Railroad, the first railroad in what would eventually become the Florida East Coast Railway. The Hotel Ponce de Leon opened January 10, 1888 and was an instant success. Two years later, Flagler expanded his Florida holdings. He built a railroad bridge across the St. Johns River to gain access to the southern half of the state and purchased the Hotel Ormond, just north of Daytona. His personal dedication to the state of Florida was demonstrated when he began construction on his private residence, Kirkside, in St. Augustine. Flagler completed the 1150-room Royal Poinciana Hotel on the shores of Lake Worth in Palm Beach and extended his railroad to West Palm Beach by 1894. The Royal Poinciana Hotel was at the time the largest wooden structure in the world. Two years later, Flagler built the Palm Beach Inn (renamed The Breakers in 1901) overlooking the Atlantic Ocean in Palm Beach. Flagler originally intended for West Palm Beach to be the terminus of his railroad system, but during 1894 and 1895, severe freezes hit the area, causing Flagler to rethink this original decision. Sixty miles south, the town today known as Miami was reportedly unharmed by the freeze. To further convince Flagler to continue the railroad to Miami, he was offered land from private landowners, the Florida East Coast Canal and Transportation Company, and the Boston and Florida Atlantic Coast Land Company, in exchange for laying rail tracks. Flagler's railroad, renamed the Florida East Coast Railway in 1895, reached Biscayne Bay by 1896. Flagler dredged a channel, built streets, instituted the first water and power systems, and financed the town's first newspaper, the Metropolis. When the town incorporated in 1896, its citizens wanted to honor the man responsible for its growth by naming it "Flagler." He declined the honor, persuading them to use an old Indian name, "Miami". In 1897, Flagler opened the exclusive Royal Palm Hotel in Miami. Flagler's second wife, Ida Alice, had been institutionalized for mental illness since 1895. In 1901, the Florida Legislature passed a bill that made incurable insanity grounds for divorce, opening the way for Flagler to remarry. On August 24, 1901, Flagler married Mary Lily Kenan and the couple soon moved into their Palm Beach estate, Whitehall. Built as a wedding present to Mary Lily in 1902 by architects John Carrere and Thomas Hastings, Whitehall was a 60,000 square foot, 55-room winter retreat that established the Palm Beach season for the wealthy of America's Gilded Age. By 1905, Flagler decided that his Florida East Coast Railway should be extended from Biscayne Bay to Key West, a point 128 miles past the end of the Florida peninsula. At the time, Key West was Florida's most populated city and it was also the United States's closest deep water port to the canal that the U.S. government proposed to build in Panama. Flagler wanted to take advantage of additional trade with Cuba and Latin America as well as the increased trade with the west that the Panama Canal would bring. In 1912, the Florida Overseas Railroad was completed to Key West. In 1913, Flagler fell down a flight of stairs at Whitehall. He never recovered from the fall and died of his injuries on May 20 at 84 years of age. He was buried in St. Augustine alongside his daughter, Jennie Louise and first wife, Mary Harkness. Product #: newitem1135976214	John D. Rockefeller
Athlete Usain Bolt advertised which media company’s products in 2012?	John D. Rockefeller - The First American Billionaire John D. Rockefeller Founder of Standard Oil Company and America's First Billionaire American industrialist and philanthropist John D. Rockefeller (circa 1900). (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) By Janet Ogle-Mater, Contributing Writer Updated July 30, 2016. Who Was John D. Rockefeller? John D. Rockefeller was an astute businessman who became America’s first billionaire in 1916. In 1870, Rockefeller founded Standard Oil Company, which eventually became a domineering monopoly in the oil industry. Rockefeller’s leadership in Standard Oil brought him great wealth as well as controversy, as many opposed Rockefeller’s business practices. Standard Oil’s nearly complete monopoly of the industry was eventually brought to the U.S. Supreme Court, who ruled in 1911 that Rockefeller’s titanic trust should be dismantled. Though many disapproved of Rockefeller’s professional ethics, few could devalue his substantial philanthropic endeavors, which led to him donating $540 million (over $5 billion today) in his lifetime to humanitarian and charitable causes. Dates: July 8, 1839 – May 23, 1937 Also Known As: John Davison Rockefeller, Sr. Rockefeller as a Young Boy John Davison Rockefeller was born July 8, 1839, in Richford, New York. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge He was the second child of six to the marriage of William “Big Bill” Rockefeller and Eliza (Davison) Rockefeller. William Rockefeller was a traveling salesman peddling his questionable wares across the country, and as such, was often absent from the home. John D. Rockefeller’s mother essentially raised the family on her own and managed their holdings, never knowing that her husband, under the name of Dr. William Levingston, had a second wife in New York. In 1853, “Big Bill” moved the Rockefeller family to Cleveland, Ohio , where Rockefeller attended Central High School. Rockefeller also joined the Euclid Avenue Baptist Church in Cleveland, where he would remain a long-time active member. It was under his mother’s tutelage that a young John learned the value of religious devotion and charitable giving; virtues that he practiced regularly throughout his life. In 1855, Rockefeller dropped out of high school to enter Folsom Mercantile College. After completing the business course in three months, 16-year-old Rockefeller secured a bookkeeping position with Hewitt & Tuttle, a commission merchant and produce shipper. Early Years in Business It didn’t take long for John D. Rockefeller to develop a reputation as an astute businessman: hardworking, thorough, precise, composed, and adverse to risk-taking. Meticulous in every detail, especially with finances (he even kept detailed ledgers of his personal expenditures from the time he was 16), Rockefeller was able to save $1000 in four years from his bookkeeping job. In 1859, Rockefeller added this money to a $1000 loan from his father in order to invest in his own commission merchant partnership with Maurice B. Clark , a former Folsom Mercantile College classmate. Another four years later, Rockefeller and Clark expanded into the regionally booming oil refinery business with a new partner, chemist Samuel Andrews , who had built a refinery but knew little about business and the transporting of goods. However, by 1865, the partners, which numbered five including Maurice Clark’s two brothers, were in disagreement about the management and direction of their business, so they agreed to sell the business to the highest bidder amongst them. The 25-year-old Rockefeller won it with a bid of $72,500 and, with Andrews as a partner, formed Rockefeller & Andrews. In short order, Rockefeller studied the nascent oil business in earnest and became savvy in its dealings. Rockefeller’s company started small but soon merged with O.H. Payne, a large Cleveland refinery owner, and then with others as well. With his company growing, Rockefeller brought his brother (William) and Andrews’ brother (John) into the company. In 1866, Rockefeller noted that 70% of refined oil was being shipped overseas to markets; so Rockefeller set up an office in New York City to cut out the middleman -- a practice that he would use repeatedly to cut expenses and increase profits. A year later, Henry M. Flagler joined the group and the company was renamed Rockefeller, Andrews, & Flagler. As the business continued to succeed, the enterprise was incorporated as the Standard Oil Company on January 10, 1870 with John D. Rockefeller as its president. The Standard Oil Monopoly John D. Rockefeller and his partners in the Standard Oil Company were rich men, but they strove for even more success. In 1871, Standard Oil, a few other large refineries, and major railroads secretly joined together in a holding company called the South Improvement Company (SIC). The SIC gave transportation discounts (“rebates”) to the large refineries that were part of their alliance but then charged the smaller, independent oil refineries more money (“drawbacks”) to shuttle their goods along the railroad. This was a blatant attempt to economically destroy those smaller refineries and it worked. In the end, many businesses succumbed to these aggressive practices; Rockefeller then bought out those competitors. As a result, Standard Oil obtained 20 Cleveland companies in one month in 1872. It became known as “The Cleveland Massacre,” ending the competitive oil business in the city and claiming 25% of the country’s oil for Standard Oil Company. It also created a backlash of public contempt, with the media dubbing the organization “an octopus.” In April 1872, the SIC was disbanded per the Pennsylvania legislature but Standard Oil was already on its way to becoming a monopoly. A year later, Rockefeller expanded into New York and Pennsylvania with refineries, eventually controlling nearly half of the Pittsburgh oil business. The company continued to grow and consume independent refineries to the point that Standard Oil Company commanded 90% of America’s oil production by 1879. In January 1882, the Standard Oil Trust was formed with 40 separate corporations under its umbrella. Desiring to make every financial gain from the business, Rockefeller eliminated middlemen like purchasing agents and wholesalers. He began manufacturing the barrels and cans needed to store the company’s oil. Rockefeller also developed plants that produced petroleum by-products like petroleum jelly, machine lubricants, chemical cleaners, and paraffin wax. Ultimately, the arms of the Standard Oil Trust eradicated the need for outsourcing entirely, which devastated existing industries in the process. Beyond Business On September 8, 1864, John D. Rockefeller married the valedictorian of his high school class (though Rockefeller did not actually graduate). Laura Celestia “Cettie” Spelman , an assistant principal at the time of their marriage, was a college-educated daughter of a successful Cleveland businessman. Like her new husband, Cettie was also a devoted supporter of her church and like her parents, upheld the temperance and abolition movements. Rockefeller valued and often consulted his bright and independently-minded wife about business manners. Between 1866 and 1874, the couple had five children: Elizabeth (Bessie), Alice (who died in infancy), Alta, Edith, and John D. Rockefeller, Jr. With the family growing, Rockefeller bought a large house on Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, which became known as “Millionaire’s Row.” By 1880, they also purchased a summer home overlooking Lake Erie ; Forest Hill , as it was called, became a favorite home for the Rockefellers. Four years later, because Rockefeller was doing more business in New York City and did not like being away from his family, the Rockefellers acquired yet another house. His wife and children would travel each fall to the city and stay the winter months in the family’s large brownstone on West 54th Street. Later in life, after the children were grown and grandchildren came, the Rockefellers built a house in Pocantico Hills, a few miles north of Manhattan. They celebrated their golden anniversary there and the following spring in 1915, Laura “Cettie” Rockefeller passed away at age 75. Media and Legal Woes John D. Rockefeller’s name had first been associated with ruthless business practices with the Cleveland Massacre, but after a 19-part serial exposé by Ida Tarbell , titled History of Standard Oil Company, began in McClure’s Magazine in November 1902, his public reputation was proclaimed to be one of greed and corruption. Tarbell’s skillful narrative exposed all elements of the oil giant’s efforts to squash competition and of Standard Oil’s overbearing domination of the industry. The installments were later published as a book of the same name and quickly became a bestseller. With this spotlight on its business practices, the Standard Oil Trust was attacked by state and federal courts as well as by the media. In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act was passed as the first federal antitrust legislation to limit monopolies . Sixteen years later, the U.S. Attorney General under Teddy Roosevelt’s administration filed two dozen antitrust actions against large corporations; chief among them was Standard Oil. It took five years, but in 1911, the U. S. Supreme Court upheld the lower court’s decision that ordered Standard Oil Trust to divest into 33 companies, which would function independently from each other. However, Rockefeller did not suffer. Because he was a major stock holder, his net worth grew exponentially with the dissolution and establishment of new business entities. Rockefeller as Philanthropist John D. Rockefeller was one of the wealthiest men in the world during his lifetime. Though a tycoon, he lived unpretentiously and kept a low social profile, rarely attending the theatre or other events typically attended by contemporaries. Since childhood, he had been trained to give to church and charity and Rockefeller had routinely done so. However, with a fortune believed to be worth more than a billion dollars after the dissolution of Standard Oil and a tarnished public imagine to rectify, John D. Rockefeller began to give away millions of dollars. In 1896, 57-year-old Rockefeller turned over the day-to-day leadership of Standard Oil, though he held the title of President until 1911, and began to focus on philanthropy. He had already contributed to the establishment of the University of Chicago in 1890, giving $35 million over the course of 20 years. While doing so, Rockefeller had acquired confidence in Rev. Frederick T. Gates, the director of the American Baptist Education Society, which established the university. With Gates as his investment manager and philanthropic adviser, John D. Rockefeller founded the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research (now Rockefeller University) in New York in 1901. Within their laboratories, causes, cures, and various manners of prevention of diseases were discovered, including the cure for meningitis and the identification of DNA as the central genetic matter. A year later, Rockefeller established the General Education Board. In its 63 years of operation, it distributed $325 million to American schools and colleges. In 1909, Rockefeller launched a public health program in the effort to prevent and cure hookworm , a problem particularly bad in the southern states, through the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission. In 1913, Rockefeller created the Rockefeller Foundation , with his son John Jr. as president and Gates as a trustee, to foster the well-being of men and women around the world. In its first year, Rockefeller donated $100 million to the foundation, which has provided assistance to medical research and education, public health initiatives, scientific advancements, social research, the arts, and other fields all over the continents. A decade later, the Rockefeller Foundation was the largest grant-making foundation in the world and its founder deemed the most generous philanthropist in U.S. history. Last Years Along with donating his fortune, John D. Rockefeller spent his last years enjoying his children, grandchildren, and his hobby of landscaping and gardening. He was also an avid golfer. Rockefeller hoped to live to be a centenarian, but died two years before the occasion on May 23, 1937. He was laid to rest between his beloved wife and mother at Lakeview Cemetery in Cleveland, Ohio. Though many Americans scorned Rockefeller for making his Standard Oil fortune through unscrupulous business tactics, its profits aided the world. Through John D. Rockefeller’s philanthropic endeavors, the oil titan educated and saved an untold number of lives and aided medical and scientific advancement. Rockefeller also forever changed the landscape of American business.	i don't know
Siderodromophilia is the sexual arousal caused by which means of transport?	Slow train coming: A brief look at siderodromophilia \| drmarkgriffiths Slow train coming: A brief look at siderodromophilia Posted by drmarkgriffiths “[On] February 27th [2012], a man surnamed Cai was taken to court after being arrested by railway police for renting a train lounge car to hold a sex party, with the police preliminarily charging him with violating public decency. [On] February 23rd, Taiwanese [Director of Public Prosecutions] Ye Yijin revealed that someone had booked a [railway] lounge car to hold a “1 woman 18 men” group sex orgy” ( China Smack news item, March 1st,2012). On reading this news item a a year ago, it got me wondering what academic and/or clinical research has been done relating to sexual arousal from and/or in trains. In previous blogs I have examined the relationship between sex and cars (in articles on objectum sexuality , mechanophilia , and symphorophilia ), and sex and aeroplanes (in an article on acrophilia ), but train sex has not been on my fetishistic radar until I read the Taiwan train orgy story above. Regular readers of my blog probably won’t be surprised to hear that there is a sexual paraphilia relating solely to trains. Both Dr. Anil Aggrawal (in his book Forensic and Medico-legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices) and Dr. Brenda Love (in her Encyclopedia of Unusual Sex Practices) note that the sexual paraphilia where individuals derive sexual arousal and pleasure from trains is called siderodromophilia. Brenda Love claims in her encyclopedia entry on the topic that: “Couples sometimes reserve a cabin and will have sex standing in front of the window as the train passes through a town or a station. Others squeeze into bathrooms and sneak quickies in corner. Trains provide more privacy and opportunity to socialize than airplanes and buses”. Neither Dr. Aggrawal nor Dr. Love appear to distinguish between those people that are sexually aroused by (i) the train itself (i.e., individuals who develop deep emotional and/or romantic attachments to [and have sexual relationships with] specific inanimate objects such as a train), (ii) the potentially sexually stimulating vibrations caused by a travelling on a train (akin to those individuals – usually women – who sit on washing machines in their spin cycles as a source of sexual stimulation), or (iii) having sexual encounters and/or engaging in sexual activity on the train. This latter type of sexual activity may not only include masturbatory acts and consensual sexual activity (like the examples described by Brenda Love in her Encyclopedia of Unusual Sex Practices) but may also include non-consensual sexual acts by those individuals who are into frotteurism and often frequent very busy trains to facilitate their paraphilic behaviour (i.e., individuals, typically male, that derive sexual pleasure and arousal from non-consensually rubbing up against other people (typically but not always female strangers) particularly with their erect penis and/or pelvis). There are certainly objectophiles that claim to have emotional and sexual relationships with trains. The most infamous case is that of the German man (‘Joachim A.’) who claims to have had a longstanding “steady relationship” with a steam locomotive train. In a 2007 article in the German magazine Der Spiegel, Jochaim (who was aged 41 years old at the time of his interview) said: “We’re by no means just straightforward fetishists. For some people, their car becomes a fetish which they use to put themselves in the limelight. For the objectum-sexual, on the other hand, the car itself – and nothing else – is the desired sexual partner, and all sexual fantasies and emotions are focused on it” The article claimed Joachim had “been pretty faithful to his steam locomotive recently” and that he had recognized and accepted his objectum sexuality inclination just prior to his teenage years. He fell “head over heels” in love with a Hammond organ and had “an emotionally and physically very complex and deep relationship, which lasted for years”. The article went on to say that: “Since he is particularly aroused by the inner workings of technical objects, repair jobs have often led to infidelity in the past. “A love affair could very well begin with a broken radiator,” the now monogamous lover says, remembering how his earlier affairs began. Joachim gradually realized that ‘you can reveal yourself to an object partner in an intimate way, in a way that you would never reveal yourself to any other person’. That includes the desire to ‘experience sexuality together’”. Any Freudians reading this will no doubt be aware that according to Sigmund Freud, a train is analogous to the male penis. (I don’t believe any of this myself, but it would be remiss of me not to mention it given the focus of my blog). In a short online article about railways, Christian Hubert also makes reference to Freud and noted that: “Both Freud and Karl Abraham indicated the connection between mechanical agitation and sexual arousal in the train. This joy found its repressed counterpart in the fear experienced by neurotics in the face of accelerating or uncontrolled motion as the fear of their own sexuality going out of control”. After reading this I decided to try and track down the original source (and I think that I found it). Freud, in his book ‘Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory’ had a whole section devoted to what he termed ‘mechanical excitation’. More specifically he noted that: “[We must] describe here the production of sexual excitation by means of rhythmic mechanical shaking of the body. There are three kinds of exciting influences: those acting on the sensory apparatus of the vestibular nerves, those acting on the skin, and those acting on the deep parts, such as the muscles and joints…As we know, rocking is regularly used in putting to sleep restless children. The shaking sensation experienced in wagons and railroad trains exerts such a fascinating influence on older children, that all boys, at least at one time in their lives, want to become conductors and drivers. They are wont to ascribe to railroad activities an extraordinary and mysterious interest, and during the age of phantastic activity (shortly before puberty) they utilize these as a nucleus for exquisite sexual symbolisms. The desire to connect railroad travelling with sexuality apparently originates from the pleasurable character of the sensation of motion”. The (unnamed) editor of the Ventura County Reporterhas his own blog ( Fir & Main ) and wrote an online article entitled ‘Siderodromophilia and other loves”. In it, he appeared to concur with Freud by noting that: “Yes, I enjoy trains, and there is a certain sensuality in the rhythmic motions (and let’s not mention stock footage and visual double entendres of trains entering tunnels…Fortunately, Googling the word siderodromophilia wasn’t as disturbing as I’d feared” After searching all the usual academic databases, I didn’t manage to locate a single paper that has examined siderodromophilia. Maybe this is because the definition is so ill-defined and/or it has little academic or clinical relevance. I’ll leave you with another issue that I’ll throw into the mix. Siderodromophilia would appear to be part of a more wide-ranging paraphilia called ‘hodophilia’. Dr. Aggrawal simply describes it as “sexual arousal from travelling” whereas Dr. Love has a slightly expanded definition and says it is the “sexual arousal people feel while traveling to new or strange places”. Dr. Love goes a little further and concludes that: “Travel often entails anxiety, pleasure, autonomy, and additional hours for entertainment. People feel more tempted to break out of their normal routine and experience their new environment to the fullest, especially if the country has a legal red light district”. I have to be honest and say that no evidence was presented to support these assertions but given the lack of empirical evidence in the whole area, speculation is the best we have at the current time. Dr Mark Griffiths, Professor of Gambling Studies, International Gaming Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK Further reading Aggrawal A. (2009). Forensic and Medico-legal Aspects of Sexual Crimes and Unusual Sexual Practices. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Fauna (2012). Sex party on Taiwan train involved 17-year-old girl and 18 men. China Smack, March 31. Located at: http://www.chinasmack.com/2012/stories/sex-orgy-on-taiwan-train-involved-17-year-old-girl-and-18-men.html Fir & Main (2008). Siderodromophilia and other loves, April 24. Located at: http://vcredit.wordpress.com/2008/04/24/siderodromophilia-and-other-loves/ Freud, S. (1930). Civilization and its Discontents. London: Hogarth Press. Freud, S. (1962). Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, trans. James Strachey. New York: Basic Books. Hubert, C. (undated). Railway. Located at: http://christianhubert.com/writings/railway.html Love, B. (2001). Encyclopedia of Unusual Sex Practices. London: Greenwich Editions. Marsh, A. (2010). Love among the objectum sexuals. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 13, March 1. Located at: http://www.ejhs.org/volume13/ObjSexuals.htm Stopera, M. (2010). The 15 hottest objectum-sexual relationships. Buzz Feed. Located at: http://www.buzzfeed.com/mjs538/the-15-hottest-objectum-sexual-relationships Thadeusz, F. (2007). Objectophilia, Fetishism and Neo-Sexuality: Falling in Love with Things. Der Spiegel, November 5. Located at: http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,482192,00.html Share this: Related About drmarkgriffiths Professor MARK GRIFFITHS, BSc, PhD, CPsychol, PGDipHE, FBPsS, FRSA, AcSS. Dr. Mark Griffiths is a Chartered Psychologist and Professor of Behavioural Addiction at the Nottingham Trent University, and Director of the International Gaming Research Unit. He is internationally known for his work into gambling and gaming addictions and has won many awards including the American 1994 John Rosecrance Research Prize for “outstanding scholarly contributions to the field of gambling research”, the 1998 European CELEJ Prize for best paper on gambling, the 2003 Canadian International Excellence Award for “outstanding contributions to the prevention of problem gambling and the practice of responsible gambling” and a North American 2006 Lifetime Achievement Award For Contributions To The Field Of Youth Gambling “in recognition of his dedication, leadership, and pioneering contributions to the field of youth gambling”. His most recent award is the 2013 Lifetime Research Award from the US National Council on Problem Gambling. He has published over 600 research papers, four books, over 130 book chapters, and over 1000 other articles. He has served on numerous national and international committees (e.g. BPS Council, BPS Social Psychology Section, Society for the Study of Gambling, Gamblers Anonymous General Services Board, National Council on Gambling etc.) and is a former National Chair of Gamcare. He also does a lot of freelance journalism and has appeared on over 2000 radio and television programmes since 1988. In 2004 he was awarded the Joseph Lister Prize for Social Sciences by the British Association for the Advancement of Science for being one of the UK’s “outstanding scientific communicators”. His awards also include the 2006 Excellence in the Teaching of Psychology Award by the British Psychological Society and the British Psychological Society Fellowship Award for “exceptional contributions to psychology”.	Train
What is the surname of the siblings Harriet, James and John in the Charles Dickens novel ‘Dombey and Son’?	Is Sex Still an Interesting Topic for Discussion? - Google Groups Is Sex Still an Interesting Topic for Discussion? Showing 1-9 of 9 messages Is Sex Still an Interesting Topic for Discussion? In the 1920’s, the subject of sexuality was impolite, under-researched, buried in myth and ignorance. Common sex acts were illegal, obscenity laws were strict. This was before Kinsey and Masters & Johnson, and when Krafft-Ebing was taken seriously. And this was at a time when psychoanalysis was still new and Freud was saying that all aspects of life and culture were implicated by sexuality. The surrealists systematically researched the area, but apparently felt they exhausted the subject rather quickly. Now that research is hardly recalled -- though I haven’t seen the book mentioned by Brandon -- while other surrealist exploratory games of repeated often. The situation of then is reversed today. The subject has been researched to tears. The moralists were defeated and sex acts were largely decriminalized. Obscenity laws persist in a debilitated form, but are made ridiculous by the internet which pipes hard core porn into homes as if it were tap water. References to sex are no longer daring; in fact, the subject has been colonized by capitalism and sold in packages of advertising, news and entertainment. Comedians tell only sex jokes, afraid any other reference will go over the heads of their audience. “Truth or Dare” is a cliché. If anyone wants to graphically describe their sex life in public, the mass media offers countless forums. You can turn on your radio or tv right now and probably find people talking about sex, likely on a show with a title like “Sex Talk.” Yet, at the same time, sexuality is no longer considered to be the great shaker of history, the core of the psyche, the motor of meaning. Psychoanalysis has become a hobby for the rich. What fraud wants to discuss your sex life, not for reasons of prurience and self-absorption, but to unearth the sexual complex that reveals the person? Probably the same fool who thinks the “real you” is revealed when you’re drunk. Your thoughts and desires are, apparently, insignificant to who you are; he just wants to know what gets you off. Can one even hear a note of dissidence in sex talk anymore? The idea that personal fulfillment can be had through sexual technique is a lucrative snake oil; the opportunity to describe one’s sexual fantasies is considered the measure of free speech. It’s almost as if the prols are encouraged to dwell on sex -- it keeps their minds off trying to actually change their lives. Surrealism flows from 19th century romanticism. Freudian psychology and Marxism were refreshing tributaries, but neither is indispensable. As far as I can tell, a near-century of surrealism has maintained a consistent revolutionary stance: the refusal to disassociate love and sex. P.S. So let’s talk about sex. Things even the Greeks didn’t have names for. Pony girls and plushies -- who’da thunk? * Acomoclitic: preference for hairless genitals * Acousticophilia: arousal from sounds * Acrophilia: arousal from heights or high altitudes * Acrotomophilia: arousal from amputees * Actirasty: to become aroused from exposure to sun's rays * Adamitism: going naked for god * Adolescentilism: cross-dressing or playing the role of an adolescent * Aelurophilia: deriving gratification from cats * Agalmatophilia: attractions to statues or mannequins * Agonophilia: person who is aroused by a partner pretending to struggle * Agoraphilia: arousal from open spaces or having sex in public places * Agrexophilia: arousal from others knowing you are having sex * Aichmophilia: love of needles and other pointed objects * Albutophilia: arousal from water * Algolagnia: sexual satisfaction resulting from giving or receiving pain; sadism or masochism * Alloerasty: use of nudity of another person to arouse a partner * Allopellia: having orgasm from watching others engaging in sex * Allorgasmia: arousal from fantasizing about someone other than one's partner * Allotriorasty: arousal from partners of other nations or races * Alphamegamia: attraction to partners of another age group * Altocalciphilia: high heel fetish * Amatripsis: masturbation by rubbing labia together * Amaurophilia: preference for a blind or blindfolded sex partner * Amaxophilia: attraction to riding in cars and motor vehicles * Ambisextrous: pertaining to a bisexual person * Amokoscisia: arousal or sexual frenzy with desire to slash or mutilate women * Amychophilia: deriving sexual pleasure from being scratched * Anaclitism: arousal from items used as infant * Analinctus: licking the anus * Analingus: rimming or penetration of anus with tongue * Anasteemaphilia: attraction to a person because of a difference in height * Androidism: arousal from robots with human features * Androminetophilia: arousal from female partner who dresses like male * Anisonogamist: attraction to either older or younger partners * Anomeatia: anal sex with a female partner * Anophelorastia: arousal from defiling or ravaging a partner * Anophilemia: kissing anus * Antholagnia: arousal from smelling flowers * Anthropophagolagnia: rape with cannibalism * Anthropophagy: pleasure derived from the ingestion of human flesh * Apodysophilia: feverish desire to undress * Apotemnophilia: person who has sexual fantasies about losing a limb * Arachnephilia: attraction to spiders * Asphyxiaphilia: arousal from lack of oxygen * Asthenolagnia: arousal from weakness or being humiliated * Autagonistophilia: exhibitionism; arousal from exposing naked body or genitals to strangers while on stage or while being photographed * Autassassinophilia: arousal from orchestrating one's own death by the hands of another * Autoerotic asphyxia: arousal from oxygen deprivation and sometimes risk of dying * Automasochism: arousal from inflicting intense sensations of pain on one's own body * Autonepiophilia: sexual attraction from dressing or being treated like an infant * Autopederasty: the insertion of one's own penis into their anus * Avisodomy: breaking the neck of a bird while penetrating it for sex * Axillism: the use of the armpit for sex * Batrachophilia: attraction to frogs * Belonephilia: arousal from pins or needles * Biastophilia: pleasure from forcible rape of a terrified stranger * Bromidrophilia: arousal from bodily smells * Canophilia: turned on by dogs * Catagelophilia: love of being ridiculed * Chasmophilia: attraction to nooks, crannies, crevices, and chasms * Cheimaphilia: deriving pleasure from cold or winter * Chrematistophilia: arousal from being charged for sex or robbed * Chrysophilia: arousal from gold or golden objects * Claustrophilia: love of being confined in small places * Climacophilia: deriving pleasure by falling down stairs * Coprophilia: a fancier of feces * Cratolagnia: arousal from strength * Crurophilia: sexual arousal from legs * Dacryphilia: arousal from seeing tears in the eyes of a partner * Dystychiphilia: deriving pleasure from accidents * Emetophilia: arousal from vomit or vomiting * Eonism: transvestitism * Ephebophilia: compelling need for an older person to seek adolescent partners for sexual gratification * Erotophonphilia: attaining sexual satisfaction from murdering complete strangers * Erythrophilia: becoming aroused by blushing * Femoral coitus: penis-thigh sex * Formicophilia: enjoyment of the use of insects for sexual purposes * Frotteur: a person aroused by brushing up against clothed people in public places * Genicon: a sexual partner imagined by one who is dissatisfied with her actual partner * Geronosexuality: an attraction where the object of desire is 30 years older or more * Grapholagnia: maniacal interest in obscene pictures * Gynotikolobomassophilia: deriving sexual pleasure by nibbling on a woman’s earlobe * Hamartophilia: love of committing sinful acts * Haptephilia: arousal by being touched * Harpaxophilia: getting pleasure by robbery or being robbed * Hematolagnia: sexual stimulation from blood * Hypnophilia: turned on by the thought of sleeping * Icolagnia: arousal from contemplation of, or contact with sculptures or pictures. * Infantilism: attraction to childhood items * Kakorrhaphiophilia: arousal from failure * Keraunophilia: turned on by thunder and lightning * Kinesophilia: arousal from movement and exercise * Klismaphilia: sexual pleasure from enemas * Kopophilia: arousal from physical or mental exhaustion * Laliophilia: arousal from public speaking * Ligyrophilia: turned on by loud noises * Lilapsophilia: arousal from tornadoes * Lyssophilia: sexual arousal from becoming angry or upset * Macrophilia: attraction to giants or giant creatures * Maiesiophilia: arousal from childbirth or pregnant women * Maniaphilia: attraction to insane people * Mazophilia: compulsion for breasts * Mechanophilia: turned on by machines * Megalophilia: arousal from large objects * Melissophilia: attraction to bees * Mixoscopia: orgasm achieved by watching one’s beloved have sex with someone else; voyeurism * Mysophilia: love of dirt or becoming dirty * Narratophilia: arousal from erotic conversations * Nasophilia: arousal from the sight, touch, licking, or sucking of a partner's nose. * Necrophilia: sexual gratification only by having sex with the dead * Novercamania: sexual attraction to one’s stepmother * Oculolinctus: the act of licking a partner's eyeball * Olfactophilia: sexual gratification from smells * Ombrophilia: turned on by rain or being rained upon * Ophidiophilia: arousal from snakes * Osmolagnia: arousal caused by bodily odors, such as sweat or menses * Pantophilia: arousal from just about everything imaginable * Parthenophilia: attraction only to virgins * Peccatophilia: arousal from sinning or having committed an imaginary crime * Peniaphilia: erotic fascination with poverty * Pentheraphilia: sexual attraction to one’s mother-in-law * Peodeiktophilia: sexual arousal from exhibitionism * Pictophilia: arousal only from looking at erotic pictures * Placophilia: arousal from tombstones * Pluviophilia: sexual stimulation from rain or being rained upon * Pnigophilia: aroused from people choking * Pornolagnia: desire for prostitutes * Potamophilia: arousal from streams and rivers * Psellismophilia: becoming aroused by stuttering * Pteridomania: an intense desire for ferns * Pteronophilia: sexual gratification from being tickled by feathers * Pygophilia: aroused from buttocks * Pyrolagnia: sexual stimulation from watching fires * Queening: sitting on the side of a person's face as a form of bondage * Renifleur: one who gets sexual pleasure from body smells * Rétifism: foot and shoe fetishism, including using the shoe for masturbation * Rhytiphilia: arousal from facial wrinkles * Sacofricosis: the practice of cutting a hole in the bottom of a front pant pocket in order to masturbate in public with less risk ofdetection * Scotophilia: turned on by darkness * Septophilia: sexual attraction to decaying matter * Siderodromophilia: arousal from riding in trains * Staurophilia: arousal from the cross or crucifix * Stygiophilia: deriving pleasure from thoughts of hell * Symphorophilia: arousal by accidents or catastrophes * Syngenesophilia: sexual attraction to one’s relatives * Taphephilia: arousal from being buried alive * Teratophilia: arousal from deformed or monstrous people * Uranophilia: sexual arousal by heavenly thoughts * Urolagnia: sexual pleasure from urinating * Vampirism: consuming blood of a partner for arousal * Vicarphilia: arousal from other people's exciting experiences * Vincilagnia: arousal from bondage * Xylophilia: turned on by wooden objects * Zelophilia: sexual arousal from jealousy -----= Posted via Newsfeeds.Com, Uncensored Usenet News =----- http://www.newsfeeds.com - The #1 Newsgroup Service in the World! -----== Over 80,000 Newsgroups - 16 Different Servers! =----- On Sun, 30 Apr 2000 11:00:23 -0700, cythera <[email protected]> wrote: >If I saw someone sexually abusing, or beating up an animal, it's >most likely that I'd cause that person physical harm!! > >And, as for my desire toward love/sex, I want to hold and kiss >my future partner in the dark coolness of a grove, a deciduous >forest. If he and I were near water, or perhaps, in it, that >should lull me even deeper into the secret world. YO, ELISPABETH-CYTHERA, dUDETTE AND WILDTHING, THIS IS moOTHER TALKING TO YOU: GYRLFRIEND, YOU BE ONE TOGETHER CHICK! WHAT A WOMAN! I LIKE WHAT YOU SAID, VERY FLUID. CAN I INTEREST YOU IN A BLIND DATE WITH THE KING OF THE LONELY HEARTS CLUB, AKA MORPHEAL dUDE? HE'S LOOKING FOR A GOOD WOMAN WHO CAN SWIM. OR ELSE DOES ONE HELL OF A BACKSTROKE. PERHAPS THE TWO OF YOU CAN STROKE EACH OTHER. CARRY ON dUDETTE, YOU'RE A CREDIT TO OUR GENDER. FONDLY, > CAN I INTEREST YOU IN A BLIND DATE WITH THE KING OF THE LONELY HEARTS CLUB, AKA MORPHEAL dUDE? HE'S LOOKING FOR A GOOD WOMAN WHO CAN SWIM. OR ELSE DOES ONE HELL OF A BACKSTROKE. PERHAPS THE TWO OF YOU CAN STROKE EACH OTHER. Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Elizabeth, aka Cythera. Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Kristina. (So don't start that rumour going around either.) Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Jody. They are not interested in dating Morpheal either. So its mutual. Now go on about whatever it is you ordinarily do, other than messing with me. Got it now, mOTHER dude/dudette whatever you are ? > CARRY ON dUDETTE, YOU'RE A CREDIT TO OUR GENDER. mOTHER, you don't even know what a gender is, in any of its natural variations. So why talk about what you do not understand anything at all about ? >> CAN I INTEREST YOU IN A BLIND DATE WITH THE KING OF THE LONELY HEARTS >CLUB, AKA MORPHEAL dUDE? HE'S LOOKING FOR A GOOD WOMAN WHO CAN SWIM. >OR ELSE DOES ONE HELL OF A BACKSTROKE. PERHAPS THE TWO OF YOU CAN >STROKE EACH OTHER. >Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Elizabeth, aka Cythera. >Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Kristina. >(So don't start that rumour going around either.) >Morpheal is NOT interested in dating Jody. > >They are not interested in dating Morpheal either. So its mutual. YO mORPHEAL, JEEZUS, SEEMS NO ONE WANTS TO DATE YOU. >Now go on about whatever it is you ordinarily do, BOSSY. > other than messing with me. PARANOID. >Got it now, mOTHER dude/dudette WHAT AM I SUPPOSED TO GET? > whatever you are ? >> CARRY ON dUDETTE, YOU'RE A CREDIT TO OUR GENDER. > >mOTHER, you don't even know what a gender is, in any of its natural >variations. So why talk about what you do not understand anything at all >about ? THAT'S NOT NICE EITHER. AND A FALSE ASSUMPTION TOO. mOTHER	i don't know
Bara Brith is a fruit bread originating in which country?	Cookbook:Welsh Fruit Bread (Bara Brith) - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Cookbook:Welsh Fruit Bread (Bara Brith) From Wikibooks, open books for an open world Cookbook \| Ingredients \| Recipes \| Welsh cuisine A loaf of bara brith. Bara brith, sometimes known as "speckled bread" (the literal meaning of the original Welsh-language name), is a fruit bread which originated in Wales . It is traditionally made with raisins , Zante currants and candied peel . In Argentina bara brith, which was brought to the country by the Welsh settlers who started arriving in Chubut province in 1865, is known as torta negra ("black cake") and is a traditional food item there. There are many different recipes for this bread, which is baked and sold commercially in some parts of Wales. The bread has a limited shelf life and is best eaten as soon as possible. Contents 8 fl oz (225 ml) milk 2 oz (50 g) brown sugar , plus 1 teaspoon 4 level teaspoons dried yeast 1 lb (450 g) strong plain flour 1 level teaspoon salt Procedure[ edit ] Warm the milk in a small pan until hand-hot. Put it into a bowl with 1 teaspoon of sugar and the yeast. Leave it in a warm place for about 15 minutes until a froth appears. Sift the flour and place in a large bowl with 2 oz (50g) of sugar and the salt. Rub the fat into the flour until it resembles fine breadcrumbs then stir in the mixed spice. Add the egg and frothed yeast. Mix to a dough in the bowl before turning it out onto a floured surface. Knead until smooth and elastic. Place back into a bowl and cover with plastic film or a damp cloth. Leave it to rise in a warm place for about 90 minutes. After it has been left to stand 'knock down' the dough and knead again, adding the fruit slowly. Place into a bread tin and put the tin into an oiled plastic bag. Leave to rise for about 35 to 40 minutes and pre-heat the oven to gas mark 5 , 190°C (375°F). When the dough has risen and springs back when pressed take the tin out of the bag and bake in the centre of the oven for about 30 minutes. Cover the top of the loaf tin with aluminium foil to stop it burning and bake for another 30 minutes. Take out of the oven and tap the bottom of the loaf, which should sound hollow, if not bake it for another 5 minutes. Brush the honey onto the top of the loaf and cool it on a wire rack. Slice it thinly and serve buttered. This recipe is adapted from Delia Smith’s Complete Cookery Course and Delia Smith's Illustrated Complete Cookery Course. In Wales the fruit is traditionally soaked overnight in cold tea. A simpler variant without yeast[ edit ] This variation is also popular - and uses baking powder and bicarbonate of soda as raising agents, rather than yeast. As above, soaking of the dried fruit in tea, for several hours, is essential to the taste and succulence of the loaf.	Wales
What is the name of the road tunnel which opened in Switzerland in September 1980, and is almost 17 kilometres long?	A Bite of Britain: Welsh Bara Brith Tea Cake – Honest Cooking By Ruby Moukli What do you know about Wales? If you’re not British, then the answer is probably ‘not much’. Take popular culture as an example. Hollywood waxes poetic about the Scottish highlands, the English countryside and London fog. But can you name a single major motion picture set in Wales? And yet Wales, with its Black Mountains, sandy beaches, sleepy villages and medieval castles, is nothing short of a living, breathing movie set. Wales is the smallest of the countries that make up Great Britain (the others being England and Scotland). In England it gets short shrift, often stereotyped as a ‘backwater’ bereft of cultural or economic value. What a shame. It’s true that Wales is economically depressed compared to the rest of Britain, mainly because of the decline of the coal mining industry. But the Welsh are a proud people and have made great strides toward rebuilding their economy based on tourism and the service industry. Growing up I was always curious about my Welsh heritage. Yes, I know I’ve said before that my mom was English but that’s only half true. My grandmother, with her telltale combination of dark hair, blue eyes and beautiful singing voice, has family roots planted firmly west of the border. And so, just as anyone with a drop of Irish blood will wave it in your face on St. Patrick’s Day, I’m going to flaunt my Welsh 25% today. ‘OK’, you say, ‘so why have you chosen today of all days to shove Wales down our throats?’ Well, because today is the 1st of March, St. David’s Day, and St. David is the patron saint of, yes, you guessed it, Wales. Tradition would have you slurping a celebratory bowl of Cawl, a lamb stew or soup. But I think the name puts me off (I must be thinking of caul, but still), not to mention the lovely newborn lambs currently bouncing in the fields, so I opted for a more benign treat. Bara Brith on Welsh slate When visiting friends in North Wales last year, my kids fell in love with Bara Brith. The name means ‘speckled bread’ in Welsh and that’s pretty much what it is. Bread speckled with dried fruit. You’ll find it either baked with yeast or as a quick bread. I’m averse to yeast, so I make the quick bread version and it’s lovely. There’s no added fat beyond the one egg and then flour, fruit and tea. Some recipes include jam or marmalade, and a great deal of the flavor comes from the mixed spice, which is a common ingredient in Welsh baking. And because there’s no butter or oil in it, you can feel free to spread a thick slice with butter and enjoy it with a cup of tea while you plan a visit to Wales. As the Welsh say, Mwynhewch eich bwyd! (Bon appétit!) 4.0 from 4 reviews A Bite of Britain: Bara Brith Welsh tea cake, recipe makes 3 small loaves (or 1 large and 1 small) Author: Ruby Moukli Ingredients 450 g / 2 ½ cups dried fruit (I used raisins and cranberries, but currants and even dates work wonderfully) 400 ml /1 ¾ cups brewed black tea 225 g / 2 cups self-raising flour (white) 225 g / 2 cups plain wholemeal flour 175 g / ¾ cup unrefined sugar 2 tsp baking powder 1 ½ tsp mixed spice (or ½ tsp cinnamon, ½ tsp allspice, pinch of ground clove and a pinch of ground ginger) ½ tsp salt 2 Tbsp marmalade or jam (I used low-sugar apricot jam) Instructions Night Before: Set the fruit to soak in the tea overnight Baking Day: Preheat oven to 175 C / 325 F and grease and line two loaf pans (one large and one small, or else three small) In a large mixing bowl, sift together the flours, then add the other dry ingredients and mix. Beat the egg and add it to the mixture, along with the jam and fruit (with remaining tea) and stir until just mixed. Divide into loaf pans and bake for 1 hour (or until a skewer poked in center comes out clean). (Check the smaller loaves at 45 minutes.) Cool in pans for 15 minutes, then gently turn them out and cool completely before storing in an airtight container (or wrap). 2.2.1	i don't know
English singer/songwriter Lynsey Monckton Rubin is better known by what name?	Lynsey De Paul dead at 64 following suspected brain haemorrhage \| Daily Mail Online comments Lynsey De Paul has died suddenly at the age of 64 following a suspected brain haemorrhage. The singer/songwriter - who represented the UK in the 1977 Eurovision Song Contest - was best known for her hits Sugar Me and Won't Somebody Dance With Me. She had been suffering from headaches and passed away in hospital on Wednesday. Her agent Michael Joyce said: 'Although she was small in stature, she was very big in positive personality. She was always so positive about everything.' Scroll down for video Tragic loss: Singer/songwriter Lynsey De Paul [pictured in March 2014] passed away in hospital on Wednesday of a reported brain haemorrhage Olivia Rubin, her niece, told the Times her passing was 'completely unexpected.' 'She was a vegetarian, she didn't smoke, she didn't drink - she was amazing, in fact.' Many celebrities have been tweeting their condolences including West End star Michael Ball: 'The lovely Lynsey de Paul has passed on. A beautiful, funny, feisty and talented lady. So sad.' Fellow Eurovision song contest contestant (as part of Bucks Fizz) Cheryl Baker was shocked at the news. 'Whaaaaat? Lynsey de Paul has died?!!!!! I'm so, so sorry! RIP Lynsey, a great talent and a beautiful woman,' Baker tweeted. Renaissance woman: Ezther Rantzen (C) paid tribute to Lynsey on Thursday via the BBC 'Am in utter shock at sudden death of my friend Lynsey de Paul,' echoed comedian Russell Kane, on Twitter. 'We were chatting in the post office just two weeks ago. Can't believe it.' De Paul wrote the theme to Esther Rantzen's BBC One series Hearts Of Gold and the campaigner paid tribute to her friend after her death was revealed. According to the BBC, Esther said: 'She was a renaissance woman. She could do everything - she could sing, she could compose, she was an immensely talented artist. Honour: Lynsey said it was an honour to represent the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1977 along with Mike Moran 'She became a huge star but she was also a loyal and generous friend. It's an absolutely tragic loss.' The songwriter was born Lynsey Monckton Rubin in 1971 in Crickledwood, north London, and endured an abusive childhood by the hand of her father Herbert, while her mother, Meta, did nothing. 'I knew what it was like to be very frightened when I was a small child. I never knew what my father was going to do - slap me, yell at me, criticise me or just ignore me,' Lynsey told the late Lester Meddlehurst of the Daily Mail in 2007. From one performer to another: MIchael Ball shared his condolences Shocked: Fellow Eurovision Contest alumnus Cheryl Baker was sad about the Lynsey's death 'Once he hit me so hard that I felt sick and dizzy for three days. In the end I had to go to the doctor, who told me I was suffering from concussion. I was 19 then and I knew I had to save up enough money to get out of that house as quickly as possible, which is exactly what I did.' Lynsey changed her name from Reuben to de Paul to dissociate herself from her family when she left home. But Lynsey didn't totally escape abusive behaviour, as she entered into relationships with men with histories of violence such as George Best and Sean Connery. Even the love of her life, Hollywood actor James Coburn, threatened her with violence during the four years they lived together in the late Seventies. She said it happened just once and she 'certainly made him regret it.' Famous love interests: De Paul never married but was linked to various famous men over the years including Ringo Starr, Roy Wood, James Coburn, Sean Connery and Dudley Moore However, it was her adulterous affair with Connery in 1989, that Lynsey regretted most of all after discovering the truth about his abusive first marriage to actress Diane Cilento, and because he publicly condoned hitting women. It lasted several months and ended abruptly when after spending the night one day, Connery never called her again. Lynsey's experience with abuse led to her presenting a documentary in 1992 about women's self- defence, called Eve Fights Back, which won a Royal Television Society award. And in 2007 she released her own instructional self-defence video, Taking Control, which teaches women how to protect themselves mentally and physically against an assailant. Love of her life: Hollywood actor James Coburn was the love of her life but he threatened her with violence during the four years they lived together in the late Seventies Celebrity pals: Lynsey [pictured in 2001] with Joanna Lumley will be deeply mourned by many in the industry In her life, Lyndsey had five offers of marriage, including one from James Coburn, and she still wears the engagement ring that Chas Chandler, bassist with The Animals, gave her. De Paul admitted to 'flings' with Ringo Starr and Dudley Moore, of whom she always spoke fondly of. Her affair with the actor took place in London while he was filming Alice's Adventures In Wonderland in 1972, the same year Sugar Me hit the UK Chart Top 10. Before she was making hits for herself, Lynsey was songwriting for ATV-Kirshner music publishing and her breakthrough came as co-writer (with Ron Roker) of The Fortunes' top 10 UK hit Storm In A Teacup. Flings: De Paul admitted to 'flings' with Ringo Starr and Dudley Moore, of whom she always spoke fondly of Rear of the Year: The songwriter won the cheeky award in 1985 While Sugar Me was covered by Nancy Sinatra, Lynsey became the first woman to win an Ivor Novello award for songwriting with Won't Somebody Dance With Me. She later received a second Ivor Novello award for No Honestly, which was also the theme tune to the British ITV series of the same name, and the follow up show Yes Honestly. Rock Bottom, which she wrote with Mike Moran, was the UK entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1977 and came second, but taking part in the competition was not about national pride. Trailblazer: Lynsey's hit Sugar Me was covered by Nancy Sinatra and the singer became the first woman to win an Ivor Novello award for songwriting with Won't Somebody Dance With Me Love of her life: Lynsey dated James Coburn for three years during the late Seventies early Eighties Lynsey was being prevented from signing to a new record label because of issues with her manager, Sharon Osbourne's father Don Arden, and the label Jet that she was already signed to. 'The only reason I did Eurovision was I could not get a record deal unless I did,' she told Female First. As a songwriter she wrote songs for the likes of Shirley Bassey, Heatwave,The Real Thing and even the Conservative Party. Early success: Lynsey was managed by Sharon Osbourne's father early in her career but the professional relationship ended badly Bit of blue: Lynsey was a Conservative party women supporter along with Deborah Selinger (2nd left), singer, Elaine Paige (4th right) and Singer Patti Boulaye (3rd right). Lynsey performed Vote Tory, Tory, Tory/For Election Glory and the politic party's 1983 annual conference. The singer-songwriter moved into acting and appeared in the British version of the American musical Pump Boys and Dinettes as well as the feature films The Starlight Ballroom and Gabrielle And The Doodleman. On television, Lynsey De Paul was ajudge with Tim Rice and journalist Nina Myskow on New Faces, and also hosted shows such as Club Vegetarian, Shopper's Heaven, Eat Drink & Be Healthy, Women of Substance and The Vinyl Frontier. In 2007 she became known to a whole new generation when she appeared in the first episode of Stephen Fry's drama, Kingdom. The following year she took part in Celebrity Come Dine With Me along with Tamara Beckwith, MC Harvey and Jonathan Ansell, but sadly the vegetarian came last. Lynsey has also written a number of travel articles for the Daily Mail. Come Dine With Me: The late songwriter appeared in series eight of the celebrity version of the show along with Tamara Beckwith, MC Harvey and Jonathan Ansell	Lynsey de Paul
Zimt is German for which spice?	Lynsey de Paul Artistfacts Artistfacts Artistfacts for Lynsey de Paul The English singer-songwriter was born Lyndsey Monckton Rubin. She had chart hits in the UK and US in the 1970s, starting with the single " Sugar Me ." She represented the UK in the Eurovision Song Contest and then had a successful career as a composer, actress and television celebrity. Her UK and European hit " Won't Somebody Dance With Me " received an Ivor Novello Award, and she was the first woman to gain the award. A second Ivor Novello Award followed a year later for " No Honestly ," which was also the theme tune to the TV comedy No, Honestly and provided her with another UK Top 10 hit. (thanks, Brian - Asia, for above 2) At the suggestion of manager Gordon Mills, she adopted the last name de Paul before recording "Sugar Me." She explained to the UK's Independent: "There had been the massacre at the Munich Olympics and I was told that it would be better not to have a Jewish name. I took De from my mother’s maiden name, De Groot, and my father’s middle name was Paul." In 1976, she successfully sued notable '70s manager Don Arden (Small Faces, Black Sabbath) for withholding earnings and refusing to release her album Take Your Time. She was a vegetarian who also eschewed alcohol and cigarettes. She died of a brain hemorrhage at age 66. She never married, but had a longtime relationship with actor James Coburn, and also dated actor Dudley Moore and musicians Roy Wood and Ringo Starr.	i don't know
Ambergris is a waxy substance used in perfumery and is believed to originate in the intestines of which creatures?	A Whale of A Treasure Tale - YouTube A Whale of A Treasure Tale Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Sep 7, 2012 Well, with that being said and done let's move on. We all know gold, silver, platinum, diamonds, rubies and emeralds. The list goes on and on, well after reading this latest story, I'm adding a new treasure source to my list...Whale vomit, that's right you heard it right, whale vomit, also known as Ambergris. The Webster Dictionary describes Ambergris as : a waxy substance found floating in or on the shores of tropical waters, believed to originate in the intestines of the sperm whale, and used in perfumery as a fixative Another source says: Ambergris is formed in the intestinal tract of sperm whales and often vomited or secreted into the ocean Why am I talking about whale vomit? Well, an 8 year old boy wandering the shores near his home in Christchurch New Zealand discovered what he thought was an odd looking rock. Upon bringing the rock home the boy and his family discovered the rock was not a rock, but in fact was Ambergris. The chunk of "not rock" aka Ambergris weighs a hefty 600 grams and is valued at nearly $60,000.00. Although it is rare to find Ambergris lying on the beach, it does happen. In 2008, a couple of beachgoers in North Whales found a 110 pound chunk of Ambergris, which they sold for $790,000.00. Those in the know say it is unlikely more Ambergris will be found at the same location as Ambergris is rarely found on British Beaches, pointing out that most Ambergris is found along the shores of the United States and Australia. So if you happen to be walking or metal detecting the beach and happen upon a smooth, sweat smelling , waxy substance rock, you just may have discovered your very own treasure! Well that's all for now! Take care and happy hunting! Category	Sperm whale
Which planet in our solar system was discovered by Johann Galle and Heinrich D’Arrest in 1846?	Sperm whale : definition of Sperm whale and synonyms of Sperm whale (English) Desmoulins , 1822 The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) is a marine mammal species, order Cetacea , a toothed whale (odontocete) having the largest brain of any animal. The name comes from the milky-white waxy substance, spermaceti , found in the animal's head. The sperm whale is the only living member of genus Physeter. The now outdated synonym Physeter catodon refers to the same species . It is one of three extant species in the sperm whale superfamily , along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale . A mature male can grow to 20.5 metres (67 ft) long. It is the largest living toothed animal. For large males, the head can represent up to one-third of the animal's length. It has a cosmopolitan distribution across the oceans. The species feeds primarily on squid but to some extent on fish , diving as deep as 3 kilometres (9,800 ft), which makes it the deepest diving mammal. Its diet includes giant squid and colossal squid . The sperm whale's clicking vocalization is the loudest sound produced by any animal. The clicking is used for sonar and may also be used for other purposes. [3] These whales live in groups called social units. Units of females and their young live separately from sexually mature males. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young. Females give birth every three to six years, and care for the calves for more than a decade. The sperm whale has few natural predators, since few are strong enough to successfully attack a healthy adult; orcas attack units and are capable of killing the calves. The sperm whale can live for more than 70 years. Historically, the sperm whale was also known as the common cachalot; "cachalot" is derived from an archaic French word for "tooth". Over most of the period from the early 18th century until the late 20th century, the sperm whale was hunted to obtain spermaceti and other products, such as sperm oil and ambergris . Spermaceti found many important uses, such as candles , soap , cosmetics and machine oil. Due to its size, the sperm whale could sometimes defend itself effectively against whalers. In the most famous example, a sperm whale attacked and sank the American whaleship Essex in 1820. As a result of whaling, the sperm whale is currently listed as vulnerable by the IUCN . Contents 11 External links Etymology The name sperm whale is an apocopation of spermaceti whale. Spermaceti , originally mistaken for the whales' "sperm", is the semi-liquid, waxy substance found in the spermaceti organ or case in front of and above the skull bone and also in the junk, the area below the spermaceti organ and just above the upper jaw. [4] The case consists of a soft white, waxy substance saturated with spermaceti oil. The junk is composed of cavities filled with the same wax and spermaceti oil and intervening connective tissue . [4] [5] [6] The sperm whale is also known as the "cachalot", which is thought to derive from the archaic French for "tooth" or "big teeth", as preserved for example in cachau in the Gascon dialect (a word of either Romance [7] or Basque [8] origin). The etymological dictionary of Corominas says the origin is uncertain, but it suggests that it comes from the vulgar Latin cappula, plural of cappulum, sword hilt. [9] According to Encarta Dictionary , the word cachalot came to English "via French from Spanish or Portuguese cachalote, perhaps from Portuguese cachola, 'big head'". The term is retained in the Russian word for the animal, кашалот (kashalot), as well as in many other languages. Description 4 metres (13 ft) 1,000 kilograms (0.98 long ton; 1.1 short tons) The sperm whale is the largest toothed whale, with adult males measuring up to 20.5 metres (67 ft) long and weighing up to 57,000 kilograms (56 long tons; 63 short tons). [5] [11] By contrast, the second largest toothed whale , Baird's Beaked Whale measures 12.8 metres (42 ft) and weighs up to 15 short tons (14,000 kg). [12] The Nantucket Whaling Museum has a 5.5 metres (18 ft)-long jawbone. The museum claims that this individual was 80 feet (24 m) long; the whale that sank the Essex (one of the incidents behind Moby-Dick ) was claimed to be 85 feet (26 m). [13] [14] However, there is disagreement on the claims of adult males approaching or exceeding 80 feet (24 m) in length. [15] Extensive whaling may have decreased their size, as males were highly sought, primarily after World War II . [14] Today, males do not usually exceed 18.3 metres (60 ft) in length or 51,000 kilograms (50 long tons; 56 short tons) in weight. [10] Another view holds that exploitation by overwhaling had virtually no effect on the size of the bull sperm whales, and their size may have actually increased in current times on the basis of density dependent effects. [16] It is among the most sexually dimorphic of all cetaceans . At birth both sexes are about the same size, [10] but mature males are typically 30% to 50% longer and three times as massive as females. [5] Appearance The sperm whale's unique body is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The sperm whale's distinctive shape comes from its very large, block-shaped head, which can be one-quarter to one-third of the animal's length. The S-shaped blowhole is located very close to the front of the head and shifted to the whale's left. [5] This gives rise to a distinctive bushy, forward-angled spray. The flukes of a sperm whale as it dives into the Gulf of Mexico (courtesy NMFS) Sperm whale tail in Kaikoura , New Zealand The sperm whale's flukes are triangular and very thick. The whale lifts its flukes high out of the water as it begins a feeding dive. [5] It has a series of ridges on the back's caudal third instead of a dorsal fin . The largest ridge was called the 'hump' by whalers, and can be mistaken for a dorsal fin because of its shape and size. [10] In contrast to the smooth skin of most large whales, its back skin is usually wrinkly and has been likened to a prune by whale-watching enthusiasts. [17] Skin is normally a uniform grey in color, though it may appear brown in sunlight. Albinos have also been reported. [18] [19] [20] Jaws and teeth The sperm whales' lower jaw is very narrow and underslung. [21] The sperm whale has 18 to 26 teeth on each side of its lower jaw which fit into sockets in the upper jaw. [21] The teeth are cone-shaped and weigh up to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) each. [22] The teeth are functional, but do not appear to be necessary for capturing or eating squid, and well-fed animals have been found without teeth. One hypothesis is that the teeth are used in aggression between males. [23] Mature males often show scars which seem to be caused by the teeth. Rudimentary teeth are also present in the upper jaw, but these rarely emerge into the mouth. [24] Respiration and diving Sperm whales, along with bottlenose whales and elephant seals , are the deepest-diving mammals. [5] Sperm whales are believed to be able to reach 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) and remain submerged for 90 minutes. [5] [25] More typical dives are around 400 metres (1,300 ft) and 35 minutes in duration. [5] At these great depths, sperm whales had sometimes become entangled in transoceanic telephone cables and drowned [26] until improvements in laying and maintenance techniques were employed. [27] Sperm whale arching back in preparation to dive off Dominica The sperm whale has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible ribcage allows lung collapse, reducing nitrogen intake, and metabolism can decrease to conserve oxygen . [28] [29] Myoglobin , which stores oxygen in muscle tissue, is much more abundant than in terrestrial animals. [30] The blood has a high red blood cell density, which contain oxygen-carrying hemoglobin . The oxygenated blood can be directed towards the brain and other essential organs only when oxygen levels deplete. [31] [32] [33] The spermaceti organ may also play a role by adjusting buoyancy (see below ). [34] While sperm whales are well adapted to diving, repeated dives to great depths have long term effects. Bones show pitting that signals decompression sickness in humans. Older skeletons showed the most extensive pitting, whereas calves showed no damage. This damage may indicate that sperm whales are susceptible to decompression sickness, and sudden surfacing could be lethal to them. [35] Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again. [5] Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3–5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6–7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle. [36] On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives. [37] Brain and senses Echolocation system of a toothed whale [38] [39] The brain is the largest known of any modern or extinct animal, weighing on average about 8 kilograms (18 lb), [40] [41] though the sperm whale has a lower encephalization quotient than many other whale and dolphin species, lower than that of non-human anthropoid apes , and much lower than humans '. [41] [42] Nasal complex and spermaceti functions Main article: Spermaceti Early on it was proposed that the nasal complex, which includes the spermaceti organ, the junk bodies, and other associated organs, was used as a battering ram (see below) [43] or for buoyancy regulation (see below); [34] [44] however, researchers' current understanding suggest that the primary function of the spermaceti organ and the associated organs in the nose of the sperm whales are used as part of the world's most powerful natural sonar system. [38] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] [52] Due to light absorption by water, most of the ocean is dark beyond a few hundred meters thus limiting visual range. As a result, sperm whales and the other toothed whales (suborder odontoceti ) have evolved a system of echolocation as the main way to find food in the darkness of the ocean similar to that used by bats to find food in the darkness of the night sky. When echolocating, the sperm whale emits a directionally focused beam of broadband clicks. Clicks are generated by the forcing of air through a pair of phonic lips (also known as "monkey lips" or "museau de singe") at the front end of the nose, just below the blowhole. The sound then travels backwards along the length of the nose through the spermaceti organ. Most of the sound energy is then reflected off an air sac which sits against the skull and down into the Junk Bodies, where the sound is focused by the junk's lens-like structure. [38] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] [51] Some of the sound will reflect back into the spermaceti organ and back towards the front of the whale's nose where it will be reflected through the spermaceti organ a third time. This back and forth reflection which happens on the scale of a few milliseconds creates a multi-pulse click structure. [53] This multi—pulse click structure actually allows researchers to measure the whale's spermaceti organ using only the sound of its clicks and given the size of the spermaceti organ relates to the size of the whale, biologists can measure the whales by recording their echolocation clicks. [54] [55] The lower jaw is the primary reception path for the echoes. A continuous fat-filled canal transmits received sounds to the inner ear. [39] The source of the air forced through the phonic lips is the right nasal passage. While the left nasal passage opens to the blow hole, the right nasal passage has evolved to supply air to the phonic lips. It is thought that the nostrils of the land-based ancestor of the sperm whale migrated through evolution to their current functions, the left nostril becoming the blowhole and the right nostril becoming the phonic lips. [56] The spermaceti organs may also help adjust the whale's buoyancy . It is hypothesized that before the whale dives, cold water enters the organ, and it is likely that the blood vessels constrict, reducing blood flow, and, hence, temperature. The wax therefore solidifies and reduces in volume. [34] [44] The increase in specific density generates a down force of about 392 newtons (860 lb) and allows the whale to dive with less effort. During the hunt, oxygen consumption, together with blood vessel dilation, produces heat and melts the spermaceti, increasing its buoyancy and enabling easy surfacing. [57] However, more recent work [47] have found many problems with this theory including the lack of anatomical structures for the actual heat exchange. [58] Herman Melville 's Moby Dick suggests that the "case" containing the spermaceti had evolved as a kind of battering ram for use in fights between males. [43] However, there are almost no modern accounts of fights between male sperm whales. [52] Apart from a few famous exceptions of the well-documented sinking of the ships Essex and Ann Alexander by attackers estimated to weigh only one-fifth as much as the ships, this hypothesis is not well supported in current scientific literature. [59] Ecology, behaviour, and life history Distribution The sperm whale is among the most cosmopolitan species . It prefers ice-free waters over 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep. [2] Although both sexes range through temperate and tropical oceans and seas, only adult males populate higher latitudes . [18] It is relatively abundant from the poles to the equator and is found in all the oceans. It inhabits the Mediterranean Sea , but not the Black Sea , [10] while its presence in the Red Sea is uncertain. [2] The shallow entrances to both the Black Sea and the Red Sea may account for their absence. [60] The Black Sea's lower layers are also anoxic and contain high concentrations of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide . [61] Populations are denser close to continental shelves and canyons. [18] Sperm whales are usually found in deep off-shore waters, but may be seen closer to shore in areas where the continental shelf is small and drops quickly to depths of 310–920 metres (1,020–3,020 ft). [10] Coastal areas with significant sperm whale populations include the Azores and the Caribbean island of Dominica . [62] Reproduction Young sperm whale Sperm whales can live 70 years or more. [10] [18] [63] They are a prime example of a species that has been K-selected , i.e., their reproductive strategy is associated with stable environmental conditions and comprises a low birth rate, significant parental aid to offspring, slow maturation, and high longevity. [5] How they choose mates has not been definitively determined. There is evidence that males have dominance hierarchies, and there is also evidence that female choice influences mating. [64] Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf. [10] Lactation proceeds for 19 to 42 months, but calves may suckle up to 13 years (although usually less). [10] Calves can suckle from females other than their mothers. [10] Females generally have birth intervals of three to six years. [10] Females reach sexual maturity between 7 and 13 years; males follow beginning at 18 years. Upon reaching sexual maturity, males move to higher latitudes , where the water is colder and feeding is more productive. Females remain at lower latitudes. [10] Males reach their full size at about age 50. [5] Social behavior Diagram of Marguerite formation Females stay in groups of about a dozen individuals and their young. [5] Mature males leave their "natal unit" somewhere between 4 and 21 years of age. Mature males sometimes form loose "bachelor groups" with other males of similar age and size. [5] As males grow older, they typically live solitary lives. [5] Mature males have beached themselves together, suggesting a degree of cooperation which is not yet fully understood. [5] The most common non-human attacker of sperm whales is the orca , but pilot whales and the false killer whale also sometimes harass them. [65] [66] Orcas prey on target groups of females with young, usually making an effort to extract and kill a calf. Female sperm whales repel these attacks by encircling their calves. The adults either face inwards to use their tail flukes against the orcas, or outwards, fighting with their teeth. [5] This Marguerite formation, named after the flower , is also used by whales to support an injured unit member. Early whalers exploited this behavior, attracting a whole unit by injuring one of its members. [67] If the orca pod is extremely large, its members may sometimes be able to kill adult female sperm whales. Large mature male sperm whales have no non-human predators, and are believed to be too large, powerful and aggressive to be threatened by orcas. [68] Feeding A piece of sperm whale skin with giant squid sucker scars Sperm Whales usually dive between 300 to 800 metres (980 to 2,600 ft), and sometimes 1–2 kilometres (3,300–6,600 ft) to search for food. [69] Such dives can last more than an hour. [69] They feed on several species, notably the giant squid , the colossal squid , octopuses , and diverse fish like demersal rays , but the main part of their diet consists of medium-sized squid . [70] Some prey may be taken incidentally while eating other items. [70] Most of what is known about deep sea squid has been learned from specimens in captured sperm whale stomachs, although more recent studies analysed fecal matter. One study, carried out around the Galápagos , found that squid from the genera Histioteuthis (62%), Ancistrocheirus (16%), and Octopoteuthis (7%) weighing between 12 and 650 grams (0.026 and 1.4 lb) were the most commonly taken. [71] Battles between sperm whales and colossal squid (which have been measured to weigh nearly 500 kilograms (1,100 lb)) have never been observed by humans; however white scars are believed to be caused by the large squid. One study published in 2010 collected evidence that suggests that female sperm whales may collaborate when hunting Humboldt squid . [72] An older study, examining whales captured by the New Zealand whaling fleet in the Cook Strait region, found a 1.69:1 ratio of squid to fish by weight. [73] Sperm whales sometimes steal Sablefish and Toothfish from long lines. Long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska complain that sperm whales take advantage of their fishing operations to eat desirable species straight off the line, sparing the whales the need to hunt. [74] However, the amount of fish taken is very little compared to what the sperm whale needs per day. Video footage has been captured of a large male sperm whale "bouncing" a long line, to gain the fish. [75] Sperm whales are believed to prey on the megamouth shark , a rare and large deep-sea species discovered in the 1970s. [76] In one case, three sperm whales were observed attacking or playing with a megamouth. [77] The sharp beak of a consumed squid lodged in the whale's intestine may lead to the production of ambergris , analogous to the production of pearls . [78] The irritation of the intestines caused by squid beaks stimulates the secretion of this lubricant-like substance. Sperm whales are prodigious feeders and eat around 3% of their body weight per day. The total annual consumption of prey by sperm whales worldwide is estimated to be about 100,000,000 short tons (91,000,000 t) — a figure greater than the total consumption of marine animals by humans each year. [79] It is not well understood why the sperm whale's head is so large in comparison to the lower jaw. One theory is that the sperm whale's ability to echolocate through its head aids in hunting. However, squid, its main prey, may have acoustic properties too similar to seawater to reflect sounds. [80] The sperm whale's head contains a structure called the phonic lips, also known as the monkey lips, through which it blows air. This can create clicks that have a source level exceeding 230 decibels re 1 micropascal referenced to a distance of 1 metre (3.3 ft) – in other words, it is by far the loudest sound made by any animal, and 10–14 dB louder than a powerful rifle sounds in air at 1 metre (3.3 ft) away. [81] It has been hypothesised that clicks attempt to stun prey. Experimental studies attempting to duplicate this effect have been unable to replicate the supposed injuries, casting doubt on this idea. [82] Taxonomy and naming Skeleton in Kaliningrad The sperm whale belongs to the order Cetacea , the order containing all whales and dolphins. It is a member of the suborder Odontoceti , the suborder containing all the toothed whales and dolphins. It is the sole extant species of its genus, Physeter , in the family Physeteridae . Two species of the related extant genus Kogia , the pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps and the dwarf sperm whale K. simus, are placed either in this family or in the family Kogiidae . [83] In some taxonomic schemes the families Kogiidae and Physeteridae are combined as the superfamily Physeteroidea (see the separate entry on the sperm whale family ). [84] The sperm whale is one of the species originally described by Linnaeus in 1758 in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae . He recognised four species in the genus Physeter. [85] Experts soon realised that just one such species exists, although there has been debate about whether this should be named P. catodon or P. macrocephalus, two of the names used by Linnaeus. Both names are still used, although most recent authors now accept macrocephalus as the valid name, limiting catodon's status to a lesser synonym. [a] Evolutionary history See also: Sperm whale family Fossil record Although the fossil record is poor, [86] several extinct genera have been assigned to the clade Physeteroidea , which includes the last common ancestor of the modern sperm whale, pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale , plus all of that ancestor's descendants. These fossils include Ferecetotherium, Idiorophus, Diaphorocetus, Aulophyseter , Orycterocetus , Scaldicetus, Placoziphius, Zygophyseter and Acrophyseter. [80] [84] [87] Ferecetotherium, found in Azerbaijan and dated to the late Oligocene (about 28 to 23 million years ago), is the most primitive fossil that has been found which possesses sperm whale-specific features such as an asymmetric rostrum ("beak" or "snout"). [88] Most sperm whale fossils date from the Miocene period, 23 to 5 million years ago. Diaphorocetus, from Argentina , has been dated to the early Miocene . Fossil sperm whales from the Middle Miocene include Aulophyseter, Idiorophus and Orycterocetus, all of which were found on the west coast of the United States , and Scaldicetus, found in Europe and Japan . [88] [89] Orycterocetus fossils have also been found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea , in addition to the west coast of the United States. [90] Placoziphius, found in Europe, and Acrophyseter, from Peru , are dated to the late Miocene. [84] [88] Evolutionary family tree of sperm whales, [91] including simplified summary of extinct groups (†) [80] Fossil sperm whales differ from modern sperm whales in tooth count and the shape of the face and jaws. [88] For example Scaldicetus had a tapered rostrum. [89] Genera from the Oligocene and early and middle Miocene, with the possible exception of Aulophyseter, had teeth in their upper jaws. [88] Acrophyseter, from the late Miocene, also had teeth in both the upper and lower jaws as well as a short rostrum and an upward curving mandible (lower jaw). [84] These anatomical differences suggest that fossil species may not have necessarily been deep-sea squid eaters like the modern sperm whale, but that some genera mainly ate fish. [88] Zygophyseter, dated from the middle to late Miocene and found in southern Italy , had teeth in both jaws and appears to have been adapted to feed on large prey, rather like the modern Orca (Killer Whale). [80] Phylogeny The traditional view has been that Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales) arose from more primitive whales early in the Oligocene period, and that the super-family Physeteroidea, which contains the sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, and pygmy sperm whale, diverged from other toothed whales soon after that, over 23 million years ago. [86] [88] In 1993–1996 molecular phylogenetics analyses by Milinkovitch and colleagues, based on comparing the genes of various modern whales, suggested that the sperm whales are more closely related to the baleen whales than they are to other toothed whales, which would have meant that Odontoceti were not monophyletic , in other words did not consist of a single ancestral toothed whale species and all its descendants. [91] However more recent studies, based on various combinations of comparative anatomy and molecular phylogenetics, criticised Milinkovitch's analysis on technical grounds and reaffirmed that the Odontoceti are monophyletic. [91] [92] [93] These analyses also confirm that there was a rapid evolutionary radiation (diversification) of the Physeteroidea in the Miocene period. [80] The Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales) diverged from the Physeteridae (true sperm whales) at least 8 million years ago. [92] Relationship with humans See also: Whaling and Sperm whaling Spermaceti , obtained primarily from the spermaceti organ, and sperm oil , obtained primarily from the blubber in the body, were much sought after by 18th, 19th, and 20th century whalers . These substances found a variety of commercial applications, such as candles , soap , cosmetics , machine oil, other specialized lubricants, lamp oil, pencils, crayons, leather waterproofing, rust-proofing materials and many pharmaceutical compounds. [94] [95] [96] [97] Ambergris , a solid, waxy, flammable substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, was also sought as a fixative in perfumery . Sperm whaling Prior to the early 18th century, hunting was mostly by indigenous Indonesians. [98] Legend has it that sometime in the early 18th century, around 1712, Captain Christopher Hussey, while cruising for right whales near shore, was blown offshore by a northerly wind, where he encountered a sperm whale pod and killed one. [99] Although the story may not be true, sperm whales were indeed soon exploited by American whalers. Judge Paul Dudley, in his Essay upon the Natural History of Whales (1725), states that one Atkins, ten or twelve years in the trade, was among the first to catch sperm whales sometime around 1720 off the New England coast. [100] There were only a few recorded catches during the first few decades (1709-1730s) of offshore sperm whaling. Instead sloops concentrated on Nantucket Shoals where they would have taken right whales or went to the Davis Strait region to catch bowhead whales . By the early 1740s, with the advent of spermaceti candles (before 1743), American vessels began to focus on sperm whales. The diary of Benjamin Bangs (1721–1769) shows that, along with the bumpkin sloop he sailed, he found three other sloops flensing sperm whales off the coast of North Carolina in late May 1743. [101] On returning to Nantucket in the summer 1744 on a subsequent voyage he noted that "45 spermacetes are brought in here this day," another indication that American sperm whaling was in full swing. [101] Nantucket in red, is an island off the state of Massachusetts where much sperm whaling originated American sperm whaling soon spread from the east coast of the American colonies to the Gulf Stream , the Grand Banks , West Africa (1763), the Azores (1765), and the South Atlantic (1770s). From 1770 to 1775 Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island ports produced 45,000 barrels of sperm oil annually, compared to 8,500 of whale oil. [102] In the same decade the British began sperm whaling, employing American ships and personnel. [103] By the following decade the French had entered the trade, also employing American expertise. [103] Sperm whaling increased until the mid-19th century. Spermaceti oil was important in public lighting (for example, in lighthouses, where it was used in the United States until 1862, when it was replaced by lard oil, in turn replaced by petroleum ) and for lubricating the machines (such as those used in cotton mills) of the Industrial Revolution . Sperm whaling declined in the second half of the 19th century, as petroleum came in to broader use. In that sense, it may be said to have protected whale populations from even greater exploitation. [104] [105] Sperm whaling in the 18th century began with small sloops carrying only one or two whaleboats. The fleet's scope and size increased over time, and larger ships entered the fishery. In the late 18th century and early 19th century sperm whaling ships sailed to the Pacific, the Indian Ocean, Japan, the coast of Arabia, Australia and New Zealand. [103] [106] [107] Hunting could be dangerous to the crew, since sperm whales (especially bulls) will readily fight to defend themselves against attack, unlike most baleen whales. When dealing with a threat, sperm whales will use their huge head effectively as a battering ram. [108] Arguably the most famous sperm whale counterattack occurred on November 20, 1820, when a whale claimed to be about 25.9 metres (85 ft) long rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship Essex . Only 8 out of 21 sailors survived to be rescued by other ships. [109] This instance is popularly believed to have inspired Herman Melville 's famous book " Moby-Dick ". [110] Sperm whale scrimshaw The sperm whale's ivory-like teeth were often sought by 18th and 19th-century whalers, who used them to produce inked carvings known as scrimshaw . Thirty teeth of the sperm whale can be used for ivory. Each of these teeth (up to 8 inches long and 3 inches across), are hollow for the first half of their length. Like walrus ivory, sperm whale ivory has two distinct layers. However, sperm whale ivory contains a much thicker inner layer. Though a widely practiced art in the 19th century, scrimshaw using genuine sperm whale ivory declined substantially after the retirement of the whaling fleets in the 1880s. Currently the Endangered Species Act and CITES , the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, prevents the sales of or trade in sperm whale ivory harvested after 1973 or in scrimshaw crafted from it. Modern whaling was more efficient than open-boat whaling, employing steam-powered ships and exploding harpoons. Initially, modern whaling activity focused on large baleen whales , but as these populations were taken, sperm whaling increased. This was especially true during World War II when spermaceti , the fine waxy oil produced by sperm whales, was in high demand for lubricating the American war machine[ clarification needed ]. In both the 1941-2 and 1942-3 seasons, the Norwegian expedition took over 3,000 sperm whales off the coast of Peru alone. After the war whaling continued unabated to obtain oil for cosmetics and high-performance machinery, such as automobile transmissions. The hunting led to the near extinction of large whales including sperm whales until bans on whale oil use were instituted in 1972. The International Whaling Commission gave the species full protection in 1985 but hunting by Japan in the northern Pacific Ocean continued until 1988. [105] It is estimated that the historic worldwide population numbered 1,100,000 before commercial sperm whaling began in the early 18th century. [2] By 1880 it had declined by an estimated 29 per cent. [2] From that date until 1946 the population appears to have recovered somewhat as whaling pressure lessened, but after the Second World War, the population declined even further, to only 33 per cent of the pre-whaling era. [2] It has been estimated that in the 19th century between 184,000 and 236,000 sperm whales were killed by the various whaling nations, [111] while in the modern era, at least 770,000 were taken, the majority between 1946 and 1980. [112] Sperm whale tooth in a hand Sperm whales increase the levels of primary production and carbon export by depositing iron rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron rich faeces causes phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year. [113] Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough that the species' conservation status is rated as vulnerable rather than endangered. [2] However, the recovery from the whaling years is a slow process, particularly in the South Pacific , where the toll on breeding-age males was severe. [114] Current conservation status The number of sperm whales throughout the world is unknown, but is thought to be in the hundreds of thousands. [2] The conservation outlook is brighter than for many other whales. Historically, Japan has taken ten sperm whales a year, and until 2006 tens of these whales were hunted off Indonesia. They are protected practically worldwide, and commercial whaling has ceased. [2] Fishermen do not target the creatures that sperm whales eat. [2] However, long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska have complained about sperm whales stealing fish from their lines. [74] Entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships represent the greatest threats to the sperm whale population currently. [18] Other current threats include ingestion of marine debris, ocean noise, and chemical pollution. [115] The IUCN regards the sperm whale as being "vulnerable". [2] The species is listed as endangered on the United States Endangered Species Act . [116] The species is listed on Appendix I [117] and Appendix II [117] of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I [117] as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II [117] as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. It is also covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area ( ACCOBAMS ) and Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region ( Pacific Cetaceans MOU ). Cultural importance Rope-mounted teeth are important cultural objects throughout the Pacific. In New Zealand , the Māori know them as "rei puta"; such whale tooth pendants were rare objects because sperm whales were not actively hunted in traditional Māori society. [118] Whale ivory and bone were taken from beached whales. In Fiji the teeth are known as tabua and they were traditionally given as gifts for atonement or esteem (called sevusevu), and were important in negotiations between rival chiefs. [119] Friedrich Ratzel in The History of Mankind reported in 1896 that, in Fiji, whales' or cachalots' teeth were the most-demanded article of ornament or value. They occurred often in necklaces. [120] Today the tabua remains an important item in Fijian life. The teeth were originally rare in Fiji and Tonga , which exported teeth, but with the Europeans' arrival, teeth flooded the market and this "currency" collapsed. The oversupply led in turn to the development of the European art of scrimshaw . [121] Herman Melville 's novel Moby-Dick is based on a true story about a sperm whale that attacked the whaleship Essex . [122] [123] Melville associated the sperm whale with the Bible's Leviathan . [123] [124] The fearsome reputation perpetuated by Melville was based on bull whales' ability to fiercely defend themselves from attacks by early whalers, occasionally resulting in the destruction of the whaling ships. Jules Verne 's Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea , mentions cachalots (perhaps incorrectly) as preying on fellow whales. The sperm whale was designated as the Connecticut state animal by the CT General Assembly in 1975. It was selected because of its specific contribution to the state's history and because of its present-day plight as an endangered species. [125] Female in Dominican Pod, 2005 Watching sperm whales See also: Whale watching Sperm whales are not the easiest of whales to watch , due to their long dive times and ability to travel long distances underwater. However, due to the distinctive look and large size of the whale, watching is increasingly popular. Sperm whale watchers often use hydrophones to listen to the clicks of the whales and locate them before they surface. Popular locations for sperm whale watching include the picturesque Kaikoura on New Zealand 's South Island , Andenes and Tromsø in Arctic Norway ; as well as the Azores , where the continental shelf is so narrow that whales can be observed from the shore, [62] [126] and Dominica [127] where a long-term scientific research program, The Dominica Sperm Whale Project, has been in operation since 2005. [128] Ambergris Ambergris Ambergris is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull gray or blackish color produced in the digestive system of and regurgitated or secreted by sperm whales. Freshly produced ambergris has a marine, fecal odor. However, as it ages, it acquires a sweet, earthy scent commonly likened to the fragrance of rubbing alcohol without the vaporous chemical astringency. The principal historical use of ambergris was as a fixative in perfumery , though it has now been largely displaced by synthetics. See also Notes Footnotes a Until 1974 the species was generally known as P. catodon. In that year, however, Husson & Holthuis proposed that the correct name should be P. macrocephalus, the second name in the genus Physeter published by Linnaeus concurrently with P. catodon. This proposition was based on the grounds that the names were synonyms published simultaneously, and, therefore, the ICZN principle of "First Reviser" should apply. In this instance, it led to the choice of P. macrocephalus over P. catodon, a view re-stated in Holthuis, 1987. This has been adopted by most subsequent authors, although Schevill (1986 and 1987) argued that macrocephalus was published with an inaccurate description and that therefore only the species catodon was valid, rendering the principle of "First Reviser" inapplicable. At the present time, the name P. catodon is used in the Catalogue of Life . However, this is expected to be changed to follow the most recent version of ITIS , which has recently altered its usage from P. catodon to P. macrocephalus following L. B. Holthuis, and recent (2008) discussions with relevant experts (refer cited ITIS page for additional information). [5] [129] [130] [131] [132] [133] Citations ^ Husson A.M., Holthuis L.B. (1974). "Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758, the valid name for the sperm whale" . Zoologische Mededelingen 48: 205–217. http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/record/318605 . ^ Holthuis L. B. (1987). "The scientific name of the sperm whale". Marine Mammal Science 3 (1): 87–89. DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-7692.1987.tb00154.x . ^ Schevill W.E. (1986). "The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and a paradigm: the name Physeter catodon Linnaeus 1758". Marine Mammal Science 2 (2): 153–157. DOI : 10.1111/j.1748-7692.1986.tb00036.x . ^ Schevill W.E. (1987). "Reply to L. B. Holthuis "The scientific name of the sperm whale". Marine Mammal Science 3 (1): 89–90. ^ Whitehead, H. (2003). Sperm Whales Social Evolution in the Ocean. University of Chicago Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-226-89518-1 . References Carwardine, Hoyt, Fordyce & Gill (1998). Whales & Dolphins: The Ultimate Guide to Marine Mammals. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-220105-4 . Randall R. Reeves ... et al. (2002). Guide to marine mammals of the world / National Audubon Society. New York: A.A. Knopf: Distributed by Random House. ISBN 0-375-41141-0 . William F. Perrin, Bernd Würsig, J.G.M. Thewissen (Eds.) (2002). Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. San Diego, Calif.: Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-551340-2 . Retroposon analysis of major cetacean lineages: The monophyly of toothed whales and the paraphyly of river dolphins June 19, 2001 Further reading Heptner, V. G.; Nasimovich, A. A; Bannikov, Andrei Grigorevich; Hoffmann, Robert S, Mammals of the Soviet Union , Volume II, part 3 (1996). Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation External links	i don't know
What is the US state capital of Maine?	Maine: Map, History, Population, Facts, Capitol, Flag, Tree, Geography, Symbols honeybee (1975) Nickname: Pine Tree State Origin of name: First used to distinguish the mainland from the offshore islands. It has been considered a compliment to Henrietta Maria, queen of Charles I of England. She was said to have owned the province of Mayne in France. 10 largest cities (2012): Portland , 66,214; Lewiston , 36,460; Bangor , 32,817; South Portland , 25,088; Auburn , 22,972; Biddeford , 21,309; Augusta , 18,946; Saco, 18,758; Westbrook, 17,606; Windham, 16,901 Land area: 30,862 sq mi. (79,933 sq km) Geographic center: In Piscataquis Co., 18 mi. N of Dover-Foxcroft Number of counties: 16 Largest county by population and area: Cumberland, 281,674 (2010); Aroostook, 6,672 sq mi. State forests: 1 (21,000 ac.) State parks: 30+ Map of Maine John Cabot and his son, Sebastian , are believed to have visited the Maine coast in 1498. However, the first permanent English settlements were not established until more than a century later, in 1623. The first naval action of the Revolutionary War occurred in 1775 when colonials captured the British sloop Margaretta off Machias on the Maine coast. In that same year, the British burned Falmouth (now Portland). Long governed by Massachusetts, Maine became the 23rd state as part of the Missouri Compromise in 1820. Maine produces 98% of the nation's low-bush blueberries. Farm income is also derived from apples, potatoes, dairy products, and vegetables, with poultry and eggs the largest selling items. The state is one of the world's largest pulp-paper producers. With almost 89% of its area forested, Maine turns out wood products from boats to toothpicks. Maine also leads the world in the production of the familiar flat tins of sardines, producing more than 75 million of them annually. In 2005, Maine lobstermen landed nearly 63 million pounds of lobster. A glut of lobsters in 2012, caused by warmer temperatures and successful conservation, drove the price fisherman receive to 40-year lows, well under $2.00 per pound. A scenic seacoast, beaches, lakes, mountains, and resorts make Maine a popular vacationland. There are more than 2,500 lakes and 5,000 streams, plus more than 30 state parks to attract hunters, fishermen, skiers, and campers. Major points of interest are Bar Harbor , Acadia National Park , Allagash National Wilderness Waterway, the Wadsworth-Longfellow House in Portland, Roosevelt Campobello International Park , and the St. Croix Island National Monument. See more on Maine:	Augusta
Late US singer/songwriter Jiles Perry Richardson Jr, born October 1930, was better known by what name?	Maine State Map World Map / US Map / 50 States / Maine Map / Maine State Map Maine State Map Maine is the 39th largest state of US area wise and the capital of the state is Augusta. Disclaimer Close Disclaimer : All efforts have been made to make this image accurate. However Compare Infobase Limited,its directors and employees do not own any responsibility for the correctness or authenticity of the same. Map of Maine Cities $12.00 Maine encompasses total area of 35,387 square miles, out of which 30,865 square miles is the total land area and 4,523 square miles is the inland water area. Situated at an altitude of 5,276 feet, Mount Katahdin is the highest point of Maine. The Atlantic Ocean is the lowest point of the state of Maine. Kennebec River, St. John River, Androscoggin River and Penobscot River are the major rivers of the State of Maine. Richardson Lake and Moosehead Lake are the prominent lakes of Maine. The geographical divisions of the mountains, piedmont, uplands and coastal lowlands characterize the heterogeneous topography of the state. The map of Maine indicates the important cities of the state. Augusta is the capital of the State of Maine. Caribou, Bangor, Lewiston, Kennebunk, Cape Elizabeth and South Berwick are some of the prominent cities of Maine. The Maine State Map points out the exact geographical location of the state.	i don't know
In the US, Thanksgiving Day falls on the fourth Thursday of which month?	Thanksgiving Day 2017 - Calendar-12.com Nov. 2024 28 The dates the holiday is observed are marked with a dotted line (applies to federal holidays). Date calculations are based on your computer's date and time. Thanksgiving Day 2017 Tweet Thanksgiving Day is an annual national holiday in the United States and Canada celebrating the harvest and other blessings of the past year. In the US Thanksgiving is celebrated on the fourth Thursday of November while in Canada nearly one month and a half earlier (second Monday of October). Thanksgiving has deep roots in religious tradition, but nowadays it is primarily celebrated as a secular holiday. Thanksgiving tradition began in early XVII century, but the date and popularity varied between states. First nation-wide Thanksgiving was proclaimed on November 26, 1789 by George Washington. The contemporary date of fourth Thursday of November was set in 1941 by federal legislation. Thanksgiving Celebration Thanksgiving is a great time to be thankful and appreciate who you have and what you have. It is a time for families to meet, socialize and enjoy each other's company, sometimes the only opportunity in a year. Some prefer it to Christmas because of less emphasis on consumerism. Thanksgiving, for most, is also a start of a four day weekend which is great, too. Put a link to this page on your blog or website Use Ctrl+C to copy the link <a href="https://calendar-12.com/holidays/thanksgiving/2017" title="Check the date of Thanksgiving Day in 2017">2017 Thanksgiving Day</a> If you have found this website useful and would like to let other people know about it, simply copy the link shown above and paste to your blog post or a website. Thank you. © Calendar-12.com 2011 — 2017 We use cookies to personalize content and ads and to provide social functions and analyze traffic on our site. By continuing using our site, you accept our cookie policy and consent to the use of cookies. Read more	November
The Polar Music Prize is an annual award in which country for significant achievements in music?	November Thanksgiving Thursday Origins of Fourth Thursday of November as Thanksgiving Day "NOVEMBER THANKSGIVING THURSDAY": ORIGINS OF FOURTH THURSDAY OF NOVEMBER AS THANKSGIVING DAY Why is Thanksgiving Day officially observed on the fourth Thursday of November? Though the United States' thanksgiving celebration on the fourth Thursday of November began with the United States Congressional declaration of 1941 establishing that weekday as the legal holiday of Thanksgiving Day, earlier United States Presidential Proclamations called for the last Thursday of November to be celebrated as Thanksgiving. Those Presidential Proclamations, in turn, built upon an American Colonial tradition--predating the formation of the United States-- establishing a Thursday in November as Thanksgiving Day. And the Thanksgiving Day Proclamations issued by American Colonial Governor Jonathan Belcher (1682-1757) played an important role in the origin of "November Thanksgiving Thursday." This is a little-known history not mentioned by other articles, which, after discussing the "first" Thanksgiving, typically begin their list of Thanksgiving Day proclamations with the one issued in 1789 by United States President George Washington naming November 26 as Thanksgiving Day. Next mentioned is often United States President Abraham Lincoln's Proclamation of 1863, which declared that the last Thursday of November should be celebrated as a day of thanksgiving. Succeeding U. S. Presidents followed Lincoln's lead, and this began the annual practice of U. S. Presidential proclamations calling on the people to celebrate Thanksgiving holiday on the last Thursday of November. Then, in 1941, the United States Congress declared that in the years thereafter, the national legal holiday of Thanksgiving Day would be on November's fourth Thursday. The Colonial tradition most often discussed is that of the "First Thanksgiving" in New England celebrated by the settlers of the Plymouth Colony (commonly considered to be in Fall 1621). According to some researchers, Plymouth's first documented Thanksgiving Day was the day of thanksgiving observed in 1623--but this thanksgiving celebration was in Summer (probably July). Some researchers consider the "first" Thanksgiving proclamation to be the one issued by the Charlestown, Massachusetts council for a day of thanksgiving in 1676--but again, a summer day was selected: June 29. In 1721, Governor Gurdon Saltonstall of the Connecticut Colony (formerly, the home colony of Governor Jonathan Belcher's mother Sarah Gilbert Belcher) issued a Thanksgiving Proclamation naming November 8 as a thanksgiving day--but that day was a Wednesday. Some descriptions of Thanksgiving briefly touch upon American Colonial history when they discuss Plymouth Governor William Bradford's Thanksgiving Days in December 1621 and Summer 1623 and then move on to U. S. President George Washington's Thanksgiving Day Proclamation naming November 26, 1789. Less well known is that celebration of Thanksgiving in November didn't begin with George Washington. There were earlier November Thanksgiving Day proclamations issued by Colonial governors in the American colonies. And among the most important were those issued by Colonial Governor Jonathan Belcher. Perhaps U. S. President George Washington got his November 26 date by following the lead of someone else. Let's follow the trail backward to reconstruct the origins of "November Thanksgiving Thursday".... About seven years prior to Washington's 1789 proclamation, the United States Continental Congress' Thanksgiving Proclamation urged the newly-formed American states to observe Thursday, November 28, 1782 as a Thanksgiving Day. The Congress' Proclamation was signed by the President of the Continental Congress, John Hanson (1721-1783), and the Secretary of the Continental Congress, Charles Thomson (1729-1824), the co-designer of the Great Seal of the United States and a man who might have had a link to American Colonial Governor Jonathan Belcher. (For a discussion of how Governor Belcher's coat of arms apparently became the template for the Great Seal of the United States and Thomson's role in this, see The Great Seal of the United States and the Belcher Coat of Arms .) Interestingly, Hanson and Thomson were in power at the time the Great Seal of the United States (especially its Coat of Arms portion) was designed on June 19, 1782 (the final design seems to have been come up with overnight under the supervision of Charles Thomson) and adopted by the Continental Congress (of which Hanson was the President and Thomson was the Secretary) on June 20, 1782. (The Congress had turned the work of finishing the Great Seal (U. S. Coat of Arms) over to Secretary Thomson on June 13, who, as the Great Seal and Belcher Coat of Arms article explains, probably was linked to Governor Belcher through Belcher's acquaintance with Benjamin Franklin (member of the first committee to design the U. S. Seal). Since Governor Belcher also had a link to Elias Boudinot (member of the third (final) committee to design the U. S. Seal--the committee that turned the work of designing it over to Barton, who was later supervised by Secretary Thomson), the design of the Coat of Arms of the United States (displayed on the breast of the eagle as part of the Great Seal of the United States) had ties to Governor Belcher from the beginning to the end of the seal-designing process. (For further information, read the article The Great Seal of the United States and the Belcher Coat of Arms .) (Interestingly, on September 16, 1782, President of Continental Congress Hanson was the first to use the new Great Seal of the United States, which had been entrusted to the custody of Secretary Thomson. In 1789, Thomson personally delivered the Seal to the new President of the United States, George Washington, when Thomson resigned his post as the only Secretary of the Continental Congress (1774-1789)). There is another interesting connection associated with a Thanksgiving Proclamation issued in 1774 (the year Thomson became Secretary of the Continental Congress) at the dawn of the American Revolution (though this proclamation, issued by a legislature instead of a governor, called for a Thursday in December). The Massachusetts Provincial Congress proclaimed December 15, 1774, to be a Day of Public Thanksgiving throughout Massachusetts. This resolution was written by a committee of three headed by Governor Belcher's friend, John Winthrop (1714-1779), a professor of mathematics and natural philosophy at Harvard College . (It was Governor Belcher who originally recommended John Winthrop to Benjamin Franklin and that's how Franklin and Winthrop struck up their acquaintance. Professor Winthrop's father, Judge Adam Winthrop, was one of Governor Belcher's special friends.) The signer of the Proclamation was the President of the Provincial Congress, John Hancock, a good friend of William Cooper's son, famed Revolutionary minister Samuel Cooper (1725-1783), who ghost-wrote some of Hancock's articles for the press. (Cooper also was a good friend of Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, two of the three members of the first committee for designing the Great Seal of the United States.) The two Coopers were also Governor Belcher's friends; not only did the governor commend the ability of Samuel Cooper, but also Governor Belcher specifically selected William Cooper to write and deliver a significant election day sermon in 1740 that set the stage for the U. S. Constitution's First Amendment religion clauses.) Though the Winthrop Proclamation of 1774 specified Thursday as Thanksgiving Day, it named a day in December. Hanson and Thomson's Proclamation of 1782 specified Thursday, November 28, and Washington's Proclamation of 1789 specified Thursday, November 26. Maybe Hanson-Thomson and Washington were inspired by the November Thursday Thanksgiving dates established in 1730 and 1749 by Colonial Governor Jonathan Belcher. Could the fact that Washington's date of November 26 was a Thursday have had anything to do with Thursday being later selected as a Thanksgiving date by President Abraham Lincoln (one of our greatest U. S. Presidents)? (Though in the same year Washington issued his Thanksgiving proclamation, a November Thursday was selected as a Thanksgiving date by the Episcopal Church, this Thursday was the first Thursday in November. In contrast, President Lincoln selected the last Thursday in November--a date closer to Governor Belcher's November 23, 1749; Hanson-Thomson's November 28, 1782, and President Washington's November 26, 1789 dates.) Governor Belcher's first Thanksgiving proclamation that established a Thursday in November as the Thanksgiving Day date was his Proclamation for Day of Thanksgiving printed in the November 2, 1730 issue of The New England Weekly Journal, clearly specifying that "THURSDAY the TWELFTH of NOVEMBER next" was to be "a day of Public THANKSGIVING throughout this Province." This Thanksgiving Proclamation specifically mentioned offering up prayer to God for "granting us a plentiful HARVEST", among other enumerated blessings. Thus, Thursday, November 12, 1730 was Governor Jonathan Belcher's First Thanksgiving Proclamation. It specifically mentioned a Thursday in November. The 1730 Thanksgiving Day Proclamation was issued at the beginning of Jonathan Belcher's governorship of the colonies of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, which lasted from 1730 to 1741. As previously mentioned, Governor Belcher issued at least another Thanksgiving Day Proclamation in 1749, when he was governor of the colony of New Jersey. (Though he was officially chosen to be governor of New Jersey in 1746, he was on a trip to England at the time, and he didn't get to land on American shores again until 1747--hence the confusion that sometimes occurs about the beginning date of his New Jersey governorship. Since he was actually commissioned in 1746, however, the proper official beginning date for his New Jersey governorship is 1746. He died Governor of New Jersey in 1757.) Governor Belcher's 1749 Thanksgiving Day Proclamation established Thursday, November 23 as Thanksgiving Day--just five days shy of Hanson-Thomson's Thursday, November 28 and three days shy of President George Washington's Thursday, November 26 Thanksgiving dates in 1782 and 1789, respectively. Could Hanson-Thomson and Washington have been following Governor Belcher's lead? Elias Boudinot (1740-1821) , member of the final (third) committee to design the Great Seal of the United States, lived across the street from the Governor Belcher Mansion in Elizabethtown, New Jersey. Elias' brother, Elisha, married Catherine ("Kate") Smith, the daughter of Governor Belcher's good friend William Peartree Smith (the wedding was held in the Governor Belcher Mansion). It was Elias Boudinot who "proposed a resolution asking President George Washington to issue a Thanksgiving Day Proclamation" (quoting from the account of the Proclamation's history given by United States Supreme Court Justice (later Chief Justice) William Rehnquist in his dissent in Wallace v. Jaffree (1985) ). Washington's Thanksgiving Day Proclamation of 1789 mirrored Governor Belcher's Thanksgiving Day Proclamation of 1749 . Once again, Elias Boudinot was involved. He was a member of the committee that turned the design of the Great Seal of the United States over to William Barton (which in turn allowed Hanson to turn it over to Thomson supervising Barton), it was Hanson and Thomson who signed the Thanksgiving Proclamation in 1782, and it was Boudinot who specifically came up with the idea for a resolution requesting George Washington to issue his Thanksgiving Proclamation of 1789. As with the Great Seal of the United States, there were links to Governor Belcher from beginning to end of the finalization of the "November Thanksgiving Thursday" date. Take a few moments to compare the text of Governor Belcher's 1749 Thanksgiving Proclamation and the text of Washington's 1789 Thanksgiving Proclamation (reproduced as quoted in part in Rehnquist's dissent in Wallace v. Jaffree (1985) .) To read Governor Belcher's 1730 "Thursday in November" Thanksgiving Day Proclamation, click here . A draft text (with spelling modernized) of Governor Belcher's 1749 "Thursday in November" Thanksgiving Day Proclamation is given below: By His Excellency Jonathan Belcher Esqr. Captain General and Governor in Chief in and over His Majesty's Province of New Jersey and Territories thereon depending in America, Chancellor and Vice Admiral in the same & etc. A Proclamation for a public Thanksgiving taking into consideration the manifold blessings of Heaven to a sinful and unworthy people, in particular that it hath pleased Almighty God in much mercy to preserve the life of our most Gracious King and the rest of the Royal family, and to bless His Majesty's Councils and arms, by restoring a general peace among all the nations engaged in the late war. To continue our invaluable privileges both civil and sacred and that it hath pleased a Gracious God in many respects to smile on this Province, and not to punish us as our iniquities have deserved, to favor us with such a plentiful supply of rain after a sore distressing drought, and to grant the smiles of Providence upon the former and latter harvest, filling our hearts with food and gladness; which unmerited instances of the Divine Goodness call aloud for our public, humble and most grateful acknowledgments to the God of all our mercies. I have therefore thought fit with the advice of His Majesty's Council to appoint and I do hereby appoint Thursday the twenty third Day of November next to be religiously observed as a Day of Public thanksgiving and praise to the great name of God our most gracious and bountiful benefactor, hereby exhorting both ministers and people to join in a public and serious manner in offering up their devout and thankful acknowledgments to the God of all our mercies and at same time to offer up their humble and hearty supplications at the Throne of Grace for the advancement of the Kingdom of the Lord Jesus Christ in the world and that his blessed Gospel may run and be glorified among all nations and in particular among the Original Natives of this land and for all in authority over us, particularly that the best of blessings may descend on our Gracious Sovereign King George, the Prince and Princess of Wales, The Duke, the Princesses the Royal Issue, and on every branch of this illustrious family that the Protestant Succession may abide before God forever, that this Province may ever be remembered of God for good, that He would mercifully heal our divisions, restore peace and tranquility, humble us for our sins, prevent the judgments we deserve, that He would incline us to lead quiet and peaceable lives in all godliness and honesty under the government placed over us, that He would graciously prevent the growth of sin and impiety, revive pure and undefiled religion and make us a people zealous of good works, and all servile labor is hereby strictly forbidden on said day. Given under my hand this fourteenth day of October Anno Dom 1749. J. BELCHER	i don't know
Which British monarch was born Albert Frederick Arthur George?	Albert Frederick Arthur George Windsor, King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions (1895 - 1952) - Genealogy Albert Frederick Arthur George Windsor, King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions Also Known As: "Bertie", "the Stammerer", "Albert Frederick Arthur George", "The King of England and Scotland" Birthdate: York Cottage, Sandringham Estate, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: in Sandringham House, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Cause of death: King George VI Memorial Chapel / St. George's Chapel, Windsor, Berkshire, England Immediate Family: Brother of Prince Edward, Duke of Windsor (Edward VIII) ; Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood ; Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester ; Prince George, Duke of Kent and Prince John of the United Kingdom Occupation: King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth, The King of England and Scotland, King, Duke of Kent Managed by: George V Windsor, Mary Windsor (z d. Teck) Children: George V Windsor, Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes Windsor (born Teck) Siblings: Edward Windsor, Mary Lascelles (born Windsor), Henry Saxe-coburg And Gotha, George Windsor, John Saxe-coburg And Gotha Wife: Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Windsor (born Bowes-lyon) Children: Dec 14 1895 - York Cottage Sandringham House Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham Estate, Norfolk, United Kingdom Parents: George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert) Windsor (Sachsen-coburg-gotha (Wettiner)), Mary Teck Windsor Wife: Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Windsor (born Bowes Lyon) Children: Dec 14 1895 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: George Frederick Ernest Albert Windsor, Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes Windsor (born Von Teck) Siblings: ...trick David Windsor (Sachsen-coburg Und Gotha), King George Vi Albert ,frederick Windsor (Sachsen-coburg Und Gotha), Mary Lancelles (born... Dec 14 1895 - York Cottage, Sandringham Estate, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham House, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: ... (Sailor Prince Georgie George Frederick Ernest Albert George V Frederick Ernest Albert Windsor) Windsor, Alexandra Windsor (born Oldenburg) Siblings: ... Mary (Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary) Harewood (born Windsor), Henry (Henry William Frederick Albert) Windsor, George Windsor, John Charl... Partner: Dec 14 1895 - York Cottage, Sandringham Estate, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham House, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: George V Windsor, Victoria Windsor (born Von Teck) Siblings: Edward Viii (Hanover) Windsor (Hanover), Mary Windsor, Henry Windsor, George Windsor, John Charles Francis Windsor Wife: Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Windsor (born Bowes-lyon) Children: Dec 14 1895 - York Cottage, Sandringham Estate, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham House, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: ...rederick Ernest Albert George V Frederick Ernest Albert Windsor) Windsor, Victoria (May,the Old Queen,victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga P... Siblings: ... Mary (Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary) Windsor, Henry (Henry William Frederick Albert) Windsor, George Edward Alexander Edmond Windsor, Jo... Wife: Elizabeth (Queen Mum The Queen Mother) Windsor (born Bows - Lyon) Children: Dec 14 1895 - York Cottage, Sandringham Estate, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham House, Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: ..., Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Claudine Agnes Windsor, Queen consort of the United Kingdom and Empress consort of India (bor... Siblings: ...ew Patrick David Windsor, Mary Victoria Alexandra Alice (Mary) Windsor, Princess Royal of the United Kingdom, Countess of Harewood, Henry... ...р, Викто́рия Мари́я Авгу́ста Луи́за О́льга Паули́на Клоди́на Агне́сса Виндзор, Королева-консорт Британской империи,Императрица-консорт Индии Siblings: ...рик Давид Виндзор, Мария Виндзор, Королевская Принцесса Великобритании и Ирландии, графиня Хэрвуд, Генри Уильям Фредерик Альберт Виндзор,... Wife: Елизаве́та Анге́ла Ма́ргарет Виндзор, Королева-консорт Британской империи,Императрица-консорт Индии (Бо́уз-Ла́йон) Child: Dec 11 1895 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham House, London, England Parents: George Frederick Ernest Albert Windsor, Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline Windsor (born Vonteck) Siblings: ...ew Windsor, Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary Windsor, Henry William Frederick Albert Windsor, George Edward Alexander Edmund Windsor, John C... Wife: Elizabeth Angela Windsor (born Bowes Lyon Duchess Of York) Children: ...or, Ruth A Windsor, Hrh Queen Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Greece (born Windsor), Princess Margaret Rose Windsor 'countess Of Snowden' Dec 14 1895 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - sandringham, Burke, Georgia, USA Parents: George V Windsor, Mary Windsor (born Von Teck) Siblings: ...nover, Edward Viii Windsor, Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary Windsor, Henry William Albert Windsor, George Edward Windsor, John Charles Windsor Wife: Elizabeth Angela Windsor (born Bowes Lyon) Children: Dec 14 1895 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Death: Feb 6 1952 - Sandringham, Norfolk, England Parents: George Frederick Ernest Albert King Of England, Victoria Mary Augusta Louise Olga Pauline King Of England (born Vonteck) Siblings: ...d Windsor, Victoria Alexandra Alice Mary Windsor, Henry William Albert, George Edward Alexander Edmund Windsor, John Charles Francis Windsor Wife: Elizabeth Angela Marguerite Windsor (born Bowes-lyon) Children: About George VI of the United Kingdom a short summary from Wikipedia: George VI King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions (more...) Reign: 11 December 1936 – 6 February 1952 Coronation: 12 May 1937 Reign: 11 December 1936 – 15 August 1947 Predecessor : Edward VIII Spouse: Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon Full name: York Cottage, Sandringham House, Norfolk, United Kingdom Died: 6 February 1952 (aged 56) Sandringham House, Norfolk St. George's Chapel, Windsor Castle ================================================ "George VI (Albert Frederick Arthur George; 14 December 1895 – 6 February 1952) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth from 11 December 1936 until his death. He was the last Emperor of India, and the first Head of the Commonwealth. As the second son of King George V, he was not expected to inherit the throne and spent his early life in the shadow of his elder brother, Edward. He served in the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force during World War I, and after the war took on the usual round of public engagements. He married Lady Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon in 1923 and they had two daughters, Elizabeth and Margaret. George's elder brother ascended the throne as Edward VIII on the death of their father in 1936. However, later that year Edward revealed his desire to marry the divorced American socialite Wallis Simpson. British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin advised Edward that for political and religious reasons he could not marry Simpson and remain king. Edward abdicated in order to marry, and George ascended the throne as the third monarch of the House of Windsor. During George's reign the break-up of the British Empire and its transition into the Commonwealth of Nations accelerated. The parliament of the Irish Free State removed direct mention of the monarch from the country's constitution on the day of his accession. Within three years, the Empire and Commonwealth, except the Irish Free State, was at war with Nazi Germany. In the next two years, war with Italy and Japan followed. Though Britain and its allies were ultimately victorious, the United States and the Soviet Union rose as pre-eminent world powers and the British Empire declined. After the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, George remained as king of both countries, but the title Emperor of India was abandoned in June 1948. Ireland formally declared a republic, leaving the Commonwealth, in 1949 and India became a republic within the Commonwealth the following year. George adopted the new title of Head of the Commonwealth. He was beset by health problems in the later years of his reign. His elder daughter, Elizabeth II, succeeded him." ================================================ Wikipedia links: ================================================ Citations: [S3] Marlene A. Eilers, Queen Victoria's Descendants (Baltimore, Maryland: Genealogical Publishing Co., 1987), page 171. Hereinafter cited as Queen Victoria's Descendants. [S130] Wikipedia, online http;//www.wikipedia.org. Hereinafter cited as Wikipedia. [S37] Charles Mosley, editor, Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes (Wilmington, Delaware, U.S.A.: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 2003), volume 1, page cxxxix. Hereinafter cited as Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 107th edition. [S8] Charles Mosley, editor, Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 106th edition, 2 volumes (Crans, Switzerland: Burke's Peerage (Genealogical Books) Ltd, 1999), volume 1, page cv. Hereinafter cited as Burke's Peerage and Baronetage, 106th edition. [S3] Marlene A. Eilers, Queen Victoria's Descendants, page 172. [S4] C.F.J. Hankinson, editor, DeBretts Peerage, Baronetage, Knightage and Companionage, 147th year (London, U.K.: Odhams Press, 1949), page 22. Hereinafter cited as DeBretts Peerage, 1949. [S4] C.F.J. Hankinson, DeBretts Peerage, 1949, page 21. [S18] Matthew H.C.G., editor, Dictionary of National Biography on CD-ROM (Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, 1995), reference "George VI, 1895-1952". Hereinafter cited as Dictionary of National Biography. George VI of the United Kingdom's Timeline 1895	George VI
American real estate developer and rancher Mary Anderson is credited with inventing which operational part of a car in 1903?	1000+ images about King George VI on Pinterest \| King george, Edward viii and Princess elizabeth Forward King George VI (1895-1952) UK in 1926 playing Tennis at Wimbledon in the Mens Doubles Tournament, partnering with Sir Louis Greig. Sir Louis had gained a place in the tournament after winning the Royal Air Force Championships & asked the then Duke of York to be his partner. With Elizabeth I, Duchess of York, watching & dressed in his Wimbledon whites, the future King took the court with Sir Louis only to be beaten. It was the 1st & so far last time a Royal played in the Wimbledon… See More	i don't know
The Hilsa is the national fish of which Asian country?	Hilsa Fish - national fish of Bangladesh - hilsha Frozen hilsa fish export from Bangladesh About 60% of Hilsa fish of the world found in Bangladesh. Hilsa production is 16.4 % (appx.) of total fish in Bangladesh. Bangladesh export Hilsa to India, Middle East, Europe and America. This frozen fish export is increasing significantly and has an important role to the economy of Bangladesh in recent year. It is estimated that about 2 million fishermen and traders are engaged in hilsa fishing in the country. Hilsha fish photo Hilsa or Ilish fish price in BD 1 kilogram hilsa fish price is Tk. 500 to Tk. 1000 per piece in local market of Bangladesh. During Pohela Boishak or Puja Ilish price go high to Tk. 1000 to 2000 taka per piece. Ilish Maach Curry and Panta Ilish Bangladeshi people like mouthwatering ‘shorshe ilish’ dish very much, it is very tasty Bengali Cuisine dish. This hilsa dish is cooked by slices of ilish, mustard seed, onion and spices with smoke fire. Panta Ilish (Fried slice hilsa fish, chilies, onions, dried fish paste) is a traditional food of Bengali, especially in the first day of Bangla New Year “Pohela Boishakh”. There are many more popular Hisla recipes in Bangladesh and India. Hilsa is locally called Macher Raja, King of fish. Its flavour, oily texture, tastefulness made its Raja or KING. Catch hilsha fish in the river. It is not so easy to catch hilsha fish from the river. Fishermen can do that because they can drive to the deep of the river. And normally hilsha fish not available near the bank of river to catch by armature fishermen. Hilsha fish picture Hilsa is one of the foreign currency earning Bangladeshi fish. This Bangladesh fish export Asian, Europe, American country and earn huge foreign currency every year. We should take many other steps to top catching Elish fish during breeding season. Ilish fish Curry (Hilsa curry) Every Bengali people like this curry and very easy to prepare. Ingredients for cooking hilsha fish curry – Cut hilsh fish into think pices. – 1 table spoon black cumin seeds (kolojeera) – 0.5 table spoon turmeric powder (halud) – Green chilies 4-6 – 1 table spoon mustard oil (soyabean oil also can be used) – Salt to taste. How to cook hilsha fish curry? – Fry fish pieces until becomes golden brown and take it down for a white. – In a pot, pour 1 table spoon oil and heat. Add 1 table spoon cumin seeds to be crackled. – Add about a cup of hot water, 0.5 turmeric power, salt as need and stir. Heat for 5-6 minutes. – Mix hilsha slices into it, cut green chillies and add – cook for 10-20 minutes – Check salt test and take. – Hilsha dish is ready to server. There are different curry that Bengali family like to cook regularly like Hilsa Fish Fry, Hilsa Fish Bhapa, Hilsha Fish Jhol, Shorshe Ilish, Lau Ilish, Kachu Ilish, Pantha Ilish, etc. West Bengal people like Bangladeshi hilsa very much. Most of the people from Bangladesh and India think hilsa is an identity of Bengali. Ilish mach is related to our culture and religion. Bangladesh Govt bans expert of Hilsa Bangladesh govt has banned export of hilsa fish on July 31, 2012 but allowed export of hilsa eggs to India, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Nepal, Maldives, America and the European countries. Hilsa eggs are much demanded in many countries of the world. Hilsa eggs traders are coming here to do the business thus supply of hilsa in the local market has reduced significantly. Per kilogram (kg) hilsa eggs is sold at Tk1,400 in West Bengal of India. (news source:observerbd [dot]com Hilsa contributes 1% to the gross domestic product (GDP) of Bangladesh. It is able to meet 11% of the country’s total demand for fish. About 5 lak fishermen are directly involved in catching hilsa and over 20 lak are living on hilsa fishing. The government should take tough steps to protect ‘Jatka’. Jatka caches 10,900 tonnes in 2011, 11,500 tonnes in 2013 & 11,800 tonnes in 2014. The size of jatka is 14c.m. to 20c.m. Its average weight is only 30 grams.	Bangladesh
Which creature represents the Deadly Sin of pride?	Chandpur travel guide - Wikitravel Get in[ edit ] Chandpur can be reached by ferry in 3 to 4 hours from Dhaka and 7 to 8 hours from Barisal . For experiencing the expanse of Meghna one can opt for early morning launch services (5 hours) to Maju Chowdhury's Ghat. Then by auto rickshaw one has to go to Lakhsmipur Bus stand. It takes around 2.5 hours to reach Chandpur. The bus service is unreliable. If there is not sufficient passenger then it may unload all to another bus. We had such unfortunate experience. Also you can reach by Train and Bus from different corner of the country. A train "Meghna Express" comes from Chittagong port city every day starts at 17.00 and arrrives at 22.00 and returns next day from Chandpur at 6.00 and reaches Chaittagong 11.20, A train "Sagorika Express" also travels from Chittagong at 7.50 and reaches 13.55 and moves to Chittagong at 14.40 and reaches Chittagong at 21.20. Moreover Lots of buses are coming from Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Laksmipur and Comilla and goes back within a half an hour braek. From Chandpur the comunication you will find everywhere inside the country by railways, waterways and road and connecting other transportation eighter by road, train and water.From Dhaka and Other district rail communication is via Laksam junction and have to change the seat. Get around[ edit ] When you come through water ways from Dhaka of Barisal the "thota" a land is seen like a island from the waterways, you can visit that place imediately after getting into Chandpur. Train also stops there. This a place from where you can see the beauty of Dakatia, Fishermen, Hilsha busines, lots of country boats are moving in different directions, its a picnic spot also enjoy sunset. Along the railine when you enter to Chandpur you will see a lake and a monument " Angikar" is a liberation statue which is saying the glorious victory of Chandpur Town. Coming through the road you will see also Sapla Chattar near Kali bari Rail Station and Hilsa Chattar at stadium road when you are coming by bus. See[ edit ][ add listing ] Chandpur is famous for the seasonal harvesting of the Illisha (HILSA) Fish, a variant of the Western 'Shad' fish with very fine bones. HILSA is the national fish of Bangladesh and is a popular seasonal delicacy on Bengali tables -- especially on 'Bengali identity days' like February 21. Do[ edit ][ add listing ] You can start crusing from Dhaka through water transport, there are lot of water transport with air conditioning facilities, watching TV and movies etc. On the way to Chandpur you will see lots of Char land, acreated land where cattle are grazing. You can explore different kind of business here related to fishery, agriculture, livestock and trade. One can think about the culture fishery, a fishery department is situated in the town to develop culture fisheries with in the areas. Patato is one of the agricultural product which can be added to the list together with jute. Chandpur has a good cultural background with its culture mixed with Hindu and Muslim culture. May be a good idea to see the old boro mosque in Hazigonj and others.	i don't know
During 1897, the World’s first radio station was set up by Marconi at the Needles Battery at the western tip of which European island?	Full text of "Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Reissue of a Chronology Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Orville Wright, August 19, 1871" See other formats A Reissue of A Chronology Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the BIRTH OF ORVILLE WRIGHT • AUGUST 19, 1871 By Arthur George Renstrom VYILDUK 6t UKVILLC . —- .'.ra:: ..^^k^^^^ ■^jm^ •''-:" -^£m^l^i ^■"^i^^^^#^^'^ ..^Sw^E:' :""3J^-^ WILBUR & ORVILLE WRIGHT A Reissue of A Chronology Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the BIRTH OF ORVILLE WRIGHT • AUGUST 19, 1871 By Arthur George Renstrom A Joint Publication of the U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration Monographs in Aerospace History, Number 32 September 2003 NASA Publication SP-2003-4532 j^^Bf National Aeronautics and Space Administration Office of External Relations cwd^i NASA History Office ^ ^ yTLIGHT NASA Headquarters Washington, DC 20546 1903-2003 On the cover: The classic photograph of the first powered flight at Kitty Hawk North Carolina, on December 17, 1903. Orville Wright is on the airplane; older brother Wilbur looks on from the sidelines. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Renstrom, Arthur George, 1905-1991 Wilbur & Orville Wright: a chronology: commemorating the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Orville Wright, August 19, 1871/ compiled by Arthur G, Renstrom. p. cm. — (monographs in aerospace history; no.) (NASA history series) (NASA SP; 2003-4532) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Wright, Orville, 1871-1948.— Chronology. 2. Wright, Wilbur, 1867-1912— Chronology, 3. Aeronautics— United States- History — Chronology. I. Title. II. Series. III. Series: NASA history series IV, NASA SP; 4532. TL540,W7R46 2003 629.13^0092'273— dc21 [B] 2003051363 Foreword During the year 2003, hundreds of events will mark the one-hundredth anniversary of the Wright brothers' historic first flights at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. The centennial year will v^tness exhibitions, lectures, television documentaries, films, air shows, flight recreations of Wright aircraft, the issuing of postage stamps and medals, the publication of dozens of new books and articles, and numerous other com- memorative activities. One of these events, although not likely to make the evening news, is among the most important of all in terms of a lasting contribution to the observance of this ultimate aviation milestone: the reprinting of Arthur G. Renstroms Wilbur & Orville Wright: A Chronology Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Orville Wright, August 19> 1871. Since its appearance in 1975, Wilbur & Orville Wright: A Chronology has become indispensable to students and authors concerned with the life and work of the famous brothers. No doubt every book on the subject published in the last quarter century, including three of my own, was written with this treasure close at hand. This volume is far more than a simple compilation of dates and facts. Renstrom was a master reference librarian and bibliographer with a passion for aviation and the Wright brothers. He brought his considerable research skills to bear on the topic, and the result is a richly detailed, ever-informative, often entertaining walk through the lives and achievements of these two extraordinary individuals. Renstrom was not content to offer a date with a one-line tidbit. His entries are brim- ming with information. This is a highly readable reference work that, believe it or not, can be enjoyably read from cover to cover. The project was clearly a labor of love by a talented professional. During most of the last twenty years, I have been privileged to be the curator of the 1903 Wright Flyer at the Smithsonian Institutions National Air and Space Museum. The position brings a steady stream of inquiries about the Wright airplane and the end- lessly fascinating brothers who created it. I do not know how I would have done this job without Renstrom^s superb volume on my bookshelf It is the first place I go to check anything on the Wright brothers, and I typically find what I am looking for in its pages. Arthur Renstrom also published two other classic reference works on the Wright brothers: Wilbur & Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Wilbur Wright, April 16, 1867y in 1968 (an updated revi- sion was published by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration in 2002) and Wilbur & Orville Wright, Pictorial Materials: A Documentary Guide in 1982, completing a series of research tools for which there are few peers on any subject. He was also part of the team that produced the landmark two-volume compilation of the Wrights' letters, notebooks, and diaries in 1953, The Papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright, edited by Marvin W McFarland. Renstroms contribution to the documentation and preservation of the Wright story is a lasting legacy that will serve researchers, students, and general enthusiasts for generations to come. In this busy, high-profile anniversary year, the reprinting of a nearly thirty-year-old reference book may seem a mundane and quiet contribution to the celebration surrounding the Wright brothers' world-changing achievement, but it is perhaps one of the most important. The U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission and NASA are to be commended for their foresight. Peter L. Jakab Chairman, Aeronautics Division National Air and Space Museum Smithsonian Institution July 4, 2003 iv • Wilbur & Orville Wright Preface Since 1949, when the Wright papers were given to the Library of Congress by the Orville Wright estate, the Library has paid tribute to the Wright brothers on several occasions. To celebrate the 50th anniversary of powered flight, a two- volume edition of The Papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright, Including the Chanute-Wright Letters and Other Papers of Octave Chanute (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1953) was published under the sponsorship of Oberlin College. The Wrights' letters, diaries, notebooks, and other records of their scientific and technical work in inventing and perfecting the air- plane were edited at that time by Marvin W. McFarland of the Library's Aeronautics Division. A subsequent anniversary was observed by the Library with the publication of Wilbur & Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth ofWilbur Wright, April 16, 7867 (Washington: Library of Congress, 1968), listing more than 2,000 printed and audiovisual research materi- als on the Wright brothers. Commemorating the 100th anniversary in 1971 of the birth of Orville Wright, the Library here presents a chronology and flight log through which the fortunes of the Wright brothers and their flying machines may be traced: their early trials, with litde of the encouragement of public notices; the growing interest in their work by the time they exhibited their airplane and tech- nique for the Army in 1908; their demonstration flights abroad in 1908 and 1909, which brought them public acclaim and meetings with kings; their triumphant return to the United States, with the presentation of medals by the President and a memorable two-day homecoming celebration in Dayton; the period of public exhibition flying; Wilburs unexpected death from typhoid fever; the protracted Wright patent litigation with Glenn H. Curtiss; the sale of the Wright Company in 1915; the subsequent retirement of Orville from public life, his lengthy controversy with the Smithsonian Institution, and awards to him of numerous medals and honorary degrees; and finally, the continuing tribute tendered the Wrights in anniversary celebrations and testimonial dinners and the building and dedication of memorials and monuments in their honor. The nucleus of the present publication was an article entided "Wright Chronology," contributed by the compiler of this work to the July 1953 issue of the aviation journal Aero Digest, a commemorative issue marking the 50th anniversary of powered flight by the Wright brothers. Prepared in connection with tasks associated with The Papers ofWilbur and Orville Wright, it con- sisted of 366 individual entries and covered the period from the birth ofWilbur Wright on April 16, 1867, through the Wright golden anniversary celebrations on December 17, 1953. The present chronology comprises over 2,600 individual entries, extending the period covered through August 19, 1971, the hundredth anniversary of the birth of Orville Wright. The information presented is based upon an extensive survey of the Library's unique Wright collection, as well as other related documentary sources in the Library. One of the primary sources for the later years was the extensive chronological scrapbook collection maintained by the Wright brothers. Initiated by them in 1902, when the Wrights were conducting gliding experiments at Kitty Hawk, the scrapbooks were maintained in later years largely by Mabel Beck, secretary to Orville for many years, who also faithfully presided over the voluminous files and helped preserve the valuable documents for fixture historians. Additions to the scrapbooks ceased on February 29, 1948, short- ly after Orville s death on January 30 of that year. A related source was the Library's Hart O. Berg collection, including 14 scrap- books of newspaper clippings on the Wrights. Supplementing the main chronology is a flight log, m which an attempt has been made to record the flights ofWilbur and Orville from 1900, when their first gliding experiments were carried out at Kitty Hawk, through 1918, when Orville made his last flight as a pilot at Dayton on May 13, flying a Wright 191 1 model aircraft. A total of 21 detailed flight logs are presented. So far as is known, no previous attempts have been made to record the Wright flights systematically. Wright documents have served as primary sources for 12 series of flights: 1900, Orvilles letter from Kitty Hawk to Katharine Wright, dated October 14; 1901, Wilbur Wright's Diary A; 1902, Orville Wright s Diary B and Orville Wright's Notebook C; 1903, Orville Wrights Diary D; 1904, Wilbur Wright's Diary E, 1904-1905; 1905, Wilbur Wrights Diary F; 1908, Wilbur Wrights Diary T (Kitty Hawk) and Signal Corps "Log of Wright Aeroplane" (Fort Myer, Va.); 1909, Signal Corps "Log of Wright Aeroplane" (Fort Myer, Va.) and Orville Wrights Diary X (Tempelhof Field, Beriin); 1910, Orville Wright's Diary Y; and 1911, Orville Wright's Diary V, The Wright brothers' scrapbooks and contemporary accounts in American and European newspapers and in aviation and technical journals were the primary sources for the remaining Wright flight logs. No diaries or notebooks were maintained by Wilbur in France in 1908 recording his flights at the Hunaudiisres Race Course and Camp d'Auvours at Le Mans, or in 1909 at Pont-Long, at Pau, and at Centocelle Flying Field, Rome. Nor did he keep detailed records of his flights at Governors Island, N.Y., and at College Park, Md., in 1909. Likewise, no accurate and detailed records survive of Orville's numerous flights at Dayton during the period 1910-18. Consequently, it is exceedingly difficult to record all flights for these periods, and no claim is made for completeness. Furthermore, accurate time, distance, and altitude records for these years are frequently unavailable. A comprehensive index of persons, institutions, and geographic names cited in the publication is provided to facilitate use of the chronology The amount of pertinent material uncovered as the preparation of the chronology progressed resulted in an enlargement of its original scope, and consequently it was not possible to achieve publication in the 1971 anniversary year. A Chronology • v vi • Wilbur & Orvilie Wright Contents Foreword iv Preface v Chronology 1 1867 1 1903 6 1910 26 1920 40 1930 49 1940 57 1950 62 1960 65 1970 66 Flight Log 69 1900 Kitty Hawk, N.C 69 1901 Kitty Hawk, N.C 69 1902 Kitty Hawk, N.C 71 1903 Kitty Hawk, N.C 75 1904 Huffman Prairie, Dayton, Ohio 77 1905 Huffman Prairie, Dayton, Ohio 82 1908 Kitty Hawk, N.C 84 1908 Hunaudieres Race Course, Le Mans, France 86 1908 Camp d'Auvours, Le Mans, France 87 1908 Ft. Myer, Va 93 1909 Pont-Long, Pau, France 94 1909 Centocelle Field, Rome, Italy 97 1909 Ft. Myer, Va 100 1909 Tempelhof Field, Berlin, Germany 101 1909 Governors Island, N.Y. 102 1909 Bornstedt Field, Potsdam, Germany 103 1909 College Park, Md 103 1910 Montgomery, Ala 106 1910 Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio 108 1911 Kitty Hawk, N.C 115 1911-1918 Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio 118 The NASA History Series 121 A Chronology • vii Chronology 1867 APRIL 16, Wilbur Wright born on a farm near Millviile, eight miles east of New Castle, in Henry County, Ind. He was the son of the Rev. Milton Wright, a minister and later bishop of the United Brethren Church in Christ, and Susan Catherine Koerner. Besides his younger brother, Orville, and his sister, Katharine, there were two older brothers, Reuchlin (born March 17, 1861, in Grant County, near Fairmont, Ind.), and Lorin (born November 18, 1862, in Fayette County, Ind.); two other children, twins, died in infancy. Bishop Wright was born November 17, 1828, in Rush County, Ind. He attended country schools there and for a short time was a student at Hartsville College, Ind. In 1853 he received a license to preach from the White River Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ and was ordained August 1856 at Abbington, Ind. He was the principal of a denominational school in Oregon from 1857 to 1859. On November 24, 1859, he married Susan Catherine Koerner, daughter of John G. Koerner, wagon and carriage maker. She attended Hartsville College for a time and was especially successful in mathematical studies. Between 1859 and 1869 Milton Wright was engaged for a short time in teaching and afterward in preaching. In 1869 he was made editor of the Religious Telescope, published in Dayton, Ohio, continuing in that capacity for eight years. He was elected bishop on May 10, 1877, at the 17th general conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ at Westfield College, Westfield, 111. In 1878 he moved from Dayton to Cedar Rapids, Iowa. In 1881 he moved to Richmond, Ind., where, in conjunction with his work as a presiding elder, he edited the Richmond Star. In 1884 he again made Dayton his home, remaining there after his retirement in 1905 and until his death in 1917. 1868 SEPTEMBER. Wright family moves to Hartsville, Bartholomew County, Ind., following Rev. Milton Wrights appointment as pastor of Hartsville College. 1869 SPRING, Wright family moves to Dayton, Ohio, when Milton Wright becomes editor of the Religious Telescope, a United Brethren weekly, living in a house on Third Street till about November, then moving to a brick house on Second Street, where the family resided until April 1871, when a house was purchased at 7 Hawthorne Street on the West Side. 1871 AUGUST 19, Orville Wright born at 7 Hawthorne Street, Dayton, Ohio. 1874 AUGUST 19^ Katharine Wright born at Dayton, Ohio. Katharine Wright was graduated from Oberlin College in 1898 and later taught at the Steele High School in Dayton. She served as secretary of the Dayton Association of College Women and was secretary of her college class. She resided at the Wright Dayton home until her marriage in 1926 to Henry J. Haskell, editor of the Kansas City Star and an Oberlin College classmate. 1878 Bishop Milton Wright, on a return from a short trip on church business, brings home a toy P^naud-type hdlicoptdre, arousing the boys' first interest in the problem of flight, JUNE, Wright family moves from Dayton to Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1881 FEBRUARY 13 Wilbur, at age 13, in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, joins United Brethren Church, Rev. Marion R. Drury, pastor. APRIL Orville writes letter to his father, who is away on church business. The earliest surviving document in the Wright Collection in the Library of Congress, it reads: Dear Father I got your letter today. My teacher said I was a good boy today. We have 45 in our room. The other day I took a machine can and filled it with water then I put it on the stove. I waited a little while and the water came squirting out of the top about a foot. The water in the river was up in the cracker factory about half a foot. There is a good deal water on the Island. The old cat is dead. Your son Orville JUNE, Wright family moves to Richmond, Ind. It was here that Orville first took up kite-building, both as a sport and as a business. 1884 JUNE, Wright family returns to Dayton, living in a rented house for 16 months until expiration of lease on their home at 7 Hawthorn Street, which had been rented on family's departure from Dayton in 1878. Wilbur, though he had completed his fourth year of high school in Richmond, declines to go back to collect his diploma at the June commencement. A Chronology ♦ 1 1885 SEPTEMBER. Orville, although lacking certificate of comple- tion of sixth grade in Richmond, Ind., enters Dayton Seventh District grade school in seventh grade despite attempts by school authorities to start him in sixth grade. Wilbur takes special "postgraduate" course at Dayton Central High School, continuing study of Greek and starting trigonometry. OCTOBER, Wright family occupies 7 Hawthorn Street in Dayton, the house where Orville was born in 1871 and where Wilbur was to die in 1912. 1886 Orville (with Ed Sines, neighbor and boyhood friend) starts The Midget, a school newspaper, with new press given him by his brothers Lorin and Wilbur and with type given by his father. OCTOBER 9* "Ten Boys Club" organized at home of Reuchlin Wright in Dayton, with Wilbur the 10th and youngest member. Lorin and Reuchlin also members. 1887 SEPTEMBER, Orville enters Dayton Central High School, 1889 MARCH 1. Orville, as editor and publisher, commences publication of the weekly West Side News. He was to maintain an active interest in printing and publishing throughout the period 1889-96. JULY 4, Susan Catherine Wright, mother of Wright brothers, dies at age 58. Burial is in Woodland Cemetery in Dayton. A marker was erected at her birthplace in Hillsboro, Virginia, by the Rivanna Garden Club of Charlottesville, Virginia, on December 17, 1929. 1890 APRIL 30, Orville, with Wilbur as partner, converts West Side News into evening newspaper. The Evening Item, Publication was suspended in August. SEPTEMBER. Orville enters final year of high school, not working for diploma but as special student in Latin. His interest in the printing business prompted him to leave school before graduating. DECEMBER I3> Paul Laurence Dunbar, high school classmate of Orville's, starts the Tatler, which Orville prints for him. About this time Dunbar chalked on the shop wall the following quatrain: Orville Wright is out of sight In the printing business. No other mind is half so bright As his'n is. 1892 Orville buys European-type "safety" bicycle, a Columbia, for $160. Wilbur buys Eagle bicycle for $80. DECEMBER, Orville and Wilbur rent 1005 West Third St. as bicycle shop, stocking it with such well-known makes as the Coventry Cross, Halladay-Temple, Warwick, Reading, Smalley, Envoy, and Fleetwing, and adding repair facilities. They were to continue active in the bicycle manufacturing and repair business from 1892 to early 1907. This modest busi- ness provided the funds that enabled them to carry out all their early aeronautical experiments, including the power flights of 1903, 1904, and 1905. 1893 Bicycle shop moves to larger quarters, 1034 West Third St. Wilbur and Orville attend The World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, May 1-October 30, where, among other attractions, the aeronautical exhibit drew their attention. 1894 OCTOBER 20, Wilbur and Orville commence weekly magazine Snap Shots. 1895 Bicycle shop moves to 22 South Williams St. Orville invents calculating machine that will multiply as well as add. 1896 Wrights begin to manufacture their own brand of bicycles, first being the Van Cleve and later the lower priced St. Clair. SPRING, Wilbur and Orville experiment with gas engine. MAY 16, Wrights put on sale their "Wright Special," another bicycle of their own manufacture. JULY 2^, Wright Cycle Co. is one of the contributors to and participants in the 16th Annual Meet of the Ohio Division, League of American Wheelmen, held in Dayton. The Wrights were members of the league. AUGUST-OCTOBER, Orville seriously ill with typhoid fever. AUGUST 10, Otto Lilienthal, German engineer and aeronautical pioneer, dies in Germany, following injuries suffered in crash near Rhinow the previous day while testing his latest single-surface glider, with adjustable horizontal tail. Although Wilbur withheld the news of Lilienthals crash until after Orville s convalescence, the tragedy served to stimulate anew the interest of the brothers in the work of Lilienthal and others who had tried to solve the problem of human flight. The 2 • Wilbur & Orville Wright Wrights* curiosity may have been aroused, in a passive way, as early as September 1894 by an article on Lilienthal entitled "The Flying Man" in McClures Magazine, to which they had access in their home at that time. 1897-1898 While engaged in the bicycle manufacturing and repairing business, Wrights focused their attention on the problems of mechanical and human flight. Extensive reading and study of bird flight and of Lilienthal s gliding trials convince the brothers that human flight is possible and practical. They decide to conduct some limited experiments of their own. 1899 MAY 30, Having read of the work of Cayley, Penaud, and Marey in books from his fathers library, Wilbur writes the Smithsonian Insntution inquiring about additional publications on aeronautical subjects. JUNE 2, Richard Rathbun, assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, sends the Wrights a list of works and four Smithsonian pamphlets on the subject of aerial navigation, which further stimulate the Wrights' interest in gliding as a sport. JUNE 14, Wilbur acknowledges receipt of Rathbun s letter and Smithsonian pamphlets and orders copy of Samuel P. Langley s Experiments in Aerodynamics. JULY-AUGUST Wrights construct and Wilbur tests and flies a biplane kite measuring five feet from tip to tip and about 13 inches from front to rear, in which wing warping was achieved by the manipulation of four cords leading to the ground. The kite flying is witnessed by 10 or 12 schoolboys, including Frederick W. Fansher, John D. Reiniger, and Walter Reiniger. The kite was built to test the idea of warped wing lateral control and followed a demonstration by Wilbur early in July in which he used an open-end pasteboard box and pressed the corners together so that the upper and lower surfaces were given a spiral twist, presenting the top and bottom surfaces of the box at different angles on the right and left sides. The successftil kite experiment encouraged the Wrights to proceed with the building of a man-carrying machine embodying this principle. The kite hung on a wall of a room over their store until destroyed about 1905 to make room for an upstairs office. NOVEMBER 27. Wrights write the U.S. Weather Bureau for information on a suitable place to conduct their flying experiments. DECEMBER 4. Willis L. Moore, chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau, sends Wrights data on wind velocities in various locations of the country, enclosing marked copies of the Monthly Weather Review for August and September 1899. The September issue also contained an article by Prof Cleveland Abbe entitled "Preliminary Results of Weather Bureau Kite Observations [carried out by Charles F. Marvin and H. C. Frankenfield] in 1898." 1900 FEBRUARY Katharine Wright, occupied in teaching at Steele High School, engages Carrie Kayler (later Carrie Kayler Grumbach), age 14, as a helper in the Wright home. She was to stay on as a member of the Wright household for nearly half a century, until after Orvilles death in January 1948, MAY 13* Wilbur writes to Octave Chanute — civil engineer, aerial experimenter, and author of the book Progress in Flying Machines (1894), which was noteworthy in presenting the first technical assessment of the aviation pioneers — ^beginning an important friendship and correspondence that lasted until May 1910, several months before Chanute s death on November 23. In his letter Wilbur fully describes the Wright system of control as used in their kite experiment. AUGUST 10, Wilbur writes to Chanute telling of plans to construct full-size glider and enlisting his aid in obtaining necessary materials unavailable in Dayton. AUGUST 16. Joseph J. Dosher, in charge of the Kitty Hawk Weather Bureau Station, supplies data on prevailing winds and on nature of the region in a response to Wilbur's letter of August 3. AUGUST 18, William J. Tate, neighbor of Dosher, also writes the Wright brothers recommending Kitty Hawk as a suitable place to conduct experiments in "scientific kite flying." SEPTEMBER 6. Wilbur leaves Dayton for Kitty Hawk, arriving in Elizabeth City on September 1 1 by boat and arrives at Kitty Hawk on September 13. SEPTEMBER 13-OCTOBER 2. Wilbur and later Orville stay with William J, Tate in Kitty Hawk until their camp is made ready. SEPTEMBER 14, Wilbur commences assembly of Wrights' first experimental double-deck glider having a surface of 177 square feet. The glider is completed by September 23. SEPTEMBER 24, Orville leaves Dayton for Kitty Hawk, arriving September 28. OCTOBER, Wrights commence active experiments. Flying their glider both as a kite and as a man-carrying glider to test out flight theories and to practice with a view to solving the problem of equilibrium. About a dozen free flights are made. The total time in the air was only about two minutes. William J. Tate is present and assists the brothers in many of their experiments, which are concluded about the end of the month. OCTOBER 4, In preparation for gliding experiments Wilbur and Orville set up camp in a tent about a half mile from home ofWiUiamJ.Tate. OCTOBER 10, Wright 1900 glider upset by wind on Hill of the wreck. Three days were spent in its repair. A Chronology • 3 OCTOBER 23. Wrights depart from Kitty Hawk, leaving glider at camp. The only remaining piece of the 1900 glider is destroyed by a 93-mile gale in July 1901. 1900-1901 WINTER. Wrights proceed with plans for larger glider of same general design as the first but with considerably more area, 290 square feet, for greater lifting power. The glider would be flown as a kite, with an operator aboard, and in the kind of winds they could usually expect based on their experience in 1900. 1901 MAY 12, In a letter to Octave Chanute, Wilbur tells of plans for further experiments at Kitty Hawk in September and October and of proposed changes in their new glider. He invites Chanute to visit them at their camp. JUNE 26-27. First meeting with Octave Chanute, authority on aerial navigation, occurs when he visits Wrights in Dayton. JULY, Wilbur's articles "Angle of Incidence," published in the Aeronautical Journal, and "Die Wagerechte Lage Wahrend des Gleitfluges," published in the Illustrierte Aeronautishe Mitteilungen, are the first aeronautical writings of the brothers to appear in print. JULY 7. Wrights start for Kitty Hawk, arriving there July 10. JULY 9* Storm demolishes Wright 1900 glider, which was left at Kitty Hawk at the conclusion of experiments there in August 1900. JULY 18, On recommendation of Chanute, for whom he was building a glider, Edward C. Huffaker of Chuckey City, Tenn., joins Wrights at Kitty Hawk to test Chanute glider, remaining until August 18. Huffaker had worked in the Smithsonian Institution as an assistant to Samuel P. Langley in his aeronautical work from 1895 to 1899. JULY 25. George A. Spratt, of Coatesvillc, Pa., on recommendation of Chanute joins Wrights at Kitty Hawk and participates in their activities until his departure August 16. Spratt was recommended by Chanute because of his interest in aeronautics and because his medical training might be needed in the event of injury to the Wrights in the isolated area used to carry out their experiments. JULY 27. Wright 1901 glider assembled and tried for the first time. Between 50 and 100 flights are made in 1901, ranging in distance from 20 feet to nearly 400 feet, with many covering 300 feet or more. AUGUST 4-1 L Chanute visits Wrights at Kill Devil Hill and witnesses some of their gliding experiments. AUGUST 20, Wrights leave Kitty Hawk, arriving home in Dayton August 22. AUGUST 29. Chanute writes Wilbur asking him to deliver address before the Western Society of Engineers in Chicago and in reply, September 2, Wilbur accepts. SEPTEMBER. Wilbur and Orville share in proceeds of sale of 160-acre farm at Casey, Iowa, originally given to them by their father and jointly owned by the Wright brothers, which is sold by Reuchlin Wright. SEPTEMBER 18. Wilbur addresses Western Society of Engineers on Wright 1900 and 1901 gliding experiments. He compares results with those obtained by earlier investigators and indicates that previously published figures relating to air pressures on curved surfaces appeared to be in error. Before the lecture, entitled "Some Aeronautical Experiments," Wilbur is entertained by Chanute at his home in Chicago and views his study room and collection of models of fiying machines. OCTOBER 6, Wrights conduct tests of model airfoils mounted on a bicycle wheel placed horizontally at front of one of their bicycles. SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER Wrights design single-cylinder, 4-stroke-cycle, stationary powerplant, which was utilized in construction engine and airplane parts from 1902 through 1908 and for determining the power output of their early fiight engines. The engine was restored under the direction of Charles Taylor and installed April 16, 1938, in Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Mich,, together with the shop machinery it operated. OCTOBER-DECEMBER Wrights conduct ftirther tests of airfoils with wind tunnel and pressure- testing balances of their own design, becoming the first investigators to compile tables of figures from which it was possible to design an airplane that would fly. DECEMBER Wilburs Chicago speech of September 18 printed in the Journal of the Western Society of Engineers. Few other articles on the subject of flight have been so frequently reprinted or widely quoted. 1902 JANUARY 5* Wilbur sends Chanute data sheets resulting from wind tunnel tests with instructions for making computations. JANUARY 19* Wilbur sends Chanute photograph and description of Wright pressure-testing instrument, i.e., the lift balance used in the Wright wind tunnel. FEBRUARY 22, Scientific American publishes account of 1901 gliding experiments by Wrights, based on Wilbur s paper "Some Aeronautical Experiments." MARCH 18-21, Wilbur goes to Huntington, Ind., to defend his father in case involving a layman's misuse of church funds. Subsequent trips were made in 1902 by Wilbur to Huntington on May 9-15, on August 5-9, and on November 24. -4C/GC/57r Wrights complete construction of parts for their 1902 glider, designed on the basis of the wind tunnel calculations. 4 • Wilbur & OrvUlc Wright Historic photo of the Wright brothers" third test glider being launched at Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, on October 10, 1902. Wilbur uses family sewing machine to sew needed cloth wing covering on which pattern has been marked by Orville, The wings of this machine measured 32 feet from tip to tip, and five feet from front to rear. The wing area totaled 305 square feet. AUGUST 25. Wrights leave for Kitty Hawk, arriving in Norfolk and Elizabeth City, N.C., on August 26 and at the Kitty Hawk camp on August 28. AUGUST 29-SEPTEMBER 7. Orville and Wilbur construct their camp, drill well, and obtain needed food supplies and equipment. SEPTEMBER 8-19. Wright 1902 glider, a biplane with forward monoplane elevator and a fixed double rear fin, assembled and made ready for flying. SEPTEMBER 15. The 1901 glider is dismantled and destroyed to make room for a new glider. The uprights are used in the new machine. SEPTEMBER 19~OCTOBER24. The Wrights make 700-1,000 glides, increasing their record for distance to 622 1/2 ft., for time to 26 seconds, and for angle of descent to 5° for a glide of 156 ft. Orville stated in a deposition given in Dayton on January 13, 1920, in a patent suit that the flights of 1902 demonstrated lateral stability as well as the fact that their tables of air pressure derived from their wind tunnel tests enabled them to calculate in advance the performance of their flying machine. SEPTEMBER 30. Lorin Wright arrives at Kitty Hawk from Dayton for visit with brothers, remains until October 13, and witnesses some of the gliding experiments. OCTOBER L George A, Spratt arrives at Kitty Hawk to partic- ipate for second time in Wright gliding experiments, and remained until October 20. OCTOBER 4, 6. Wrights modify their 1902 glider by replacing fixed double rear fin with a rear rudder linked with the wing- warping control to counteract warp-drag. OCTOBER 5, Chanute and his assistant, Augustus M. Herring, arrive at Kitty Hawk to join Wrights in gliding experiments, Chanute and Herring remained until October 14 and conducted unsuccessful tests on the multiple-wing machine built by Charles Lamson for Chanute, which had arrived in camp on September 24. OCTOBER 18. In his first letter to the Wrights, Samuel Pierpont Langley, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, inquires about experiments at Kitty Hawk and particularly about their use of "special curved surfaces and the like." OCTOBER 28. Wrights leave Kitty Hawk, arriving in Dayton on October 31. NOVEMBER. Orville plans to construct a new testing machine with intent to conduct new series of measurements to aid in design of their airplane. DECEMBER. Wrights conduct propeller experiments and begin construction of their 1903 four-cylinder engine. A Chronology • 5 DECEMBER 15. Wrights commence plans for a new flying machine to be equipped with motor and propellers by conducting propeller experiment using 28-inch diameter screw. DECEMBER 24. Patrick Alexander, prominent member of Aeronautical Societ}^ of Great Britain, calls on Wrights in Dayton with letter of introduction from Chanute, 1903 Early in 1903 Wrights build a second wind tunnel, 2 feet by 2 feet by 8 feet, to ensure greater accuracy in measurements than obtained in tests made in the 1901 wind tunnel. FEBRUARY 12. Wrights test newly built airplane motor for first time. FEBRUARY 13. Motor body and frame broken during test. MARCH 6. Propeller estimates for 1903 propellers completed. MARCH 23. Wright brothers apply for patent on their flying machine (patent issued May 22, 1906). APRIL 2, Octave Chanute, in illustrated lecture before Aero- Club de France in Paris, tells of the Wright brothers' gliding experiments of 1901 and 1902. In the August 1903 issue of L'Aerophile, Chanute published an article on the same subject with photographic illustrations, scale drawings, and structural details on the Wright 1902 glider. Chanute's lecture and subsequent reports and articles precipitated a revival of interest in aviation in Europe. APRIL 16. Wilbur Wright 36 years old. APRIL 20. Wright brothers receive from foundry a new aluminum casting for engine of 1 903 machine. MAY 2 Orville suffers injury when eye is struck by piece of emery. On May 4 Charles Taylor removed an embedded fragment from Orville's eye; the doctor later removed additional fragments, JUNE 6. Following return from Europe in May, Chanute visits Wrights in Dayton. Fie presents them with a Richard hand anemometer. Wilbur reported in 1911 that on this visit Chanute informed the brodiers he was ending his active gliding experiments because "he had come to the conclusion that whatever the final merits of the two systems [Wright and Chanute] might be, the first success would be obtained in all probability by our system, i.e., human control, rather than by his own system, i.e., automatic control." JUNE 7. In letter to George A. Spratt, Orville tells of plans for powered machine. JUNE 18. Wilbur informs Chanute in a letter that "Our engine develops at the brake 15.6 horsepower and we are convinced that this is very close to what we will be able to reach as a maximum," indicating early completion of engine required for powered flight. JUNE 24. Wilbur delivers second lecture before Western Society of Engineers, "Experiments and Observations in Soaring Fight," giving account of Wright gliding experiments at Kitty Hawk in September and October 1902. AUGUST. Wilburs lecture of June 24 published in Journal of the Western Society of Engineers. AUGUST 19. Orville 32 years old. SEPTEMBER 12. Wright brothers, as agents, order from St. Louis Motor Carriage Co. an automobile "tonneau" for Albert R. Cotteral, of Cotteral & Gaddis, General Contractors, Dayton, which they deliver to him on September 22. SEPTEMBER 23. Wrights leave Dayton for Kitty Fiawk, arriving there September 25. SEPTEMBER 26. Wrights repair damaged shed that housed their 1902 glider and commence construction on a new building at Kitty Hawk, completed on October 5, in which to assemble and house their new machine, SEPTEMBER 28. 1902 glider renovated and experiments conducted for first time in 1903. Between 60 and 100 glides are made. In a letter to Chanute dated October 1, Wilbur states that it was the finest day for practice the Wrights ever had. OCTOBER 3. 1902 glider modified and performance improved by enlarging tail surface and changing method of attaching rudder to rear rudder frame. OCTOBER 9. Wrights commence assembly of 1903 machine, following receipt on October 8 of parts shipped from Dayton. OCTOBER 23. Dr. Spratt arrives at Kitty Hawk and participates in the Wright experiments for third time, departing from Kitty Hawk on November 6. OCTOBER 28. Smithsonian Institution reprints from its 1902 annual report and distributes Wilburs 1901 lecture, "Some Aeronautical Experiments," as Smithsonian Publication 1380. NOVEMBER 2. Installation of engine on 1903 machine commenced. NOVEMBER 4. The 1903 machine assembled and ready for launching except for mounting of propellers. Launching track completed. NOVEMBER 5. New Wright airplane almost completed and assembled when propeller shafts break, requiring shipment to Dayton for repair and delaying further experiments. Repaired shafts were returned on November 20. NOVEMBER 6. Chanute arrives at Kitty Hawk to visit Wilbur and Orville, staying until November 12 and discussing his own and Wrights' plans for the next year. NOVEMBER 12. Glider experiments are terminated because the dilapidated condition of the machine rendered it unsafe. Over 200 glides were made during the period September- November. 6 * Wilbur & Orville Wright NOVEMBER 28. Propeller shaft cracks in test, curtailing fiirther tests while awaiting replacement. DECEMBERS, Orville returns to Dayton to obtain replacement for broken propeller shaft, the second time shaft had broken. DECEMBER 9* Orville leaves Dayton ft)r Kitty Hawk with new improved and larger spring steel propeller shaft, arriving back in Kitty Hawk on December 1 1 . DECEMBER 14, Wrights make first and unsuccessftil attempt with power machine from slope of Big Kill Devil Hill, with Wilbur as operator. Machine stalls after 3 1/2 seconds in the air and settles to earth 105 feet below. Five men from Kill Devil Hill Life Saving Station present during test. DECEMBER 17. Wilbur and Orville make worlds first free, controlled, and sustained flights in power-driven, heavier-than- air machine. The four trial flights are witnessed by John T. Daniels, W. S. Dough, and A. D. Etheridge, from the Kill Devil Life Saving Station; W. C. Brinkley, of Manteo, and Johnny Moore, from Nags Head. First trial by Orville 10:35 a.m. Time 12 seconds. Distance 1 20 feet. Speed between 7 and 8 miles per hour. Second trial by Wilbur 11 a.m. Time approximately 12 seconds. Distance approximately 175 feet. Third trial by Orville 1 1 :40 a.m. Time 1 5 seconds. Distance a little over 200 feet. Fourth trial by Wilbur 12 noon. Time 59 seconds. Distance 852 feet. With headwinds averaging 27 m.p.h., the fourth flight achieved a distance through the air of over half a mile. A photograph of the first successfiil flight was taken by John T. Daniels, one of die witnesses, with Orvilles camera. Machine was wrecked by sudden gust of wind shordy after the fourth flight. Orville's telegram to his father announcing successful flights transmitted by Joseph J. Dosher, then in charge of Weather Bureau Station at Kitty Hawk, to Weather Bureau Station in Norfolk, in charge of James Gray, who turned it over to Western Union for transmission to Dayton. DECEMBER 18. First (inaccurate) accounts of successful flights of December 17 published in Norfolk The Virginian-Pilot, New York American, and Cincinnati Enquirer, as well as Dayton afternoon papers. DECEMBER 18-19. 1903 machine and motor disassembled, packed, and shipped to Dayton. The 1902 glider is stored in the large camp building at Kitty Hawk. The machine, in boxes, was stored for many years in a shed at the rear of the old Wright workshop and lay for several weeks in water and mud during the Dayton flood of March-April 1913. Subsequently, it was stored in a barn and, when this was torn down, in Orville s laboratory. DECEMBER 21. Wrights leave Kitty Hawk, arriving back in Dayton December 23. DECEMBER 26. Wilbur and Orville interviewed at home by Bertha Comstock, of the Chicago Tribune, and by J. D. Sliders, of the New York World, DECEMBER3L On reading of successfiil flights on December 17, Godfrey L. Cabot, wealthy and influential Boston businessman, writes Senator Henry Cabot Lodge that it would be "eminendy desirable for the United States to interest itself in this invention with a view to utilizing it for war-like purposes." He also wrote the Wrights asking if their machine were capable of carrying a payload in the form of a 100-lb. sack of carbon black from his mine in West Virginia, over the countryside, often impassable in winter, to the nearest railhead, 16 miles away. 1904 JANUARY 5. Wrights issue statement to Associated Press, published January 6, to correct printed misinformation about December 17 flights. JANUARY 14. Wrights write to Harry A. Toulmin, patent attorney in Springfield, 111., for appointment to discuss pending patent application. JANUARY 22, Wilbur goes to Springfield, 111., to see Toulmin and places Wright patent case in his hands. Wilbur saw Toulmin again on February 4 to discuss foreign patent applications. Chanute visits Wrights in Dayton to discuss rules for aeronautic competition scheduled for St. Louis World's Fair. FEBRUARY 4, Independent magazine publishes forged account of the Wright flight entitled "Experiments of a Flying Man," using Wilbur Wright s signature without authorization. On February 5 Wrights sent letters to the Independent demanding apologies and corrections. Independent published retraction to February 24 issue. FEBRUARY 17. Orville and Wilbur travel to St. Louis to inspect grounds over which World s Fair aeronautic competition was to be held. The Wrights decided not to exhibit an airplane at the fair, and the proposed race was subsequently cancelled. MARCH 8-16. Wilbur again occupied with the United Brethren Publishing House case involving his father, and writes letters and travels to Huntington, Ind., in his behalf on March 15, returning to Dayton on March 16. MARCH 22, Wrights apply for French patent on their airplane. MARCH 24. Wrights apply for German patent on their airplane. APRIL-MAY. Wrights construct an entirely new, heavier and stronger machine at Huffman Prairie, eight miles out of Dayton, with which they made long flights later in the year. A new motor is installed which furnished 1 8 horsepower, as compared with 1 2 or 13 horsepower in the 1903 machine. APRIL 15. Wrights complete building of a wooden shed at Huffman Prairie to house their new, 1904 flying machine. MAY 5. Wilbur writes Chanute that three-day trip to Huntington, Ind., in connection with Bishop Wright's church problems, has delayed work on their flying machine. A Chronology • 7 AMY 23 and 25. Wrights attempt flights with new machine at Huffman Prairie, but rain and insufficient wind prevent takeoff. MAY 26. At Huffrnan Prairie, a large meadow of about 100 acres, Wrights try new machine for first time, Orville flying about 25 feet. Between this date and December 9, when their last flight of the season was made, the Wrights made 105 starts, with total flying time of 49 minutes, enabling Wilbur and Orville to obtain practice in controlling and maneuvering a powered machine. JULY 30, Modification of 1904 machine completed. The gas tank and radiator are moved rearward, and blade width of propellers is increased. AUGUST 13. Wilbur flies 1,340 feet in 32 2/5 seconds, breaking previous distance record set at Kitty Hawk. SEPTEMBER 1. First basic Wright French patent No. 342,188 published. The patent was applied for on March 22, 1904, and was granted July 1 , 1 904. SEPTEMBER 7. Wrights use a catapult launching device, sometimes called the starting derrick, for first time in launching machine. SEPTEMBER 15. Wilbur makes first turn in the air, a half circle, SEPTEMBER 20, Wilbur makes first complete circle in airplane, witnessed by Amos I. Root, editor and publisher of Gleanings in Bee Culture, who had driven nearly 200 miles from Medina, Ohio, to see the flights. OCTOBER 15. Chanute visits Wrights in Dayton and witnesses short flight by Orville. Machine damaged in landing. OCTOBER 24, Lt. Col. John E. Capper, British Army, visits Wright brothers in Dayton on behalf of British government, seeking proposal for sale of their airplane. NOVEMBER 1, After starting down track, Orville wrenches shoulder in attempting to stop when stake holding restraining wire pulls loose. NOVEMBER 9. Wilbur flies five minutes four seconds, distance 2 3/4 miles, making almost four circles of the field, the best and longest flight of the year. NOVEMBER 16. Orville makes flights of 1/2, 1/3, and 1/8 miles and Wilbur a flight of two miles, making 2 1/4 turns of the field. DECEMBER 1. Orville makes flight of about 2 3/4 miles, almost four circles of the field. 1905 JANUARY 1, Amos I. Root publishes in Gleanings in Bee Culture his account of Wright flight on September 20, 1904, first eyewitness report of powered flight. The Wright airplane was later described in the January 1 5 issue of the magazine, and the Wright 1905 flights were report- ed in the December 1 issue. JANUARY 3. Wilbur sees Robert M. Nevin, Congressman from the Dayton district, in first attempt to interest the government in their plane. Nevin proposed that the Wrights write him a letter, which he would then show to President Taft, who would arrange for the Wrights to meet with War Department officials. JANUARY 5'-FEBRUARY 24, Wrights conduct engine and brake tests with four-cylinder engine in preparation for 1905 flights. JANUARY 10, Subsequent to his visit to their home in Dayton in October, the Wrights write Col. John E. Capper for assurance that British government would be interested in an offer of their airplane. JANUARY 18. Following Wilbur's meeting in Dayton on January 3 with Congressman Nevin, Wrights write him asking whether U.S. government would be interested in their airplane. Nevin referred their letter to the Secretary of War on January 2 1 . JANUARY 26. Nevin replies to Wrights, enclosing letter of January 24 from Maj. Gen. George L. Gillespie, U.S. Board of Ordnance and Fortification, which states that because "It appears from the letter of Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright that their machine has not yet been brought to the stage of prac- tical operation" the board is unwilling to contribute funds toward it s development. MARCH 1, Wrights off"er to furnish British War Office a flying machine for scouting purpose, the price contingent of perform- ance of the machine. MAY 2, Wilburs tract dealing with misuse of funds of the United Brethren Publishing House, with which his father was deeply concerned, is published and distributed to many delegates to the General Conference of the Church of the United Brethren in Christ, Old Constitution, to be held in Michigan late in May. The General Conference endorsed the policy of the minority trustees, of whom Bishop Wright was one. MAY 13. In a letter to the Wrights, British War Office states it is requesting military attache in Washington, Col. Hubert J. Foster, to call o them to witness their machine in flight, MAY 23. Wrights begin setting up 1905 machine and complete it in June. MAY 28, Wilbur reports to Chanute that he has recently returned from a week's trip to Michigan to attend General Conference of his father s church. JUNE 23. Orville makes first flight with 1905 machine, a flight of 9 1/2 seconds. This is the first of a series of 50 flights carried out during the year and ending October 16, providing practice and further experimentation in improving the lateral stability of the airplane. These flights were witnesses by 17 persons. JULY 25. Carl Dienstbach, American correspondent of lUustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilugen and author of an article about the Wrights in the March 1904 issue of this journal, visits Wright home in Dayton. 8 • WUbur & Orville Wright Dienstbach subsequently wrote many articles and reports on the Wright flights. AUGUST 30. Christian Conservator publishes editorial by Wilbur entitled "Shall White River [United Brethren Conference] Destroy Herself?" in interests of his father. SEPTEMBER 12. To correct deficient performance of their propellers in flight, Wrights devise and mount on propeller tips "Little Jokers" (small surfaces, resembling an elevator, set at an angle to balance the pressures that w^ere distorting the blades). SEPTEMBER 26, In the first of series of extended flights, Wilbur flies 11 1/8 miles (17,961 meters) in 18 minutes 11 2/5 seconds. Witnessed by his father. SEPTEMBER 29. Orville flies 12 miles (19,570 meters) in 19 minutes 56 seconds. SEPTEMBER 30. Orville makes flight of approximately 10 miles in 17 minutes 15 1/2 seconds. OCTOBERS. Orville flies 15 miles (24,535 meters) in 26 min- utes 111/5 seconds. OCTOBER 5. Wilbur makes longest flight of die year: 24 1/5 miles (38,956 meters) in 39 minutes 23 4/5 seconds, more than 29 rounds of the field, at an average speed of 38 miles an hour. This v/as a longer flight than the total of their 105 flights of 1904. Dayton Daily News publishes article stating that Wrights were making sensational flights every day. OCTOBER 9* Wrights write to Secretary of War renewing their offer to furnish a practical flying machine for scouting purposes. In a letter to Capt. Ferdinand Ferber-French artillery officer who had been experimenting with Lilienthal-type glider since 1899 and, as a result of correspondence of Chanute, with Wright-type gliders since 1902-Wrights state they are prepared to fiirnish a flying machine on contract, to be accepted only after a trial flight of at least 40 kilometers. They also report results of their 1905 flights and experiments. OCTOBER 16, U.S. Board of Ordnance and Fortification, to which October 9 letter was referred, informs Wrights it must see drawings and description of machine in order to determine its practicality. OCTOBER 17-18, Wrights conduct engine tests. OCTOBER 27. In reply to Wright letter of October 19, U.S. Board of Ordnance and Fortification declines to take any action on Wright offer. NOVEMBER 4. In letter to Capt. Ferdinand Feber, Wrights offer to sell a flying machine to the French government for 1,000,000 francs. NOVEMBER 8. Replying to Chanutes letter of November 4 requesting statement as to extent Wrights were aided by work of Samuel R Langley, who had died on February 27, Wilbur writes: "The knowledge diat the head of die most prominent scientific institution of America believed in the possibility of human flight was one of the influences that led us to undertake the preliminary investigation that preceded our active work. He recommended to us the books which enabled us to form sane ideas at the outset. It was a helping hand at a critical time and we shall always be gratefiil." NOVEMBER 14, Charles M. Manly, an engineer who had participated in the airplane experiments of Smithsonian Institution Secretary Samuel R Langley in 1903, in a speech before the Aero Club of New York, reports that the Wright brothers were able to control their machine in all kinds of weather and that within the last two months had made more than 50 rounds of their flying field near Dayton. Manly's information apparently was based on witnessing Wright flights in Dayton early in October. NOVEMBER 17, Wrights send letters giving details of their 1905 experiments to Carl Dienstbach, New York representative of Illustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen, Berlin; Patrick Alexander, London, member of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain; and Georges Besancon, editor of LAerophile. NOVEMBER 22, Wrights receive letter from Col. Hubert J. Foster, British military attache in Washington, requesting view of Wright machine in flight. NOVEMBER 30, Wrights' letter of November 17 to Georges Besancon is published in LAuto, a Paris sports journal, creating sensation and leading to numerous investigations as to the authenticity of the flights. Frank S. Lahm, an American businessman residing in Paris, a balloonist and member of the Adro-Club de France, cables his brother-in-law, Henry M. Weaver in Mansfield, Ohio, requesting information on authenticity of reported Wright flights. The letter was also published in the December issue of LA^rophile. DECEMBER L Wnght brodiers' letter of October 9 to Capt. Ferdinand Ferber, reporting residts of 1 905 flights and experiments, published in LAuto. DECEMBER 3. Henry M. Weaver visits Wrights in Dayton to verify their reported flights. Weaver cables Lahm, "Claims fully verified, particulars by mail." Les Sports reports, "All the dailies have published these last days a letter addressed to LAerophile by the Wright brothers on the subject of their flying machine." DECEMBER 6, Weaver sends letter, as promised, confirming successful flights, basing his reply on interviews with Wright brothers and with eyewitnesses in Dayton, including Charles S. Billman, William Fours, and farmers David Beard and Amos Stauffer on December 3. DECEMBER 12, Robert Coquelle, writer for LAuto, comes to Dayton to verify Wright claims of powered flight and requests pictures and details of their machine. He is accompanied to Wright home by John F. Johnson, Dayton bicyclist. The Wrights did not provide him with this information, but Coquelle published a series of articles about them in LAuto, December 23-26 issues, which the Wrights denounced as false and inaccurate. A Chronology • 9 Wilbur and Orville Wright with Flyer II at Huffman Prairie, DECEMBER 28. Arnold Fordyce, author and writer, representing French syndicate that included Capt. Ferdinand Ferber and Henri Leteliier, publisher and owner of the French newspaper Le Journal, arrives in Dayton to negotiate contract for purchase of Wright airplane. DECEMBER 29, Lahm reads French translation of Weavers letter of December 6 before a meeting of the Aviation committee of the Aero-Club de France, resulting in spirited discussion on veracity of the statements made in it. DECEMBER 30. Wrights sign optional contract with Arnold Fordyce, agreeing to deliver to him their first flying machine for 1,000,000 francs, or $200,000, for the use of the French Army not later than August 1, 1906. The Wrights were to give a demonstration flight in France within three months to show that the plane could travel 50 kilometers in an hour. DECEMBER 31. Weaver letter of December 6 to Lahm reporting Wrights' 1905 flights published in hill in L'Auto. The letter was also published on January 1 in the Paris edition of the New York Herald and in Les Sports. 1906 JANUARY. UAerophile publishes French Wright patent. JANUARY 6. In response to invitation extended to them in letter of December 22, 1905> Wrights join Aero Club of America. JANUARY 7. New York Times publishes report of Wrights' 1905 experiments based on Root's account in Gleanings in Bee Culture, December 1, 1905, issue. JANUARY 13-20. Crankshaft and flywheel of Wright original 1 903 engine exhibited at Aero Club of America show held in New York in conjunction with Sixth Annual Automobile Show of the Automobile Club of America. These parts were not returned by the Aero Club after the show and when a search was made for them some years later they could not be found. JANUARY 16. Wrights begin series of tests with 1905 engine, continuing test at intervals in February, March, April, and July. FEBRUARYS. Option check for 25,000 francs deposited with Morgan, Harjes & Co., Paris branch of J. P. Morgan & Co., in accordance with contract signed in December for Fordyce. FEBRUARY 17-18. William J. Hammer, consulting electrical engineer, spends two days in Dayton and visits at home of Wrights. MARCH 2. Wright brothers, in report to Aero Club of America, make first public announcement of their successful powered 10 •Wilbur & Orville Wright flights in 1905. Wrights name 13 Dayton residents and four nonresidents as witnesses of these flights. MARCH 10. Aero Club of America adopts congratulatory resolutions and sends them to Wright brothers in recognition of their achievements "in devising, constructing, and operating a successful, man-carrying dynamic flying machine." MARCH 12. Wright brothers' statement of March 2 to Augustus Post, secretary of the Aero Club of America, reporting the successful flights of 1905, made public as printed circulars on Aero Club of America letterhead. This information reached the press on March 17, with accounts appearing in the newspapers on March 18. The report was later translated by Leonce A. Ferrus and published as Les Experiences des Freres Wright (Paris, Berger-Levrault et Cie., 1907). MARCH 13. Edward B. Grimes, journalist, visits Wright home to obtain information for article on Wrights. This article, subsequently published in the Technical World Magazine, June 1906 issue, is based largely on and incorporates the Wright statement of March 2 to the Aero Club of America. MARCH 20-APRIL 5. French commission, composed of Arnold Fordyce, the head. Commander Herni Bonel, Capt. Fienry J. Regnier, Capt. Jules Fi. F. Fournier, and attorney Walter V. R. Berry, which was sent by the French War Ministry to negotiate changes in the contract signed with Fordyce, visits the Wrights but fails to reach agreement and option lapses. MARCH 2 L Wright brothers' report of successful 1905 flights, submitted to Aero Club of America on March 2, is among articles included in cornerstone laid for new club house being built by the Automobile Club of America in New York, APRIL 2. At request of Wrights, Octave Chanute comes to Dayton from Chicago to be present at conference with French military mission negotiating purchase of airplane. APRIL 7. Scientific American publishes results of questionnaire sent to 17 eyewitnesses of the longer 1905 Wright flights, along with text of letter from one of them, Charles Webbert. APRIL 14. Wrights address identical letters to German, Italian, Japanese, and Russian ministers of war, offering to sell airplane. Scientific American publishes letter from Octave Chanute dated March 3 1 , which confirms report of successful flights by Wright brothers. The letter is in response to editor's letter of March 19 and a telegram dated March 29 to Chanute seeking verification of a statement attributed to him which appeared in the lUustrierte Aeronautische Mitteilungen, February issue. APRIL 20. Patrick Y. Alexander, on second visit to Dayton (first was December 24, 1902), is dinner guest at Wright home. The Wrights suspected that he came in the interests of the British government to ascertain if they had entered into a contract with the French. MAYS. In response to a communication of February 8, Wrights offer their flying machine to the British War Office. Submitted in 1903, the Wright Brothers finally received this patent in 1906 fi>r their airplane that they tested in North Carolina. MAY 16. Glenn H. Curtiss, in letter to Wrights, informs them of the facilities of the Glenn Fi. Curtiss Manufacturing Co. in Fiammondsport, N.Y., and offers to provide them with a motor for their plane. MAY 20. In continuance of his offer of May 16, Glenn Fi. Curtiss telephones Wrights from Columbus, Ohio. Wrights do not respond to offer. MAY 22. U.S. Patent Office grants basic Wright patent, No. 821,393, for a flying machine. Patent application filed March 23, 1903. JULY 16. Wright German patent. No. 22051, granted. Patent apphcation filed March 4, 1904. JULY 20. Wrights begin series of tests with new engine that gives more than 30 hp., 50 percent more than used in their 1905 flights, continuing tests at intervals in August, September, October, and November. JULY 31. In response to letter of July 27, Wrights write Lt. Col. Albert E. Gleichen, British military attache in Washington, offering to furnish to British government a Wright airplane to A Chronology • 1 1 train a British operator, and to give manufacturing rights for $100,000. AUGUST 8, Col. Gleichen visits Wrights in Dayton. SEPTEMBER, Glenn H. Curtiss, with Capt. Thomas Baldwin, U.S. Army balloonist, visits Wrights at their office and workshop in Dayton. This was the first meeting between Wrights and Curtiss, who was later to be their opponent in prolonged patent suits commencing in 1909. At this time Baldwin and Curtiss were shown photographs of the Wright 1904 and 1905 flights, and the machine and the flights were discussed at considerable length. SEPTEMBER 4. Wrights receive letter from French Minister of War declaring prior negotiations for purchase of airplane at an end. SEPTEMBER 5. Wrights see an airship alofi: for the first time, an exhibition flight given at the Dayton Fairgrounds by Capt. Thomas S. Baldwin, U.S. Army. NOVEMBER 22, Wrights announce they will not publicly test their flying machine because this would jeopardize negotiations for sale of their airplane. NOVEMBER 2% Ulysses D. Eddy, New York businessman and former partner in Flint &: Co., calls on Wrights at their home in Dayton to verify newspaper reports concerning their invention, which he believed might interest his former firm and prove profitable. DECEMBER 1-8, New Wright four-cylinder vertical engine exhibited at second Annual Exhibition of the Aero Club of America in New York. In his letter of November 10 to Dr. George A. Spratt, Wilbur stated, "We have spent the last six months in building some new motors of greater power than the old ones and slightly lighter." DECEMBER 5^ Patrick Alexander of England, on his third visit to Dayton, is guest of Wrights in Dayton. In the evening Wilbur, Orville, and he leave for New York to attend New York Aero Show, being held December 1-8 in conjunction with the Seventh Annual Sow of the Automobile Club of America at Grand Central Palace. DECEMBER 7. Wrights, accompanied by Octave Chanute, visit the New York Aero Show. John Brisben Walker, editor of Cosmopolitan Magazine, give dinner in honor of Wrights at Century Club in New York, in which Octave Chanute, Augustus Post, and other prominent individuals attend. DECEMBER 8. Wilbur and Orville go to Coatesville, Pa., for a few days to visit with Dr. George Spratt. DECEMBER 10, Wilbur and Orville go to Washington, where they meet Dr. Albert F. Zahm, Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, Prof Charles F. Marvin, Prof Willis L. Moore, and several scientists from the Smithsonian Institution. DECEMBER 12, Wrights return to Dayton. DECEMBER 15. The Wright four-cylinder engine shown at Aero Club of America exhibit in New York, December 1-8, is described and illustrated in Scientific American. DECEMBER 17, In response to interest in Wright airplane expressed by Charles R. Flint of Flint & Co. of London, Berhn, and St. Petersburg, commercial bankers and one of the world's largest munitions dealers, Orville goes to New York for first meeting. On return to Dayton on December 19 he reports prospect of a successful deal. DECEMBER 18, Flint & Co. offers Wrights $500,000 for their rights outside the United States, money to be paid in fuU upon delivery of one machine after a demonstration flight of 50 kilometers. DECEMBER 26-28, George H. Nolte of Flint & Co. in New York comes to Dayton to consult with Wilbur and Orville regarding foreign sales rights for the Wright airplane. 1907 JANUARY, UAerophile publishes details and photographs of Wright four-cylinder engine exhibited in New York in December, basing information on account published in Scientific American, December 15 issue. JANUARY 7. Wrights are interviewed in Dayton by George K. Turner of McClure s Magazine. An article on the brothers entitled "The Men Who Learned to Fly," based on this interview, was subsequently published in the February 1908 issue of the magazine. Wilbur strongly condemned it, claiming it included many incorrect statements, as well as alleged direct quotations not a part of original conversation. JANUARY 17. George H. Nolte of Flint & Co. comes to Dayton for second time in pursuance of negotiations under way between Wrights and Flint & Co. to exploit Wright invention. JANUARY 20. Wrights depart for New York to discuss sale of their airplane abroad with Charles R. Flint, returning to Dayton on January 26. JANUARY 24, Wrights see and discuss sales plans with Courtlandt Field Bishop, president of Aero Club of America, and seek information about conditions of airplane competition announced by Mr. Bishop on January 22 which was reported to have a prize of $200,000. FEBRUARY 5. Wilbur goes to New York, returning to Dayton on February 9 with report of proposition to supply 50 machines to Germany for half million dollars. MARCH 1, Wrights write Barnum & Bailey, Bridgeport, Conn., to ascertain if they would be interested in exhibiting the Wright airplane. In September 1907 Barnum & Bailey expressed an interest in exhibiting the machine at the London Exposition in 1908, but nothing developed from this proposal. MARCH 20-21. Wrights conduct experiments with hydroplanes and floats on the Miami River at Dayton. 12 • WUbur & OrvUle Wright The dam controlling the water on which they were experimenting broke during the night of March 21-22, pre- venting further experiments on the river at this time. APRIL 2. In a letter, Wrights provide Congressman Herbert Parsons of New York, whom Wilbur apparendy had seen on a trip to New York the preceding week, with copies of correspondence between Wrights and Board of Ordnance and Fortification in 1905. APRIL 6, Wrights complete and achieve satisfactory test with a new engine weighing 160 pounds and giving more than 30 hp. Engine tests continued April-June. APRIL 23. In letter to Congressman Parsons, Wrights express willingness to meet with Gen. J. Franklin Bell of U.S. Army. In prior letter of April 15 to the Wrights, Congressman Parsons, who was endeavoring to interest President Roosevelt in the Wright machine, had enclosed a letter from Gen. Bell addressed to Parsons. MAY-JUNE, Orville works on improved airplane and experiments with new engine. MAY 3* Wilbur and Orville elected honorary members of Wiener Flugtechnischer Verein, Vienna. MAYS. Herbert N. Casson, author of "At Last We Can Fly; the Story of the Wright Brothers" in the American Magazine, April 1907 issue, visits Wright home in Dayton. MAY 16. In response to telegram dated May 15 from Flint & Co., Wilbur leaves Dayton for New York and sails for Europe aboard R.M.S. Campania on May 18, arriving in London on May 25 and in Paris on May 27 to begin a series of talks with Flint & Co. agents in London, Paris, and Berlin, which it was hoped would lead to the sale of the Wright flying machine. MAY 17* In letter to the U.S. War Department in response to a communication of May 11, Wrights renew offer to supply a flying machine to the government that will carry two men and a fuel supply for a flight of 200 kilometers and state that they are willing to make it a condition of contract that the machine must make a trial before government representatives of not less than 50 kilometers at a speed of not less than 50 kilometers an hour. MAY 22, Aero Club of America publishes Navigating the Air; a Scientific Statement of Aeronautics Up to the Present Time, which contains "The Relations of Weight, Speed, and Power of Flyers" by the Wright brothers, giving comparative data for the 1903, 1904, and 1905 airplanes. Appended are letters to the Aero Club of America from four witnesses of flights made by the Wrights at Dayton in 1905. MAY 27* Wilbur arrives in Paris and spends day sightseeing. MAY 28, Wilbur, accompanied by Hart O. Berg and Frank R. Cordley of Flint & Co., has conference with French industrialist Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe in first effort to sell the Wright airplane. Deutsch de la Meurthe expresses willingness to join in formation of a company or to introduce Wright to French Minister of War. The Wright proposition provided for a flight of 50 kilometers, with an altitude of up to 300 meters with one man aboard, the price to be a million francs. MAY 31. Wrights reply to May 22 letter of Board of Ordnance and Fortification, offering to deliver a Wright flying machine for $100,000 and to teach an operator to fly it. JUNE 13. Wilbur visits Aero-Club Park in Saint-Cloud to view balloon contest conducted by A^ro-Club de France. JUNE 15. In response to letter of June 8, Wrights elaborate the conditions set forth in offer of May 31 to the U.S. Board of Ordnance and Fortification. JUNE2L Orville journeys to Springfield, 111., to consult Harry A, Toulmin regarding new patent on device for maintaining automatic stability in an airplane. He made a second trip on June 26. JUNE 24. Wilbur, following discussions with Flint & Co. representative Henry Peartree on June 20-22, submits proposition to French Minister of War providing for a flight of 50 kilometers, rising to an altitude of 300 meters with one man on board, the price of the airplane to be one million francs. JULY 2. French government declines Wilbur's proposition of June 24. Orville, in cable from Dayton to Wilbur sent the previous day, also is not agreeable to these terms. The U.S. War Department declines to enter into a contract with the Wrights. JULY 14. Wilbur, with tickets provided by the French War office, views Bastille Day ceremonies in Paris, including the review of French troops at Longchamps by President Clement Armand Falli^res of France, Premier Georges Clemenceau, and Gen. Georges Picquart. JULY 17. At Saint-Cloud, Wilbur is passenger in the balloon La Mouche, built by Maurice Mallet and piloted by Charles Lev^e and Alan R. Hawley. James E. Harrington was also a passenger. The descent was made at Charpentrie, 10 miles from Orleans, The trip of nearly 80 miles lasted three hours and 15 minutes. JULY 18, In response to a cabled request on July 13 from Wilbur, who hopes to make a deal with the French, Orville leaves Dayton from New York en route to Paris to join him, sailing on July 20 aboard the Philadelphia and arriving in Paris on July 28. JULY 19. At the request of Isidor Lowe, Wilbur prepares "Comparison of Airships With Flyers" (first published in The Papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright in 1953). He concludes, "Every recognized scientific student of aeronautics in the world favors aeroplanes against airships." JULY 20. Wright machine crated and shipped from Dayton to France in anticipation of demonstration flight in connection with sale, A Chronology •IS The machine remained in storage in Le Havre until the summer of 1908. JULY 3 L Wrights submit to the French Minister of War new revised proposition for sale of airplane. AUGUST L Orville, Frank R. Cordley, of Flint & Co., and Charles Levee, member of Aero-Club de France, visit Maurice Mallets balloon factory in Paris. Meet with Victor Tatin, early French aviation experimenter. Charles E, Taylor, Wright mechanic, in response to Wilbur s request of July 15, leaves Dayton to join the Wrights, arriving in Paris August 1 1 . AUGUST 4, Wilbur, accompanied by Hart O. Berg, leaves Paris for Berlin to see Isidor Loewe, armament manufacturer, and to commence negotiations for sale of Wright airplane in Germany. AUGUST 6. Wilbur, with Hart O, Berg commences German negotiations for sale of Wright machine, with conference with Isidor Loewe and Capt. Richard von Kehler of the German Army and head of the Motorluftschiff-Studiengesellschaft, Berlin. AUGUST 17, Wilbur returns to Paris. AUGUST 24. All offers to the French Minister of War are withdrawn by the Wrights because of their disappointment with long, drawn-out negotiations. SEPTEMBER 15. Wilbur leaves Paris for Berlin on second visit to Germany to continue negotiations. OCTOBER L Wilbur has conference at balloon station at Tegel regarding sale of Wright airplane to German Army with Maj. Hans Gross, who expresses an interest if Wrights can provide a practical machine. Orville, in London, receives telegram from Wilbur on October 2 requesting him to come to BerUn to participate in negotiations. Orville arrived in Berlin on October 3. OCTOBER 22, Orville returns to Paris from Berlin to confer with Lt. Frank P. Lahm, then proceeds to London on October 24 to confer with Lt. Col. John E. Capper, and returns to Paris again on November 3. OCTOBER 24. Carl Dienstbach and Capt. Alfred Hildenbrandt, formerly with the German Aeronautics Corps, arrive in Dayton to authenticate reports of flights, interviewing witnesses and Bishop Wright in absence of the Wrights. In a subsequent article in the German newspaper Lokal- Anzeiger, published November 18, Hildebrandt affirmed the vahdity of the evidence of the Wright flights. OCTOBER 25. Wilbur returns to Paris from Berlin, with German negotiations unsettled. OCTOBER 30, Replying from London to a letter of October 5, Wrights ask U.S. Board of Ordnance and Fortification if it is interested in a conference and say that one of the brothers is willing to return to the United States at once to discuss the matter and to give demonstration flights. NOVEMBER 2-3. Orville, having arrived in London from Paris on October 29, spends the weekend with Col. and Mrs. John E. Capper at their home in Farnborough, England. CoL Capper, of the Royal Aircraft Factory, had called on the Wrights in Dayton in 1904 at the request of the British Government. NOVEMBER 3. Wrights sign agreement with Flint & Co. and Hart O. Berg providing that they act as sole agents for the Wrights abroad and negotiate agreements with governments for purchase or use of Wright airplane and for the formation of companies to take over ownership or exploitation of Wright inventions, Flint & Co. accepted this agreement on December 2. NOVEMBER II. Wilbur, accompanied by Wright mechanic Charles E. Taylor, leaves Paris for London, spends several days there, and sails for the United States from Liverpool aboard R.M.S. Baltic on November 14, arriving in New York on November 22. NOVEMBER 14. Orville, with Hart O. Berg, visits the automobile show in Paris and there meets Marquis Albert de Dion, Ferdinand Charron, and Capt. Ferdinand Ferber, all members of the Aero-Club de France. Orville again visits the automobile show on November 27. NOVEMBER 18. Orville, with Berg and the English writer Walter Savage Landor, witnesses French flyer Henri Farman compete for a Deutsch-Archdeacon prize of 50,000 francs at Issy-les-Moulineaux, near Paris, NOVEMBER 25. Wilbur, in Washington, following his return from Europe, meets with Gen. James Allen, chief of the Signal Corps, and Gen. William Crozier and Maj. Lawson M, Fuller of the Ordnance Department, and provides them with information on the performance of the airplane the Wrights are willing to guarantee for $25,000. DECEMBER 3. Wilbur goes to Washington to confer with Board of Ordnance and Fortification on December 5 in continuance of discussions of November 25 and returns to Dayton on December 6. DECEMBER 4, Orville departs for the United Sates aboard the Oceanic, arriving home in Dayton on December 13. DECEMBER 5. Wilbur appears before the Board of Ordnance and Fortification in a meeting in Washington and confers with Gen. James Allen. He offers U.S. government an airplane capa- ble of carrying two people for $25,000. DECEMBER 9. Wilbur writes Octave Chanute, "Our plan is to spend the winter building a half dozen new machines for the spring trade. We do not fear any serious competition until after we show our machine." DECEMBER 18. In letter to Gen. James Allen, Wrights offer suggestions on proposed specifications to be issued for proposed bids on flying machines. 14 • Wilbur & Orville Wright DECEMBER 23. U.S. Signal Corps advertises for bids on mili- tary heavier-than-air flying machine to be submitted to Board of Ordnance and Fortification by February 1 . The specifications were published in full in Scientific American Supplement, December 28 issue. 1908 JANUARY 18. Wrights supply information on their airplane and flights to Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge, secretary of the Aerial Experiment Association, Hammondsport, N.Y., who had requested technical data in a letter of January 15. JANUARY 20. Orville goes to Springfield to consult Harry A. Toulmin on Wright patents. JANUARY 22, Orville goes to Canton, Ohio, to witness balloon ascension by Lt. Frank P. Lahm, returning on January 23. JANUARY 27. French Wright patents Nos. 384,124 and 384,125 applied for November 18, 1907 issued. Wrights submit bid to U.S. Signal Corps to fiirnish a heavier- than-air flying machine designed to weigh between 1,100 and 1 ,250 lbs. With two men on board, and for a speed of 40 miles an hour, to be delivered in 200 days. FEBRUARYS. Wrights' bid to furnish a flying machine to the U.S. War Department for $25,000 is accepted. FEBRUARY 10. Wrights apply for patent on device for maintaining automatic stability (issued October 14, 1913-their patent No. 1,075,533). First formal Army airplane contract signed by U.S. Signal Corps with Wright brothers, with Capt. Charles S. Wallace signing on behalf of Signal Corps and Orville for the brothers, Wrights agree to deliver for $25,000 by August 28, 1908, a heavier-than-air flying machine meeting U.S. Signal Corps Specification No. 486, dated December 23, 1907. FEBRUARY 17. Wrights apply for two additional flying machine patents, their patent No. 987,662 granted on March 21, 191 1, and their patent No. 1,122,348 granted on December 29, 1914. FEBRUARY 29. Scientific American publishes article by Wilbur entitled "Flying as a Sport-Its Possibilities," which was contributed to a "Sportsman's Number" of the magazine. MARCH. Orville works on new four-cylinder vertical motor. MARCH 15. Wilbur goes to New York, returning to Dayton on March 20, to discuss with Fhnt & Co. the terms of a new French contract for the formation of French Wright company. This provided for a syndicate to be formed by Lazare Weiller, with other French capitalists, to buy the Wrights French patents and the rights to manufacture, sell, or license Wright airplanes in France. UAuto reports that the Wright brothers have signed a contract with French firm Bariquand & Marre for seven 40-hp engines. MARCH 23. Lazare Weiller agrees to contract with Wrights for formation of company in France. The conditions specified included an agreement to execute twice a minimum flight of 50 kilometers an hour. The second flight was to be made, at the earliest, three days after the first. Orville and Wilbur were to receive 2,500 shares, each, of the founders shares. Orville disposed of these shares in September 1920 for $1,800. APRIL 4, Wright 1904 airplane shipped to Kitty Hawk to be used by Wrights for practice flying and in renewing their pilot skills, as they had done no flying since 1905. APRIL 6. Wilbur leaves for Kitty Hawk, arriving there April 9. APRIL 10, PubUc announcement of Wright brothers' contract with Lazare Weiller is made in L'Auto. APRIL 15. Charles W. Furnas, Wright mechanic, arrives at Kitty Hawk to assist Wrights in their experiments. APRIL 21, Orville leaves for Kitty Hawk, arriving there April 25. Wright machine arrives the same day. APRIL 25. Wilbur, with assistance of Charles Furnas, completes new building, begun April 20, to be used for living qtiarters during 1908 expetiments. APRIL 27. Wrights unpack and begin assembly of their airplane. MAYl. French aviation magazine L'Aerophile publishes description of Wright airplane, based on drawings filed with Wright patent Nos. 384,124 and 384,125 in French Patent Office. Norfolk Virginian-Pilot carries exaggerated story concerning the Wright brothers, reporting they had flown 1 miles to sea and returned and had done a lot of maneuvering over the ground. New York Herald telegraphs the Weather Bureau at Manteo, N.C., for information. MAY 5. Wrights visited by D. Bruce Salley, free lance reporter from Norfolk, Virginia, who had arrived at Manteo on May 4 and had been instructed to report on sensational flights reportedly carried out several days ago. MAY 6, Wrights fly for first time in 1908. Wilbur flying a distance of 1,008 feet at average speed of 41 miles, the first of a series of 22 flights carried out May 6-14 with their 1905 machine modified so that the operator and a passenger could sit erect. MAY 7. D. Bruce Salley's dispatch of May 6 from Norfolk, reporting that the Wright brothers had flown almost 1 ,000 feet at an altitude of 60 feet, published in New York Herald. MAY 14, Wrights carry a passenger for the first time, Wilbur making a flight of about 600 meters in 28 3/5 seconds, with Charles W. Furnas of Dayton aboard, and Orville another with Furnas, making a complete circle and covering a distance of 2 1/2 miles (4,120 meters) in four minutes 2 2/5 seconds. This and other flights in May were witnessed from a distance by a group of newspaper correspondents, including Byron R. Newton, of the New York Herald, William Hoster, of the New York American, P. H. McGowan, of the London Daily Mail, Arthur Ruhl, writer, and James H. Hare, photographer, for A Chronology •IS The Wright Flyer demonstrations at Fort Myen Virginia, on September 3, 1908, Colliers Weekly, and by the men of the Kill Devil Hill Life Saving Station and others in the area. MAY 17, Wilbur leaves Kitty Hawk, en route to Europe, without returning to Dayton, arriving in New York on May 19 and consulting with Flint & Co. on May 20. MAY 20. Wilbur writes to Orville, declaring that "We need to have our true story told in an authentic way at once," which subsequently leads to Orville's article furnished to the Century Magazine and published in September. MAY2L Wilbur sails from New York for Paris aboard steamship La Touraine, arriving May 29 to demonstrate capabilities of Wright machine in Europe. MAY 23, Orville arrives in Dayton from Kitty Hawk, stopping in Washington, D.C., en route to inspect grounds at Ft. Myer. Scientific American reports on Wright flights at Kitty Hawk, May 6-14, and states that "In view of these semi-public demonstrations, there can be no further doubt of the claims made by the brothers as to their ability to fly." MAY 29. New York Herald publishes for first time detailed drawings and description of Wright airplane from drawings and description filed with French Patent Office when patent application was made. MAY 30. Arthur Ruhl's account of May flights of Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk, illustrated with photographs by James Hare, published in Collier's Weekly. JUNE 3. Orville releases account of Wright May 1908 flights at Kitty Hawk to Aero Club of America and four technical journals. This account as published in Aeronautics (New York), June issue; Scientific American, June 13 issue; LAdrophile, June 15 issue; and Illustrierte Aeronautishe Mitteilungen, July 1 issue. JUNE 5. Wright engine and airplane shipped from Kitty Hawk arrives back in Dayton. JUNE 6-AUGUST 5. Wright engine tested and airplane worked on by Orville preparatory to shipping it to Washington for Army trials. JUNE 8, Wilbur and Hart O. Berg, seeking a suitable flying ground, go to Le Mans, located about 125 miles southwest of Paris, at invitation of Leon Bollee, factory owner who offers Wilbur use of facilities to set up his machine. JUNE 12, Berg informs Wilbur that the Hunaudidres Race Course at Le Mans has been rented from Count Roger de Nicolay, president of the Jockey Club and principal owner of the race course, at a monthly rental and a share of the gate receipts if exhibition flights are staged there. 16 •Wilbur & Orville Wright JUNE 15* Orville travels to Springfield to discuss Wright patents with Harry A. Toulmin. JUNE 16. Wilbur arrives at Le Mans to commence trial flights. Cases containing Wright airplane arrive, are taken to Leon BoUee s shop and opened, disclosing considerable damage occurring en route due to improper packing. JUNE 20^AUGUST S. Wilbur assembles Wright airplane and tests engine preparatory to first flight at Le Mans. JUNE 22, Orville completes and sends article setting forth their aeronautical achievements to date to Century Magazine, for which he is paid $500. JULY-AUGUST Orville, assisted by Charles E. Taylor, works on construction of parts for five Wright machines for delivery to Wilbur in France. JULY 3* Wilbur spends day in Paris with Frank S. Lahm, discussing past and future of flying, and returns to Le Mans in the evening. JULY 4, Wilbur burned on left arm by escaping steam from broken water connection in engine while testing his flying machine. JULY 15. Wrights apply for patent on mechanism for flexing the rudder of a flying machine, which was granted on January 5, 1909 (their patent No. 908,929). JULY 20. Orville writes Glenn H. Curtiss that ailerons used in Curtiss June Bug are an infringement on Wright warping patents. JULY 26. Wilbur, accompanied by Ren^ Pellier and Ldon Carr^, makes a second balloon ascension in a spherical balloon, Au Petit Bonheur, recently purchased and piloted by L^on Bolide at Le Mans, JULY 29* Wilbur and Orville elected honorary members of Aeronautic Society, New York. AUGUST 8. Wilbur finishes assembling machine and makes a flight of one minute 45 seconds at an estimated speed of 55 kilometers per hour using stick control for first time, at the Hunaudi^res Race Course. Wilbur reserves rights to photographs of his first flight to Century Magazine. Other photographers are not permitted to take close-up photographs. Flight is witnessed by large crowd, majority from Le Mans and nearby countryside, as well as by many members of A^ro-Club de France and a number of newspaper representatives from Paris. This was the first flight made by the Wrights in Europe and the first of nine made at the Hunaudidres Race Course, August 8, 10-13. AUGUST 13* Wilbur makes last flights at Hunaudi^res Race Course, flying for eight minutes 13 2/5 seconds and for two minutes 20 seconds. A wing of his machine is damaged on landing on this last flight, prompting his decision to move to a laj^r field. AUGUST 16* Wilbur, accompanied by Hart O. Berg, is guest at luncheon in his honor given by Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, senator for the D^partement de la Sarthe, at Chateau Clermont, near La Fldche. Wright engine and airplane parts packed and shipped to Fort Myer, Va., for forthcoming Signal Corps trials by Orville. AUGUST 18. Wilbur completes repairs to damaged machine and transports it to Camp d'Auvours. AUGUST 19* Orville leaves for Washington, D.C. and arrives there the next day with the Wright 1908 machine to be used in flights in ftilfiUment of Wright Army contract. AUGUST 21. Wilbur resumes flying at a new location, Camp d'Auvours, seven miles east of Le Mans, making flights of one minute 49 1/5 seconds and two minutes 14 seconds. This was the first of an extensive series of flights at Camp d'Auvours, lasting through December 31 in which Wilbur continually increased the length and altitude of his flights, carried passengers, trained pilots, established new flight records, and brought numerous prizes and honors to the Wrights. AUGUST 22. Orville attends banquet at National Press Club in Washington at which the balloonist Thomas S. Baldwin was guest of honor, AUGUST 22SEPTEMBER 2. Wright airplane at Fort Myer is unpacked, assembled, and engine tested. Starting track, with wooden tower for hoisting the catapult weight, prepared and wooden shelter for machine constructed. Tent set up which serves as office for contractor. AUGUST 23* Wilbur honored at banquet given by Agricultural Society in La Fl^che. He is presented with the Universal Peace Society bronze medal and accepts a similar one in behalf of Orville. At invitation of Dr. Albert F. Zahm, Orville moves from St, James Hotel in Washington to Cosmos Club. AUGUST 25* Wilbur guest of honor at banquet given by Lazare Weiller at Hotel du Dauphin in Le Mans. Other guests include M. d'Auriac Prefect of the D^partement de la Sarthe, Gen. Georges A. Bazaine-Hayter, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, L^on Bolide, Rend Pellier, vice president of the Adro- Club de la Sarthe, and representatives of the press. Aviators present included Henri Farman, Henry Kapferer, Marcel Kapferer, Paul Zens, and Ernest Zens. AUGUST 27* Wright airplane assembled at Fort Myer and ready for testing. AUGUST 29* Scientific American publishes detailed photographs and description of Wright airplane. The account was continued in the September 26th issue of the magazine and was based largely on Orville's article in the September issue of the Century Magazine. AUGUST 30. Orville guest at home of David Fairchild, botanist. SEPTEMBER* First popular presentation by the Wrights of the aeronautical achievements to date, entitled "The Wright Brothers' Aeroplane," is pubhshed in the Century Magazine. Though it appears under joint authorship, the article was entirely the work of Orville. A Chronology • 17 SEPTEMBER L Wilbur sends cablegram from Le Mans to Chicago Daily News denying reports that he planned to fly across English Channel. He states that his primary purpose is to meet the conditions stipulated by the French company seeking to buy the Wright airplane. He says further that the huge crowds witnessing flights have prevented a record-breaking distance record up to this time. SEPTEMBER 3^ In preparadon for forthcoming trials in fulfill- ing Army contract, Orville makes first flight at Fort Myer, Va,, near Washington, D.C., a flight of one minute 11 seconds, in which he circled the field 1 1/2 times. This was the first of a series of 14 flights, many of which established records, extending through September 17. SEPTEMBER 5. Wilbur is guest at dinner at Chateau-de-Loir. Attending the dinner are Mr. and Mrs. Hart O, Berg, Paul Tissandier, Paul Zens, and Ernest Zens. SEPTEMBER 6. Wilbur is visited by French balloonists Paul and Ernest Zens and Paul Tissandier who travel in small balloon from gas works at Le Mans, descend on artillery grounds, and land 20 yards from Wilbur's airplane shed. SEPTEMBER 9. Orville establishes three new records by making a flight of 57 minutes 31 seconds in which he circled the field 57 times, a flight of one hour two minutes 15 seconds in which he circled the field 55 times, and a flight of six minutes 24 seconds with Lt. Frank P. Lahm as passenger. The last flight of the day lasted until after dusk and was probably the first night airplane flight. Flights witnessed by Secretary of War Luke E. Wright, Secretary of Commerce and Labor Oscar S. Straus, and other high-ranking government officials, SEPTEMBER 10. Orville flies one hour five minutes 52 seconds and rises to an estimated altitude of 200 feet, breaking the record of the previous day. Dayton Mayor Edward E. Burkhart sends Orville letter of congratulation from city of Dayton on his record-breaking flight at Fort Myer on September 9. SEPTEMBER IT Orville flies one hour 10 minutes 24 seconds, another duration record, circling the field 57 1/2 times and describing two figure eights, the first seen at Fort Myer. SEPTEMBER 12, Orville establishes two new records, flying for nine minutes 6 1/3 seconds with Maj. George O. Squier, a new passenger record, and flying one hour 14 minutes 20 seconds, circHng the field 71 times and attaining a maximum alntude of about 300 feet, a new duradon record and the longest 1908 flight made by Orville. SEPTEMBER 14. Crowd estimated at 5,000, largest to date, comes to Camp d'Auvours to witness flights by Wilbur, but engine trouble prevents any flying. Visitors include Count A. D. Economos, Louis Bleriot, Frank S. Lahm, Auguste Nicolleau, Capt. Gerard Binne, Paul Tissandier, Paul Zens, and Ernest Zens, SEPTEMBER 16. Wilbur flies 39 minutes 18 2/5 seconds at Camp d'Auvours, establishing new French record. In a flight lasting two minutes 28 1/5 seconds Wilbur carries his first European passenger, Ernst Zens, French Balloonist. SEPTEMBER 17. Orville severely injured and Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge killed at Fort Myer, Va., in first airplane fatality when Wright airplane crashes to earth from a height of about 75 feet after propeller blade breaks and machine goes out of control. This terminates the Wright Army trials for the year. SEPTEMBER 18. Katharine Wright takes leave from teaching assignment and arrives in Washington from Dayton. Accompanied by Charles R. Flint, the Wright brothers' financial agent, she visits Orville at the Fort Myer hospital. On learning of Orville's accident at Fort Myer, Wilbur postpones preparations for an attempt to win the Michelin and Aero-Club de France prizes. SEPTEMBER 21. Wilbur flies one hour 31 minutes 25 4/5 seconds covering a distance of GG.6 kilometers, establishing a new world record, in the presence of Henry White, American Ambassador to France, Katharine represents her brother Orville at burial of Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge in Arlington Cemetery. SEPTEMBER 24. Wilbur honored at reception by Aero-Club de la Sarthe for establishing new world flying record on September 21. Leon Bollee presides. Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, Hart O. Berg, president of Conseil Generale le Chevalier, and Prefect of the Departement de la Sarthe d'Auriac speak in praise of Wilbur. When asked to say a few words, Wilbur responded with the often quoted remark: "I know of only one bird, the parrot, that talks, and he cant fly very high." SEPTEMBER 25^ Spectators witnessing flights by Wilbur include Leon Delagrange, Rene Quinton, Ernest Archdeacon, Lazare Weiller, Count A. D. Economos, Frank Butler, Mr. and Mrs. Omer Decugnis, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, Paul Tissandier, Count and Viscount Costa de Beauregarde, and Ernest Zens. SEPTEMBER 28, Wilbur makes flight of one hour seven minutes 24 4/5 seconds, completing a distance of 48 kilometers 120 meters and attaining a maximum alntude of 10 meters, for which he was awarded on September 30 the prize of 5,000 francs offered by the Aviation Commission of the Aero-Club de France. OCTOBER 1. Aero-Club de France awards Wrights gold medal for their September flights in France and America. OCTOBER 7, Wilbur makes six flights and on one of them carries his first woman passenger, Mrs. Hart O. Berg, the first real flight made anywhere in the world by a woman. OCTOBER 8. Wilbur makes a series of seven flights, several in the presence of Dowager Queen Margherita of Italy. In the first flight, lasting four minutes 22 seconds, he carries as passenger Griffith Brewer, the first Englishman to fly. The Queen compliments Wilbur on his flying skill. OCTOBER 9. Wilbur is guest at chateau of Count Roger de Nicolay, president of the Jockey Club. 18 •WUbur & OrviUe Wright OCTOBER m Wilbur flies with Prof. Paul Painleve, member of the French Academy of Sciences and distinguished mathematician, as passenger, a flight of one hour nine minutes 45 2/5 seconds for a distance of 55 kilometers at an altitude of 10 meters, establishing a new world record for duration an distance for two persons. This flight was also officially recognized as fulfilling the flight performance conditions of the Wrights' contract with the Lazare Weiller Syndicate. Wilbur elected president of Ten Dayton Boys Club at annual meeting of the club. OCTOBER 13. Wilbur acknowledges congratulations received from Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Germany of successfiil flights. OCTOBER 16. French Academic des Sports awards Wright brothers gold medal with inscription "To the conquerors of the air, M. M. Wilbur and Orville Wright, the first to fly with an apparatus heavier-than-air driven by a motor." OCTOBER 24, Wilbur flies three minutes two seconds with Baron Oskar von Lancken-Wakenitz, German charge d'affaires in Paris, as passenger, the first German to fly in an airplane. Orville is visited in hospital at Fort Myer by Lord Alfred C. W. H. Northcliffe and Gen. Nelson A Miles. OCTOBER 27. Aero Club of United Kingdom awards the Club's gold medal to Wilbur and Orville "for their pioneer work, 1908" and unanimously elects them honorary members. OCTOBER 28. In accordance with the terms of the Wright contract with the Lazare Weiller Syndicate, Wilbur begins a series of training flights extending through March 20, flying for 12 minutes with Count Charles de Lambert as a passenger, his first lesson with his first French pupil. NOVEMBER 1. Orville and Katharine arrive in Dayton following his discharge from hospital in Fort Myer. Orville never fully recovered from his injury and suffered irritation of the sciatic nerve when experiencing vibration in airplanes, railroads, boats, or automobiles. NOVEMBER 2. Wilbur and Orville elected honorary members of the Aero Club of America at its annual meeting. The Aero Club also votes to give the Wrights gold medals (designed by Victor D. Brenner), which were presented to them at a White House ceremony, June 10, 1909. NOVEMBER 5. Aero-Club de France honors Wrights with banquet at Automobile-Club de France, presided over by French Minister of Public Works, Louis Barthou, at which Wilbur receives the Aero-Club de France gold medal, the Academic des Sports gold medal, and the Aero-Club de France Aviation Commission prize of 5,000 francs. Wilbur is guest at luncheon of the French society Autor du Monde, attended by distinguished editors, authors, scientists, and statesmen. These included Louis Liard, vice rector of the Academy of Paris; Henri Bergson, the philosopher; Auguste Rodin, the sculptor; Paul Painleve, the mathematician; Charles Wagner, author of "The Simple Life"; and Louis Lepine, Paris chief of police. In the afi:ernoon Wilbur attends French Senate meeting, where an appropriation for encouragement of aviation was under discussion. On adjournment of the Senate, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant gives a reception in his honor and introduces him to the president of the Senate, Antonin Dubost, and many of the senators. Louis Tillaye, questor of the Senate, delivers short speech of welcome. NOVEMBER 9. Council of Aeronautical Society of Great Britain votes that "the Gold Medal of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain should be presented to Messrs. Wilbur and Orville Wright, in recognition of their distinguished services to Aeronautical Science." Notification of the award is made on November 2 1 . NOVEMBER 10, Wilbur flies for 15 minutes with Capt. Paul N. Lucas-Girardville as passenger, the first lesson for his second French pupil. NOVEMBER 11. Honorary membership conferred on Wilbur and Orville by Columbia University Aero Club. NOVEMBER 13. Wilbur attains an altitude of 90 meters, winning the Aero-Club de la Sarthe "Prix de la Hauteur" of 1,000 francs. NOVEMBER 17. Society for the Encouragement of Peace presents gold medal to Wilbur. NOVEMBER 18. Wilbur attains an altitude of 90 meters and wins the "Prix de la Hauteur" of the Aero-Club de France, 2,500 francs. NOVEMBER 20. Wilbur honored at dinner given by Henri Deutsh de la Meurthe and Aero-Club de France at the Automobile- Club de France headquarters in Paris. Glowing tributes to the Wrights are paid by Marquis Albert de Dion, Count Henri de la Vaubc, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, and other guests. NOVEMBER 21. Wilbur and Orville informed of election as honorary members of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain and of the award to them of the society's gold medal voted on November 9. NOVEMBER 30. La Compagnie Generale de Navigation Aerienne, French Wright company, organized. DECEMBER 1. Aero Club of the United Kingdom gold medal awarded the Wright brothers "for their pioneer work." DECEMBER 5. Wilbur is honored guest at dinner given by Ligue Nationale Aerienne in Paris. DECEMBER 18. Wilbur establishes two new world records, a flight of one hour 54 minutes 2/5 seconds covering a distance of 99.8 kilometers, a new official world duration and distance record, and attains an altitude of 1 1 5 meters, a new record for which he received the 100 meter "Prix de la Hauteur" offered by the Aero-Club de la Sarthe. DECEMBER 25. Cercle des Arts & Sports at Le Mans honors Wilbur at dinner. A Chronology •19 Wright airplane is one of chief attractions at Aeronautical Salon in Grand Palace in Paris, which is opened by President Clement A. Falli^res of France. DECEMBER 28, Wilbur submits entry fee to enter competition for Coupe Michelin, stating that he will undertake a competitive flight on December 31. DECEMBER 3L Wilbur wins Michelin Cup for 1908 and prize of 20,000 francs with a flight covering 123 kilometers 200 meters (real distance being nearly 150 kilometers) in a time of two hours 18 minutes 33 3/5 seconds. He extends this same flight to establish a new official world duration and distance record in a time of two hours 20 minutes 23 1/5 seconds, covering 124 kilometers 700 meters. This flight also wins the Albert Triaca prize of 500 francs offered for achieving the longest flight in the year 1908. Following Wilbur s record-breaking flight on this day, Wilbur and Minister of Public Works, Louis Barthou are honored at reception given by the A^ro-Club de la Sarthe in Le Mans. Tributes to Wilbur paid by lion Bolide and Louis Barthou. 1909 JANUARY In Country Life Orville predicts commercial future for the airplane, JANUARY 2. Wilbur sends Wright airplane to French resort town of Pau in the south of France at the edge of the Pyrenees. Pau had been selected in December on the recommendation of his student flyer Paul Tissandier as a new flying site because of a warmer climate. JANUARY 5^ Orville and sister Katharine sail for France on Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse to join Wilbur in Paris, arriving in Plymouth January 1 1 and in Paris January 12, where they are met by Wilbur, Mr. and Mrs. Hart O. Berg, a number of journalists, and members of Adro-Club de France. Wilbur is honored at luncheon at Hotel du Dauphine in Le Mans, which is attended by Ldon Bolide, president of the Adro- Club de la Sarthe, and fellow members of the Adro-Club. Wrights granted patent No. 908,929, originally applied for July 15, 1908, for a mechanism for flexing plane rudder. JANUARY?. Orville issued Adro-Club de France pilot's license No. 14, Wilbur No. 15. JANUARY 12, At a luncheon at the Automobile-Club de France in Paris, Andr^ Michelin presents Wilbur with Michelin award of 20,000 francs for record-breaking flight on December 31. JANUARY 14. Wilbur arrives at Pau, and Orville and Katharine come from Paris to join him on January 16. JANUARY 16. Orville and Katharine, en route to Pau to join Wilbur, escape injury when their train collides with another coming from Pau and is badly wrecked. JANUARY 18. Les Premier Hommes-Oiseaux: Wilber et Orville Wright, first book to deal with the work of the Wrights, by Francois Peyrey, writer for LAuto, is published. JANUARY 2L Wilbur and assistants commence unpacking and assembling Wright airplane which, together with the starting rail and derrick, had been shipped from Le Mans on January 2. City of Pau officially welcomes Wrights and holds dinner and reception in their honor at the Palais d'Hiver. Prominent municipal and military personnel and officials of aeronautical societies attend. JANUARY 24, In letter to Dayton Daily News "Wilbur states report published on January 8 that he had been named correspondent in divorce suit brought by a Lieutenant Goujarde is entirely without foundation. The news service which sent the item, after an investigation, discharged its correspondent, and wrote a letter to Wilbur making full apology. JANUARY 25. Representative J. Eugene Harding, of Ohio, introduces H.J* Res. 246, authorizing Secretary of War to award gold medals to Orville Wright and Wilbur Wright. A similar bill, S.J. Res. 119, is introduced on same day by Senator Joseph B. Foraker, of Ohio. JANUARY 27. Wilbur and Orville accept honorary membership voted by Osterreichischer Flugtechnischer Verein, Vienna. JANUARY 29* Wrights dine with Alfred de Lassence, Mayor of Pau, attend moving picture showing at Theatre de Varidts that includes views of some of Wilburs flights at Le Mans. JANUARY 31. Russian Wright patent No. 23488 issued. FEBRUARY In London Magazine Wilbur discusses the London Daily Mail prize of $10,000 to be av^^ded to first flyer to complete journey from London to Manchester within a period of 24 hours and with only two stops en route. FEBRUARYS. Wilbur makes flight of five minutes 57 seconds, reaching an altitude of 35 meters, and another of five minutes 4 3/4 seconds, the first of a series of flights at Pau. These flights, extending through March 20, were primarily training flights with his three French student pilots. Count Charles de Lambert, Paul Tissandier, and Captain Paul N. Lucas-Girardville. FEBRUARY?. Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine lunch with Lord Alfred NorthclifFe, owner of the London Daily Mail, who had recently arrived in Le Mans. FEBRUARYS Wilbur flies at Pau for 19 minutes in the presence of Louis Bldriot, French aviator. FEBRUARY 10. Board of Regents of Smithsonian Institution recommends that the newly established Langley Medal be awarded to Wilbur and Orville Wright "for advancing the science of aerodromics in its application to aviation by their successful investigations and demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight by man." Lord Arthur J. Balfour, former Prime Minister of England, and Lord and Lady Frederick G. Wolverton visit Pau to view flights by Wilbur, but snow and bad weather prevent flights. 20 • Wilbur & OrviUc Wright Wilbur has lengthy visit with Lord Balfour and explains mechanics of plane to him. FEBRUARY IL Verein deutscher Flugtechniker, Berlin, confers its diploma of honor on Wrights "in acknowledgement of . . . pioneer services in the advancement of the technics of flight." Lord Northcliffe and Lord Balfour witness 20'minute flight by Wilbur. Lord Balfour joins in pulling rope used to raise weights on the launching derrick. FEBRUARY 15. Katharine is passenger for first time in flight with Wilbur lasing seven minutes and four seconds. FEBRUARY 16. Wrights sign contract for demonstration flights in Germany with August Scherl> owner of the Lokal-Anzeiger, a leading newspaper in Berlin. FEBRUARY 20. King Alfonso XIII of Spain arrives in Pau, goes to the flying field, and is introduced to the Wrights. Two early morning flights by Wilbur are made in his presence. Wilbur explains plane operation in great detail. Wilbur, Orville, Hart O. Berg, and Mayor Alfred de Lassence of Pau, and small party breakfast with King Alfonso. FEBRUARY 23, Ohio State Senator George K. Cetone introduces Senate Bill No. 1 07 "To provide for a suitable recognition by the State of Ohio for the Wright Bros., inventors of the aeroplane, of Dayton, Ohio." The bill was enacted by the General Assembly of Ohio on March 12, and a medal presented on June 18. FEBRUARY 25. Orville and Katharine take trip in balloon Icare at Pau with Ernest Zens and the Marquis Edgard de Kergariou, covering distance of 30 kilometers in two hours 10 minutes and landing at Ossun in the Pyrenees. FEBRUARY 27, La Vie au Grand Air publishes interview with Wilbur on his training and instruction methods. Assembly of second Wright airplane intended for use of Wright pupils near completion at Pau. MARCH, Wrights enter into contract with Short Brothers, Battersea, England, in which Short Brothers agree to construct six Wright machines using Wright plans, cost to be £1,000 each. MARCH 4, Congressional Medal awarded Wright brothers by resolution of Congress, H.J. Res. 246, "in recognition of the great service of Orville and Wilbur Wright, of Ohio, rendered the science of aerial navigation in the invention of the Wright aeroplane, and for their ability, courage, and success in navigating the air." A gold medal was subsequently designed by Charles E. Barber and George T. Morgan, of the United States Mint, and presented to the brothers on June 18. British Wright patent No. 24076, applied for November 10, 1908, granted to Wright brothers. MARCH 5, Wrights receive honorary doctor of engineering degree from the University of Munich "in acknowledgement of . . . discoveries, advancements and elucidation of rich consequence in the problems of flight." MARCH 17, Wrights meet King Edward VII, of England when he visits Pau and witnesses two flight by Wilbur, in the second of which Katherine is passenger in flight of 12 minutes 22 seconds. MARCH 18. Orville and Katharine leave Pau for Paris. Wilbur remains. MARCH 19—27, Wright airplane is among those exhibited at the International Aero and Motor-Boat Exhibition (Olympia Air Show) in London. Wright airplane offered for sale of $7,000. MARCH 20. Wilbur flies in presence of the French Chamber of Deputies and takes three members for short flights. Wilbur also makes a flight of eight minutes with Capt. P. N. Lucas-Girardville, his last with French student pilots and completing the training part of the Wrights* French contract. MARCH 23. Wright airplane, built at Pau and completed on March 19, shipped to Rome, where Wilbur is to train two Italian pilots. Wilbur departs for Paris to join Orville and Katharine. MARCH 24. Wright student pilots Count Charles de Lambert and Paul Tissandier qualify for A^ro-Club de France licenses by making solo flights of 25 kilometers each. MARCH 25, Dayton City Council recommends appropriation of $200 to be used for suitable memorial to the Wright brothers. A Dayton city medal was presented to the brothers on June 18 as "A testimonial from the citizens of their home in recognition of their success in navigating in the air." Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine visit Le Mans and are received by members of the Adro-Club de la Sarthe and its president, L^on Bolide. MARCH 28, Wilbur leaves Paris for Rome, arriving on April 1, to prepare for training of the two Italian fliers. APRIL L Wilbur, accompanied by Hart O. Berg, Wright European business representative, visits Maj. Mario Moris, head of the Italian military service, with a view to selling Wright airplanes to the Italian government. Wilbur and Berg meet with Camille Barrdre, French Ambassador to Italy. Orville and Katharine attend monthly meeting of Adro-Club de France, first time a woman had been invited to an Adro-Club de France meeting, APRIL 2, Wilbur, accompanied by Berg, is received in special audience by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, who was especially interested in the problems of flight. APRIL 9, Assembly of Wright airplane and erection of starting derrick at Centocelle Field is completed. Katharine and Orville arrive in Rome to join Wilbur. APRIL 13, Pierpont Morgan and party, accompanied by Berg, visit Wrights at Centocelle Field. A Chronology •21 APRIL 15. Wilbur makes first flight in Italy at Centocelle Field near Rome, a flight of 10 minutes, reaching an altitude of 30 meters, witnessed by a large and enthusiastic crowd. Between April 15 and 26 Wilbur completed more than 50 flights, many of them with passengers. APRIL 16, Wilbur makes five flights, beginning the training of Lts. Mario Calderara and Umberto Savoia and carrying as a passenger on one flight the former Premier of Italy Sidney Sonnino. APRIL 19* Berg, in military captive balloon in center of flying grounds takes snapshots of Wright plane in flight. Wilbur explains operation of plane to large groups of teachers and students who had come to Centocelle to view flights. APRIL 21. Wilbur completes seven flights, in one reaching an altitude of 70-80 meters, in others carrying passengers Admiral Giovanni Mirabello, the Duke of Gallese, and the Honorable Emilio Maraini, Wrights and sister Katharine attend musicale at Campidoglio in Rome on occasion of Romes founding day. APRIL 22, Wilbur makes nine flights in three of which he carried as passengers Prince Scipione Borghese, Prince Filippo Doria, and Teodor Mayer. Several flights are witnessed by Italian Dowager Queen Margherita. APRIL 24, Wilbur makes five flights, two of them witnessed by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Lloyd C. Griscom, U.S. Ambassador to Italy, accompanied Wilbur as passenger on his last flight, A Universal News Agency cameraman also accompanied Wilbur on one of the flights, taking the first motion pictures from an airplane in flight. Wilbur, Lt. Mario Calderara, Italian Army officers, and journahsts join in luncheon at Fort Casilano. APRIL 26. Students of the School of Engineering, University of Rome, accompanied by the university rector. Dr. Alberto Tonelli, and by Prof Moise Ascoli, witness and enthusiastically applaud Wilbur's flights. APRIL 27. Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine honored at farewell luncheon given by members of the Rome Aero Club at Excelsior Hotel. Among those present are the Duke of Gallese, president of the club Sidney Sonnino, Prince Filippo Doria, Prince Mario Borghese, and Lt. Mario Calderara. APRIL 28, Katharine, Orville, and Wilbur leave Rome, arriving in Paris the next day. MAY. Wright airplane used in carrying out contract with Lazare Weiller Syndicate presented to Arts et Metiers Museum in Paris. MAY 1. Aero-Club de la Sarthe in Le Mans give banquet, resided over by the president of the club, Leon BoUee, in honor of Wrights and presents Wilbur with a bronze art object, representing the Muse of Aviadon, designed by Louis Carvin. Mayor Alfred de Lassence, on behalf of city of Le Mans, presents him with a gold plaque engraved with the city coat of arms and a second medal on behalf of the citizens. MAY 2. Wrights arrive in London en route to the United States. MAY 3. Wilbur and Orville visit British War Office and confer with War Secretary Richard B. Haldane and Gen. Sir Charles E Hadden, Master General of Ordnance. Wrights are guests of Frank Hedges Butler, prominent British balloonist, at luncheon at Carlton hotel, attended by Gen. Sir Charles E Hadden, Gen. Gerald E Ellison, Col. Sir Edward Ward, Under Secretary of War, and prominent British aeronauts. Wrights visit Short Brothers factory at Bartersea, where they inspect six machines of their design which are under construction. Wrights visit Aero Club of the United Kingdom headquarters in Piccadilly. Aeronautical Society of Great Britain's gold medal, awarded to Wilbur and Orville on November 9, 1908, is pre- sented at ceremonies and banquet, presided over by Edward P. Frost, president of the Aeronautical Society, at the Institution of Civil Engineers. MAY 4. Wrights inspect Aero Club's new flying ground at Sheppey Island. Wrights honored at banquet given by Aero Club at Ritz Hotel. MAY 5. Wrights depart for New York aboard Kronprinzessin Cecilie. MAY 12. Wrights, having arrived in New York on May 1 1 , honored at luncheon given by Aero Club of America at Lawyers Club, with A. Holland Forbes, acting president of the club, presiding. Aeronaudcal enthusiasts and business and professional men praise feats of the brothers in their tour abroad. MAY 13. Thousands in Dayton greet Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine on their return home from European trip. They are taken from the railroad station to their home in a carriage drawn by four white horses. Albert L. Shearer, who had given Wilbur and Orville their first employment in his hardware store in 1882, delivers a welcoming address. John C. Eberhardt presents certificate of friendship entwined in a laurel wreath. Fireworks in the evening end reception. International Aeroplane Club of Dayton founded, organized to honor Wilbur and Orville. Wilbur and Orville elected honorary members. Flugmaschine Wright Gesellschaft m, b. H., Berlin, formed, acquiring the Wright German patents for 200,000 marks and rights for manufacture of Wright planes in Germany, as well as sales rights for Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Luxemburg, and Turkey. Orville named as member of the board of directors. MAY 31. Wilbur and Orville go to Detroit to inspect Packard Automobile Company and to see Russell A. Alger, influential stockholder in the company, returning to Dayton on June 2. JUNE, Wrights conduct propeller test in Dayton to determine cause of accident at Fort Myer on September 17, 1908, and to prevent recurrence of similar problems in upcoming flight tests in June and July. JUNES, Nord Cincinnau Turn-Verein gives Wilbur and Orville honorary life membership. 22 • Wilbur & Orville Wright JUNE 6, Rev. John A. Gray, of Congregational Church of Fairmount, Ind., preaches Sunday evening sermon on "The Wright Brothers; Their Message to the Men of Today." JUNE 9^ International Aeroplane Club of Dayton Awards honorary life memberships to Wilbur and Orville "in recognition of valuable contribution to the science of aerial navigation and conspicuous achievements in demonstrating the practicality of the aeroplanes." Engrossed certificates of membership are presented to the brothers at their home on June 16. JUNE 10, President Taft presents Wilbur and Orville with Aero Club of America gold medals, designed by the artist Victor D. Brenner, in the East Room of the White House in the presence of nearly 1,000 persons, including Aero Club of America officials, scientists, diplomats, military personnel, and high-ranking government officials. In making the presentation President Taft remarked: "You made this discovery by a course that we of America like to feel is distinctly American-by keeping your nose right at the job until you had accomplished what you had determined to do." Aero Club of Washington honors Wrights at buffet luncheon and reception at the Cosmos Club, attended by distinguished guests and Aero Club of America members. Wrights are guests of Gen. Clarence Edwards of the Washington Aero Club at dinner at Willard Hotel. JUNE 16, Wright brothers receive honorary bachelor of science degree from Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. Brothers unable to attend exercises. Wilbur attends meeting of Ten Dayton Boys Club in his capacity as president. JUNE 17. On first day of a two-day celebration staged by Dayton to honor them, the brothers review exhibition parade and drill by the Dayton Fire Department, attend public reception at the Y.M.C.A., are given the key to the city, and witness a fireworks display in which their portraits, 80 feet high and entwined with an American flag, are shown. JUNE 18, On the second day of the celebration. Bishop Wright delivers invocation at ceremony in which gold medals are presented to Wilbur and Orville. Gen. James Allen, Chief Signal Officer of the Army, as the representative of the President, presents the Congressional Medal, Gov. Judson Harmon of Ohio presents the Ohio Medal, and Mayor Edward E. Burkhart presents die City of Dayton Medal. Following presentation of medals, the brothers view a parade of floats, including a Wright airplane, depicting development of locomotion in America. Wright airplane arrives in Washington from Dayton for use in government trials. JUNE 19, Wrights leave for Washington, D.C., and arrive there June 20 to resume the trials that had been interrupted by the Fort Myer accident September 17, 1908. JUNE 24. Assembly of Wright machine at Fort Myer completed. JUNE 25-26. Engine tests conducted by Wrights at Fort Myer. JUNE 26. Senate adjourns to witness flights by Orville, joined by other members of Congress, Army officers, scientists, diplomats, and members of the press. Flights postponed because brothers did not feel they could safely undertake a first flight in a new machine in a 16-mile wind. Sale of Curtiss airplane by Glenn H. Curtiss, first commercial sale of an airplane in the United States, to the Aeronautic Society of New York for $7,500, sets in motion the beginning of patent suit by Wright brothers to prevent Curtiss from selling airplanes without a license. JUNE 27. Bishop Wright and son Reuchlin leave Dayron for Washington to view flights by Orville. They returned July 2, having witnessed flights on June 29, June 30, and July 1. JUNE 29, Orville makes first of series of preliminary flights at Fort Myer, Va., in preparation for Army trials. JULY 2, Orville escapes injury at For Myer when ribs of his main plane are broken in passing over a dead tree and the machine falls, breaking the skids. JULY 4. Orville goes back to Dayton to make repairs, returning to Washington on July 7. JULY 9. Mrs. Nicholas Longworth, daughter of former President Roosevelt, comes to Fort Myer to observe Wright flights, is invited by Wrights to view their airplane, and the mechanics of the flying machine are explained to her. Mrs. Longworth later was a frequent visitor at Fort Myer and served tea from her electric runabout on the Fort Myer parade grounds to prominent spectators. Secretary of the Navy George L. Meyer and Secretary of War Jacob M. Dickinson inspect the Wright airplane. JULY 10-OCTOBER 17. One of the two Wright machines assembled and used in flights by Wilbur at Pau and Rome exhibited at first Internationale Luftschiffahrts-Ausstellung held at Frankfurt am Main, Germany. JULY 20. Orville flies one hour 20 minutes 45 seconds in unofficial test at Fort Myer. Katharine Wright goes to Washington to witness flights by Orville. Wilbur and Orville named to French Legion of Honor. JULY 27, Orville flies with Lt. Frank P Lahm as passenger, for one hour, 12 minutes, 37 4/5 seconds. This fulfills Army requirement of remaining in air for an hour carrying two persons and establishes record for two-man flight. Flight is witnessed by President Taft, the cabinet, high public officials, and an estimated crowd of 10,000 enthusiastic spectators. Orville is congrattxlated by President Taft, Maj. Frederick S. Foltz, commandant of the post. Gen. Clarence Edwards, and numerous others at the field. JULY 30. Orville, flying with Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois as passenger, undertakes speed test between Fort Myer, Va., and Shuter's Hill, near Alexandria, over a measured course of five miles across broken country, maintaining speed of 37.735 miles going and 47.431 returning, or an average speed of 42.583 A Chronology • 23 miles per hour, in first cross-country flight, a total distance of about 10 miles. Gen. James Allen, accompanied by members of the board of award, congratulates Orville on his successful flight. Maj. Charles G. Treat conveys to Orville the compliments of President Taft, v^ho had witnessed the flight takeoff but was unable to witness the completed flight because of a business meeting. JULY 3 L Orville and Katharine leave Washington, arriving in Dayton on August 1. Wilbur remains in Washington to discuss and plan for the training of two additional Signal Corps officers, returning to Dayton on August 2. AUGUST 2. Board of Officers, convened to observe Wright brothers' airplane trials at Fort Myer, Va., meets in office of Gen, James Allen, Chief Signal Officer of Army, and submits report on results of trials. Allen approves recommendation that Army purchase the Wright brothers' airplane. This completed formal acceptance of the machine by the United States government, the first flying machine purchased and put into service by any government. AUGUST 8. Orville and Katharine Wright leave Dayton for Europe, sailing from New York on August 10 aboard the Kronprinzessin Cecilie and arriving in London August 16 and in Berlin August 19. Orville was to give demonstration flights and to seek to complete negotiations begun by Wilbur in 1908 for the sale of Wright patents to a German syndicate. AUGUST 14. Wilbur travels to Washington to inspect buildings under construction at College Park to be used by Army pilots undergoing training there. AUGUST 16-17. Wilbur goes to New York to initiate patent suits against Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss. AUGUST 17. Orville and Katherine, accompanied by Charles S. Rolls, founder of the British Rolls-Royce automobile company, visit Sheppey Island to inspect Wright airplanes under construction under Ucense by Short Brothers. AUGUST 18. Wright brothers file bill of complaint to enjoin the Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss from manufacturing, selling, or using for exhibition purposes the Curtiss airplane. AUGUST 19. Die Bruder Wright, by Capt. Alfred Hildebrandt, published in Berlin. Wrights file suit against the Aeronautic Society of New York to prevent further exhibition and use of the Curtiss flying machine owned by the society, on the ground that the machine is an infringement of the Wright patents. AUGUST 21. Orville and Katharine are dinner guests of U.S. Ambassador David J. Hill at his home in Berlin. AUGUST 23. James M. Beck, chairman of Aeronautics Committee of the Hudson-Fulton Commission, announces receipt of contract signed by Wilbur providing for series of flights by him during the Hudson-Fulton celebration in September and October for a fee of $15,000. AUGUST 25. Wright machine, one of two being assembled by German Wright Company, transferred from military aeronautic headquarters at Tegel to Tempelhof Field. AUGUST 29. Orville meets Kaiser Wilhelm II and is introduced by him to Count Ferdinand Zeppelin, who arrived at Tegeler Schiessplatz shortly after noon on a flight in the dirigible I.Z.6 from Friedrichshafen to Berlin. Count Zeppelin and Orville later dine with the Emperor in his castle. AUGUST 30. OrviUe makes preliminary flights at Tempelhof Field, a military parade ground near Berlin, preparatory to presenting a number of exhibition flights under the sponsorship of the Berlin Lokal-Anzeiger newspaper and to training pilots for the German Wright Company. SEPTEMBER 3. Ambassador and Mrs. Hill entertain Orville and Katharine with members of American resident colony in Berlin attending. SEPTEMBER 4. Orville makes first public flight in Germany at Tempelhof Field, flying for 19 minutes two seconds for a distance of about 20 kilometers. SEPTEMBER 5. Ambassador and Mrs. Hill honor Orville and Katharine at dinner. SEPTEMBER Z In response to telegram from Russell A. Alger, stockholder in Packard Automobile Company, Wilbur goes to Detroit. SEPTEMBER 9. Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm and Crown Princess Cecilie witness several flights by Orville. Mrs. Alfred Hildebrandt is a passenger with Orville in a flight of eight minutes 38 seconds, the first woman to fly as a passenger in an airplane in Germany. Aero Club and Automobile Club of Berlin honor Orville, who was accompanied by Charles R. Flint and Hart O. Berg, with dinner at Imperial Automobile clubhouse in Leipziger Platz. SEPTEMBER 9-OCTOBER 13. Orville instructs Capt. Paul Engelhard in flying. SEPTEMBER 10. Verein deutscher Flugtechniker honors Orville at dinner in Berlin, and Orville and Wilbur are made honorary members of the society. SEPTEMBER 15. Orville takes trip with Count Zeppelin in the Zeppelin dirigible IZ.6 from Frankfurt to Mannheim. Also aboard as passengers are Prince August Wilhelm, Princess Viktoria Luise, and Prince Philip of Coburg. Katharine is passenger aboard airship Parseval. SEPTEMBER 17. In presence of Empress of Germany, Prince Adalbert, Prince August Wilhelm, and Princess Viktoria Luise, Orville flies 54 minutes 34 seconds and rises to height of 565 feet (172 meters) at Tempelhof Field, near Berlin, a new record. 24 • Wilbur & Orville Wright SEPTEMBER 18. Orville flies with student pilot Capt. Paul Engelhard at Tempelhof Field, Berlin, for one hour 35 minutes 46 seconds, a new world s record for flight with a passenger. Wilbur submits affidavit in Dayton in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. Wilbur leaves Dayton for New York to fly Wright airplane in Hudson-Fulton Celebration, which was to open September 25. SEPTEMBER 20-27. Wright airplane arrives at Governors Island, and Wilbur and his mechanic, Charles Taylor, assemble machine in preparation for Hudson-Fulton Celebration flights. SEPTEMBER 23, Wilbur meets Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the wireless, who calls on him while engaged in preparations for the Hudson-Fulton Celebration flights. SEPTEMBER 29, Wilbur flies from drill field at Governors Island on a course around the Statue of Liberty on Bedloe's Island and returns. SEPTEMBER 30, Orville reaches an altitude of 902 feet, a new record, in flight at Bornstedt Field, near Potsdam, witnessed by the German Empress, Princess Viktoria Luise, and Prince August Wilhelm. Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss served with court order by Judge John R. Hazel in Buffalo in action by Wright brothers to restrain them from making Curtiss airplanes, Wright Company alleging that these infringed Wright patents. OCTOBER 2, Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm is passenger on flight of about 1 5 minutes with Orville, the first member of a royal family to ride in an airplane. After the flight the Crown Prince presents Orville, as a token of appreciation, with a jeweled stick-pin, a crown set in rubies with the Crown Princes initial "W" in diamonds. OCTOBER 4. Wilbur flies over the Hudson River from Governors Island to Grant's Tomb and back, a 20-mile flight in 33 minutes 33 seconds. On the flight the airplane passes over the British warships Inflexible and Drake. More than one million New Yorkers witness the flight. OCTOBER 5. Wilbur leaves New York for Washington to train Signal Corps officers in fulfillment of the Wrights' contract with the War Department. OCTOBER 8'N0VEMBER2. Wilbur instructs first U.S. Army fliers at College Park, making 20 solo flights and 35 instructional flights with three Army Signal Corps officers, Lts. Benjamin D. Foulois, Frederic E. Humphreys, and Frank R Lahm. OCTOBER 9. Wilbur breaks world airplane speed record over a 500-meter course in a flight of about 1,300 meters in 58 3/5 seconds, attaining a speed of 46 miles per hour. Wilbur honored at luncheon by faculty of Maryland Agricultural College, located near College Park flying field. He is accompanied by Army officers at the flying field. OCTOBER 15. Orville makes last appearance in Germany in spectacular flight of 25-30 minutes before Emperor Wilhelm, the Empress, and Princess Viktoria Luise at Bornstedt Field. OCTOBER 16, Orville and Katharine leave for Paris en route to the United States. OCTOBER 18, Orville in Paris visits Port Aviation at Juvisy, accompanied by Georges Tharel, and congratulates his pupil Count Charles de Lambert on spectacular flight from Port Aviation to the Eiffel Tower and return, the first airplane flight over the city of Paris. OCTOBER 19. Lt. Benjamin Foulois gives Wilbur check for $20,000 as part payment for Wright machine purchased for Signal Corps, balance of $10,000 to be paid on completion of training of Lts. Frank P. Lahm and Frederic E. Humphreys. OCTOBER 20, Wrights file suit in U.S. Circuit Court against Ralph Saulnier of New York, alleging infringement of their patent by his importation of Bleriot monoplane into the United States. Wilbur requests that his name be deleted from use in stage production "Inconstant George," by John Drew, being presented at Empire Theatre in New York. His request is granted and a new name substituted on this date. Ohio Society of New York elects Orville and Wilbur honorary members. OCTOBER 23. Wilbur states in Scientific American that future development of aviation will be in high-altitude flying because of the more favorable atmospheric conditions provided by upper air strata. Wilbur and Lts. Foulois, Humphreys, and Lahm attend informal luncheon and reception in their honor given by President Richard W Silvester and the board of trustees of Maryland Agricultural College. OCTOBER 27. At College Park, Wilbur flies with Mrs. Van Deman, wife of U.S. Army Capt. Ralph H. Van Deman and close friend of Katharine Wright, in a flight of four minutes, reaching an altitude of about 60 feet, OCTOBER 29, Wilbur goes to New York from Washington, returning on October 31, to discuss sale of American patent rights. The negotiation with New York financiers, initiated by Clinton R. Peterkin, formerly with J. P. Morgan & Company, led to formation of the Wright Company on November 22. NOVEMBER 4, Orville and Katharine arrive in New York from Queenstown and are met by Wilbur and Mr. and Mrs. Courdandt F. Bishop. Bishop was President of the Aero Club of America. NOVEMBER 5, French consul general in New York, fitienne Lanal, presents Wilbur and Orville with the crosses and diplomas of the Legion of Honor awarded to them in July by the French government. Ceremony is witnessed only by Katharine and Wrights' counsel Pliny W Williamson. NOVEMBER 7, Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine return to Dayton. NOVEMBER 8. Wilbur and Orville travel to Springfield to consult with their patent attorney. A Chronology « 25 NOVEMBER 9. Orville goes to New York on patent business, returning to Dayton on November 1 1 . NOVEMBER 13. Orville goes to Latonia Race Track, near Cincinnati, to w^itness exhibition flying and meets Glenn H. Curtiss for first time since patent suits had been instigated against Curtiss. Wilbur goes to Washington to obtain an affidavit relating to Wright patent suit from Lt. Frank P. Lahm. Model of Wright airplane built by Milton Wright, Jr., nephev^ of the Wright brothers, placed on exhibit at Saks Sc Co. in New York. NOVEMBER 20. Commission d'A^ronautique, Academic des Sciences, in Paris, awards its gold medal for aeronautics to Wilbur and Orville. The medal was designed by Rene Boudicon. NOVEMBER 22, Wright Company incorporated, with a capital stock of $1,000,000 and with Wilbur Wright as president and Andrew Freedman and Orville as vice presidents, Alpheus E Barnes is secretary and treasurer. Executive committee is composed of Andrew Freedman, chairman, Russell A. Alger, August Belmont, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and Wilbur, On the death of Wilbur in 1912, Orville succeeded him as president, remaining in this capacity until the company was sold in 1915. NOVEMBER 24, Wilbur and Orville go to New York to attend meeting on November 27 to complete the organization of the Wright Company, which was formed to manufacture their airplanes, and to make arrangements with their attorneys for patent infringement suits against the Herring-Curtiss Company NOVEMBER 27, Wrights sell their American patent rights to Wright Company for $100,000 cash, 40 percent of the company stock, and a 10 percent royalty of every machine built. Cornelius Vanderbilt, Robert J. Collier, and Russell A. Alger, directors of the newly formed Wright Company, order first three airplanes from company. Wilbur and Orville give affidavits in New York in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. The Wright Company subsequently bore the expense of prosecuting all suits against patent infringers. NOVEMBER 28, Wilbur and Orville return to Dayton. NOVEMBER 29 Wright Company files suit against Claude Grahame-White, alleging that Farman and Bleriot machines used by him in the United States for exhibition purposes infringes Wright patent. NOVEMBER 30-DECEMBER L Russell A. Alger and Frederick Alger come to Dayton to confer with Wrights on organization of Wright Company and construction of airplane plant. DECEMBER 7. Wilbur goes to New York regarding the setting up of Wright Company New York office. DECEMBER 11, Wilbur and Orville give affidavits in Dayton in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. DECEMBER 12, Wilbur goes to New York to consult with Wright Co. lav^ers in Curtiss infringement case. DECEMBER 13. Orville goes to Buffalo to attend patent trial DECEMBER 14-15. The Wright Company v. The Herring- Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit comes to trial before Judge John R. Hazel at Buffalo, with Wilbur and Orville present in court. DECEMBER 16, Wilbur and Orville attend founding meeting of Detroit Aero Club. DECEMBER 17, Orville and Wilbur return to Dayton. 1910 Orville and Wilbur issued aviators licenses Nos. 4 and 5 by Aero Club of America in accordance with Federation Aeronautique Internationale rules. JANUARY, Ground broken for construction of Wright Company factory in Dayton. JANUARY 3, Preliminary injunction granted to the Wright Company by Judge John R. Hazel for the Federal Circuit Court in Buffalo, N.Y., restraining Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss from manufacturing, selling, or using the Curtiss airplane for exhibition purposes. JANUARY 4, On application of the Wright Company, Louis Paulhan, French aviator, is served with injunction restraining him from using several flying machines, claimed to infringe the Wright patents, which were imported into the United States for exhibition purposes, Wilbur and Orville submitted affidavits in this case on January 5-6. Wilbur submitted additional affidavits on January 22, February 5, March 15-16, and on March 23. He traveled to New York to attend the trial on January 30, returning to Dayton on February 7. JANUARY 8. Wilbur and Orville leave Dayton to attend meeting of Ohio Society of New York on January 10, returning to Dayton on January 14. JANUARY 10, Wrights honored at dinner in New York given by Ohio Society of New York, the topic of the evening being "Ohio in Aviation." Other honored guests are Vice President James M. Sherman and Governor of New Jersey John E Fort. In a rare political statement Wilbur predicts that an Ohioan will be the next President. In interview Orville and Wilbur answer attacks made on them for seeking injunctions against foreign and domestic aviators, stating that the patent laws of the United States are too lax in that they force a patentee to take legal steps to protect his 26 • Wilbur & Orville Wright patent infringement, instead of having the government take this action. JANUARY IL Editors of Funk & Wagnalls Standard Dicrionary write to Wright brothers regarding aeronautical definitions. Orville revises many outdated definitions previously used and is designated department editor for "Aviation and Aeronautics" for the 1913 edition of the dictionary. He continues in this capacity for numerous subsequent editions. JANUARY 12. Orville and Wilbur attend dinner in Boston honoring Octave Chanute. Remarks by Wilbur on this occasion and by Chanute in an interview reported in the New York World of January 17 threatened to cause a rift in their longstanding relationship. JANUARY 17. Wilbur sends telegram to Roy Knabenshue in Los Angeles inviting him to come to Dayton to discuss the management of exhibition flying business to be organized by Wrights. Knabenshue was subsequendy placed in charge of the Wright Exhibition Company organized in March. JANUARY 24. Wrights attend dinner in Dayton honoring Comdr. Robert E. Peary. FEBRUARYS, Wilbur and Orville go to Washington to receive Smithsonian Institution medals. Orville returns to Dayton on February 1 1 . Wilbur continues on a trip to the South in search of a site for training aviators during the winter months, returning to Dayton on February 25. FEBRUARY 10. The first Langley Medal, designed by J. C. Chaplain, awarded "for especially meritorious investigation in connection with the science of aerodromics and its application to aviation," presented to the Wright brothers by Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution. Addresses are delivered on the occasion by Alexander Graham Bell and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. Wilbur responds for the brothers. They are later entertained at a luncheon at the home of Dr. Bell. FEBRUARY 17. Judge Learned Hand issues temporary injunction to Wright Company in suit against Louis Paulhan for his use of a Farman flying machine, which, it was claimed, infringed the Wright patent, requiring the defendant to file a bond for $25,000 for one month's flights and affirming earlier decision rendered by Judge John R. Hazel on January 3. Wilbur reports that he has chosen Montgomery, Ala., as site for training aviators. This was later the location of Maxwell Air Force Base. FEBRUARY 19. Wilbur arrives in New York to push patent suits against aviators infringing the Wright patents. FEBRUARY 23. Ligue Nationale Aerienne in Paris awards its Aviator Diploma to Wilbur and Orville. MARCH. Wrights are extensively involved in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. Wilbur and Orville submit depositions in Dayton on March 7. Wilbur goes to New York on March 7 and submits affidavit on March 12. He then goes to Buffalo on March 18 and submits affidavit on March 19, returning to Dayton on March 20. Wright Exhibition company formed, with Roy Knabenshue as manager. The company continues in operation until November 1911. The fliers are paid by the Wright Company. Miss Mabel Beck engaged as secretary to Roy Knabenshue. Because of her special competence, Wilbur later selects her to work with him in connection with Wright patent suits. Following his death she became Orville s secretary, continuing in this position until his death. MARCH 7. Smithsonian Institution, in letter to Wilbur, invites Wrights to deposit one of their machines in the National Museum. German-built Wright airplane shown in Riga, Larvia, at exhibit organized by Riga student aeronautical group. MARCH 19. Wright airplane, intended for use in the Wright brothers' training camp just outside the city of Montgomery, Ala., arrives, accompanied by Charles E. Taylor and students Walter R. Brookins and J. W. Davis. MARCH 24. Orville, accompanied by Spencer Crane, arrives in Montgomery, Ala., from Dayton to undertake training of civilian fliers. In interview in Baltimore, Md., Wilbur states that he favors cross-country reliability flight in preference to speed contest. MARCH 26. Replying to Dr. Walcotts letter on March 7, Wilbur states that the brothers, in accordance with the preferences of the National Museum, could provide a model showing the general construction of one of their machines, the original 1903 Wright machine, or a model showing the general design of this machine. MARCH 26-MAY 5. Orville conducts flight training school in Montgomery for five students who were to engage in exhibition flying for the Wright Company. MARCH 28, Walter R. Brookins, first civilian student of the Wrights, makes first flight with Orville at Montgomery, Ala. Brookins completed his flight training on May 3. Wilbur completes negotiations for purchase of 17-acre tract which Wrights named Hawthorn Hill, in the Dayton suburb of Oakwood. Plans for a house are started, APRIL 6. Orville, awaiting parts for his engine, damaged on April 2, visits State Capitol, in Montgomery, and meets Alabama Governor Braxton B. Comer and other state officials. He is shown spot on which Jefferson Davis stood when he was inaugurated President of the Confederacy. APRIL 8. Wright Company and the Aero Club of America conclude agreement by which the latter agrees to sanction meets only through proper arrangements with the Wrights. This agreement was publicly announced to members of the Aero Club of America and to its affiliated clubs in a communication dated April 21. A Chronology • 27 APRIL 9, Orville returns to Dayton from Montgomery to obtain parts for his damaged machine. APRIL 11. Dr. Walcott, replying to Wilburs letter of March 26, sets forth objects illustrating the Wright inventions which are desirable for the National Museum exhibits. Wrights interpret the letter to mean that the Smithsonian Institution did not want an exhibit that would emphasize the fact of their having flown a successful, man-carrying machine in 1903 and make no reply. APRIL 21. Aero Club of America announces in special bulletin to its membership the details of the Wright- Aero Club agreement of April 8. MAY-JUNE 8, Orville and the Wright Exhibition Company fliers make numerous flights at Simms Station in preparation for the air show at Indianapolis, June 13-18. MAY 5. Wright training camp completed in Dayton. Wright company starts school, with Orville in charge of instruction. This school was in operation from 1910 to 1916. MAY 7. Wilbur, in letter to the editor of Aircraft, responds to statements made by Israel Ludlow and Clement Ader in the may 1910 issue of the magazine concerning his affidavit in the Paulhan infringement suit. He claims Ludlow misrepresented the facts in claiming that Ader flew a thousand feet. MAY 19* Wright Company and Aero Club of St. Louis enter into contract whereby Wright Company licenses aviation meet to be held in St. Louis, October 8-18, 1910, and agrees to provide five or more aircraft and pilots, under the general direction of Roy Knabenshue. MAY 21, Wilbur makes flight of one minute 29 seconds at Simms Station, his last as a pilot in the United States. MAY 25* Orville takes his father, 82 years old, for his first airplane ride, a flight of six minutes 55 seconds, reaching an altitude of 350 feet. Flight made by Wilbur and Orville together, Orville piloting, the only occasion when two brothers were in the air at the same time. MAY 30, Orville and Wilbur and Wright exhibition fliers Frank Coffyn, Ralph Johnstone, and Walter Brookins visit Indianapolis Motor Speedway in preparation for air show to be held in June. JUNE 10, Wright airplanes sent to Indianapolis. JUNE IL Wilbur goes to Indianapolis to attend air meet. Orville joins him for opening of meet, and they return to Dayton on June 19. JUNE 13-18, First show of Wright Company exhibition team, Indianapolis, Ind., in which Brookins is star and sets new records. JUNE 14, Circuit Court of Appeals reverses decision of Judge John R. Hazel on January 3 and directs that injunction granted Wright Company be dismissed and requirement for bond be canceled. JUNE 19* Wilbur goes to New York, seeking modification of June 14 decision of U.S. Appellate Court, asking that Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H, Curtiss be required to give bond. JUNE 22, Wrights receive honorary doctor of laws degrees from OberHn College. JUNE 29* First Wright Model B airplane completed. JULY 8-16* Wright Company fliers Walter Brookins, Ralph Johnstone, Frank Coffyn, and Duval La Chapelle make 17 flights in Toronto in fulfillment of contract with International Aviation Association. JULY 16* Scientific American publishes letter from Wilbur sent from Dayton on July 1 , in which he disputes statement on June 25 editorial that "Curtiss was using hinged winged tips in his earlier machines, with which he made public flights antedating the open flights of the Wrights." JULY 21. Wright Company and Aero and Motor Club of Asbury Park, N.J., enter into contract providing that Wright airplanes appear at aviation meet to be held at Asbury Park, August 10-13, 15-20. Wright Company fliers Walter Brookins, Ralph Johnstone, Arch Hoxey, Frank Coffyn, and Duval La Chapelle were to be present. Wright Company was to receive $20,000 of the gross receipts. Wrights install and conduct experiments with wheels on their machine for the first time at Simms Station, Dayton. JULY 24-AUGUST, Griffith Brewer, British balloonist, member of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, first Englishman to fly with Wilbur at Le Mans on October 8, 1908, and close friend of the Wrights, is guest at Wright home in Dayton, the flrst of many annual visits. Visits were made in 1910, 1911, 1912, 1913, 1914, 1918 and continued year by year until interrupted by World War II, approximately 30 visits altogether. AUGUST 10. First public appearance of a Wright airplane with wheels under the skids made at air meet at Asbury Park. Experimental trials with wheels had been carried out by the Wrights as early as July 21. AUGUST 11* Wilbur arrives in Asbury Park to witness flights by Wright Company exhibition fliers and seeks to determine cause of accident on August 10, the opening day of the air meet, in which Walter Brookins was injured. AUGUST 12, Commissioner of Patents declared interference in action against Wilbur and Orville brought by Erastus E. Winkley, an inventor, who developed an automatic control for sewing machines and conceived the idea that this control could be applied to regulating airplane wings and claimed its disclosure at an earlier date than that of Wrights. AUGUST 15* Wright airplane of new design v^thout front elevators arrives at Asbury Park to replace plane damaged on August 10. This airplane was flown for the first time on August 19. 28 • WUbur & Orville Wright AUGUST 19, Wright Exhibition Company fliers Ralph Johnstone and Arch Hoxsey carry out moonUght flights at Asbury Park, first public night flights on record. SEPTEMBER 2L Wilbur and OrviUe, together with ClifFord B. Harmon, president, National Council, Aero Club of America, are honored at banquet at Dayton Club given by Dayton Aeroplane Club and Dayton Aero Club. SEPTEMBER 22, OrviUe flies firom Simms Station to Dayton, circles city and returns, the first flight over the city of Dayton. Flight is part of an Aviation Day program held during exposition week in Dayton. SEPTEMBER 23, Katharine flies with Orville at Simms Station, Dayton, at an altitude of a thousand feet. SEPTEMBER 29* Wilbur, in a special car attached to an Illinois Central train, follows Walter Brookins, who flies Wright biplane from Washington Park, in Chicago, to the fair grounds in Springfield, 111., a distance of 192 1/2 miles, establishing a new American cross-country flying record. The flight is sponsored by the Chicago Record-Herald. Stops are made at Oilman, 75 miles, and at Mt. Pulaski, 136 miles. OCTOBER 5. Dayton Aeroplane Club appoints committee to develop plans for the erection of a memorial in Dayton to its honorary members, Wilbur and Orville. OCTOBER 12, Wright Model R airplane, called the "Baby Grand," completed and ready for testing. OCTOBER 22, Orville completes and tests new eight-cylinder engine, developed for use in the Wright Model R, attaining speed of 77 to 78 miles an hour. OCTOBER 22-30. Wright airplanes participate in International Aviation Tournament at Belmont Park, N.Y, OCTOBER 23, Orville, accompanied by Katharine and Alexander Ogilvie, leaves Dayton for New York and arrives at Belmont Park with Wright "Baby Grand" on October 24. Orville and Katharine return to Dayton on November 3. OCTOBER 25. Orville, in Baby Grand, attains speed of between 70 and 80 miles an hour. OCTOBER 29. Baby Grand, piloted by Walter Brookins, is wrecked in preliminary test in preparation for International Aviation Cup. OCTOBER 31. Wilbur and Orville are guests at luncheon given by Alexander Ogilvie at Delmonico s in New York for fliers who had participated in the Belmont Park aviation meet, after declining an invitation by Aero Club of America to a banquet at Plaza Hotel NOVEMBER, Wright factory in Dayton completed. In its early period of operation, this factory produced about two airplanes a month. To meet the demands of business a duplicate factory building was erected in 1911. NOVEMBER 1, With Cornelius Vanderbilt, Wnght Company director, as passenger, Orville flies at Belmont Park, reaching an altitude of 200 feet and circling the course six or seven times. This was the first flight for Vanderbilt. NOVEMBER 3, Orville reports week financially successful. Wrights receive $20,000 for participating in Belmont Park meeting and win $15,000 in prizes. Wright Company votes Orville and Wilbur $10,000 and declares dividend of $80,000. NOVEMBER 5. Wilbur goes to Baltimore to attend aviation meet scheduled to open November 2. Meet postponed on account of high winds. NOVEMBER 7, Orville and Katharine witness departure of Phil O. Parmalee, Wright Company pilot, in Wright airplane carry- ing 10 bolts of silk, consigned to the Morehouse-Martens Company, from Dayton to Columbus, first use of a plane to carry commercial freight. NOVEMBER 13. Orville leaves Dayton for Europe on business related to the Wright companies in France and Germany, sailing from New York on November 1 5 on the Kronprinzessin Cecilie, arriving in Berlin on November 23. NOVEMBER 17, Wright Exhibition Company flier Ralph Johnstone killed in crash at Overland Park, Denver. Wilbur, in New York, accompanies widow to her home in Kansas City, Mo., and attends Johnstone^s fianeral there. NOVEMBER 24. Orville writes Wilbur from Berlin on this date and again on November 27, reporting that the German Wright Company is being managed inefficiently and despairs that the company will ever be financially successful. The report on the French Wright Company is equally unfavorable. NOVEMBER 25, Wilbur attends fiineral of Octave Chanute in Chicago. Chanute had died on November 23, age 79. NOVEMBER 29. Wrights file bill of complaint in U.S. Circuit Court, Southern District of New York, in suit for $29,000 for infringement and accounting against Claude Grahame- White by reason of defendants use of Farman and Bl^riot flying machines in the United States, These machines are alleged to infringe the Wright patent. DECEMBER 6, Wright Company institutes suit against the Aero Corporation, Ltd., for $15,000 claimed due as bonus for participation of Wright machines in Belmont Park aviation meet. This suit was dismissed by Justice Daniel E Cohalan of the New York Supreme Court, January 19, 1912, on grounds that the Wrights had insufficient cause for action. DECEMBER 17. In letter to editor of Aero, Wilbur replies to editorial in November 26th issue, which he claimed distorted his views, and states that the Wrights believed in "all kinds of flying which demonstrate the merits of the machine." DECEMBER 26. Frank H. Russell, manager of the Wright Company, reports that the company has granted Ralph Johnstone's widow, who was returning to Berlin, an annuity of 300 marks per month for a period of 15 years. DECEMBER 29, Orville arrives in Dayton following European trip. A Chronology • 29 DECEMBER 3L Wright Exhibition Company flier Arch Hoxsey killed in Los Angeles. Wright Company bears cost of funeral expenses and contributes money to his mother, Mrs. M. C. Hoxsey. DECEMBER 31-JANUARY Z 1911. Wright "Roadster" and Wright standard Model B exhibited at New York Aero Show, a part of the automobile show. 1911 JANUARY. Wilbur s tribute to Octave Chanute, written shortly after Chanute's death on November 23, 1910, published in Aeronautics. Wilbur attempts to define Chanutes place in aeronautical history and concludes: "his writings were so lucid as to provide an intelligent understanding of the nature of the problems of flight to a vast number of persons who would probably never have given the matter study otherwise, and not only by published articles, but by personal correspondence, and visitation, he inspired and encouraged to the limits of his ability all who were devoted to the work ... In patience and goodness of heart he has rarely been surpassed. Few men were more universally respected and loved." JANUARY 4. Wilbur and Orville go to New York to attend annual meeting of the Wright Company, Orville returning to Dayton January 8, Wilbur going on to Washington and returning to Dayton on January 16. JANUARY 5. On Aviation Day at International Automobile and Aero Show, Wilbur and Orville visit their exhibit at the Grand Central Palace and are greeted by friends and admirers at informal reception at the company booth. JANUARY 14. Sixth annual banquet of the National Geographic Society in Washington honors U.S. Army and the invention of the airplane by the Wright brothers. Wilbur makes brief address. Distinguished guests include Henry Gannett, president of the society; Gen. John M. Wilson, former Chief of Engineers, toast- master; President William Howard Taft, several ambassadors, and numerous high-ranking Army officers. Wright Company and Burgess Company & Curtiss sign contract licensing latter to construct airplanes incorporating Wright patents. This was the first licensed aircraft manufacturer in the United States. JANUARY 23. Wright flying school opens in Augusta, Ga., in charge of Frank Coffyn, with W. Starling Burgess of Boston and George H. Manner of Baltimore as first pupils. JANUARY 26. French Wright Company suit against Henri Farman, Louis Bleriot, and others opens in Civil Court in Paris. FEBRUARY 7. Wilbur attends meeting of directors of Wright Company in New York, returning to Dayton February 8. FEBRUARY 20-25. Wright model B airplane exhibited at Boston Aero Show. MARCH 4. Henry Peartree, Flint & Co. attorney in Paris, telegraphs Wrights that it is extremely important that they come to France to give testimony in French patent case and notifies them on March 8 that the court will hear testimony from them. MARCH 9. Wright brothers offer to train one pilot for the U.S. Navy, contingent upon the purchase of a Wright airplane for the sum of $5,000. Navy orders a Wright airplane in July, when appropriations for next fiscal year become available. MARCH 12. Wilbur leaves Dayton en route to Paris to testify in French Wright patent suit, returning to Dayton on August 10, MARCH 14. He sails from New York aboard the Kronprinz Wilhelm, arriving March 21 in Plymouth. MARCH 21. New Wright patent No. 987,662, applied for February 17, 1908, granted. MARCH 24. Wilbur testifies in Paris before the Third Civil Tribunal of the Seine, which was holding hearings in the suit brought by the French owners of the Wright patents against Henri Farman, Louis Bleriot, and others for infringements. MARCH 29, Lt. John Rodgers, U.S. Navy, arrives in Dayton "to confer with Wright Brothers for instruction in the art of aviation." MARCH 3L Wilbur writes Orville from Le Mans that poor management and business practices of the French Wright Company, Compagnie Generale de Navigation Aerienne, have hindered the sale of Wright airplanes in France. APRIL 23. Wilbur visits widow of Otto Lilienthal in Berlin to ascertain her financial status and to view Lilienthal's old flying grounds, APRIL 29. French Third Civil Tribunal renders patent decision favorable to the Wrights. MAY 1. Wright Company and United States Aeronautic company, New Haven, sign contract licensing latter to manufacture airplanes incorporating the Wright patent. MAY 3. Orville attends dinner, sponsored by the Manufacturers Club of Cincinnati, honoring Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, who was visiting the United States, Baron d'Estournelles de Constant was a friend of Wilbur when he was flying in France in 1908, MAY 4. War Department approves sending the Armys first Wright airplane to the Smithsonian Institution. MAY 7. Lt. John Rodgers of the Navy and Lts. Henry H, Arnold and Thomas DeW. Milling of the Army, after arriving in Dayton to take flying lessons at Wright Flying School, dine with Wright family. MAY 8. Orville admitted as honorary member of Adantic City Aeronautic Society. MAY 20, Miss Sadie I. Fuller of Oshkosh, Wis., brings suit against Wright Company in Dayton for $5,000 for alleged injury 30 • Wilbur & Orville Wright suffered when Wright airplane piloted by Arch Hoxsey swooped down on her while she was in grandstand at air meeting in Milwaukee on September 18, 1910. MAY 28. In letter to August Belmont, Orville states that present Wright Company practice is to grant licenses to promoters of air meets on a basis of about 20 percent of the amount put up in prizes in the case where nothing is paid to the fliers for appearing, and on the basis of 10 percent of the gross gate receipts and grand- stand receipts in cases where these furnish the entire income for conducting the meet. JUNE. Wilbur comes to England and stays with Alexander Ogilvie for several weeks at Eastchurch on Sheppey Island. Ogilvie was practicing flying the Baby Wright airplane in preparation for flying it in the Gordon Bennett aviation race, to be held in Eastchurch. JUNE 3. In statement to press in Dayton Orville declares that, despite recent air records established in Europe, America is in no danger of losing leadership in world aviation. JUNE 13* Wright School of Aviation opens at Belmont Park, N.Y., with Arthur L. Welsh, Wright licensed pilot, as instructor. JUNE 28, Wilbur writes Orville from Berlin reporting on excessive time required in the training of German pilots. He writes, "The poor Captain [Paul Engelhard?] cannot understand how you can train men in a week at home. He would not believe that I could carry two men with 375 turns of the propellers till I took him up [April] and did it." This statement contradicts the common belief that the last flight by Wilbur as a pilot occurred on May 21, 1910, at Dayton. JULY 3. Wrights serve summons on Rene Barrier, Rene Simon, and St. Croix Johnstone to cease exhibition flying at aviation meet in Detroit, Mich. JULY 8. Management of aviation meet scheduled under the auspices of the Aero Club of Illinois for Grant Park, Chicago, August 13-20, refuses demands of Wright Company for 20 percent of gate receipts on accoimt of their patent rights. JULY 22. Orville and Wilbur elected honorary members of Aero Club of New York. JULY 15. Orville test-flies Wright hydroplane B-1 at Simms Station, first Wright airplane to be delivered to the U.S. Navy. The B-1 is delivered at Annapolis, Md., on July 19. JULY 26-AUGUST 1. Orville accompanies Lt. Frank P Lahm on series of 10 training flights at Simms Station, Dayton. AUGUST 2. Orville goes to New York to attend meeting of Executive Committee of Wright Company and stays until arrival of Wilbur from Europe on August 9. AUGUST 9. Wilbur returns from Europe aboard Oceanic after six months' stay and is met at pier by Orville, The Wrights later attend a meeting of the Executive Committee of the Wright Company in New York and then return to Dayton. AUGUST 10. Wright Company enters seven Wright fliers in Chicago International Aviation Meet to be held August 12—20, the first time Wright flier had taken part in a meet not licensed by the Wrights. Participating were Walter Brookins, Philip O. Parmalee, J. Clifford Turpin, Leonard Bonney, Arthur L. Welsh, Howard Gill, and Frank T. Coffyn. AUGUST 11. Orville goes to Chicago to attend Chicago International Aviation Meet. AUGUST 17. Wrights file suit against promoters of aviation meet in Chicago alleging that airplanes used infringed their patents. AUGUST 24-SEPTEMBER 5. Orville accompanies Capt. Charles DeE Chandler, Commanding Officer of the newly established Signal Corps flying school at College Park, who was on temporary duty at Dayton to receive special instruction with the Wright Company, on series of training flights at Simms Station, Dayton. SEPTEMBER 13-14, 16. Wilbur submits depositions in New York in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. SEPTEMBER 15. Wright Company signs agreement with Aero Club of St. Louis providing for participation of Wright Company in aviation meet to be held in St. Louis, October 14-22. SEPTEMBER 18. Alexander Ogilvie arrives in Dayton from England for visit with Wrights. OCTOBER 7. Orville leaves for Kitty Hawk, N.C., accompanied by his brother, Lorin, his nephew, Horace, and Alexander Ogilvie, to conduct gliding experiments, arriving there October 10. Orville leaves Manteo October 30 and returns to Dayton October 31. OCTOBER 16-26. Orville makes about 90 glides from Kill Devil Hill, Little Hill, and West Hill. OCTOBER 18. Orville escapes injury when his glider turns over in the air in a 35-mile gale and falls 14 feet to the ground. Both left wings and the rear horizontal surface of the glider are broken, requiring extensive repairs. The glide is witnessed by John Mitchell, Associated Press reporter. OCTOBER 23. Orville escapes injury for the second time in a week when glider turns over in the air and crashes to the ground, breaking vertical and horizontal rudders. OCTOBER 24. Orville establishes new soaring time record of nine minutes 45 seconds at Kitty Hawk, N.C., in a 50-mile wind. This time remained a worlds record until exceeded in Germany 1 years later. OCTOBER 26. Wright Signal Corps 1909 flying machine placed on exhibit in National Museum following necessary A Chronology • 31 repairs made at Wright Company factory in Dayton, where it had been shipped following use at San Antonio, Tex. NOVEMBER 4, & % Wilbur and Orville experiment with and fly a Curtiss machine at Simms Station, Dayton, to gain familiarity with the control mechanisms which they claimed infringed the Wright patents, then in suit in courts. DECEMBER 2. Wrights send widow of Otto Lilienthal, Mrs. Agnes Lilienthal, in Berlin, a check for $1,000 as a token of their appreciation of Lilienthal s contribution to aeronautics. DECEMBER 12, Judge Learned Hand, in U.S. Circuit Court, grants injunction to Wright Company to restrain Claude Grahame- White, English aviator, from flying in the United States without permission of the Wrights. DECEMBER 13. Wright Company brings suit for $50,000 against Claude Grahame-White to obtain an accounting of profits from flights made by him in the U.S. before November 29, 1910. 1912 JANUARY 9-10, Wilbur and Orville give depositions in Dayton in E. E. Winkley v. Orville & Wilbur Wright suit. Testimony is given on the conception of their patent No. 415,105, filed February 10, 1908. Several drawings used for their patent application and correspondence with Katharine Wright and Harry A. Toulmin regarding it are introduced into the record. JANUARY 15* Wilbur is subjected to direct and cross-examination in a suit brought by the Wright Company against the Aero Corporation, Limited, December 6, 1910, to recover $15,000 claimed as balance due the company under an agreement made with the corporation before the Belmont Park aviation meet in September 1910. Wright Company announces that after January 1, 1912, and until a patent adjudication has been secured by the Wright Company, a 75 percent cash discount will be allowed from the per diem royalties for the use of flying machines for exhibition purposes. JANUARY 20-2L Wilbur visits U.S. Signal Corps Flying School at Augusta, Ga., consulting Capt. Charles DeF. Chandler and Lts. Henry H. Arnold and Roy C. Kirtland regarding a projected new Wright military airplane. JANUARY 24. Judgment of $1,700 for complaint decreed by U.S. Circuit Court, Southern District of New York, in The Wright Company v. Claude Grahame-White infringement suit. JANUARY 27. At insistent request of Robert J. Collier, Wilbur attends sixth annual banquet of the Aero Club of America, held at Sherry s in New York, and hears "The Sons of an Eagle-Bird," a song written by Arthur Guiterman and dedicated to the Wright brothers. He returns to Dayton January 31. FEBRUARY 14-MARCH 2. Wilbur testifies at length in Dayton in The Wright Company v. The Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss patent suit. FEBRUARY 22. German Patent Office invalidates the basic features of the German Wright patents because of disclosure in publication before filing of patent application. Wrights appeal this decision. The disclosures cited were those contained in a report of a speech by Octave Chanute published in L'A^ronaute, May 1903, and by Wilbur Wright in his 1901 address before the Western Society of Engineers, a synopsis of which appeared in Automotor, February/March 1902. MARCH 14, Wrights address letter to the editor of the Scientific American, setting forth the grounds for the German Patent Offict decision of February 22, nullifying the main claims of the German Wright patent. The letter was published in the Scientific American, March 30. Identical letters were sent to Aero, New York (published March 23), Aeronautics, New York (published March), Flight, London (published April 6), and Fly Magazine, Philadelphia, Pa. (published April). MARCH 20. Wrights complete and test new six-cylinder motor. MARCH 30, APRIL 2J,4. Wilbur testifies in Dayton in suit brought against the Wright Company by Charles H. Lamson in 1910 for alleged infringement of his kite patent No. 66,427, issued January 22, 1901. APRIL, Prompted by the erection of a monument to Louis- Pierre Mouillard at Heliopolis, Egypt, February 25, 1912, Wilbur contributes article entitled "What Mouillard Did" to Aero Club of America Bulletin, refuting claims that Mouillard conceived the use of wing warping and its application to lateral control in an aircraft. APRIL 5. Orville testifies in Charles H. Lamson v. Wright Company suit, telling of early Wright experiments, particularly their kite experiments in 1899. The case was dismissed in June. APRIL 18. Wilbur leaves for New York to arrange a contract with Aero Club of America. MAY. In article entided "What Clement Ader Did," contributed to Aero Club of America Bulletin, Wilbur disparages French claims for Ader as the first to achieve heavier-than-air flight. MAY 2. Wilbur becomes ill on visit to Boston, and on his return to Dayton on May 4 doctor diagnoses illness as typhoid fever. MAY 4. Wilbur writes to Frederick P. Fish, probably Wilbur's last letter, urging that because of threatening competition the hearing of the Herring-Curtiss case be continued and not postponed until autumn. MAY 9. Orville elected a vice president of the Aeronautical Society at Society's annual meeting in New York. MAY 10. Wilbur makes last will and testament, witnessed by Ezra Kuhns, lawyer, and Miss Mabel Beck, secretary to Wrights. 32 • Wilbur & Orville Wright Wilbur wills $1,000 to his father, $50,000 each to his brothers Reuchlin and Lorin and his sister Katharine, and to Orville the balance and residue of the estate, estimated to be about $126,000. MAY 16, Orville goes to Washington to deliver and demonstrate new Wright machine for the purpose of winning War Department contract. MAY 17, Orville instructs Arthur L Welsh in manner of handling of new Wright Type C, M-1, airplane. MAY 20, Orville hurriedly returns to Dayton from Washington on receipt of news that Wilbur has had relapse. MAY 30, Wilbur dies at age 45, following illness extending over a period of four weeks; Wright family is at his bedside. Tributes were paid him from home and abroad, including messages from President William Howard Taft, Gen. Leonard Wood, Chief of Staff, Gen. James Allen, Capt. Charles DeF. Chandler, and other high-ranking Army officers, and Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson. The President's message reads: "I am sorry that the father of the great new science of aeronautics is dead, and that he has not been permitted to see the wonderful development that is sure to follow along the primary Unes which he laid down. He deserves to stand with Fulton, Stephenson and Bell." MAY 31- Representative Timothy T. Ansberry, of Ohio, introduces H.Res. 560, expressing regret of the House on learning of the death of Wilbur Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, "who rendered his country incalculable service in the science of aeronautics." Board of Directors of Wright Company at special meeting adopts resolution of sympathy to Wright family. Pliny W Williamson comes to Dayton to represent the company at funeral services. JUNE L Wilburs body lies in state at First Presbyterian Church in Dayton, Rev. E. Maurice Wilson conducts the funeral service, and burial is in Woodland Cemetery. Honorary pallbearers are Robert J. Collier, Charles Jerome Edwards, Russell A. Alger, Fred Alger, John H. Patterson, Hon. James M. Cox, Dr. Levi Spider, and Dr. D. B. Conklin. JUNE 7. Committee on Memorial to Wilbur Wright, in communication to Aero Club of Pennsylvania, recommends that the Aero Club of Pennsylvania take steps to create a Wilbur Wright Chair of Aerodynamics. JUNE 12. Orville, accompanied by Katharine, goes to Washington to attend funeral at Adas Israel Congregational Cemetery on June 13 of Arthur L. Welsh, Wright Company exhibition flier who was killed in an accident at College Park, Md., on June 11. Welsh was conducting the official Army acceptance tests of the Wright Type C, M-1 airplane for the Wright Company and was a passenger in the plane being flown by Lt. Leighton W. Hazelhurst, who was also killed. JUNE 14, Orville and Katharine attend funeral at Arlington Cemetery of Lt. Leighton W. Hazelhurst. JUNE 15> Orville and Katharine arrive in New York from Washington to attend Wright company business meeting on June 17 and return to Dayton on June 18. JUNE 26, Monmouth County N.J., Circuit Court renders decision in favor of the Wright Company in $25,000 suit brought by Morris Gersuch, whose arm was broken by a Wright airplane piloted by Walter Brookins, when the machine crashed into the grandstand at Asbury Park, N.J., aviation meet on August 10, 1910. JULY. Announcement is made that the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain is opening a subscription fund for the establishment of a memorial to Wilbur Wright in "appreciation of his great work and in recognition of the support he gave to the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain." This was to take the form of an annual lecture called the "Wilbur Wright Lecture." Griffith Brewer was to be in charge of the organization and collection of this fund. Dayton Wright Memorial Commission recommends that a memorial in the form of two Greek columns be erected at Huffman Prarie (Simms Station), in Dayton, in memory of Wilbur. AUGUST 7, U.S. Patent Office examiner of interference awards priority of invention to Wright in interference suit brought in Patent Office by Erastus E. Winkley, August 12, 1910. AUGUST 17, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant initiates movement to raise a subscription for the erection of a monument at the Auvours training camp at Le Mans to commemorate Wilbur Wright's achievements there in the autumn of 1908. SEPTEMBER. Wilburs article on Otto Lilienthal published posthumously in Aero Club of America Bulletin. This was his last article and was written a day or two before he was stricken with typhoid fever. He attempts to define Lilienthal's place in aeronautical history and states: "Of all the men who attacked the flying problem in the 19th century. Otto Lilienthal was easily the most important . . . Lilienthal was the real founder of out-of-door experimenting. He was without question the greatest of the precursors, and the world owes to him a great debt." OCTOBER 27. Wright airplane B-2 delivered to U.S. Navy. DECEMBER 6, 8, Orville experiments with his automatic stabilizer at Simms Station, Dayton. 1913 JANUARY 13, At Simms Station Orville conducts test of his automatic stabilizer with plane rudder. FEBRUARY 10, Orville, accompanied by Katharine, leaves Dayton en route to Europe on business relating to a patent suit in Germany. This was his last trip to Europe. FEBRUARY 12, Orville and Katharine sail for Europe aboard Mauretania, arriving in London on February 17, where they are met by Griffith Brewer and Alexander Ogilvie. A Chronology • 33 FEBRUARY 18. Orville and Katharine attend Aero Show at Olympia, Kensington, London. FEBRUARY 19-20, Orville and Katharine are overnight guests of Alexander Ogilvie at Sheppey, England. FEBRUARY 21. British Wright Company, Ltd. formed, with Orville serving as chairman of the board of directors. Orville attends meeting of the directors. FEBRUARY 22. Orville and Katharine leave London for Berlin, arriving there on February 23, and go to Leipzig on February 26 to attend German Wright patent trial before German Supreme Court. FEBRUARY 26. U.S. Ambassador Myron T. Herrick gives luncheon in Paris attended by numerous members of the Aero- Club de France and by the members of the Wilbur Wright Le Mans Memorial Committee in charge of arrangements for the erection of a memorial to Wilbur at Camp d'Auvours, near Le Mans, where he made his first public flights in 1908. A message of tribute from President Taft is read. German Supreme Court renders decision favorable to the Wrights, granting protection to their use of wing warping in connection with a rudder. FEBRUARY 27. Judge John R. Hazel, of U.S. District Court in Buffalo, grants Wright brothers' petition for order restraining Glenn H. Curtiss and others from manufacture and sale of alleged infringing machines. FEBRUARY 28. Orville holds consultation with Dr. V. Schneider on German Flugmaschine Wright. MARCH 1. Orville goes to Dresden to Harlan- Werke to discuss licensing of Wright airplanes. MARCH 9. Orville and Katharine sail for the U.S. aboard George Washington after their European trip, arriving in New York on March 17 and in Dayton on March 19. MARCH 13. French patent decision rendered in favor of Wrights. MARCH 25-27. Disastrous Miami River flood causes considerable damage to the Wright family home and property, including damage to their collection of glass plate photographic negatives and to early business and aviation records. APRIL. Henry County (Ind.) Historical resolution recommending that a tablet be placed on wail of building where Wilbur was born. MAY 1-3. Orville experiments with his Model CH, the first Wright Hydroplane, on the Miami River. MAY 21. Wilbur Wright Memorial Lecture inaugurated by the Royal Aeronautical Society, London, honoring the life and work of Wilbur Wright. MAY 26. Queen City Aero Club of Cincinnati elects Orville honorary member. U.S. Patent Office examiner in chief affirms decision of August 7, 1912, in interference suit brought August 12, 1910, by Erastus E. Winkley against Wright Company. JUNE 5. Orville flies up Miami River with three passengers in Wright airplane equipped with wooden pontoons. JUNE 14. Orville flies hydroplane on Miami River. JUNE 18. Orville accepts appointment to serve on the Subcommittees on Aircraft Factories and Hydromechanics in Relation to Aeronautics, Langley Laboratory of the Smithsonian Institution. Capt. Holden C. Richardson served as chairman. JULY. New incidence indicator designed by Orville is marketed by Wright Company. JULY 1. Wright model CH seaplane announced. JULY 8. Orville goes to New York to attend Wright Company Executive Committee business meeting, returning to Dayton on July 11. JULY 9. Board of managers of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia elects Orville as nonresident member. JULY 10. Orville appoints Grove C. Loening as an engineer with the Wright Company, effective July 14. Loening remains with Wright Company for one year, resigning effective July 15, 1914. SEPTEMBER-NOVEMBER. Orville conducts experiments with new automatic control and completes its development. SEPTEMBER 20. Orville Wright flies in a single-propeller machine for the first time. SEPTEMBER 30. Wright model G aeroboat announced. OCTOBER. British Wright Company enters suit for £25,000 against the British government for infringement of the Wright patent. OCTOBER 14. Wrights granted patent No. 1,075,533 for a device for maintaining automatic stability of an aircraft. The patent application was originally filed February 10, 1908. DECEMBER 17. Orville attends dinner in his honor given by Aero Club of America in New York and is presented with "Wright Memorial Book" which had been compiled by the Aero Club of America "to commemorate the discovery by Wilbur and Orville of the correct principles of maintaining equilibrium in the air." The edition was limited to three copies, the first to be presented to Orville, the second to be preserved in Aero Club of America archives, and the third to be given to the Smithsonian Institution. Material in the volume relates to the presentation of Aero Club of America gold medals to the Wright brothers by President Taft on June 10, 1909, including resolutions of Congress, photographs of the medals, President Taft's speech of presentation, messages from the governors of 10 states, 13 34 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright scientific institutions, and numerous editorials and cartoons marking the occasion. Reichsflugverein, E. V. in Berlin (formerly Verin Deutscher Flugtechniker), in meeting attended by numerous aviators, engineers, and scientists, observes 10th anniversary of 1903 flight, paying homage to Orville, an honorary member of the Society. DECEMBER 18. Orville meets Thomas A. Edison for the first time when he is a guest of the Edison family at Llewellyn Park, Orange, N.J. He later inspects the Edison Laboratories. Orville attends dinner marking 10th anniversary of 1903 flight given in his honor in New York by the Aeronautical Society, at which a set of engrossed resolutions and a bronze figure by Auguste Moreau are presented to him. DECEMBER 19. Leon BoUee, in his will, bequeaths first engine used by Wilbur in his 1908 flights at Le Mans, France, to the Le Mans Museum. DECEMBER 31. Orville demonstrates his automatic stabilizer in 17 flights at Simms Station at Dayton, Ohio, before committee of the Aero Club of America. The committee members are Dr. L.E. Custer, dentist. Dr. John C. Eberhardt, optometrist, both from Dayton, and Grover C. Loening, aeronautical engineer, of New York. In the last and conclusive demonstration Orville makes seven successive turns with his hands completely removed from the controls of the airplane. 1914 JANUARY 5^ Orville describes his automatic stabilizer in dispatch to London Daily Mail, which published the account on January 6. This constituted first published report of the device. JANUARY 8. Orville elected honorary member of the Rotary Club of Dayton. He had been a member since November 1912. JANUARY 13. U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals of New York renders decision in favor of the Wright company in its suit, begun in 1909, against the Herring-Curtiss Company and Glenn H. Curtiss, recognizing the Wright patent as a pioneer patent entitled to very broad construction, and permanently enjoining Curtiss from manufacturing or selling airplanes in which two ailerons functioned simultaneously to produce dif- ferent angles on the right and left wingtips. JANUARY 21. Alpheus E Barnes, secretary of the Wright Company, visits Orville in Dayton to obtain bill of damages to be presented to the Curtiss Aeroplane Company as a result of the court decision rendered January 13. JANUARY 26. Orville, accompanied by Katharine, travels to New York for conference with his business associates in the Wright Company, Alpheus E Barnes, secretary, and Andrew Freedman, director. FEBRUARY 5. Orville attends meeting of the Dayton Rotary Club, where announcement is made that he has been awarded the Aero Club of America Trophy for 1913, donated by Robert J. Collier, for "the development of his automatic stabilizer." FEBRUARY IL Orville declares that a trans-Adantic trip in an airplane was impracticable at the time. The statement was made in reference to the proposed flight by Rodman Wanamaker in a flying boat being constructed by Glenn H. Curtiss. FEBRUARY 20, Wright Company sends circular letter to manufacturers, users, and exhibitors warning of prosecution if using Wright-type machine without license. This notice followed favorable court decision rendered January 13. FEBRUARY 25. Orville goes to New York on business involving the Wright Company, attending a company meeting on February 27, going to Washington on February 27, and returning to Dayton on March 1 . FEBRUARY 26. In interview in New York reported in New York Times, Orville declares that inventors are poorly protected by present patent laws-that patents have little relative value because of excessive costs of litigation in courts required to maintain claims. He attributes illness and death of his brother to delays of the law's processes relative to patents. Subsequendy Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane sent Orville a letter oudining his intention to revise the patent laws in order that American inventors may secure more adequate protection. MARCH 6. Committee on Science and the Arts of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia votes to award Orville the Elliott Cresson medal "in recognition of the epoch-making work accomplished by you at first, together with your brother Wilbur, and latterly, alone, in establishing on a practical basis the science and art of aviation." SPRING. Orville obtains controlling interest in Wright Company through purchase of additional stock, buying the shares of all other shareholders in the Wright Company except those of his friend Robert J. Collier. APRIL 10. National Policemens Club elects Orville honorary member. APRIL 18. Announcement is made that Orville has perfected a new type elevator device to supplement the automatic stabilizer in use to prevent "dives." APRIL 28. In absence of Orville, Bishop Milton Wright and Katharine move from 7 Hawthorn Street in Dayton, occupied by the Wright family since 1871, to Hawthorn Hill, Oakwood, Dayton. Orville was to live here until his death in 1948. MAY 1. Orville is a founding member of Engineers' Club of Dayton. MAY 13. Orville elected second vice president of Engineers' Club of Dayton. MAY 19. Orville leaves for Philadelphia to deliver lecture before the Franklin Institute, returning to Dayton on May 22. A Chronology • 35 AMY 20. Orville delivers lecture on "Stability of Aeroplanes" before the Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. He receives Franklin Institutes Elliot Cresson Medal. MAY 2L Governor of Ohio James M. Cox names Orville as member of Ohio State Board of Commissioners of the World Peace Foundation, Boston. MAY 23. Lincoln Beachey granted first Wright Company license, terms being $1,000 a calendar year and $25 for each day of paid flying. Beachey, under license, flies for first time at Brighton Beach, N.Y. JUNE 6". Griffith Brewer comes to Dayton to visit with Orville and Katharine for three months to write a book on the history of aviation. He goes to Hammondsport, N.Y., and observes the many changes being made in the Langley Aerodrome before tests of the machine by Glenn H. Curriss. JUNE 9. Wright Company releases announcement stating that to obtain a license to fly, an owner of an airplane that infringes the Wright patent must pay a fee of $1,000 to the Wright Company and, in addition, $25 for each day the machine is operated or exhibited for profit or prize. AUGUST 1, Orville attends exhibition flying by Lincoln Beachey and Barney Oldfield at Dayton Fairgrounds. AUGUST 21. Orville narrowly escapes drowning when a late model hydroplane he was piloting, with U.S. Navy Lt. Kenneth Whiting as a passenger, falls into the Miami River near Dayton. SEPTEMBER Orvilles address on "Stability of Aeroplanes," delivered at Franklin Institute on May 20, published in Journal of the Franklin Institute. OCTOBER 16. British Wright Company is awarded £15,000 by the British government "in payment for the use of the Wright patent in building aeroplanes patented by them." NOVEMBER 16. Wright Company files bill of complaint against the Curtiss Aeroplane Company. In affidavit of this date, prepared in Dayton, Orville states that, despite earlier decrees and judgments in favor of the Wright Company, the Curtis Aeroplane Company is continuing to manufacture, use and sell flying machines which infringe the Wright patent. DECEMBER 14. Orville confers in New York with Israel Ludlow and Arthur W. Johns, associated with the Aero Club of America, discussing the movement by the U.S. government to secure the purchase of the Wright patents. DECEMBER 29* Wrights issued supplementary patent No. 1,122,348, incorporating improvements on their original patent and strengthening their claim to the invention of the airplane. The patent application was filed February 17, 1908. 1915 JANUARY 14. Orville is scheduled to be guest of honor of the Aero Club of America at its ninth annual dinner at the St. Regis hotel in New York but is unable to attend because of illness which confines him to bed. The club and its guests vote a resolution of sympathy. FEBRUARY 24. Glenn L. Martin visits Orville at his home in Dayton. MARCH 14. Orvilles interview with Earl N. Findley, in which Orville discusses the role of the airplane in war, published in New York Tribune. MARCH 3L Polytechnicum of Chicago confers degree of doctor of philosophy on Orville. APRIL 24. Orville files affidavit in Dayton in The Wright Company v. Curtiss Aeroplane suit and gives extensive testimony on Langley flying machine and the 1914 tests on the machine conducted at Hammondsport, New York. MAY 10. Orville files affidavit in Dayton in The Wright Company v. Curtiss Aeroplane suit, states that he has reason to believe but has been unable to prove, that knocked-down Curtiss aeroplanes were being shipped to England and assembled there with the incorporation of a double acting aileron control. MAY 19. Orville goes to New York to confer with representative of the Connecticut Aircraft Company of the issuance of an exclusive manufacturing license to the Connecticut Company under Wright patents, returning to Dayton on May 23. JUNE 4. Lorin Wright travels from Dayton to Hammondsport, N.Y, to observe new trials of the Langley Aerodrome being conducted there by Glenn H. Curtiss in the interests of an upcoming court trial in suit brought against Curtiss by the Wright Company. Lorin reports his observations of the trials to Orville in a letter on this date. JUNE 23^ Orville receives honorary doctor of science degree from Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. JULY 12. Orville goes to New York, returning on July 15, accompanied by Earl N. Findley of New York Tribune and John R. McMahon. JULY 13* Orville named by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to serve with Thomas A. Edison and Henry Ford on new civilian Naval Board of Invention and Development. JULY 14. Orville writes his first newspaper story for the New York Tribune, giving his opinion on the problem of aerial defense and declaring that it would be folly for the United States to engage in war at the present time owing to the unpreparedness of the country in aeronautical equipment. JULY 22. Orville named vice president of newly organized American Society of Aeronautic Engineers. JULY 31. Fred C. Kelly's first interview with Orville on May 10 published in Colliers. Orville states that the airplane will prevent war by making its cost prohibitive. 36 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright AUGUST. Smithsonian Institution publishes in its 1914 annual report statement to the effect that the Aerodrome of Samuel P. Langley was "the first aeroplane capable of sustained free flight with a man." This inaccurate statement, reflecting adversely on the reputation of the Wright brothers, led to the controversy between Orville and the Smithsonian Institution which was to continue until 1942. AUGUST 12. Orville participates in demonstration of new transcontinental telephone service between Dayton and Panama-Pacific Exposition Building in San Francisco. AUGUST 26. Orville, T. Frank Manville, and Frederick Y. Robertson sign agreement for all patent rights of Wrights and an end of all royalty payments under Wright previous patent agreements. OCTOBER 15. Wright Company sold to a syndicate headed by William B. Thompson, Harry Payne Whitney, T. Frank Manville, and other financiers, a primary consideration being Orville's poor state of health and the fact that he wished to devote more time to research. Orville enters into agreement with Wright Company to serve as consulting engineer at an annual salary of $25,000. This agreement is terminated on August 11, 1916. NOVEMBER 15. Pliny W. Williamson, New York lawyer, files suit against Orville, asking $50,000 as commission for bringing about sale of the Wright Company. DECEMBER 11. Orville has severe pain in his back while driving, is brought home in an ambulance, and is bedridden for approxi- mately eight weeks. 1916 MARCH 28. Orville named honorary chairman of newly formed Dayton branch of National Security League. MAY-JUNE. Orville and assistants renovate 1903 Wright airplane, preparatory to exhibiting it at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The machine, which had not been assembled since the 1903 flights at Kitty Hawk, had been through two Dayton floods, some of the parts were damaged, and much of the fabric was in poor condition. JUNE^NOVEMBER. Orville builds office and workshop at 15 N. Broadway in Dayton, which was to be his headquarters for the rest of his life. He constructs an aeronautical laboratory equipped with a three-foot wind tunnel. JUNE 10. Orville departs for Boston to attend exercises at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and is member of group departing from New York on June 11 aboard the S.S. Bunker, which arrived in Boston on June 12. JUNE 11, 12, 13. Wright 1903 airplane sent from Dayton, reassembled by Wright company mechanic James M. H. Jacobs, and exhibited at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. JUNE 12. Orville honored at testimonial dinner at the Engineer's Club in Boston given by the Dedication Reunion committee of MIT. Prof Cecil H. Peabody, head of the Department of Naval Architecture presides. Speakers include Alexander Graham Bell, James Means, and Orville. Alan R. Hawley brings a congratulatory message from the Aero Club of America. JUNE 14. Alexander Graham Bell and Orville are guests of honor, in recognition of their great achievements in applied science, at dedicatory exercise for new buildings completed at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston. At National Technology Banquet in Symphony Hall, Orville joins Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas A. Edison in exchange of greetings in demonstration of transcontinental telephone, Edison being at his home in Menlo Park, NJ. JUNE 16. Under the auspices of the Aeronautical Society of Great Britain at the Royal Society of Arts in London, Griffith Brewer delivers the Fourth Wilbur Wright Memorial Lecture, devoted to the life and work of Wilbur Wright. The lecture was subsequently published in the Society's Aeronautical Journal, July/ September issue. JULY 11-SEPTEMBER 3. Orville, Katharine, and Bishop Wright spend vacation on Waubec Island in Georgian Bay, Ontario, Canada. On September 1 9 Orville purchased nearby Lambert Island, where in later years he annually spent long summer vacations, usually July to September. AUGUST 7. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation, merger of Wright Company and Glenn L. Martin Company, organized with Orville serving as chief consultant engineer. OCTOBER 25. Henry County (Ind.) Historical Society adopts resolution to erect a tablet or marker designating the spot near Millville, six miles east of New Castle, Ind. where Wilbur was born. NOVEMBER 17. Trustees of Oberlin College elect Orville a member of the Advisory Committee for the College of Arts and Sciences on Physics and Astronomy. DECEMBER 16. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corp. acquires Wright patents. DECEMBER 23. Dr. Charles Walcott writes Orville that the National Museum is interested in securing the Wright airplane exhibited at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in June. 1917 Orville establishes Wright Aeronautical Laboratory and engages in fundamental scientific research. In 1917 and 1918 he serves as consultant to the government and to private concerns on aeronautical matters in connection with the war. JANUARY 1. Massachusetts Institute of Technology proposes construction of Wright Brothers Memorial Wind Tunnel. A public announcement of these plans is made on February 24. A Chronology • 37 JANUARY 2. Orville agrees to serve as chairman of a Dayton committee to pass judgment on designs of Dayton inventors and to aid them in their endeavors to promote their inventive projects. JANUARY 5. Orville gives paper entitled "Air Routes to the National Parks" at National Parks Conference held at the National Museum, Washington, D.C., January 2-6, He cites advantages of air travel for reaching national parks and the need for additional landing facilities in or near them. FEBRUARY 2. Orville, in interview declares that in the event of war between the United States and Germany he would offer his services to the government in whatever capacity he might be useful. FEBRUARY 7. Orville and Katharine go to New York to attend Pan-American Aeronautic Exposition. FEBRUARY 8-15, Original Wright 1903 airplane exhibited at Pan-American Aeronautic Exposition held at Grand Central Palace in New York. FEBRUARY 9* Orville is guest of honor at dinner given by Grover C. Loening at Delmonico's in New York, and in one of the few speeches he ever made tells of hardships and encouragement he and his brother experienced in developing a successful airplane. FEBRUARY 25-26. Danish inventor and aviation pioneer Jacob C. H. Ellehammer visits Orville in Dayton. MARCH. Wright Company closes Dayton plant, comprising two building occupying about 4,000 square feet. MARCH 10. Orville acquires Scipio, a St. Bernard, which was to be Wright family pet for many years. MARCH 27. Orville, with Katharine, hears talk at Memorial Hall in Dayton by Jeannette Rankin, first woman elected to Congress. APRIL. In interview with Burton J. Hendrick published in Harpers Magazine, Orville stresses the peacetime uses of the airplane. APRIL 3. Bishop Milton Wright, who had lived with his sons since his retirement in 1905, dies in Dayton, age 88. Services are held on April 5 in Orvilles Oakwood home, and burial is in the family plot in Woodland Cemetery. Rev. J. Howe of Huntington, Ind., reads the obituary and gives a brief address on the life and character of Bishop Wright. APRIL 11. Dayton Wright Airplane Co. and Wright Field Co. incorporated, Orville serving as director and consulting engineer for both companies. APRIL 25* Orville commissioned a major in the Aviation Section, Signal Officers Reserve Corps. APRIL 30. Dr. Robert A. Milliken, Ryerson Physical Laboratory, University of Chicago, is guest of Orville on visit to Dayton to address Dayton Engineers' Club. MAY 7. Maj. Benjamin D. Foulois and Capt. E. O. Edgar confer with Orville in Dayton on the training of aviators and on the possibility of establishing a flight training school at Wright Field. JUNE 14. Earlham College, Richmond, Ind., confers master of science degree on Orville. The degree had been voted four years earlier, but Orville was unable to attend at that time and degree was not granted in absentia. JUNE 15. Orville elected honorary member of Aircraft Manufacturers Association (subsequently Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Inc.). JUNE 16. Orville receives doctor of science degree from the University of Cincinnati. JUNE 20. Council of the Royal Society of Arts, on recommen- dation of Lord Northcliffe, awards society's Albert Medal to Orville. JULY 1. In interview with Earl N, Findley, published in New York Times, Orville declares that 10,000 airplanes would end the war within 10 weeks. JULY 5. Orville attends wedding of his nephew, Milton Wright, to Ann Margaret Grosvenor in Louisville, Ky JULY 17. Aerial League of America elects Orville honorary member. JULY 23* Executive committee of the War Work Council of the Y.M.C.A., visiting Dayton and Wilbur Wright Field, breakfasts with Orville in Miami Hotel. AUGUST 6. At citizens' meeting in Dayton's Community Hall, Orville speaks out for nonpartisan city government in opposition to Republican or Democratic control. AUGUST 17. Formation of the Manufacturers Aircraft Association providing for an exchange of licenses among aircraft manufacturers ends patent litigation between Curtiss and Wright interests. SEPTEMBER 4. Board of Governors of National Institute of Inventors elects Orville honorary member. On July 13,1918, Orville, questioning the business practices of the institution, requests that his name be removed from honorary membership list. SEPTEMBER 24. Heirs of John J. Montgomery, gliding experimenter killed in 1911 when testing one of his machines, file suit against Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation, holders of original Wright patents. OCTOBER Orville engaged in experimental work at his laboratory on design of an aerial torpedo, continuing on this project for a year or more. OCTOBER 23. Harvard Aeronautical Society, Cambridge, Mass., elects Orville honorary member. OCTOBER 27. Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts of England, "in recognition of the value of the contributions of 38 • Wilbur & Orville Wright Wilbur and Orville Wright to the solution of mechanical flight," presented to Orville in Dayton by Lord NorthclifFe. Lord Northcliffe later was a dinner guest of Orville and Katharine at the Wright home. Charles L. FHnt was their guest at lunch. 1918 FEBRUARY 2, Orville, in his capacity of second vice president of Engineers' Club of Dayton and representing the board of governors, participates in dedicatory exercises for new clubhouse. He accepts building from the building committee on behalf of the club. FEBRUARY 3. Dinner arranged by Mayor Alfred de Lassence, with 200 English-speaking guests attending, commemorates first flight by Wilbur at Pau in 1909. MAY Orville consulted by Col. Elbert J. Hall on design of propellers to be installed on Bristol aircraft:. MAY 13* Orville makes last flight as a pilot, flying an early 1911 model Wright biplane alongside the first De Havilland-4 airplane, built at Moraine City, Ohio. Orville subsequently is a passenger in the DH-4. JUNE 6. In interview in Dayton Orville expresses belief that air attack on New York City is only remotely possible and that attack by planes launched from German submarines is unlikely. JUNE 17. Society of Automotive Engineers, as part of its annual meeting, holds Orville Wright testimonial dinner, with more that 1,200 in attendance, at Triangle Park, Dayton. JUNE 17-18, Wright 1903 airplane exhibited at midsummer national meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers in Dayton. JULY For the first time, Orville spends his summer vacation at his summer home on Lambert Island, in Georgian Bay in Canada, which he purchased in 1916. JULYS, Air Service Institute of the United States elects Orville honorary member. OCTOBERS. Orville testifies in the U.S. Department of Justice aircraft industry investigation and answers questions asked by Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes regarding his connection with aircraft production carried out at Dayton during World War I. OCTOBER 27. Special memorial services are held at the grave of Wilbur in Woodland Cemetery in Dayton under the auspices of the Aero Club of America and the Aero Club of Dayton, with Orville and Katharine in attendance. Dr. L. E. Custer lays a wreath of bay leaves on the grave. Mayor Jesse M. Switzer pays tribute to Wilbur, and Judge Charles W. Justin delivers a eulogy. DECEMBER 3. Orville attends annual meeting of Society of Automotive Engineers in New York, is elected an honorary member of the society and is honored at a dinner at the Engineers' Club of New York. DECEMBER IL In statement submitted to Manufacturers Aircraft Association, Orville declares: "A commercial demand will be quickly created when safe landing places for the present high speed machines are provided at frequent intervals or when a type of machine is developed which can safely land on ordinary ground. I believe that the failure of the aeroplane for support and commercial uses up to this time has been entirely due to the lack of facilities for safe landing at any and all times." This statement is released December 20. DECEMBER 20, Orville attends testimonial dinner honoring his friend Col. Edward A. Deeds, president of the National Cash Register Company in Dayton, at the Army and Navy Club, Washington, D.C. DECEMBER 22, First stone of a monument to be erected by Aero-Club de France to commemorate the historic airplane flights of Wilbur laid at Le Mans. Brig. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois and Col. Charles DeF. Chandler are present as representatives of the American Expeditionary Forces in France. Speeches lauding the achievements of the Wright brothers are made by Rene Buon, the Mayor of Le Mans; Senator Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, president of the Wright Committee; the American ambassador, William B. Sharp; Henry Simon Minister of the Colonies, representing the French government; Paul Painleve, former French premier, and one of Wilbur's first passengers in a flight of 1908; and by Baron A. d'Aubigny, deputy of Le Mans. Louis D. Beaumont presents a bronze wreath on behalf of the city of Dayton. Ambassador Sharp, on behalf of the Aero Club of America, presents a commemorative bronze plaque. 1919 JANUARY 13, Orville appointed to serve on Committee of Technical Section, Division of Military Aeronautics, War Department to participate in test of Italian Caproni biplane. FEBRUARY, Orville contributes article entitled "Sporting Future of the Airplane" to U.S. Air Services, declaring that reducing the landing speed of the airplane is an essential factor. FEBRUARYS. Orville accepts appointment to serve as a consulting engineer on airplane design in the Technical Division of the Air Service, to serve without remuneration. FEBRUARY 7, Ind. State Representative Luther R Symons introduces House Bill 326, providing for the erection of a memorial to Wilbur Wright and appropriating $2,000 to purchase the birthplace of Wilbur in Liberty Township, Henry County, Ind. The biU passes the House February 28 and the Senate March 10 but is not signed and enacted into law. FEBRUARY 22, Orville is among leading Dayton business and professional men attending dinner honoring his friend Col. Edward A. Deeds, president of the National Cash Register Company, at Dayton City Club. MARCH 1-15. Wright 1903 airplane exhibited at the Aeronautical Exposition, New York. A Chronology • 39 AIAY 7. At a testimonial dinner given for Capt. Eddie Rickenbacker by the Aero Club of Dayton, Orville meets the World War I ace for the first time. MAY 22. Orville is host to the Arctic explorer Vilhjalmur Stefansson and entertains at a luncheon in his honor at the Dayton Engineers' Club. JUNE 3. Dr. Jan B. Claverie visits Dayton and presents Orville w^ith a duplicate of the bronze plaque placed on the Wilbur Wright Memorial at Le Mans on September 22, a token of esteem from Louis D. Beaumont. JUNE 18. Yale University confers honorary master of arts degree on Orville, "In recognition of the triumphant consummation of a work which a long line of great men from Leonardo da Vinci have sought to effect." He is the guest of Prof Joseph W. Roe in New Haven on June 17 and 18. Miss Ivonette Wright, niece of Orville, marries Harold S. Miller in ceremony at Orville's home in Dayton. JULY-AUGUST Orville and a group of World War I coworkers take a four-week trip to the West Coast, Orville's first trip to the West. The party consists of Cols. Edward A. Deeds, Sidney D. Waldon, Milton E Davis, and Edwin S. George, Lt. Harold H. Emmons, Gordon S. Rentschler, Charles Deeds, Joe Buts, H. Marchant, George Spencer, and Dana Mayo. Henry Ford was originally scheduled to accompany the group but was prevented from doing so by involvement in a legal suit. Stops were made at Denver, Salt Lake City, Reno, San Francisco, and Los Angeles, SEPTEMBER 27. Orville accepts honorary membership in American Flying Club. NOVEMBER 8. Aero Club of Texas confers honorary membership, voted some months earUer, on Orville. DECEMBER 16, Orville attends city of Dayton luncheon at Miami Hotel given in honor of Gen. John J. Pershing on his visit to the city. 1920 JANUARY 13. Orville submits identical depositions in Dayton in behalf of the defendants in two suits by Regina Cleary Montgomery v. The United States and in Regina Cleary Montgomery et al v. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation. The chronological evolution of the Wright control system is told at great length by Orville in the deposition, one of the best published accounts on this subject. Orville's depositions of January 13, 1920, and February 2, 1921, were subsequently edited by Fred C. Kelly and published with the title How We Invented the Aeroplane (New York, David McKay, 1953). JANUARY 20. John Fritz Medal Board of Award, in annual meeting in New York, chooses Orville as the medalist for the year 1920. JANUARY 26. Orville informed of election as life member of Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society. JANUARY 29* Orville appointed by President Wilson as civilian member of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. He served for 28 years with quite regular attendance at annual and semi-annual meetings in Washington until his death in 1948. APRIL 14. Aero Club of Dayton elects Orville honorary member. APRIL 28. U.S.S. Wright, aircraft tender honoring Wilbur, launched at Philadelphia with Mrs. Roland M. Comfort of Washington, D.C., a longtime friend of Orville, as sponsor. MAY 7. Orville presented with the John Fritz Medal, for note- worthy work in the development of the airplane, in auditorium of Engineering Societies building in New York City. MAY 23* Reuchlin Wright, brother of Wilbur and Orville, dies in Kansas City, Mo. Illness prevents Orville from attending funeral services. JULYIZ Wilbur Wright monument at Le Mans, France, dedicated. The work of sculptor Paul Landowski and architect Paul Bigot, the 40-foot-high shaft and sculpture were the gift of Commodore Louis D. Beaumont of Dayton. Tributes to Wilbur are delivered by former American Ambassador to France Myron T. Herrick, Lasare Weiller, and others. NOVEMBER. Orville, after suffering severe pains, visits Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minn., for treatment of a sciatic leg ailment, a result of his airplane accident at Fort Myer, Va., in September 1908. X-ray examination at this time disclose that apparently in the 1908 accident there had been three fractures in the hip bones, besides a dislocation of one of them, which had previously been unknown to him. Doctors prescribe treatment which considerably alleviated the pain. 1921 Orville becomes member of American Federation of Arts. Orville elected honorary member of National Association of Audubon Societies. JANUARY Wright 1903 airplane set up at South Field, Dayton, for purposes of obtaining testimony in the Regina Cleary Montgomery et al v. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation suit. FEBRUARY 2. Orville submits identical depositions in behalf of the defendants in the suits brought by Regina Cleary Montgomery et al. V. Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation. MARCH 25* Milton Wright Memorial Home (United Brethren Church) Chambersburg, Pa., honoring Bishop Milton Wright, is incorporated and commences operations on April 1 . APRIL 25* Orville attends breakfast at the home of Col. Edward A. Deeds honoring the new Chinese minister to the United States, Dr. Alfred Sao-ke Sze, who was in Dayton in the interest of the China famine ftind. 40 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright APRIL 28. Aircraft tender U.S.S. Wright launched at Hog Island, Va. MAY 9. Carl Akeley, noted explorer, and Griffith Brewer are guests of Katharine and Orviile at Engineers' Club in Dayton. MAY 19. Orviile accepts membership in Dayton Chamber of Commerce. OCTOBER 20. Griffith Brewer delivers lecture before the Royal Aeronautical Society in London supporting Orville's claims that the original Langley machine was not capable of sustained free flight and was not successfully flown at Hammondsport, N.Y, on June 2, 1914. The lecture is subsequently published in U.S. Air Services, October 1921, and in The Aeronautical Journal, December 1921. DECEMBER 16. Aircraft tender U.S.S.Wright commissioned in New York, first naval vessel constructed as a seaplane tender. When this ship was reclassified as a miscellaneous atixiliary in 1944, the name was changed to the U.S.S. San Clements. DECEMBER 18, In first statement since the end of the war issued from the office for the Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America, Orviile tells of the problems overcome before the first successful flight in 1903 and states that "Flying seems so easy today that one naturally wonders at the long delay in its accomplishment." DECEMBER 21. Orviile member of reception committee meeting Rep. Joseph W. Fordney of Michigan, author of tariff reform bill, who had come to Dayton to speak at a Chamber of Commerce dinner. DECEMBER 29. Orviile elected member of the Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America, Inc. He continued this membership and on May 15, 1944, was elected to Honorary Life Membership. 1922 JANUARY 26, Navy Bureau of Aeronautics publishes its Report No. 184, "Air Force and Moment for Dayton-Wright Split-Flap Aerofoil." The split-flap was developed by Orviile in cooperation with James M. H. Jacobs, an employee of the Dayton- Wright Airplane Company in Dayton. The report concludes that the split flap is of no value. Ten years later the Navy was one of the first to use it. FEBRUARY, Orviile states in Popular Science Monthly symposium devoted to the question "What is the most pressing scientific achievement now required in the field of your special interest?" that low-speed landing is first need of aviation. FEBRUARY 6. Orviile attends fourth annual banquet of Engineers' Club in Dayton. FEBRUARY 16, In telegram to New York Times Orviile reports his observation of a rainmaking experiment conducted over Dayton in which clouds were sprayed with electrified sand particles from an airplane. MAY 10. Gyro Club meeting in Dayton Engineers' Club passes resolution recommending change in name of Third Street to Wright Avenue in memory of Wilbur Wright and as a testimonial to Orviile Wright. MAY 25, Dayton Mayor Frank B. Hale names Orviile to serve on commission to plan an appropriate memorial to John H. Patterson, founder of the National Cash Register Company in Dayton. JULY 6, Orviile as a former recipient attends ceremony in Engineering Societies Building auditorium in New York at which Guglielmo Marconi receives the John Fritz Medal for 1922. In the evening, he attends a dinner given in Marconi's honor at the Engineers' Club of New York. JULY 13, In poll conducted by New York Times Columbia University professor Michael I. Pupin names Orviile one of 12 great Americans. SEPTEMBER 26. Wright Aeronautical Corporation new flying boat Wilbur Wright, recently purchased from Grover Loening, is christened by Katharine Wright in ceremony in New York, witnessed by Orviile. Following the christening, Orviile, Katharine, Vilhjaimur Stefansson, explorer, and the poet Percy Mackaye are passengers in an initial flight over the Hudson River in the flying boat piloted by Frederick H. Becker. After the flight Orviile and Katharine are among 40 luncheon guests at the Columbia Yacht Club. OCTOBER 4, Orviile attends a dinner at Dayton Engineers' Club honoring JuHus H. Barnes, president of the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, who was in Dayton as the guest of the Dayton Chamber of Commerce. OCTOBER 7-14, Orviile attends Pulitzer air races in Detroit. On October 12 he views new military aircraft and engines at Selfridge Field, Mich. OCTOBER 16. In letter to Charles J. Glidden, editor of the Aeronautical Digest, Katharine writes: "I did no pioneer work in connection with the invention of the aeroplane. That pretty story was the outcome of someone's imagination. I had the greatest interest in my brothers' work always but that was all." OCTOBER 26, Henry County Historical Society (Ind.) approves project of Phi Delta Kappa fraternity to erect a tablet to the memory of Wilbur in Memorial Park in New Castle, Ind. DECEMBER, U.S. Air Services publishes article by Orviile entided "Possibilities of Soaring Flight" presenting view that the importance of soaring flight was being exa^erated as a result of the experiments in Europe in 1922, and that the airplane would remain unrivaled as a means of transportation. DECEMBER 2. Orviile is named by Robert Elder, president of Dayton Chamber of Commerce, as member of committee of distinguished citizens to greet former French Premier Georges Clemenceau on his arrival in Dayton on December 3. A Chronology •41 DECEMBER 18. National Aeronautics Association appoints Orville as chairman of a Soaring Flight Committee. The committee was to make a thorough study of glider contests and promote such contests in the United States. 1923 MARCH 20. Orville, as chairman of the Soaring Flight Committee of the National Aeronautics Associate, sends circular letter appealing for support of the association, which had been organized in 1922. APRIL 2, Orville is a member of reception committee greeting Brig. Gen. Herbert N, Lord, director of the budget, and Mrs. Lord on their arrival in Dayton. APRIL 15. Memorial tablet erected by Phi Delta Kappa fraternity honoring Wilbur Wright unveiled at Henry County Memorial Park, New Casde, Ind., in the presence of Orville and Katharine. Mr. and Mrs. Lorin Wright also are present. The marker was located on the spot where the farmhouse of Bishop Milton Wright originally stood. The inscription reads, "Wilbur Wright-aeronaut and pioneer of heavier- than-air aviation." Judge Raymond Springer of Connersville, Ind,, eulogizes the life of Wilbur in the principal address. The occasion was the first visit of Katharine and Orville to New Casde. APRIL 16-17. Orville is official observer at speed test by Lts. John A. Macready and Oakley G. Kelly conducted at McCook Field in Dayton, in which Macready and Kelly established world records for endurance, distance, and speed. MAY 22. Basic Wright patents held by Wright Aeronaudcal Corporation expire. JUNE 1. Manufacture of airplanes and experimental aeronaurical work at Dayton Wright Company discontinued. JUNE 2. Orville's niece, Leontine Wright, is married to John Jameson in Orville's home in Dayton. JUNE 14-18. Orville is participant in cruise, organized by Detroit Board of Commerce, from Detroit northward into the Great Lakes. JULY 4. Orville, accompanied by sister Katharine, visits Indianapolis to witness national balloon competition. OCTOBER 1-3. Orville and Katharine attend International Air Races and Aeronautical Exhibition at St. Louis, Mo. They attend annual aeronautic banquet. Third National Aero Congress, at Hotel Statler on October 1. On October 2 Orville is guest at luncheon meeting of the Advertising Club of St, Louis. DECEMBER 7. Orville is chief observer and witness of attempted world speed record flight by Lt. John A. Macready at McCooks Field in Dayton. DECEMBER 16. Orville prepares message dealing with 20 years' progress in aviation for delivery over radio station WLW in Cincinnati. It is read by Dr. D. Frank Garland, of the National Cash Register Company in Dayton. DECEMBER 17. The 20th anniversary of the first successfijl powered heavier-than-air flight at Kitty Hawk by the Wright brothers is observed in impressive ceremonies at Dayton. Orville receives congratulatory messages from President Calvin Coolidge, Secretary of War John W. Weeks, and Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. A bronze plaque is presented to Orville by Frederick Patterson, head of the National Aeronautic Association. Foreign representatives coming to Dayton to pay homage to Orville include Wing Commander Mario Calderara, air attache at the Italian embassy and the first officer in the world to fly, Capt, Georges Thenault, French air attache, and Commander Harold A. Brown, British naval attache. Also among the guests are Vilhjalmur Stefansson, explorer, and Carl E. Akeley, big game hunter, close friends of Orville. The visiting dignitaries are guests of Orville and Katharine at a luncheon in their home. Later the visitors and Orville and Katharine are dinner guests of Frederick Patterson before the commencement of the evening ceremonies, which are presided over by former Governor of Ohio James M. Cox. DECEMBER 18. Board of Directors of Aviation Athletic Club of Cleveland elects Orville honorary member. 1924 MARCH 10. Orville is named an officer of the Legion of Honor and is to receive Cross of Officer of the Legion. Katharine is appointed an officer of Instruction Publique, Notification is made on April 10 by Gen. George Dumont, French military attache in Washington. Presentation of decoration is by General Dumont in Washington on April 24, APRIL, University of Dayton Exponent publishes interview with Orville by Carl J. Crane in February. Orville says, "The usefulness of the airplane lies in its speed and facility of locomotion, and not so much in its great size and capacity to carry tremendous loads, for we know today that the efficiency of the airplane decreases as this size increases. I have the most optimistic views, however, that the airplane will find in the near future its real application in the economics of the universe much the same as the steamship and automobile found their value and worthy application." MAY 23. Dayton Section of the Society of Automotive Engineers institutes annual award of a medal to be known as "Wright Brothers Medal for Meritorious Achievement in Aeronautics" to be awarded for the presentation of new development in the form of engineering papers. The papers submitted did not meet the requirements stipulated and no award of the medal was made. JUNE 3. Orville is elected president of the Dayton Engineers Club. JUNE 16. Orville receives honorary doctor of engineering degree from University of Michigan. JULY. Orville is elected honorary member of Detroit Aviation Society. 42 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright JULY 1, Orville is appointed chairman of the Contest Committee of the National Aeronautic Association at a meeting of the Executive Committee of the association in Dayton. He was to continue to serve in this capacity for the years 1924, 1925, 1926, and 1927. AUGUST 12, Orville, v/ith James M. H. Jacobs, is granted patent No. 1,504,663 for a split flap later used by the U.S. Navy. The flap was developed in 1920 and the patent applied for May 31, 1921. SEPTEMBER 5. Dayton Chapter of National Aeronautic Association votes to start permanent restoration of original Wright brothers hangar so that the restoration may be complet- ed in time for the International Air Races to be held in Dayton, October 2, 3, and 4. OCTOBER 2, 3, 4, Wright 1903 airplane and engine exhibited at International Air Races in Dayton. This was the last time the plane was exhibited before shipment to England in February 1928. Orville attends races and serves as chairman of the timing committee for the Pulitzer Race. OCTOBERS. Lt. John Macready circles die flying field in a 15- minute flight in a 1910 Wright model B biplane at a speed of about 45 miles an hour, with Orville and Katharine vidtnessing the flight from the grandstand. Orville attends the second annual banquet of the National Aeronautic Association. Orville is among those greeting and congratulating Lts. Smith, Nelson, Wade, Harding, Ogden, and Arnold on arrival in Dayton on return from their round-the-world flight. OCTOBER 3-5. Commander and Mrs. Mario Calderara, Col. Frank S. Lahm, and Col. Frank P. Lahm are house guests of Orville and Katharine at their Hawthorn Hill home. OCTOBER 23-25. Orville and Katharine are guests of Frank P Lahm at Akron Club in Akron, Ohio. NOVEMBER 1. Orville accepts invitation to become a vice president of a proposed National Museum of Engineering and Industry, which is undertaking to raise a national endowment of $10,000,000 for a building to be erected on the mall in Washington that would house an Inventors and Engineers Hall of Fame. NOVEMBER 14. Orville attends dinner given by the Canton Chapter, Narional Aeronautic Association, in honor of Frank S. Lahm. DECEMBER 13. Orville attends annual banquet of the Ind, Society of Chicago. DECEMBER 16. In brief message to London Daily Mail Orville recalls some achievements of the airplane since pioneer days. DECEMBER 17. Board of Governors of National Aeronautic Association elects Wilbur, Orville, and Katharine honorary members of the Association, the first such memberships conferred to this date. 1925 JANUARY 20. Orville issued patent No. 1,523,989 for a mechanical toy consisting of a device by which an object, such as a doll, is thrown through the air and caused to be engaged and to be supported by a swinging bar. The patent application was filed November 10, 1923. The toy was produced and sold by the Miami Wood Specialty Company in Dayton, whose president was Lorin Wright. FEBRUARY 16-17. Hart O. Berg, former European business associate of Wrights, visits Orville in Dayton. MARCH 2. Maj. Roy Brown, Wright flying school student in 1915 and World War I ace, visits Orville at his home, and the two reminisce on the state of aviation in 1915. APRIL 8, City of Philadelphia awards its John Scott medal to Orville "for his inventions in the development of Flying Machines." Orville was unable to attend the presentation ceremonies held in Weightman Hall, University of Pennsylvania, on June 17. APRIL 30. In statement given to Dayton News and Dayton Journal for release, Orville confirms reports that he will give the original Wright airplane to the Science Museum at South Kensington, London. MAY 2. Orville issues statement contending that the Smithsonian Institution label on the Langley plane describing it as the first capable of flight is incorrect. MAY 4. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution Dr. Charles D. Walcott releases statement reviewing the trials of the Langley Aerodrome at Hammondsport, N.Y., in May and June 1914 and reaffirming the correctness of the Smithsonian label describing the Langley flying machine as "The first man-carrying aeroplane in the history of the world capable of sustained free flight." MAY 14. In a letter to Chief Justice William Howard Tafi: as Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution, Orville asks for an impartial investigation of his charges against Dr. Charles D. Walcott of the Smithsonian Institution. MAY 15. Chief Justice Taft, replying to Orville's letter of May 14, states that he can take no active part in the Wright controversy with the Smithsonian Institution. MAY 29. Grover C. Loening announces that Orville is agreeable to keeping original Wright airplane in the United States provided that the Smithsonian Insdtution truthfully label the Langley airplane, that the Institution publish both sides of the Langley controversy in its annual report, and that the Wright airplane be labeled as the first man-carrying air machine in the world. JUNE 10. Dr. Joseph S. Ames, Johns Hopkins University, and Rear Adm. David W. Taylor, U.S. Navy, submit to Dr. Charles D. Walcott a suggestion for a revised label on the Langley airplane. A Chronology • 43 The suggestion was being made in an attempt to arrive at a compromise in the controversy between Orville and the Smithsonian Institution. JUNE 12, Orville rejects offer of Charles M. Manly to conduct further tests with the original Langley Aerodrome. JUNE 16, Arthur C. Johnson, president of the Ohio Archeological and Historical Society, calls on Orville in Dayton and invites him to deposit original Wright airplane in society's building in Columbus. AUGUST 3L Wilbur Wright Field and new Army Air Service Field renamed Wright Field, breaking an Army precedent that no flying field was to be named in honor of any living man. SEPTEMBER 24. Orville designated as chairman of advisory committee for new Guggenheim School of Aeronautics, New York University. OCTOBER 7. Orville attends aeronautic dinner of the Society of Automotive Engineers at Hotel Astor in New York City. OCTOBER 8-13. Orville attends New York Air Races, Mitchell Field, Long Island. OCTOBER 9. Orville attends annual banquet of National Aeronautic Association at Hotel Pennsylvania in New York City. OCTOBER 12. Orville testifies in Washington before the President's Aircraft Board. He urges the development of commercial aviation as a means of building up an adequate air reserve and advocates, as a step toward the encouragement of commercial flying, the establishment by municipalities of airports and landing facilities. Katharine and Orville are luncheon guests of President Coolidge at the White House. OCTOBER 23. Building in Dayton housing Wright laboratory is sold. The operation of the laboratory was not affected. OCTOBER 24, Orville witnesses Schneider Cup airplane speed races at Bay Shore near Baltimore, Md. OCTOBER 28. Orville gives deposition for defendant in Dayton in George Francis Myers v. The United States patent suit. NOVEMBER 9^ Orville is guest of honor at dinner sponsored by the Dayton Chapter of the National Aeronautic Association. Comdr. John R Rodgers, trained at the Wright Flying School in Dayton in 1911, is the principal speaker. NOVEMBER 28. Orville elected honorary member of Berkeley Aviation Club, Martinsburg, W.Va. DECEMBER Z Orville participates in meeting of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in Dayton. He tours McCook and Wright Fields with members. DECEMBER 12. Orville is among guests of honor at meeting of the Gridiron Club at Willard Hotel in Washington. President Calvin Coolidge, Vice President Charles G. Dawes, and Col. William Mitchell are among government officials attending. DECEMBER 17. Dayton Board of Education passes resolution to name a projected new school "Wilbur Wright Junior High and Elementary School." DECEMBER 24. Announcement is made in Paris of the Wilbur Wright cup, a new trophy for speed aviation, with competition to be held in France. The new trophy would replace the James Gordon Bennett and Commodore Louis D. Beaumont Cups. 1926 1926-1927. Orville serves as governor at large of the National Aeronautic Association, JANUARY 18. Orville is one of 10 leaders in aviation, engineering, law, and finance named as trustees of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc. JANUARY 26. Orville elected a member of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics at its organizational meeting. On December 7, 1 926, he was elected a member of its board of directors and served in that capacity until the dissolution of the ftind in March 1930. JANUARY 31 . In statement submitted to Dayton Journal, Orville declares: "The expenditure of $10,000,000 in aeronautical research and experimentation before the last war would have saved hundreds of millions that had to be spent to accomplish the same result after the war had begun. Economy demands that we keep abreast of the world in aeronautical research. While we may be able to cut down the amount of actual building, we must keep to the front in knowledge of how and what to build if war should come." FEBRUARY 6. At 12th anniversary dinner of Engineers' Club of Dayton, honorary life membership is conferred on Orville. FEBRUARY 20. Orville is cited as one of the four outstanding men of the 20th century by Marion L. Burton, President of the University of Michigan. FEBRUARY 24. In letter Comdr. Richard E. Byrd consults Orville in connection with Byrd's forthcoming expedition to Antarctica. MARCH 13. Orville is official observer at altitude record attempt by Lt. John A. Macready at McCook Field in Dayton. MARCH 19. Orville, as chairman of contest committee of National Aeronautic Association, presents Collier Trophy for 1925 to Dr. S. Albert Reed, aeronautical engineer, in ceremony at Boiling Field, Washington, D.C. APRIL 13* Orville and Katharine are present at ground- breaking ceremonies for Wright Air Field in Dayton. Frederick B. Patterson, president of the National Cash Register Company, past president of the National Aeronautic 44 • WUbur & Orville Wright Association, and chairman of the Dayton Air Service Committee, pulls the lever on the steam shovel that lifts the first dirt for the building excavations. APRIL 15. Orville, together with Comdr. Richard E. Byrd, Comdr. John E Rodgers, and Col. William E. Mitchell, is honored as airman at Gridiron Club dinner at Willard Hotel in Washington, D.C. APRIL 29* In interview Orville declares: "The development of the airplane has been far faster than I ever dreamed when my brother and I began experimenting with heavier-than-air craft years ago. Especially in the past few years, since the war, has air power been developing amazingly. "In fact I fear that it is growing too fast for its own good. I know this may sound pessimistic, for the common custom is to cheer regardless of the fects. However, I have watched the history of the airplane since it s beginning, and I fear it is growing fester than its public." APRIL 29-30. Orville attends National Elimination Balloon and Airplane Races at Little Rock, Ark. JUNE 1-2. Orville is guest of Harry E Guggenheim at his estate at Port Washington, Long Island, and attends preliminary conference meeting of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc. on June 1 and its first regular meeting on June 2. JULY 27. Preliminary plans announced for the construction of a new hotel in Dayton to be named Wilbur Wright. AUGUST 2L Cornerstone for Wilbur Wright Elementary and Junior High School laid by Lorin Wright, city commissioner and brother of Wilbur and Orville, in ceremonies at Dayton^ Katharine and Orville were at Orvilles summer home in Canada and did not attend. Mrs. Howard H. Beck, Wright family friend, compiled a biography of Wilbur which was placed in the cornerstone. SEPTEMBER 8. Orville elected governor-at-large of National Aeronautic Association at annual meeting in Philadelphia, being reelected and continued in ofifice in subsequent years. SEPTEMBER 19. Orville recovers valuable stickpin presented to him by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm in Germany in 1909, which had been stolen. OCTOBER 4. Prof. Theodor von Kirmin, of the University of Aachen, on a tour of the United States on behalf of Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc., is luncheon guest of Orville in Dayton. NOVEMBER 19. Orville meets with Comdr. Richard E. Byrd, American naval officer and polar explorer, who was in Dayton to deliver a lecture. NOVEMBER 20. Katharine Wright married to Henry J. Haskell, associate editor of the Kansas City Star. The ceremony is performed at Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio, by the college president, Henry Churchill King. DECEMBER Preparatory to sending Wright 1903 airplane to England, Orville commences recovering the plane with new cloth, since the original clot was badly worn from having been handled so much in setting up the machine at various exhibitions. He is assisted in sewing by Miss Mabel Beck, his secretary, and in woodwork and assembly by James Jacobs. DECEMBER 7. Orville elected to Board of Directors of Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc. DECEMBER 17. Senator Hiram Bingham, of Connecticut, introduces S. 4876, providing for the erection of a monument on Kill Devil Hill, at Kitty Hawk, N.C., commemorative of the first successful attempt in history at power-driven airplane flight. Representative Lindsay Warren, of North Carolina, introduces H.R. 15348, authorizing an appropriation of $50,000 for the erection of a memorial at Kitty Hawk to commemorate the first successful airplane flight by Wilbur and Orville Wright. The bill died in committee. DECEMBER 19. Orville named chairman of committee of National Aeronautic Association which was to award the 1926 Collier Trophy. Orville attends christening of a new light airplane, "Twin- 60," developed by the Johnson Aircraft Corporation in Dayton. 1927 FEBRUARY 15. Orville attends 13th annual dinner meeting of Engineers' Club of Dayton, MARCH. Wright 1903 airplane renovation completed and machine assembled at Orville's laboratory, remaining there until packed and crated in January 1928 for shipment to England. MARCH 2. President Calvin Coolidge signs act providing for the erection of a monument on Kill Devil Hill, at Kitty Hawk, N.C., to commemorate the first successful powered airplane flight by Orville Wright on December 17, 1903. MARCH 16. Orville gives early type of Wright aviation engine to Royal Scottish Museum, Edinburgh, for permanent exhibition. APRIL 30. Harry Guggenheim, president of the Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, appoints Orville chairman of a committee to award $150,000 in prizes in a "safe aircraft competition." MAY 2. Western Society of Engineers, Chicago, names Orville to receive Washington Award. MAY 3. Dr. Michael I. Pupin, Columbia University professor, scientist, and inventor, in Dayton to deliver lecture entided "The Message of Science" to Engineers' Club of Dayton, is guest at home of Orville. MAY 16. Orville named Honor Scout by National Court of Honor of the Boy Scouts of America. JUNE 1. Orville presented with Washington Award by the Western Society of Engineers "for fundamental scientific research and resultant successful airplane flight" at society's A Chronology • 45 annual meeting and dinner at the Palmer House, Chicago, Presentation is made by Paul Westburg, Chicago engineer. JUNE 8, Orville participates in ceremony in which a copper box containing complete historical data on the life and works of John H. Patterson, president of National Cash Register Company, is sealed in the base of the memorial being constructed in his honor. JUNE 17. Orville, on steps of his laboratory, is among Daytonians who watch the Spirit of St. Louis, piloted by Charles Lindbergh with accompanying escort of planes, fly over Dayton en route to St. Louis. JUNE 22. Orville is host to Charles A. Lindbergh at his home on Hawthorn Hill in Dayton following receptions for Lindbergh in Washington, New York, and St. Louis. The visit was in response to an invitation extended by Orville on June 10 through Maj. Albert Bond Lambert, one of a group which had backed Lindbergh on his flight to Paris. At dinner at his home Orville is host to Lindbergh, Harry H. Knight, Harold M. Bixby, Gen. William E. Gilmore, and Maj. Thomas G. Lanphier, as well as Capt. St. Clair Street, who had flown with Lindbergh to Dayton. Early the following morning Orville, in company of General Gilmore, takes Lindbergh to his laboratory to show him the Wright 1 903 airplane. JUNE 23^ Oscar E. Cesare, artist, comes to Dayton to make a drawing of Orville. An article about this portrait by Cesare subsequently appeared in the New York Times, July 17, 1927. JUIY 23. Orville named chairman of special committee of the American Playground and Recreation Association appointed to plan a nationwide model airplane contest. AUGUST 5. On visit to Dayton Lindbergh places wreath on grave of Wilbur in Woodland Cemetery. AUGUST 10. Early Wright engine, gift of Orville to the Royal Scottish Museum in Edinburgh, is placed on exhibit in its Machinery Hall. AUGUST 16. Kill Devil Hills Memorial Association (now Kill Devil Hills Memorial Society) formed in Elizabeth City, N.C., for purpose of erecting monument commemorating the first flights of the Wrights at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Its objectives are "to preserve and foster the memory of the historic achievements of Orville and Wilbur Wright, to sponsor, cosponsor, or otherwise arrange an appropriate observance each year at the site and on the anniversary date of man's first successful powered flight." OCTOBER 12 Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, dedicated to Wilbur and Orville Wright with impressive ceremonies and flying program, with Secretary of War Dwight E Davis, Assistant Secretary of War E Trubee Davison, and Gen. Mason M. Patrick, head of the U.S. Army Air Corps, in attendance. OCTOBER 19. Orville attends dinner in Washington given by Assistant Secretary of War F. Trubee Davison in honor of Sir Phillip Sasson, British Under Secretary of Air, NOVEMBER 2-A. Wilbur Wright Junior High School dedicated in Dayton. Orville and brother Lorin are present at the formal dedication exercises held at the school on November 4. Dedicatory address is by Dr. E, E. Lewis, Department of School Administration, Ohio State University. NOVEMBER 14. Orville attends National Geographic Society's ceremonies in Washington in which society's Hubbard Gold Medal is presented to Lindbergh. 1928 JANUARY 31. Orville ships die Wright 1903 airplane to die Science Museum, London, for exhibit there for a period of five years. The plane arrived in England February 21 aboard the Minnewaska. The plane was sent by him "as a means of self-protection in overcoming propaganda in disparagement of us broadcast by the Smithsonian at Government expense." FEBRUARY 8. Orville is guest of honor at annual dinner and meeting of Miami Valley Traffic Club in Dayton. FEBRUARY 12. Emil Ludwig designates Orville as one of four greatest living Americans. Orville was chosen because he and Wilbur created by methods "so original and bold that they might have come from the pages of Homer. The sublime quality in Wright is, after all, not lightning flash of genius; it is the immensity of perseverance, the sure faith in reaching the sought for goal, and the courage to rise again and again." FEBRUARY 2 L Sefton Brancker, of the British Air Ministry, informs Orville, in letter, of the arrival in England of the 1903 Wright airplane, shipped in January. FEBRUARY 29. Representative John J. McSwain, of South Carolina, introduces H.J. Res. 224, to ascertain which was the first heavier-than-air flying machine and providing for a commission of five persons to hear evidence on this question. The resolution passed the House May 16. MARCH. In article in U.S. Air Services Orville gives his reasons for sending the 1903 Wright airplane to a British museum. He says he is doing so "because of the hostile and unfair attitude shown towards us by the officials of the Smithsonian Institution." MARCH 3. Smithsonian Institution offers to change the label on the Langley machine if Orville will state that this is being done as a friendly gesture and agrees that it will give proper honor to the Wright 1903 airplane if deposited there. Orville does not accept this offer. MARCH 4. In statement to press Orville says changing of label on the Langley Aerodrome would not correct other false statements previously made by the Smithsonian Institution. He asks for an investigarion by an impardal body of the charges that he has made against the conduct of the Smithsonian Insritudon. MARCH 15. Board of Regents of Smithsonian Institution passes resolution declaring that "to the Wright brothers belongs the 46 • Wilbur & Orville Wright credit of making the first successful flight with a power-propelled heavier-than-air machine carrying a man." MARCH 20, Wright 1903 airplane installed and exhibited for the first timt m England when new galleries of the Science Museum, South Kensington, London, are opened in ceremony attended by King George V and Queen Mary. During the tour that followed, the King and Queen showed special interest in the Wright airplane. MARCH 23, War Department Appropriations Act approved on this date includes an appropriation of $25,000 to commence Wright Memorial at Kitty Hawk, N.C. APRIL 27, Representative Roy G. Fit^erald, of Ohio, and Charles G. Abbot, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, testify in House Committee on Military Affairs hearing on the first heavier-than-air flying machine, discussing points at issue and introducing into the record pertinent statements and documents. MAY 2, Shaft, carved by F.A. Berry, marking the spot where Wilbur Wright began the assembly of the first glider, unveiled by the citizens of Kitty Hawk. Capt. William J. Tate, first host of the Wrights at Kitty Hawk, speaks of his early association with the brothers in the period 1900-1903. MAY 7. Cleveland Board of Education names new junior high school under construction "Wilbur Wright Junior High School." MAY 16, Orville and Charles I. Lawrance, airplane engine builder, honored at luncheon and reception given by the Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce. In the afternoon Orville attends Medal Meeting of the Franklin Institute and in the evening attends dinner given in honor of the medalists. MAY 21, Orville among delegation meeting Prof. Arthur H. Compton, physicist and Nobel Prize winner, on his arrival in Dayton to speak at Engineers' Club of Dayton. MAY 23, Representative W. Frank James, of Michigan, introduces H.R. 13990 to authorize the President to present the Distinguished Flying Cross to Orville. The bill passed the House December 13, 1928. JUNE 4. Series of more than 30 metal airfoil models used by Wright brothers in their earliest experiments loaned by Orville and exhibited at Massachusetts Institute of Technology Museum on the occasion of the dedication of the new Daniel Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory in Boston, Mass. JUNE 10-12. French air commission headed by Gen. Paul Boucabeille, visiting Dayton, honors Wilbur by having tricolor cushion of flowers placed on his grave. JUNE 13. U.S. Court of Claims dismisses suit brought against the government by the heirs of John J. Montgomery, whose patents were alleged to have been infringed by Wilbur and Orville Wright. JUNE 15, Orville, as member, attends meeting of Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics, Inc., at home of Harry F. Guggenheim, Port Washington, Long Island. JULY 16-17, Mrs. Leon BoUee, widow of Leon BoUee, French automobile manufacturer associated with Wilbur during his flights in France in 1908, and her daughter Countess Elizabeth Jean de Vautibault are guests of Orville in Dayton. SEPTEMBER 23, NBC network devotes hour-long program to Orville, in which William G. Shepherd, Colliers staff writer, and Representative John J. McSwain, of South Carolina, pay tribute to him. SEPTEMBER 29, Smithsonian Institution publishes The Relations Between the Smithsonian Institution and the Wright Brothers by the secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Charles G. Abbot, in effort to clarify the controversy with Orville and to correct errors and stdiitvntms previously made. This publication was announced to the press in a Scientific News Service release by the Smithsonian Institution on September 30. Orville prepares statement for publication which was released on September 30 in which he declares that Dr. Abbots The Relations Between the Smithsonian Institution and the Wright Brothers fails to settle the points at issue in the controversy OCTOBER. Orville serves on executive council of Hoover-for- President Engineers' Committee, organized for the purpose of aiding in the election of Herbert Hoover. OCTOBER 24. Orville— with Thomas A. Edison, Henry Ford, Harvey S. Firestone, Charles M. Schwab, George Eastman, and Julius Rosenwald — is honored as an industrial pioneer of America at dinner given at Hotel Astor in New York by Conference of Major Industries. OCTOBER 28, President Calvin Coolidge designates Orville as a delegate from the United States to the International Civil Aeronautics Conference to be held in Washington, D.C., December 12-14, 1928. NOVEMBER 8, Acting as secretary of the National Aeronautic Associations Committee of Awards, Orville presents second Gordon Bennett International Balloon Trophy to Assistant Secretary of War F. Trubee Davison, who accepts k in behalf of the Army Air Corps. The trophy had been won by American balloon teams for the last three years. NOVEMBER 28, Nomad Club in Dayton honors Orville at testimonial dinner in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of first flight at Kitty Hawk, December 17, 1903. DECEMBER 4, Representative Lindsay C. Warren, of North Carolina, introduces HJ, Res. 332, to appoint a congressional committee to attend the exercises celebrating the 25th anniversary of the first airplane flight made by Wilbur and Orville. DECEMBER 10. Orville is guest of honor of the city of Dayton in 25th anniversary celebration. In evening ceremony he is presented with an engraved, framed tribute on parchment, written by Howard Egbert of the National Cash Register Co., as a testimonial of appreciation from the people of Dayton. A Chronology • 47 Numerous delegates to the International Civil Aeronautics Conference to be held in Washington December 12-14 come to Dayton to pay homage to Orville. A wreath is placed at the grave of Wilbur, and delegates visit Orville at his home in the afternoon. DECEMBER 12, President Calvin Coolidge pays tribute to Wright brothers in address at opening session of the International Civil Aeronautics Conference in Washington, D.C. Orville is honored dinner guest of German Ambassador and Madam Friedrich W. von Prittwits at German Embassy in Washington, D.C, and meets German delegates attending the International Civil Aeronautics Conference. DECEMBER 12, Two-cent and five-cent U.S. postage stamps issued in commemoration of the International Civil Aeronautics Conference at Washington, D.C, December 12-14, 1928, and the 25th anniversary of the first airplane fiight by the Wright brothers, December 17, 1903. The two-cent stamp pictures the first Wright biplane in flight. DECEMBER 13 Orville attends showing of motion picture on the history of aviation at Washington auditorium, Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Orville escorts Lindbergh to platform at Chamber of Commerce Building in Washington to receive the Harmon Trophy. DECEMBER 14, Orville attends dinner for delegates to the International Civil Aeronautics Conference at Mayflower Hotel in Washington, D.C. DECEMBER 15. Lietuvos Aero Klubas [Lithuanian Aero Club] elects Orville honorary member. Orville honored at public reception in Senate. He is brought to the Senate by Senator Hiram Bingham, of Connecticut, and is introduced to the Senate by Vice President Charles G. Dawes. DECEMBER 16, Orville among more than 200 notable figures making boat trip from Washington to Norfolk aboard steamer District of Columbia en route to Kitty Hawk, N.C. This was his first trip to Kitty Hawk since 1911. DECEMBER 17, In anniversary statement Orville says, "In twenty-five years flight has been extended from one minute to more than 65 hours; from one half mile to more than four thousand miles; and from a few feet above the ground to more than one half mile above it . . . The great strides made in aviation in the last two years would indicate that we have not yet even approached the limit of the possibilities." Group pilgrimage from Washington to Kitty Hawk honors Wrights on 25th anniversary. Ceremonies include laying of the cornerstone of the national memorial to the Wrights at the top of Kill Devil Hill and the unveiling by Senator Bingham of a granite monument erected by the National Aeronautic Association on the spot from which the Wrights made their December 1903 flights. Royal Aeronautical Society holds dinner honoring Wrights at Science Museum in London, with tables arranged around the Wright 1903 airplane on exhibit there. The dinner is presided over by the president of the Society, Air Marshal Sir W. Sefton Brancker. DECEMBER 18, Congress votes to present the Distinguished Flying Cross to Orville and to Wilbur posthumously. DECEMBER 20. Board of Governors of Kitty Hawk Aviation Yacht & Hunt Club of North Carolina elects Orville life member. DECEMBER 21, President Calvin Coolidge signs bill awarding Distinguished Flying Cross to Orville and Wilbur. DECEMBER 27, Orville is guest of honor at luncheon of Dayton Rotary Club and is presented with a scroll commemo- rating the occasion. Tribute is paid to Orville by Capt. John A. Macready and Howard Egbert. DECEMBER30. Plans for a Wilbur Wright memorial at his birth- place in New Castle, Ind., and the establishment of an aviation hall of fame there, initiated by Capt. Benjamin B, Lipsner, are approved by a group of New Casde business and professional men. A Wilbur Wright Memorial Commission was subsequendy organized. DECEMBER 3L Twentieth anniversary of Wilburs record- breaking flight which won the Michelin Cup at Le Mans, France, is commemorated in memorial service at his birthplace in New Castle, Ind. Special Wilbur Wright memorial letters are mailed from New Castle to officials and visitors attending the ceremony. 1929 JANUARY 30-FEBRUARYL John J. Ide, European representative of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, in Dayton for an inspection tour of Wright Field, is guest of Orville. FEBRUARY 4. New Castle, Ind., honors memory of Wilbur with community banquet, Ind. Governor Harry Leslie is among guests, and Capt. Benjamin B. Lipsner, pioneer air mail pilot, delivers principal address. FEBRUARY IL Ind. State Representatives Herbert H. Evans and Charles M. Trowbridge introduce House bill 321 to create the Wilbur Wright Memorial Commission, to authorize the commission to accept and maintain the birthplace of Wilbur Wright, to accept appropriations which may be made by the federal government for this purpose, and to make an appropriadon. The bill was passed by the Ind. House and Senate and signed by Ind. Governor Ed Jackson on March 7. FEBRUARY 27. Distinguished Flying Crosses awarded Wilbur and Orville by Act of Congress, December 18, 1928, presented to Orville Wright by Secretary of War Dwight R Davis in Washington with high officers of the Army and other branches of government in attendance. The citation reads: "Mr. Orville Wright, by his vision, perseverance, courage, and skill, in collaboration with his brother Wilbur Wright, designed, 48 • WUbur & OrviUe Wright constructed, and operated the airplane, which at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on December 17, 1903, made the first successful flight under its own power and carrying a human operator, thereby making possible the achievements which are now stirring the emotions and pride of the world." MARCH 3. Katharine Wright Haskell dies of pneumonia at her home in Kansas City, Mo. Orville and brother Lorin are present at her death. The body was brought to Dayton on March 5 and funeral services were held at the home of Orville on March 6. Burial was in the family plot in Woodland Cemetery beside her brother Wilbur. MARCH 13. Ohio State Senator Miles S. Kuhns of Dayton introduces SJ. Res. No. 23 in Ohio Senate paying tribute to Wright brothers. The resolution was approved by the Ohio Senate on March 1 9 and by the House March 2 1 . APRIL 3. Orville and Wilbur tended first official recognition by the state of Ohio as coinventors of the heavier-than-air flying machine in ceremony at Columbus, Ohio. Ohio Governor Myers Y. Cooper presents Orville with a testimonial voted by the Ohio General Assembly on April 1 . APRIL 9* Society of Automotive Engineers awards for the first time the Wright Brothers Medal, which is to be given annually to the author of the best paper dealing with aerodynamics, structural theory, or research presented during the year at a meeting of the society. APRIL 16. Dayton Kiwanis Club donates and dedicates bronze tablet showing a life-size profile of the Wright brothers, designed by Chester E. Nicodemus of the Dayton Art Institute, to the Wilbur Wright Junior High School. The inscription reads: "In commemoration of the achievement of Wilbur and Orville Wright — First to Fly" A luncheon at which Orville was the guest of honor preceded the ceremony APRIL 22. Orville guest of Ohio Federation of Women s Clubs at All-Dayton program and dinner at Memorial Hall in Dayton. MAY 1, Daniel Guggenheim Medal Board of Award votes to award the Daniel Guggenheim Medal to Orville "for design and construction, with his brother now deceased, of the first successful engine-propelled airplane." MAY 29. Orville attends third aeronautic meeting of American Society of Mechanical Engineers in St. Louis, Mo. OCTOBER 21. Orville is among scientists and inventors invited by Henry and Edsel Ford to opening of Ford Museum and Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Mich., which also marks 50th anniversary of the invention of the electric light by Thomas A. Edison. At banquet for invited guests Orville is seated next to Will Rogers and Edsel Ford. NOVEMBER 15. Orville attends launching at Wilmington, Del., of the Lotusland, diesel yacht built for his friend Col. Edward A. Deeds. NOVEMBER 22. Wilbur Wright Junior High School in Cleveland dedicated, with Orville as honor guest. DECEMBER 17. Rivanna Garden Club of Charlottesville, Va., erects marker at birthplace of Susan Koerner Wright, mother of Wrights, at Hillsboro, Loudon County, Va. 1930 JANUARY 9. Daniel Guggenheim Fund for the Promotion of Aeronautics in New York announces that Orville has been awarded the first Daniel Guggenheim Medal. FEBRUARY 18. Secretary of War Patrick Hurley approves findings of the Jury of Award of the American Institute of Architects, which selected the design of Robert P. Rodgers and Alfred E. Poor as the winner from 36 offered in the competition to design the Wright Memorial to be erected at Kitty Hawk, N.C. The architects are awarded a prize of $5,000. FEBRUARY 24. Senator Simeon D. Fess, of Ohio, introduces S.J. Res. 144, providing for the creation of a commission to prepare plans for a monument in the city of Washington commemorating the achievements of Orville and Wilbur Wright in the development of aviation. FEBRUARY 25. Orville given honorary membership in Exchange Club of Dayton and in National Exchange Club and is honored at dinner attended by high federal and state government officials, aviation pioneers, and National Exchange Club officers. APRIL 3. Pro. Charles B. Martin, lecturer for the Cleveland Art Museum, is guest of Orville on his visit to Dayton to lecture at the Dayton Art Museum. APRIL 8. The first Daniel Guggenheim Medal presented to Orville "for design and construction, with his brother now deceased, of the first successful engine-propelled airplane" in ceremony at Chamber of Commerce Building in Washington. The presentation is made by Dr. William Durand, president of the Daniel Guggenheim Medal Board. APRIL 16. Dayton Exchange Club honors Wrights in program at Wilbur Wright Junior High School in Dayton. Presentation of an official air marker, painted on the roof of the school, is made by the Exchange Club. MAY 14. Orville attends inaugural exercises for Dr. William C. Dennis of Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. In Richmond he was the guest of a relative, Mrs. David W. Dennis, MAY 21. Orville is guest of honor at dinner at fourth annual convention of Aeronautic Division, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, held in Dayton, May 19-22. JUNE 10. Orville awarded honorary doctor of science degree by Ohio State University "in recognition of your vision and your engineering accomplishments which have made flying practicable for mankind." A Chronology • 49 JUNE 19* Orville attends commencement exercises in Cambridge, which are in part of the Harvard University Tercentenary celebration and receives honorary doctor of laws degree from Harvard. SEPTEMBER 27. Wright Memorial Bridge, connecting North Carolina mainland and Kill Devil Hill on Carolina banks, completed and opened to traffic. OCTOBER 9-10. Orville is cross-examined and gives extensive testimony on the early Wright experiments and early Wright air- planes in deposition filed in Dayton in His Majesty, the King, Plaintiff V. Myers Canadian Aircraft Co., Ltd., et al., and George Francis Myers, Defendants. NOVEMBER Cornerstone of monument at Pau, France, honoring first flight at Pau by Wilbur on February 3, 1909, is laid by French fliers Dieudonne Costes and Maurice Bellonte. NOVEMBER 18, Orville accepts membership in the Advisory Committee of the Aeronautical Division of the Museums of the Peacefiil Arts, New York. DECEMBER 9, Orville is among prominent national and interna- tional celebrities attending banquet in Dayton honoring Edward Canby, founder and vice president of the Dayton Scale Company 1931 JANUARY 20. Orville attends 17th anniversary banquet of Engineers' Club of Dayton honoring Col. Edward A. Deeds and Charles F. Kettering. JANUARY 30. Orville invited to serve as member of Advisory Committee of the Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology FEBRUARY 4. Maj. Gen, John A. DeWitt, quartermaster general, turns first shovelful of dirt marking beginning of excavation for Wright Memorial on Kill Devil Hill, N.C APRIL 16. Life-size portrait of Bishop Milton Wright, prepared by Don Wallace, Dayton photographer, from an original photo- graph, unveiled and presented to Wilbur Wright Junior High School, Dayton, in presence of Orville and Lorin Wright. MAY 17. Orville is honorary chairman of the committee for the entertainment of the Air Corps officers and distinguished guests attending the Army Air Corps field exercises in Dayton. He was among the distinguished officers and civilians attending the press dinner at the Van Cleve Hotel on May 16. JUNE 15. Orville receives honorary doctor of laws degree from Earlham College, Richmond, Ind., in recognition of his services in the promotion of aeronautics. AUGUST 19. Tribute is paid to Orville on his 60th birthday in special radio program over station WEAF and associate NBC stations. The program is sponsored by the Vacuum Oil Company. AUGUST 20. In interview with A. D, Kean, of Toronto Daily Star, Orville declares "that the flying game, in my opinion, has had a little too much publicity — it has made things too prosperous for many of us — money came too fast for proper development of things aeronautical and made it too easy for great expectations to be formed in the public mind. But things are now shaping for steadier control and development. I still predict great achievements, but in ways that will render more perfect stability and greater control of the aviation industry." OCTOBER 19. Following death of Edison on October 18, Orville sends message of sympathy to Mrs. Edison stating that "In the passing of Mr. Edison the world has lost one of its greatest citizens of all time." 1932 JANUARY 30. Wri^t brothers' moniunent, Pau, France, dedicated, commemoraring the first flights of Wilbur at Pau in 1909 and the training of the first French aviation officers there. The monimient, a slender shaft, was the work of the eminent Pau sctilptor Ernest Gabard and shows the likenesses of Wilbur and Orville and a representation of one of their first machines in flight. Addresses were delivered by Paul Tissandier and U.S. Ambassador Walter Edge. The trowel and hammer used in laying the cornerstone of the memorial were later presented to Orville, the gift of the Mayor of Pau. FEBRUARY 2. Orville attends funeral services in Canton, Ohio, for Frank S. Lahm, friend of long standing and passenger with Wilbur at Le Mans on November 18, 1909. FEBRUARY 4. Gen. H.C. Pratt, Materiel Division, U.S. Army Air Corps, Wright Field, acknowledges receipt from Orville of a Wright four-cylinder engine. FEBRUARY 18. Orville selected as one of 13 of the most prominent inventors and scientists in the United States to be guests of the National Commission at the opening of the new Patent Office in Washington on April 1 1 . MARCH 28. International Civitan Distinguished Services Medal presented to Orville by the Dayton Civitan Club. The only two prior recipients of this medal were Gen. John Pershing and Thomas A. Edison. APRIL 7. In statement released by Science Service, Washington, D.C., in answer to the question what the world needs most, Orville says, "I would say that the most needed invention is a motor which economically converts the latent energy in matter into motive power, or economically derives power directly from rays of the sun." MAY 26. Orville pays visit to Kill Devil Hill, N.C, crossing the Wright Memorial Bridge for the first time. JULY 21. Hudson Motor Car Co., in Detroit, presents Orville with new Exxes Terraplane automobile, which had been christened by Amelia Earhart. 50 • Wilbur & Orville Wright The Wright Brothers Monument at the Wright Brothers National Memorial, Kitty Hawky North Carolina. (Photo courtesy of the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, image number SI 2003-11332) The car was named Terraplane because it was the first to incorporate principles of airplane construction in automobile manufacture. OCTOBER 15. Wright Memorial at Kill Devil Hill, North Carolina, completed. NOVEMBER 15. The Misses Elizabeth C. and Octavia Chanute deposit in the Library of Congress papers of their father, Octave Chanute, in which were included the letters written to him by Wilbur and Orville. NOVEMBER 19. Wright Memorial, Kill Devil Hill, Kitty Hawk, N.C., dedicated. The 60-foot granite memorial is unveiled by Ruth Nichols, noted aviatrix, and accepted by Secretary of War Patrick J. Hurley. Orville is guest of honor and accepts the monument on behalf of himself and his deceased brother, Wilbur. Addresses are delivered by Lindsay C. Warren, Member of Congress from North Carolina, J.C.B. Eringhaus, governor-elect of North Carolina, and Secretary of War Hurley. A letter of congratulations dated November 18 from President Herbert Hoover is read. The monument inscription reads: "In commemoration of the conquest of the air by the brothers Wilbur and Orville Wright. Conceived by genius. Achieved by dauntless resolution and unconquerable faith." It has been stated that Orville was the only man ever to see a U.S. national monument erected in his honor during his lifetime. DECEMBER 5. Orville named first honorary fellow of the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences in New York. 1933 FEBRUARY 6. Board of Managers of Franklin Institute, on the recommendation of its committee on science and the arts, awards Orville the Franklin Medal. "In recognition of the valuable investigations carried out by him and his brother Wilbur, from which they obtained the first reliable scientific data concerning the principles of flight and the design of aero- planes, upon which they constructed the first heavier than air machine which flew by its own power under human control." APRIL 29. In letter to Lenox R. Lohr, general manager, A Century of Progress Exposition, Chicago, Orville declines invitation A Chronology •SI extended on July 2, 1931, to exhibit the original Wright 1903 airplane at the International Exposition to be held in Chicago in 1933. MAYS, Capt. William J. Tate, representing the Kill Devil Hills Memorial Association, attends dinner at Engineers' Club in Dayton and presents Orville with silver-plated spade used in breaking ground for the Wright Brothers Memorial on February 4, 1931. Orville honored at testimonial dinner given by Aeronautical Committee of Dayton Chamber of Commerce. MAY 17. In Orville's absence due to illness, Franklin Institute Secretary and Director Dr. Howard McClenahan accepts Franklin Medal, awarded to Orville on February 6, from Franklin Institute president. A certificate of honorary membership is also awarded. JUNE IL Orville attends special memorial service at Euclid Avenue United Brethren Church in Dayton honoring Wright Field men who had given their lives in service. AUGUST 10. Administrative supervision of Kill Devil Hills Monument National Memorial area transferred from War Department to the National Park Service. DECEMBER 11. Gov. Miriam A. Ferguson, of Texas, proclaims December 17 as National Aviation Day in Texas in honor of the Wright brothers. DECEMBER 15. Council of Royal Aeronautical Society in London elects Orville honorary fellow. DECEMBER 16. Orville is guest at dinner in Philadelphia sponsored by the Franklin Institute in one of numerous nation- wide celebrations commemorating the 30th anniversary of the flight of Wright brothers at Kitty Hawk, N.C. National Aeronautic Association pays homage to the Wright brothers in elaborate banquet at the Mayflower Hotel, Washington, D.C., at which Association President Senator Hiram Bingham reads messages from President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Orville Wright. Several guests pay tribute to Wrights in short speeches, which are broadcast by the National Broadcasting Company over a nationwide network. DECEMBER 17. Orville attends dedication of the Aviation Section of the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia. In the museum is a wall mural, painted by William Heaslip, depicting the first flight in 1903 at Kitty Hawk. Speakers Amelia Earhart, Dr. Howard McClenahan, and Frank H. Russell, the first manager of the Wright Company, laud the Wright brothers. Delegation consisting of Senator Hiram Bingham, Gen. Frank Hitchcock, Mrs. "Jack" Stearns Gray and others, places laurel wreath on the Wright exhibit at the National Museum as a tribute from the women of America. The wreath is accepted by Dr. Charles G. Abbot, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. DECEMBER 18. Orville is guest of honor at dinner at Miami Hotel in Dayton. Speakers included Col. Edward A. Deeds, Ohio Gov. George White, former Gov. James M. Cox, and Gen. Henry C. Pratt, Wright Field. In Le Mans, France, French observe 25th anniversary of Wilburs historic airplane flights at nearby Camp d'Auvours. Wilburs first two French pupils, Marquis Charles de Lambert and Col. Paul N. Lucas Girardville, recount their experiences as Wright students. Dr. Charles G. Abbot, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, announces that a committee of three is to be appointed to investigate the controversy between the Smithsonian Institution and Orville. Col. Charles A. Lindbergh is suggested as one of the intermediators. DECEMBER 19. Orville issues statement that he is pleased to learn that the Smithsonian Institution is willing to accept his proposal made in 1925 that an impartial committee be appointed to investigate the points at issue in the controversy between the Smithsonian Institution and himself He states fiirther that Dr. Abbot s proposal to have Lindbergh serve as one of the members of the committee meets with his hearty approval. 1934 MARCH 13. Orville is named by Secretary of War George H. Dern to a special committee of aeronautical experts to investigate the carrying of mails by U.S. Army, but he declines to serve because ill health does not permit him to travel. MARCH 31. In interview with Fred C. Kelly, published in magazine Today, Orville declares that sport, not capitalism, furnishes the true incentive to human achievement, citing his own experience in the development of the airplane. He foresees drift toward some form of socialism in the United States. APRIL 3. National Institute of Social Sciences, New York, votes Orville gold medal, to be awarded him the second time on February 21, 1940. Since did not attend either ceremony and it was not given in absentia, Orville never received the medal. APRIL 11. Wright model EX (Vin Fiz), formerly in Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh, transferred to the National Museum in Washington, where it is renovated and exhibited. JUNE 9. Orville accepts honorary membership in Carolina Aero Club, Greensboro, N.C. OCTOBER. Orville appointed member of Oakwood Library Board of Trustees, serving in this capacity, and for 11 years as vice-president, until his resignation on December 19, 1946. OCTOBER 8. Louis Bliriot, pioneer French aviator, attending National Aeronautic Association meeting in Washington, October 11-13, flies over Kitty Hawk, N.C, and drops wreath bearing inscription "Louis Blerior to Wilbur Wright" over Wright Memorial. NOVEMBER 24. December 17th, anniversary date of first successful heavier-than-air flight, designated National Aviation Day by Eugene I. Vidal, director of Bureau of Air Commerce, Department of Commerce. DECEMBER 6. Orville appointed member of Society of Automotive Engineers' Aircraft Activity Committee for 1935. 52 •Wilbur & Orville Wright DECEMBER 17* In observance of 31st anniversary of Wrights' 1903 flights, Marshall Earl Reid flies Wright model B airplane, given to the Franklin Institute by Grover Bergdoll, from Camden Airport. Eugene I. Vidal personally delivers to Orville, at his home in Dayton, a letter of congratulation from President Franklin D. Roosevelt on the anniversary of the first successful Wright flight. Mr. Vidal is accompanied by Maj. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois, Army Air Corps Chief, and Rear Adm. Ernst J. King, chief of the Navy Bureau of Aeronautics. DECEMBER 23^ Mrs. Mabel Hammer Ashton, daughter of William J. Hammer, consulting engineer and early friend of the Wright brothers, visits Orville at his home in Dayton. 1935 JANUARY 5. Orville is one of five chosen as members of an advisory board administering the James Cabot Professorship of Air Traffic Regulation and Air Transportation at Norwich University, Northfield, Vt. JANUARY 16, Wright model B airplane, produced 1910-1911, formerly owned by Wright-trained Grover Bergdoll of Philadelphia, placed on exhibition in Franklin Institute, Philadelphia. JUNE 10, Orville receives honorary doctor of laws degree from Huntington College, Huntington, Ind. OCTOBER 16, Orville plants a tree, which is dedicated to him, in the Dawes Arboretum in Columbus, Ohio. A bronze tablet was later erected there to commemorate this event, DECEMBER 12. James V. Piersol, aviation editor of the Detroit News, calls on Orville in Dayton on behalf of Henry and Edsel Ford in first of exploratory talks leading to purchase by Henry Ford of the original Wright brothers' home and workshop in Dayton, which were later transported to Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Mich. DECEMBER 17. Rear Adm. Ernest J. King, Eugene I. Vidal, Dr. George W. Lewis, and Brig. Gen. Oscar Westover come from Washington to Dayton to deliver to Orville letter from President Franklin D. Roosevelt extending greetings on the 32d anniversary of the Kitty Hawk flights in 1903. 1936 FEBRUARY 20, On the death of Gen. William Mitchell, whom he had known for more than 25 years, Orville pays him tribute saying, "He forced the attention of the military and government personnel to the value of the airplane, at a time when no one else could have done it." FEBRUARY 26 Orville elected honorary member of International Mark Twain Society, Webster Groves, Mo. MARCH 11, Du Pont radio program "The Cavalcade of America," in program No. 23, "Perseverance," portrays the early struggles of the Wright brothers. APRIL 14. Poet Carl Sandburg, afiier his lecture program in Dayton, calls on Orville at his home. APRIL 27-2% National Academy of Sciences, at annual meeting in Washington, elects Orville member. MAY 29. Jacob Wilk, Warner Bros. Pictures, comes to Dayton to see Orville regarding a motion picture dealing with the Wright Brothers. JUNE 27. Orville visits Dearborn, Mich., and is guest of the Fords and of Fred I. Black, in charge of Fords Industrial Museum in Dearborn. JULY 2. Henry Ford purchases building formerly occupied by Wright Cycle Company and the laboratory used by the Wrights in designing and building their successful airplane, with a view to restoring them and moving them to Greenfield Village in Dearborn, Mich. OCTOBER 27* Henry and Edsel Ford visit Dayton to view building in Dayton formerly occupied by the Wright Cycle Company, which had been purchased by Ford on July 2, and to discuss plans for dismantling the building. The Fords, Fred I. Black, director of the Greenfield Village museum, LB. Rock, publisher of the Dayton Journal-Herald, James M. Cox, publisher of Dayton Daily News, and William E. Scripps, of the Detroit News, are luncheon guests at the Wright home. NOVEMBER 5. Old Wright workshop torn down and removed to Dearborn, Mich. NOVEMBER 12. Orville visits and inspects the Glenn I. Martin Company factory in Baltimore, Md. NOVEMBER 23. Orville attends centennial celebration of American patent system in Washington. DECEMBER 10. Eugene I. Vidal, director of Bureau of Air Commerce, proclaims December 17, 1936, as National Aviation Day. DECEMBER 17. President Roosevelt and Henry Ford are among those sending congratulatory messages to Orville on the 33rd anniversary of first powered flight. Similar messages were received from Henry Ford by Orville in 1937, 1941, 1942, 1943, 1944, and 1945. Executive Committee of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, of which Orville is a member, holds its meeting at home of Orville in Dayton. 1937 JANUARY 9. Orville is among guests paying tribute to his friend Charles F. Kettering, vice-president and director of General Motors Corporation and general director of the General Motors Laboratories, at civic testimonial dinner in Dayton. A Chronology • 53 View of the Wright Cycle Co,, at the Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, ML Photograph dated 1937. (Photo courtesy of the National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, image number SI 2003-11327) JANUARY 20. Orville accepts membership on committee to celebrate the 1 0th anniversary of the Lindbergh flight on May 20, 1937. JANUARY 28-FEBRUARY 6". American Legion, at National Aviation Show in Grand Central Palace in New York, solicits signatures for petition to be submitted to Board of Regents of Smithsonian Institution asking retraction of priority accorded Aerodrome of Samuel P. Langley as first machine capable of sustained flight. APRIL 27. Robert H. Mclntyre, treasurer of Ind. Wright Memorial Commission, seeks to enlist support of Congress in appropriating funds for the construction of a national shrine, memorializing Wright brothers' invention of the airplane, at the birthplace of Wilbur near New Castle, Ind. MAY 14. Orville is among guests attending dinner com- memorating completion of Thomas-Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton. JUNE 15. Bronze busts of the Wright brothers by Dayton sculptor Seth M. Velsey installed in rotunda of the Army Aeronautical Museum, Dayton. JUNE 21. Orville accepts honorary membership in Wright Brothers Chapter of the National Aeronautic Association of North Carolina. Orville prepares and signs his last will and testament. JUNE 25-26. Orville attends commencement exercises at Edison Institute in Dearborn, Mich., on June 25 and is guest of Ford family at Dearborn Inn. OCTOBER 28. Orville visits Dearborn, in connection with restoration of Wright workshop in Greenfield Village. 54 • Wilbur & Orville Wright NOVEMBER 16, Senator Robert R. Reynolds, of North Carolina, introduces SJ. Res. 237 in Congress providing for an appropriation of $50,000 to develop a suitable site at Kitty Hawk, N.C., to house and exhibit the 1903 Wright airplane. DECEMBER 17. Institute of Aeronautical Sciences inaugurates a new annual lecture series, endowed by Edmund C. Lynch in honor of his brother, Vernon Lynch, to be known as the Wright Brothers Lecture, with speakers from abroad and the United States to alternate in giving the lecture. Orville attends first lecture given at Columbia University in New York. In interview at Columbia University, reported in New York Times on December 18. Orville foresees great progress in aviation in next decade. In evening he attends Institute s "Honors Night" meeting at Biltmore Hotel. Womens International League for Peace and Freedom presents Orville with scroll on 34th anniversary of Kitty Hawk first flight. 1938 JANUARY 26, Some of the Wright brothers' original calculations in aerodynamics are released for the first time, with Orville's permission, in paper entitled "Wright and Prandtl: Some Early Wind Tunnel Tests Interpreted in the Light of Prandtls Induction Theory," prepared by William R Gerhardt, Wayne University, Detroit, and presented at annual meeting of the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences, New York. APRIL 8. A special cachet to be used in connection with the dedication of the restored Wright home and workshop in Greenfield Village on April 16 is authorized by the Post Office Department, APRIL 10, Ford Motor Company "Sunday Evening Hour" radio program, a talk entided "Fathers of Flight" by William J. Cameron, broadcast by CBS, is devoted to the Wright Brothers. APRIL 16, Wright brothers* home and shop in Greenfield Village, Dearborn, restored by Henry Ford as a memorial to the Wright brothers, is dedicated on the 71st anniversary of Wilbur Wright's birth. Dedicatory exercises are held on the grounds of the Wright home and shop, with Orville and distinguished guests from the United States and abroad in attendance. The dedicatory address is by William J. Cameron of the Ford Motor Company. Charles F. Kettering, president and director of General Motors Corporation, acts as roastmaster at dinner closing the celebration. The speakers, friends and associates of Orville Wright, are Dr. George W Lewis, director of aeronautical research for the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Col. Frank P. Lahm, first military air passenger of the Wrights, Walter R. Brookins, first American civilian student, and Griffith Brewer, first English airplane passenger with Wilbur in 1908. APRIL 28. Oil painting of Katharine Wright presented to Wilbur Wright Junior High School in Dayton. The portrait was to complement a similar one of Bishop Milton Wright presented at an earlier date. MAY 19. Orville, at Dayton Airport, greets special airplane carrying pouches of air mail making commemorative flight from Kitty Hawk, N.C., to Dayton in honor of the Wright brothers, conducted as part of 20th anniversary of the inauguration of regular air mail service and as pan of First National Air Mail Week, May 15-21. SEPTEMBER 12. Wright Brothers Memorial Wind Tunnel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass., is "dedicated as a memorial to the methods of controlled experiment consistendy applied by the Wright brothers in their historic conquest of the air." Speakers at the dedication include Dr, Godfrey I . Cabor, Griffith Brewer, Dr. George W Lewis, and MIT president Karl T. Compton. SEPTEMBER 22, Miami Conservancy Court in Dayton approves plan for a park in Dayton development near Wright Field as Wright brothers' memorial. Orville presented in Dayton with honorary membership in Ligue Internationale des Aviateurs by its president, Charles Kerwood. SEPTEMBER 28. Wright 1903 airplane on exhibit in Science Museum in London removed, dismantled, and packed for safe- keeping as precaution against possible war damage. On October 27 the airplane was again placed on exhibit in belief that danger of damage was slight. OCTOBER 12. Orville receives certificate of membership in Order of Daedalians, society composed of pilots of World War I and earlier. DECEMBER 3, Orville represents the American Association for the Advancement of Science at the inauguration of Rev. John H. Elbert as president of the University of Dayton. DECEMBER 5. U.S. Court of Claims decision rendered against the plaintiff in suit brought June 2, 1923, against the United States government by George Francis Myers, alleging infringement of his patent No. 1,226,985 for a flying machine, granted May 2, 1917. Orville had submitted depositions in Dayton on October 28, 1925, February 28, 1927, and October 14, 1935, relating to Wright brothers' patents and in support of government's case. DECEMBER 8. Father John M. Sailer, pastor of St. Ages Church in Dayton, proposes at Catholic Noontide Club that a chapel be built at Kitty Hawk as a memorial to the Wrights. DECEMBER 17. Public observance of 35th anniversary of the first successful airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, N.C., is held at the National Cash Register auditorium in Dayton. Henry Ford is guest of Orville at small dinner party at his home. Other guests are Fred I. Black, Charles E Kettering, and Col. Edward A. Deeds. In interview at his laboratory in Dayton, Orville states, "Our laboratory experiments made the first flight possible" and "Todays most important advances in the airplane itself again are coming from the study of aerodynamics." A Chronology • 55 1939 JANUARY 3. Orville made honorary life member of National Inventors Association, but, in letter of January l4, Orville declines because it was in general practice to do so when he knew little about the organization conferring the honor. JANUARY 19. Representative Thomas A. Jenkins, of Ohio, introduces H.J. Res. 123, providing for the completion of the unfinished frieze in the Capitol rotunda depicting the history of aviation, including the invention of the airplane by the Wright brothers. JANUARY 26, Representative J. Hardin Peterson, of Florida, introduces H.J. Res. 134, designating August 19, Orvilles birth- day, as Aviation Day, Similar bills were introduced by Representative Jennings Randolph, of West Virginia, H.J. Res. 147, on February 2; Representative William A, Ashbrook, of Ohio, HJ. Res 229, on March 25; and Senator Claude Pepper, of Florida, S.J. Res, 111, on April 3. FEBRUARY 14, Wright Library, located in Katharine Wright Park in the Oakwood section of Dayton, and honoring Orville, Wilbur, and Katharine, dedicated, with Orville in attendance. Orville served as vice president of the library board. FEBRUARY 20, Dayton civic and business leaders, including Orville, call on Brig. Gen, Augustine W. Robins to express regret at his leaving Dayton and wish him well in his new assignment as chief of the Air Corps Primary Training School at Randolph Field, Tex. MARCH 4, Orville named honorary member of Aerial Nurse Corps of America. MARCH 24. Orville attends luncheon in Dayton honoring Brig. Gen. George H. Brett, new chief of Air Force Materiel Division, Wright Field. APRIL 15' Orville attends spring dinner meeting of Gridiron Club at Willard Hotel in Washington, leaving Dayton by automobile on April 14. APRIL 16. Harry and Douglas Corrigan and Dr. John C. Wynkoop among those paying their respects to Orville on his visit to Washington. APRIL 18. Orville, accompanied by Earl N. Findley and Capt. William J. Tate, visits Kitty Hawk, N.C. APRIL 20. Orville attends semiannual meeting of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in Washington. Following this meeting Orville confers with fellow member Charles A. Lindbergh on Orville's controversy with the Smithsonian Institution. MAY 15* Orville, at Engineers' Club of Dayton, joins in per- sonal tribute to Dr. Arthur E. Morgan, creator of Miami Valley flood prevention system. JUNE 9. Orville is passenger on 30-minute flight over Dayton in Douglas DC-4 aircraft, piloted by Benny Howard. Fellow passengers are Maj. Carl A. Cover, vice president of the Douglas Aircraft Co., and William F. Mentzer, chief engi- neer for United Airlines. JUNE 12. Orville attends commencement exercises at Earlham College at which Herbert Hoover is given honorary degree. Orville marches in procession with Herbert Hoover and the president of Earlham College, David Worth Dennis. JUNE 30. Senator Claude Pepper, Florida, introduces S. 2735 granting Orville honorary pilot certificate No. 1. The bill passed the Senate August 1, 1939, the House June 6, 1940, and was approved by President Roosevelt June 13, 1940. AUGUST. Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences in New York announces receipt of collection of aeronautical materials of Hart O. Berg, business associate of the Wrights, including valuable and rare photographs, books, and clippings, which provide doc- umentary material on the early work of the Wright brothers. AUGUST 19. Designated National Aviation Day by proclama- tion of President Roosevelt on July 25. AUGUST 20, Weekly Dayton municipal band concert at Island Park is dedicated to the Wright brothers in recognition of Orvilles birthday and National Aviation Day on August 19. AUGUST 28. Orville elected honorary member of the Minnicog Yacht Club, Georgian Bay, Ontario. SEPTEMBER 9. National Federation of Post Office Clerks, at annual meeting in Houston, Tex., confers honorary membership on Orville "in recognition of his illustrious achievements as the first pilot of an airplane in successful flight." OCTOBER 6. Newly organized post of the Regular Veterans Association in Fairfield, Ohio, adopts name of Wright Brothers Post No. 140 in honor of Wilbur and Orville. NOVEMBER 6. Orville bequeathed, by will of his cousin Mrs. Emma Zeller Dennis, a white china tea set and a chest of draw- ers belonging to his grandfather. The heirlooms were subsequently presented to the Edison Institute, Dearborn, Mich. NOVEMBER 16. Dr. Vannevar Bush, chairman of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, in Dayton to attend annual meeting of NACA, is guest at home of Orville. NOVEMBER 20. Vilhajalmur Stefansson, Arctic explorer, in Dayton on a lecture tour, is house guest of Orville. DECEMBER L Lorin Wright, older brother of Orville and president of Miami Wood Specialty Company, dies in Dayton, age 77. DECEMBER 4-8. Air Line Pilots Association, at annual con- vention, votes Orville honorary life membership. 56 • WUbur & OrviUe Wright Association President David I. Behncke planned to present membership certificate personally to Orville in Dayton but, unable to do so, sends it to him on November 15, 1940. 1940 FEBRUARY 25^ Orville made honorary life member of Dayton Exchange Club. FEBRUARY 27^ Orville is among those honored at National Pioneers Banquet sponsored by the National Association of Manufacturers at Waldorf Astoria Hotel, N.Y., and is awarded a Modern Pioneer Plaque designed by the noted sculptor Rene Chambellan. MARCH 5. Orville accepts appointment to serve on National Committee to Sponsor the Sesquicentennial of the Founding of the Patent Office. APRIL 16. On second anniversary of dedication of the restored Wright brothers' home and workshop in Dearborn, Henry Ford, in telegram to Orville, expresses his further appreciation at hav- ing the two buildings in Dearborn as a memorial to the achieve- ments of the Wrights. Similar messages were received from Henry Ford by Orville in 1941, 1943, 1944, and 1945. MAY 18, Orville accepts honorary chairmanship of organization in Dayton with purpose of enrolling 1 , 1 00 men for Army Air Corps training. MAY 27* Senator Robert R. Reynolds, of North Carolina, intro- duces S.J. Res. 265, authorizing issuance of an airmail National Aviation Day stamp to be placed on first-day sale on August 19, 1940, at Kitty Hawk, N.C., as representing the state in which the first successful airplane flight was made. JUNE 8, Orville is among Dayton civic leaders honoring Mrs. Julia Carnell at dinner at the Dayton Art Institute, of which she was a benefactor. JULY. Wright 1903 airplane removed for second time from place of exhibit in Science Museum in London and placed in storage for duration of war to protect against war damage. JULY 10. Representative Harry R. Sheppard, of California, introduces H.J. Res. 584, providing for the return of the Wright 1903 airplane to the United States, to be placed on permanent exhibit under such conditions as may be jointly approved by Orville Wright and the Congress. JULY 27. Secretary of Commerce Harry L Hopkins designates Orville as member of National Inventors Council. AUGUST 19. Wilbur and Orville Wright Memorial, in Dayton, on Wright Brothers Hill, overlooking the site of Huffman Prairie, where the Wrights experimented with their airplanes of 1904 and 1905, is dedicated. Dedicatory address is delivered by publisher and former Ohio Governor James M. Cox, a personal friend of Orville. Unveiling of the monument is by Leontine Jameson and Marianne Miller, grandnieces of Orville. Tablets on the monument pay tribute to the Wrights and list the names of 119 pioneer flyers who learned to fly under the Wright brothers. Edward P. Warner, vice chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board presents Orville with Honorary Pilot s Certificate No. 1 . AUGUST 27. Representative Robert I. Mounton, of Louisiana, introduces H.J. Res. 595, authorizing the participation of the United States in the celebration of a Pan American Aviation Day, to be observed annually on December 17. Similar resolutions were introduced by Representative Charles A. Plumley, of Vermont, on August 29, H.J. Res. 597, and by Senator William H, Smathers, of New Jersey, on September 6, S. J. Res. 295. The resolution passed the Senate on September 30, the House on October 2, and was signed by President Roosevelt on October 10, OCTOBER 16. President Roosevelt visits Dayton and is accompanied by Orville on a tour of the area. NOVEMBER 18. The President proclaims December 17, 1940, and each December 17 thereafter, as Pan American Aviation Day. 1941 APRIL 25. Orville meets with Archibald McLeish, Librarian of Congress, in Washington to discuss Wilburs letters to Octave Chanute in the Chanute collection of the Library of Congress, requesting that Wilbur's letters be excluded from public inspection. The request was denied on legal grounds. JUNE 12. Orville is honored guest at ceremonies dedicating Wright Aeronautical Corporations new Wright Plant in Lockland, Ohio, suburb of Cincinnati. AUGUST 19. Orville observes 70th birthday at his summer home on Lambert Island, Georgian Bay, Canada. OCTOBER 23. Orville visits National Inventors Council headquarters in the Department of Commerce building in Washington. NOVEMBER 29. Orville is among 150 industrial civic leaders attending luncheon at Dayton Country Club who pledge money for purchase of land to afford access to Dayton Municipal Airport Administration building. 1942 MAY 7. Orville presented in Dayton with honorary membership certificate by the National Federation of Post Office Clerks. The membership had been conferred on him on September 9, 1939, at the Federations annual meeting. MAY 27. Fred C. Crawford, president of Thompson Products, Inc., Cleveland, sends Orville original painting by Charles H. Hubbell entitled "Wright Biplane-1903" appearing in Thompson Products calendar for 1 94 1 in which early airplanes are depicted. JUNE 27. Orville declares that Grover Cleveland Bergdoll, early Wright Flying School student, was unduly persecuted by the War A Chronology • 57 Department and was maligned by newspapers at the instigation of the U.S. Army. Orville attends exercises in commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the birth of Negro poet Paul Laurence Dunbar at Dunbar's home in Dayton, OCTOBER 2L Orville attends dinner given by Curtis C. Schiffeler, manager of the Hotel Raleigh in Washington, D.C., to meet Chief Justice and Mrs. Harlan Stone. OCTOBER 24, Smithsonian Institution brochure The 1914 Tests of the Langley "Aerodrome" is published, containing apologies and retractions of former statements and marking the end of the Smithsonian- Wright controversy. NOVEMBER 20, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, London, confers honorary life membership on Orville. 1943 MAY. Orville Wright Air Scout Squadron organized in Dayton. MAY 13. Orville attends dedication of new National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics' Aircraft Engine Research Laboratory (now Lewis Research Center in Cleveland). First authorized biography of Wright brothers, Wright Brothers, by Fred C. Kelly, published by Harcourt Brace and Co., New York. MAY 24, Orville given the Copernican citation "for pioneering in aviation" by the Kosciuszko Foundadon in New York at program commemorating 400th anniversary of the death of Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus. He is imable to attend ceremony. AUGUST 20. Orville accepts two scale models of Wright aircraft presented to Dayton Art Institute by Air Scouts, division of Boy Scouts of America. AUGUST 24. Orville, as member, attends meeting of National Inventors Council in Cleveland. OCTOBER 5. Gov. J. Melville Broughton, of North Carolina, proclaims December 17 as Kitty Hawk Day and as a day of tribute to the Wright brothers. OCTOBER 7. President Roosevelt invites Orville to come to Washington on December 17 to be honored at dinner on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the first flights by the Wright brothers in 1903. Orville accepts in a letter to the President dated October 16. In a following letter dated November 16 Orville accepts the President's suggestion that announcement of the future return of the 1903 Wright airplane from England be made at this dinner. OCTOBER 20. To commemorate the 40th anniversary of the first successful airplane flights by Wilbur and Orville, Representative Harry P. Jeffrey, of Ohio, submits HJ. Res. 175, expressing the "gratitude of the nation." Senator Robert R Taft, of Ohio, submits similar resolution, SJ, Res. 90, in Senate on October 21. Favorable reports are submitted by Representative Donald I. O'Toole, November 16, and by Senator Clyde S. Bailey, December 3. President Roosevelt signed the resolution on December 17. NOVEMBER 2. OrviUe, en route to his laboratory is slightly injured in accident in Dayton when his automobile is struck by another. Interview by Fred C. Kelly published in Dayton Daily News and New York Herald Tribune, in which Orville reminisces, deploring the role of airplane in war and stressing the benefits of flying. NOVEMBER 3, Orville is honored guest at dinner given by the Lawyers Club of Dayton in celebration of the 50th anniversary of admission to bar of Ezra M. Kuhns, secretary of general counsel for the National Cash Register Company, Dayton. DECEMBER. U.S. Air Services publishes 40th anniversary issue honoring Wright brothers. The issue included "Our Life at Kitty Hawk" by Orville, consisting of excerpts of letters written at Kitty Hawk by Orville and Wilbur to their sister, Katharine, in Dayton, and contributions by Dr. George W. Lewis, Grover Loening, Gen. Henry H. Arnold, Col. T. DeWitt Milling, Maj. Gen. Benjamin D. Foulois, Glenn I. Martin, Gen. Frank R Lahm, Thomas R. Reed, Comdr. Allan F. Bonnalie, Maj. Al Williams, Capt. William J. Tate, and Gov. J. Melville Broughton. DECEMBER 8. Orville writes Col. E.E.B. Mackintosh, director and secretary of the Science Museum, London, of his decision to have the Kitty Hawk airplane returned to the United States and informs him that the public announcement of this fact is to be made by President Roosevelt on December 17. DECEMBER 13, Gov. John W Bricker proclaims week of December 17 as Ohio Aviation Week. DECEMBER 16. Orville, together with Dn William S. Farren, of England, is honored at dinner at Shoreham Hotel in Washington, D.C. DECEMBER 17. Orville attends private luncheon of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics in Washington and later attends regular meeting of NACA. Member of Cabinet and other high-ranking government officials, military, diplomatic, and aviation representatives join in tribute to Orville at dinner at Statler Hotel in Washington, D.C, in observance of 40th anniversary of 1903 flight. Orville is presented with plaque sent by Dayton Chamber of Commerce "for his world leadership in aviation, not only in its infant years, but during the four decades of its development, for his scientific attainments, and for his exemplification of the higher ideals of citizenship." President Roosevelt, in message read at dinner, announces that the Wright 1903 airplane will be returned to the United States from England after the war. A reception for Orville is held before the dinner. Orville presents Robert J. Collier Trophy to his former student Gen, Henry H. Arnold for outstanding achievement in aviation in 1943. 58 • Wilbur & Orvaie Wright "Working for Wings," photo-story of aviation cadet training at Santa Ana Army Air Base, Santa Ana, Calif., dedicated to Orville and Wilbur. DECEMBER 19. Orville receives honorary doctor of engineering degree from the University of Dayton in "recognition of his achievements in aeronautical science and of his service." DECEMBER 29. A two-ton marble monument commemorating early Wright flights is unveiled at Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, Ala. On the site of the Wright brothers first civilian pilot training school. 1944 Orville constructs cypher machine for automatic selective coding of messages. JANUARY 8. Representative Harry P. Jeffrey, of Ohio, presents Orville with copy of joint resolution passed by House of Representatives on November 24 and by Senate on December 3 to commemorate the first successful flight of a heavier-than-air flying machine in 1903. APRIL 4. Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce of America confers honorary life membership to Orville. APRIL 26, Orville is passenger on Army C-69 Lockheed Constellation demonstration flight over Dayton, originating from Wright Field, and handles the controls for a short period. JUNE 16. Orville among aviation leaders attending meeting of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences at Engineers* Club in Dayton. JULY 21. Orville attends ceremonies marking the production of the 50,000th airplane engine carburetor manufactured by Chandler Evans Corp. in Dayton. AUGUST 4-5. Orville participates in meeting of the Institute of Aeronautical Sciences in Dayton. AUGUST 24. Keel of U.S.S. Wright laid. NOVEMBER 30. Orville receives certificate of Ufe membership in Rotary Club of Dayton. DECEMBER 16. Orville, interviewed in Dayton by James V. Piersol, declares that airpower always will be the backbone of the international policy of nations. DECEMBER 17. Orville attends meetings of the National Aeronautic Association and the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences in Washington. On this occasion, as a previous recipient of the Robert J. Collier Trophy, he was presented with a certificate of award for the year 1913. 1945 MARCH 29. Orville attends graduation ceremonies of Army Air Force Engineering School in Dayton. APRIL 3. Orville gives to Huntington College, Huntington, Ind., books and publications of a religious nature which had belonged to his father. JULY 14. Wright 1903 airplane reassembled at South Kensington Science Museum following return of plane from underground storage for safekeeping during World War IL AUGUST 1. Orville participates in review in Dayton of officers and troops from Wright and Patterson Fields marking 38th birthday celebration of Army Air Force. AUGUST 30. Orville visits Hudson Motor Car Company factory in Detroit and views first 1946 model Hudson automobile to come off assembly line. SEPTEMBER 1. Aircraft carrier U.S.S. Wright, named for Wilbur, launched and christened at Camden, N.J., by Mrs. Harold S. Miller, niece. Miss Marianne Miller, her daughter, is maid of honor. It was commissioned February 9, 1947. OCTOBER 12-13. Orville views Air Technical Service Command Fair at Wright Field, Dayton. OCTOBER 20. Orville rides with Gen. George C. Kenney, U.S. Army Air Force, in parade honoring General Kenney on his return to Dayton from the Far East. Orville later attends banquet in General Kenney's honor. DECEMBER 17. Orville is guest of honor at luncheon at Wright Field in observance of 42d anniversary of Wright brothers' flight at Kitty Hawk. He later tours Wright Fields radar and aircraft design laboratories and visits the Wright brothers' memorial in the field's museum building. 1946 JANUARY 30. Orville among civil and military dignitaries honoring Lt. Gen, Nathan R Twining, commanding general of Army Air Force Air Technical Service Command in Dayton. JANUARY 31. Orville participates in dinner marking anniversary of Dayton District Development Committee. APRIL President Harry S, Truman signs the certificate of the Award of Merit to Orville for distinguished service with the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics during World War II. Due to delays, the award ceremony was not scheduled to take place until two years later, when plans were made for Orville to come to Washington on January 1 5 for the presentation. But his health would not permit, and he died without personally receiving the award. MAY 17. Orville elected honorary member of the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America. JUNE 24. Orville is luncheon guest of Deane W Malott, chancellor of University of Kansas in Lawrence, Kans. Orville was in Lawrence to attend wedding of his grandniece, Margaret Steeper, on June 23. JULY 18. Orville is guest of the Dayton Rotary Club and meets Dr. Carroll A. Hochwalt and hears him discuss the results of the Bikini atomic bomb tests. A Chronology • 59 JULY 20, Orville receives Air Scout encampment delegation at his home and is given official copy of program of encampment at Wright Field. AUGUST Ohio General Assembly adopts H.R. No, 136, introduced by Ohio State Representative John Poda, extending felicitations to Orville on his 75th birthday. AUGUST 16. In prepared statement Orville decries injection of socialism and capitalism into Paris Peace Conference negotiations. AUGUST 19. On his 75th birthday Orville is honored at luncheon given by close friends and associates in Dayton. At his laboratory he later is presented by Maj. Gen. Lawrence C. Craigie, of the Air Materiel Command, with a plaque on behalf of the Army Air Force commemorating his contributions to aeronautics. AUGUST 29. Orville is among distinguished guests honoring his friend, Charles F. Kettering, research director of General Motors Corp., at program in Central Park, Loudonville, Ohio, on his birthday. SEPTEMBER 25. Gael Sullivan, second assistant postmaster general, presents Orville with new five-cent airmail stamp album in ceremonies in Dayton marking the arrival of first "flying postoffice." OCTOBER I. Orville attends meeting of Engineers' Club in Dayton and hears talk by Charles F, Kettering on the future of science and engineering. DECEMBER 9. Original Wright brothers' wind tunnel balances, misplaced when moved December 6, 1916, discovered in attic of Orvilles laboratory in Dayton. DECEMBER 12. War Department and Navy Department send Orville certificate of appreciarion for patriotic service in aiding the prosecution of the war as a member of the National Inventors Council. DECEMBER 17, President Harry S. Truman sends a congratu- latory telegram to Orville "on behalf of your fellow countrymen" on the 43d anniversary of first successful airplane flight at Kitty Hawk, N.C. Dayton friends greet him at his office, and 200 fighter planes fly over Wright Memorial in salute. Lt. Gen. Nathan F. Twining places memorial wreath on grave of Wilbur in observance of this occasion. 1947 JANUARY 6. Representative Thomas A. Jenkins, of Ohio, introduces H.J. Res. 36, providing for the utilization of a part of the unflnished portion of the historical frieze in the Capitol rotunda to portray the history of aviation, including the portrayal of the achievements of Wilbur and Orville Wright. JANUARY 21. Vilhajalmur Stefansson spends afternoon visiting Orville in Dayton at his laboratory. JANUARY 28. In special ceremony Gen. Henry H. Arnold places wings autographed by Orville at highest point on the Fliers Wall at the international shrine for aviators at the Mission Inn, Riverside, Calif FEBRUARY 9. U.S.S. Wright (CVL 49) commissioned at U.S. Naval Base, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. Harold S. Miller, niece of Wilbur, is sponsor. FEBRUARY 14. In letter to Dr. Henry B. Allen, secretary of die Franklin Institute, Orville states that he has arranged for the Wright brothers' original airfoils and 1 90 1 wind tunnel balances to become the property of the Franklin Institute, but to be retained by Orville for such time as he has a personal use for them. APRIL 8. Orville pays tribute to Henry Ford, his friend of many years, on his death on April 7. Orville declares, "He did more to promote the welfare of the American people, and particularly the working class, than any man who ever lived in this country. The present great wealth of this country has come indirectly from Mr. Ford through his development of mass production." APRIL 9-10. Orville attends funeral services held in Detroit for Henry Ford and is seated with the Ford family. MAY 3. As a special guest Orville attends ceremonies on day honoring Col. and Mrs. Edward A. Deeds at Denison University, Granville, Ohio. JUNE 9. Otterbein College, Westerville, Ohio, confers honorary doctor of science degree on Orville. JULY 7. Orville, in interview, criticizes wide publicity given to reports of flying saucers and states that he believes "there is no scientific basis for the existence of this phenomenon." AUGUST 27. Wright Field officials announce that a replica of an early Wright brothers' glider, carefiilly constructed under the supervision of Orville in the 1930s, apparently had been destroyed during World War II to provide needed space for the expanded labor force required during the war. SEPTEMBER 20, Orville participates in Earlham College's centennial celebration, Richmond, Ind., and serves as honorary chairman of the colleges "Second Century" building campaign. OCTOBER. Gertrude Steins Four In America, published posthumously, includes an essay on Wilbur Wright. Miss Steins interest in Wilbur stemmed from seeing the monument erected in his honor in Le Mans. OCTOBER 10. Orville suffers heart attack on way to meeting at National Cash Register Company in Dayton and is taken to Miami Valley Hospital. Following a brief stay he returns to his home on October 14. NOVEMBER L Marble bust of Wilbur, the work of the Italian sculptor Pier Gabriele Vangelli and the gift of Italian airplane designer Gianni Caproni, unveiled in ceremony at Centocelle Airport, near Rome, where Wilbur first flew on April 15, 1909. It was planned that reproductions of the bust would be given at a later date to the U.S. Air Force and to the City of Dayton. 60 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright DECEMBER Louis R Christman, under direction of Orville, commences preparation of set of drawings of Wright 1903 motor which he completes after Orville's death. The drawings were subsequendy given to the Smithsonian Institution by Educational and Musical Arts, Inc., which operated the Carillon Park Museum in Dayton which houses the restored 1905 Wright airplane. DECEMBER 7. Orville visited by George Truman and Clifford Evans, private fliers, who stopped in Dayton on the final leg of their round-the-world flight. DECEMBER 23, Wright No. 3 horizontal airplane motor, on loan to Edison Institute since April 1, 1938, returned to Orville in Dayton. In letter to Edison Institute on November 18, Orville, had stated, "The No. 3 motor was of no historical importance, since it was never used except for experimental purposes in the shop." DECEMBER 26, Orville receives scroll, painted and prepared by Clayton Knight, from Air Service Post No. 50, American Legion, signed by prominent aviators attending Frank Hawks Memorial Trophy Award dinner in New York on December 17 commemorating Wright brothers' first flight. 1948 JANUARY 27, Orville enters Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton for treatment following second heart attack at his laboratory. JANUARY 30, Orville, age 77, dies of heart attack at Miami Valley Hospital. FEBRUARY L President and Mrs. Harry S. Truman are among those sending messages of sympathy to Wright family following death of Orville. Tributes to him are paid by his friends Charles E Kettering, inventor, and Col. Edward A. Deeds, chairman of the boardi National Cash Register Company, and by leading citizens, top-ranking officials at Wright Field, and representatives of the organizadons in which he was active: Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and National Aeronautic Association. FEBRUARY 2, Funeral services for Orville arc conducted at the First Baptist Church in Dayton, of which he was a member, and he is eulogized by the pastor, Rev. Dr. Charles L. Seasholcs, who, according to the Dayton Daily News, termed Mr. Wright a genius, ytt "a man who was just one of folks like us — middle-class, mid-Western American, with simple, devout parents, and simple and modest way of life." A large and distinguished group of persons pay homage and tribute to Orville at the funeral. Gen. Carl Spaatz, U.S. Air Force, heads a group of Washington officials attending the funeral, including Dr. Alexander Wetmorc, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, John E Victory, secretary of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, and Dr. Francis W. Rcichelderfer, chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau. Burial is in Woodland Cemetery in Dayton in the family plot near his sister Katharine and his brother Wilbur. FEBRUARYS. Orville's will admitted to probate, and Harold S. Miller and Harold W. Steeper, both nephews by marriage, named as coexecutors of the estate. The will provides that the original Wright airplane should remain in possession of the Science Museum, South Kensington, London, unless he had written to the museum before his death requesting its return. The Franklin Institute receives the original metal airfoils used by Wilbur and Orville in their wind tunnel research in 1901-1903. All of Orville's bronzes and all gold or other medals are willed to the Dayton Art Institute. All correspondence, files, and papers held by Orville at his death are to be turned over by the executors to such institution or institutions as they see fit. OberHn College is bequeathed $300,000. The major part of the residual estate is willed to surviving relatives and several former employees. FEBRUARY 18, The coexecutors of the Orville Wright estate announce that in accordance with Orville's wishes the original Wright 1903 airplane deposited in the Science Museum in London will be returned to the United States and placed in the custody of the National Museum in Washington. FEBRUARY 20-23. Orville's laboratory at 15 North Broadway in Dayton, where he conducted many of his experiments, is dismantled and equipment and machinery removed. APRIL 24, Wright Skyway between Los Angeles and Washington dedicated and bronze tablet erected at Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio. SEPTEMBER 12-16. Diary of Orville Wright, describing first successful flight in 1903, is shown pubHcly for the first time in Library of Congress exhibit commemorating Air Force Day and centennial of American Association for the Advancement of Science. SEPTEMBER 16, Dayton probate court records reveal Orville leaves estate valued at $1,023,903. OCTOBER 18, In ceremony at the Science Museum, London, Wright 1903 airplane is removed from exhibit and handed over to Mr. Livingston Satterthwaite, American civil air attache, who received it on behalf of the American government for return to the United States. NOVEMBER 11, National Cash Register Company purchases Wright home in Dayton for $75,000 and redecorates it as guest house for company's distinguished visitors but leaves Orville's library intact as a shrine to the Wright brothers. NOVEMBER 22. Crated Wright 1903 airplane arrives at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington from England. The airplane had been placed aboard the Mauretania, which, due to a strike, docked in Halifax. The plane was transferred to the Navy carrier Palau, which delivered it to Brooklyn, from whence it was transported to Washington by Navy truck. DECEMBER 15* Orville Wright estate distributed. DECEMBER 17* Formal presentation of the Wright brothers' 1903 airplane to the Smithsonian Institution following its return to America from the Science Museum in London, where A Chronology • 61 it had been exhibited since 1928, is made in the Arts and Industries Building of the National Museum. The ceremonies are opened by Dr. Alexander Wetmore, secretary, Smithsonian Institution. Greetings are extended by Chief Justice of the United States and Chancellor of the Smithsonian Institution Fred M. Vinson. A message from President Harry S. Truman is delivered by his Air Force aide, Col. Robert M. Landry. The Wright airplane is presented to the nation by Milton Wright, of Dayton, Ohio, nephew of Orville, on behalf of the estate of Orville Wright and accepted by Chief Justice Vinson. The formal acceptance address is delivered by Vice-President-Elect Alben W. Barkley, a regent of the Smithsonian. The British ambassador, Sir Oliver Franks, delivers a talk on "Britain and the Wright Brothers." First presentation of the Wright Memorial Trophy, founded by Dr. Godfrey Lowell Cabot to be awarded annually by the National Aeronautic Association for "significant public service of enduring value to aviation in the United States," is made at dinner of the National Aeronautic Association in Washington. The trophy is a miniature silver replica of the Wright brothers' 1903 powered airplane mounted on replica of commemorative boulder at Kitty Hawk that marks takeoff point for the Wrights' first flights. The recipient, Dr. William F. Durand, was unable to attend. DECEMBER 25. Colliers publishes special commemorative section dedicated to the Wright brothers. The issue included Orville's diary account of the December 17, 1903, first flight; "My Story of the Wright Brothers," by Charles E. Taylor, Wright mechanic; and a painting of the Wright brothers by Arthur Lidov from a portrait photograph by Hollinger & Company, 1907, donated by Orville to the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences. Melbourne Brindle presents his painting "The Kitty Hawk Plane," originally done for Colliers and reproduced in its December 25 issue, to the National Air Museum. Group of heirs of the Orville Wright estate purchase the original Wright wind tunnel from the estate and present the tunnel to Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. 1949 APRIL, Wright brothers are honored in ceremony in Italy at Centocelle Airport in observance of the 40th anniversary of Wilbur s first flights there when training Italy's first military flier, Lt. Mario Calderara. Italian government represented by Manillo Zerbinati, president of Aero Club d'ltalia, and Giovanni Pedace, secretary general of Pionieri dell'Aeronautica society; American Ambassador James C. Dunn accepts copy of bust of Wilbur unveiled at Centocelle November 1, 1947, for United States. MAY 27. Wright Papers received in Library of Congress following shipment from Dayton in accordance with agreement between the executors of the Orville Wright estate, Harold S. Miller and Harold W Steeper, and the Librarian of Congress, Luther H. Evans, executed on May 5, 1949. Public announcement is made by the Library of Congress on June 5. JUNE 30, Oberlin College establishes Wilbur-OrviUe Wright Memorial Fund in the Library of Congress to support the editing of the important scientific correspondence, technical writings, diaries, notebooks, and related papers of Wilbur and Orville deeded to the Library by the Orville Wright Estate. Original Oberlin College-Library of Congress agreement somewhat altered by subsequent agreement executed June 5, 1952. DECEMBER Z In flight sponsored by the Air Force Association in commemoration of first Wright flight, Thomas G. Lanphier, Jr., wartime ace, carrying message from President Truman calling for use of air power as a force for peace, dated November 23, completes record-breaking round-the-world trip via regular scheduled commercial airlines from LaGuardia Airport, N.Y., and return. DECEMBER 17. Commemorative six-cent airmail stamp honoring the Wright brothers is issued by the Post Office at Kitty Hawk, N.C. The Wright 1903 airplane is shown in flight. 1950 JANUARY 27. Bronze bust of Wilbur by Oskar J.W. Hansen presented to the Smithsonian Institution by Mr. and Mrs. Elmer E Weiboldt of North Garden, Va. APRIL 17. Max P. Baker, technical Advisor to the Orville Wright estate, presents paper entitled "The Wright Brothers as Aeronautical Engineers" at national aeronautic meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers, New York, giving details on the Wrights' 1901 wind tunnel experiments. The paper is subsequently published in SAE Quarterly Transactions, January 1951, with discussions entitled "Wright Brothers and Aerodynamics," by Francis H. Clauser; "Design, Structural Features of Wright Brothers Airplane," by Alexander Kartvelli; and "Powerplants Built by Wright Brothers," by Opie Chenoweth. JUNE, Original Wright 1 905 airplane, the assembly and restoration of which had been started under the supervision of Orville before his death, is displayed to the public for the first time in a building specially constructed to house it in Carillon Park, Dayton. Wilbur and Orville Wright Laboratory of Physics established at Oberlin College, 1951 APRIL 25. Reproduction of Wright 1903 airplane engine made by the De Havilland Technical School is presented to the Science Museum, South Kensington, London, JUNE 15* Miracle at Kitty Hawk: The Letters ofWilbur and Orville Wright, edited and selected by Fred C, Kelly, published by Farrar, Straus and Young, New York. The selected letters, fewer than 600, were written during the period April 1, 1881-October 9, 1946. 62 • Wilbur & Orville Wright 1952 JUNE 5. Library of Congress and Oberlin College execute new agreement, superseding that of June 30, 1949, for the publication of the Wright papers. The agreement provides for a two-volume chronological edition of all the papers relevant to the evolution of the airplane and the principles of flight discovered by the Wrights. NOVEMBER 12. President Harry S. Truman writes letter to Thomas W. S. Davis, acdng chairman, air coordinating committee, directing the air coordinating committee to make plans for observing the 50th anniversary of the Wright brothers' successfiil 1903 flight. DECEMBER 16. Gov. Thomas E. Dewey proclaims year-long period of celebration in New York to mark golden anniversary of the first heavier-than-air flight by the Wright brothers. 1953 National Committee to Observe the 50th Anniversary of Powered Flight is organized, James H. Doolitde, chairman. FEBRUARY 3. Indiana State Representative Clem Conway introduces H.J, Res. 15, designating the Wilbur Wright birth- place as a state memorial. The resolution passes the House on February 8 and is signed by Ind. Governor George M. Craig on March 9. FEBRUARY 13, Senator Pat McCarran, of Nevada, introduces S.J. Res. 42, providing for the proper participation of the U.S. government in a national year-long celebration, from December 17, 1952, to December 17, 1953. A companion resolution, H.J. Res. 193, was introduced in the House on February 18 by Representative Carl Hinshaw, of California. MARCH 11. Library of Congress announces availability of new improved print of the only photograph of the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk, N.C., on December 17, 1903. The print was made from the original glass-plate negative by the Library's Photoduplication Service with the aid of modern photographic equipment and techniques and shows details that were not visible in any known previous printing. The negative is one of 300 glass-plate negatives in the collection of Wilbur and Orville Wright materials given to the Library in 1949 by the Orville Wright estate. MARCH 25. Representative Peter E Mack, Jr., of Illinois, introduces H.K 4217, providing for the issuance of a special airmail postage stamp in commemoration of the anniversary. APRIL 16. Millville, Ind., residents observe Wilbur's birthday anniversary at gathering at his birthplace. MAY 22, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs Congressional resolution calling for "proper participation" by the federal gov- ernment in a national celebration. MAY 29, Commemorative six-cent airmail stamp issued by Post Office Department and placed on sale at Dayton, Ohio, in conjunction with the convention and exhibition of the American Air Mail Society. The central design of the stamp is a facsimile of the emblem created for the 50th Anniversary of Aviation, showing in silhouette the first Wright airplane and a modern plane in powered flight. JUNE 18. Gov. William B. Ulmstead, of North Carolina, appoints North Carolina 50th Anniversary Commission to assist, cooperate, and participate in the appropriate observance of the golden anniversary. JULY Aero Digest publishes 50th anniversary of powered flight commemorative issue. Includes "Wright Brothers: Worlds First Aeronautical Engineers," by M. P Baker; "Wright Flier," by Robert McLarren; and "Wright Chronology," by Arthur Renstrom. JULY 15^ Lt. Gen. James H. Doolitde dedicates a fiill-scale reproduction of the Wright brothers' 1903 airplane built cooperatively by 24 West Coast manufacturers and assembled by the Northrop Aeronautical Institute, The model is installed on permanent exhibition in the W. E Durand Aeronautical Museum of the Institute of the Aeronautical Sciences (now American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics) in Los Angeles. OCTOBER 13, Pioneers and leaders in aviation from Belgium, France, England, Germany, Holland, Brazil, Portugal, Canada, Mexico, and the United States, led by Adm. Richard E. Byrd, retrace steps of Wilbur and Orville to Kill Devil Hill, where they made their first successful flights. OCTOBER 25, Italian fliers drop a laurel wreath fi-om a helicopter on a bust of Wilbur Wright in front of the main air base building at Centocelle Air Base near Rome. NOVEMBER 2-8, New York City Mayor Vincent R. Impelliteri designates first week in November as "50th Anniversary of Powered Flight Week," with daily ceremonies and events, A daily air show is staged at the Battery, November 2-5, and at Mitchell Air Force Base on November 6-7. A Navy- built reproduction of the Wright 1903 airplane is displayed at Union Square. NOVEMBER 13, Library of Congress opens exhibit on history of aviation, including photographs and selections from papers of the Wright brothers. Dr, Jerome C. Hunsaker, professor of aeronautical engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology professor of aeronautical engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, speaks on a half-century of aviation development at the autumn general meeting of the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia. DECEMBER, Air Force magazine announces it is establishing Aviation Hall of Fame, with Wilbur and Orville as the two first nominations. DECEMBER 1, Kill Devil Hills Monument National Memorial renamed Wright Brothers National Memorial. DECEMBER 3, The Papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright pub- lished by McGraw-Hill Book Company. A Chronology ♦ 63 The publication was sponsored by Oberlin College on the Wilbur-Orville Wright Memorial Fund and edited by Marvin W. McFarland and stafFof the Aeronautics Division of the Library of Congress. It was based on the Wright papers deposited in the Library of Congress on May 27, 1949, by the Orville Wright estate. This work, long out of print, was reprinted and published by the Arno Press on June 23, 1972. DECEMBER 7. Life publishes summary by Ernest Havemann of selected letters from The Papers of Wilbur and Orville Wright, dealing with their early flights, especially the flights of December 17, 1903. The account is accompanied by color reproduction of the painting by John T McCoy, Jr., depicting the first flight. DECEMBER 10. New York Public Library opens exhibit of materials covering 200,000,000 years of flight by insect, bird, and man in celebration of 50th anniversary of Wright brothers' flight. DECEMBER 14-17* Nationwide celebration of 50th anniversary concludes with a four-day observance at Kill Devil Hill, sponsored by the Kill Devil Hills Memorial Society, the National Park Service, Air Force Association, and the North Carolina 50th Anniversary Commission. DECEMBER 14. "Pioneers & Private Flyers Day" opens die Wright Brothers National Memorial exercises. Address of welcome is by Frank P. Lahm, President, Kill Devil Hills Memorial Society. Wreaths are placed on the memorial by representatives of Dare County and the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association and the Civil Air Patrol stages memorial flight over the monument. The recendy reconstructed Wright brothers' camp at Kill Devil Hills is dedicated, with address by Elbert Cox, regional director, National Park Service, and the Wright buildings opened to the public. A glider salute and flag and wreath ceremony is conducted by the Soaring Society of America. DECEMBER 15. "Industry Day" at Kitty Hawk is observed by the placing of wreaths on the Wright memorial by representatives of the Air Transport Association and the Aircraft Industries Association. United States Marine Corps conducts memorial flight. United States, United Nations, and International Goodwill flags are raised in flag ceremony. DECEMBER 16. "Defense Day" at Kitty Hawk is observed by placing of wreaths on the Wright Brothers National Memorial by representatives of the Chamber of Commerce of Elizabeth City, N.Co and the Air Force Association. U.S, Air Force stages memorial flight, followed by airpower fly-by by Marine Corps, Army, and Air Force and flight perfection display by the USAF Thunderbirds. Dayton observes the anniversary by placing wreaths on the Wright Brothers Memorial in the presence of an honor guard from the military base, the Civil Air Patrol, the Ohio Air National Guard and reserve units, climaxed by a flying wreath formation of planes going over the memorial. In the evening a dinner is held at the Dayton Art Institute, at which Air Force Secretary Harold E. Talbert and Gen. Nathan F. Twining, Air Force Chief of Staff, are among the speakers. DECEMBER 17* "Anniversary Day" concludes four-day exercises held at Wright Brothers National Memorial. U.S. Coast Guard conducts wreath flight and U.S. Navy a memorial flight. In re-enactment of first flight Billy Parker, of Philips Petroleum Co., in 1912 pusher plane flies over site where Orville Wright flew the first 120 feet in aviation's first 12 seconds, James H. Doolittle, chairman of National Committee to observe the 50th Anniversary of Powered Flight, and Representative Carl Hinshaw, chairman. Joint Congressional Committee, deliver addresses at Wright memorial luncheon at Nags Head, N.C. Aero Club of Washington sponsors anniversary dinner at Statler Hotel in Washington attended by leaders in aviation and the aviation industry, at which President Dwight D. Eisenhower and radio entertainer Arthur Godfrey are among those paying tribute to the Wright brothers. Representative Ralph Harvey, of Ind., delivers memorial address at ceremony in Millville, Ind., birthplace of Wilbur, in observance of golden anniversary of flight by Wright brothers. Franklin Institute, in Philadelphia, opens exhibition of material deeded to it by Orville Wright, comprising all original wind-tunnel apparatus, model airfoils, test data, and drawings of the Wright brothers' early airplanes and engines, some airfoil models and aircraft models tested for the Wright Company at McCook Field during 1919, 1920, and 1921, as well as some of Orville's later experimental devices. Dayton Art Institute opens six-week art exhibit entitled "Flight, Fantasy, Faith, Fact." Exhibits included the institutes collection of medals, citations, and degrees conferred on the Wrights for their achievements, 1954 NOVEMBER 26. James G. Crowdier includes the Wright brodiers in his book She Great Inventors (London, Hamish Hamilton, 1954), stating that "For the purpose of this book, the Wright brothers have been regarded as one composite inventive personality. Their achievement was the residt of mutual inspiration and discussion, and their respective contributions cannot be separated." DECEMBER 17. Bronze and granite marker unveiled on Governors Island by Early Birds to commemorate historic flights to and from Governors Island, the first by Wilbur on September 29, 1909. A bronze propeller cast from a wooden one used on the first military airplane built by the Wrights in 1909 is mounted on one side of the monument. 1955 JANUARY 16. CBS television program "You Are There" reconstructs events of December 17, 1903. FEBRUARY 9^ Orville Wright School, Dayton, Ohio, dedicated at ceremonies presided over by Mrs. Richard FuUerton, president, Orville Wright Parent-Teacher Association. NOVEMBER In poem published in Adantic Monthly entitled "Kitty Hawk," Robert Frost pays tribute to Wright brothers. 64 • Wilbur & Orville Wright NOVEMBER 1. Wilbur elected to Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University. 1957 APRIL 10, Ohio State Senators Lowell Fess and Theodore M. Gray introduce S. 23, to authorize the department of public works to direct the Ohio Historical Society to obtain a painting of the Wright brothers. A painting by Dwight Mutchler was subsequently com- missioned and installed in the Ohio State Capitol in Columbus on December 17, 1959. DECEMBER 17* As part of the 54th anniversary ceremonies of the Wrights' first flight, Conrad L. Wirth, director of the National Park Service, breaks ground for the beginning of construction of a new visitor center at the Wright Brothers National Memorial at Kitty Hawk, N.C. 1958 JULY 6, Le Mans, France, commemorates Wilbur s first flight at the Hunaudidres race course, near Le Mans, on August 8, 1908, and holds exhibit of memorabilia relating to this event. SEPTEMBERS. Department of die Army, Department of die Air Force, and Military District of Washington hold program com- memorating 50th anniversary of first airplane flight from a military installation by Orville at Fort Myer, Va., and the first major air accident to military personnel, occurring on September 17, 1908. A monument is dedicated to Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge, who was killed in an accident on that date while a passenger with Orville. 1959 MARCH 2, Senator James E. Murray of Montana, introduces S. 1212, providing for revision of boundaries of Wright Brothers National Memorial at Kitty Hawk. Representative Herbert C. Bonner, of North Carolina, introduces companion bill, H.R. 5488, in House on March 10. AUGUST 31. Representative Joseph W. Martin, Jr„ of Massachusetts, introduces HJ. Res, 513, designating December 17, 1959, as "Wright Brothers Day" Resolution passes House September 3 and Senate September 9. SEPTEMBER 2L President Dwight D. Eisenhower proclaims December 17, 1959, as "Wright Brothers Day" DECEMBER 17. "Wilbur and Orville Wright and Their Accomplishments," by Dwight Mutchler, unveiled and dedicated in Columbus, Ohio. The oil painting was authorized by the Ohio General Assembly, May 1957, to be hung in the Ohio State Capitol Building. I960 Orville is nominated for election to Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University. JANUARY 1. Access to the Wright Papers in the Library of Congress, previously withheld by stipulation of deed of gift:, granted to the general public. JANUARY 19. Representative Martin, of Massachusetts, introduces H.J. Res. 559, designating the 17th day of December in each year as "Wright Brodiers Day" MAY 17. National Luchtvaart Museum, Schiphol Airport, Netherlands, opened to the public, A replica "Wright Flyer" is among aircraft displayed. DECEMBER 17. Visitor Center and Administration Center at Wright Brothers National Memorial dedicated by National Park Service. 1961 JANUARY 6. Representative Martin introduces H.J. Res. 109, designating the 17th day of December, 1961, as "Wright Brothers Day." 1962 National Aviation Hall of Fame, Dayton, established October 6, 1962, names Orville and Wilbur Wright as first two recipients of National Aviation Hall of Fame Award. 1963 MARCH 2 L Representative Martin introduces H.J. Res. 335, designating 17th day of December of each year as "Wright Brothers Day." MAY 3. Charles H. Gibbs-Smith, aeronautical historian long associated with the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, delivers lecture on Wright brothers before Royal Institution of Great Britain. The substance of the lecture was subsequently published with tide The Wright Brothers: A Brief Account of Their Work, 1899-1911 (London, H.M.S.O., 1963; revised 1969). DECEMBER 17 * Bronze memorial plaque, the work of Capt. Ralph S. Barnaby, gift of the Soaring Society of America, honoring the Wright brothers, unveiled at Wright Brothers National Memorial, Kitty Hawk, N.C, The presentation is made by Floyd Sweet, past president of the Society. Plaque consists of the likenesses of Wilbur and Orville in bas-relief with the caption "They Taught Us To Fly." The gliders which the Wrights flew at Kitty Hawk in 1 90 1 , 1 902, and 1 9 1 1 are depicted on the background of the plaque, House Joint Resolution 335, passed by House on October 7 and by the Senate on December 6, approved and proclaimed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, designating the 17th day of December of each year as "Wright Brothers Day" Reproduction of the Wright original 1903 "Flyer," a project of the National Capital Section of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, presented to the Wright National Memorial Museum at Kill Devil Hill. A Chronology # 65 1964 APRIL 8. Two oil portraits of Wilbur and Orville, painted by Efrem Melik, of New York, presented to National Air Museum, Smithsonian Institution, by Flight Safety Foundation, New York, AUGUST 20. Representative Ralph Harvey, of Ind., introduces Fi.R, 12459, authorizing the establishment of the Wilbur Wright National Monument in the State of Ind. NOVEMBER 13. President Lyndon B. Johnson proclaims December 17, 1964, as Wright Brothers Day 1965 One-eighth scale model of Wright brothers' 1903 airplane presented to National Aviation Hall of Fame, Dayton, by Eugene Kettering, chairman of the Board of National Aviation Hall of Fame. Model is to be displayed in the James M. Cox Dayton Municipal Airport until completion of a National Aviation Hall of Fame building. Model is the work of Joseph D. Fallo, Air Force Museum, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, and is based on detailed drawings in the Air Force Museum of the Wright airplane prepared by Louis P. Christman. JUNE 2L Orville is recommended as one of five nominees under consideration for election to Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University. OCTOBER 28. Orville is elected to Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University. 1966 JANUARY 3L The U.S. Air Force: A Pictorial History in Art, by James J. Haggerty and Warren R. Smith, is published by Books, Inc., New York, reproducing three Wright paintings from the Air Force Art Collection: "The Wright Brothers' First Power Flight," by Harvey Kidder, "Lieutenant Lahm's First Flight (with Orville)," by Richard Green, and "The Wright Brothers at Fort Myer," by John McCoy. DECEMBER 17. Wreaths are laid at foot of Wright Brothers Memorial at Kitty Hawk in observance of 63rd anniversary of Wright brothers' historic 1903 flight. A group of F- 102 Delta Dagger aircraft fly over monument in salute. 1967 Wright State University, located northeast of the city of Dayton and named for the Wright brothers, established as a public, state- assisted general university, to be responsive to the needs of the Miami Valley, the State of Ohio, and the Dayton area, APRIL 10, Representative Richard L. Roudebush, of Ind., introduces H.R. 8305, authorizing the Secretary of the Interior to accept and administer the birthplace of Wilbur Wright as a national monument. APRIL 16. One-hundredth anniversary of birth of Wilbur. MAY 7. Commemorative tablets and busts of Orville by Paul Fjelde and of Wilbur by Vincent Glinsky installed in the Hall of Fame for Great Americans at New York University. A Wright brothers medal designed by Paul Fjelde also is issued in commemoration of the event. DECEMBER 6. President Lyndon B. Johnson proclaims December 17, 1967, as Wright Brothers Day. DECEMBER 17. F-102 Dagger aircraft of the 1 96th Fighter Group, South Carolina National Guard, fly over Wright Brothers Memorial at Kitty Hawk in observance of 64th anniversary of Wright brothers' 1903 flights. 1968 APRIL. Library of Congress publishes Wilbur & Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating the Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Wilbur Wright, April 16, 1867, listing more than 2,000 printed and audiovisual research materials on the Wright brothers. DECEMBER 16. President Lyndon B. Johnson proclaims December 17, 1968, as Wright Brothers Day. DECEMBER 17. Museum of antique aircraft, Wings and Wheels, Santee Exhibitions, Inc., opened at Santee, S.C., to mark 65th anniversary of Wright brothers* 1903 flight. Replica "Kitty Hawk Flyer" is among aircraft displayed. 1969 DECEMBER IL President Richard M. Nixon proclaims December 17, 1969, as Wright Brothers Day 1970 Aviation Hall of Fame, Dayton, commences project to develop mosaic reproduction of Wright brothers' first powered flight. The mosaic, 60 by 20 feet, is to consist of more than 163,000 one-inch square tiles manufactured in Italy. Each tile bears a symbol related to the history of flight. Accompanying the mural are two pylons, each two feet square and eight feet high. Each pylon is dedicated to one of the Wright brothers (Wilbur and Orville) and is surfaced with 6,800 portrait tiles. The mosaic is to be set into the lobby of the Dayton Convention and Exhibition Center. Unveiling is scheduled for December 15, 1972. DECEMBER 10. President Richard M. Nixon proclaims December 17, 1970, as Wright Brothers Day 1971 JUNE 22. World premiere showing of film "The Wright Brothers: Orville and Wilbur" at the American Film Institute Theatre in Washington. The film was produced by Arthur and Evelyn Barron and Amanda C. Pope for the NET Playhouse Biography Series in cooperation with South Carolina Educational TV, G6 • Wilbur & Orville Wright AUGUST 19. Centennial of birth of Orville is observed as National Aviation Day and with appropriate ceremonies in Dayton. At a commemorative luncheon Grover Leoning reminisces on his association with Orville and the Wright Company as an aeronautical engineer, 1913-1914, and Mrs. Ivonette Miller relates anecdotes revealing personal qualities of her uncles, Orville and Wilbur. Gen. Jack Merrell, of the Air Force Logistics Command, places a wreath at the Wright Memorial. Wreaths also are placed on the graves of the Wright brothers in Woodland Cemetery. A Chronology • 67 68 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright FLIGHT LOG iMLor riMi: niSIANCl KIMAKKS 1900 Kitty Hawk, N.C. Wright 1900 Glider Wilbur arrived at Kitty Hawk, N.C, on September 13, followed by Orville on September 28, to commence active experiments with a fulisize glider of their own design. In the first experiments the Wrights sought to measure the lift, the drift, and the center of pressure of the glider and to calculate control and the lifting ability. William J. Tate, resident of Kitty Hawk, was present and assisted in many of their experiments. Relatively few pre- cise flight data on the 1 900 flights were recorded. Total time in the air was only about two minutes. However, these flights provided the Wrights with their first confir- mation of their flight theories. Three different days WW& 5-10 sec OW 2-3 ft The first day's experiments were attempted with a man aboard. Then the glider was flown as a kite, 2 to 4 hours each time Oct 10 20 ft Glider flown as kite. Glider was upset by wind and wrecked on Hill of the Wreck. Three days were required for repairs. Oct 17 Glider flown as kite. Oct 18 30 ft ca. 15-20 ft Glider flown as kite. 1901 Kitty Hawk, N.C.Wright 1901 Glider Using a machine similar to that constructed for their 1900 experiment but with the area of the wings increased from 165 square feet to 290 square feet, the Wrights, returning to Kitty Hawk in 1901, broke all previous records for distance in gliding. Detailed and specific records of all the 1901 experiments were not maintained and the exact number of flights is not known. An esti- mated 50-100 flights were made, with the gUder being tested in free gliding flights and as a kite, sometimes empty and sometimes loaded with a bag of sand. The flights ranged from about 20 feet to nearly 400 feet. Wilbur and Orville were assisted in their experiments by George A. Spratt, of Coatsville, Pa., and by Edward C. Huffaker, of Chuckey City, Tenn., both recommended by Octavo Chanute, who also spent a week at their camp and witnessed some of the their flights. The year's results were in general discouraging and not up to their expecta- tions; but the trials demonstrated that some of the most widely accepted laws, those regarding the travel of the center of pressure and the pressures on airplane surfaces, based primarily on the calculations of Otto Lilienthal, were mostly, if not entirely, incorrect. Jul 27 WW 50 ft About 17 gliders were made. It was not possible to get a free flight on many attempts. On the last flight the machine turned over. WW WW 20 ft 20 ft A Chronology • 69 FLIGHT PILOT TIMH DISTANCE ALTITUDE REMARKS 4 WW 40 ft 5 WW 50 ft 6 WW ca. 300 ft 7 WW 18 sec 370 ft 8 WW 18 sec 300 ft 9 WW 250 ft 10 WW 19 sec 315 ft Best glide of day. Jul 29 Four attempted flights were unsuccessful. Glider subsequently flown as kite. One experiment conducted with man aboard. Jul 30 Glider flown as kite. Jul 31 Number of trials made. No free flights. Aug 8 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 WW 6.2 sec 147 ft WW 4.3 sec 110ft WW 7.2 sec 137 ft WW 5.1 sec 93 ft WW .7 sec WW 12.1 sec 265 ft WW 12.3 sec 265 ft WW 10.7 sec WW 12.5 sec 366 ft WW 12.9 sec WW 389 ft WW 13.8 sec 325 ft WW 12 sec 260 ft WW 13 sec 280 ft WW 9.5 sec 225 ft WW 13.5 sec 225 ft WW 14.5 sec 230 ft WW 17.5 sec 280 ft The records of August 8 and 9 are from the diary of Octave Chanute, who was present at the tests conducted on these days. Aug 9 Kite test also made. Aug 13 150 ft 250 ft 200 ft 200 ft 70 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright 1901-1902 dait: FLIGHT PILOT TIME DISTANCF AITITUDE REMARKS Aug 14 Kite test and successful glides made. Aug 15 5-1/4 sec 4-3/4 sec 44 ft 33 ft Glides and kite test made. Aug 16 7-1/3: 39-1/2 ft Glides and kite test made. Aug 17 Experiments for year 1901 terminated. 1902 Kitty Hawk, N.C. Wright 1902 Glider On their third visit to Kitty Hawk, N.C., in 1902 the Wrights made 700-1,000 glides increasing their record for distance to 622-1/2 ft., for time to 26 seconds, and for angle of descent to 5 degrees for a glide of 156 ft. Orville has stated that the flights of 1902 demonstrated efficiency of their system of control for both longitudinal and lateral stability and also the fact that their tables of air pressure derived from their wind-tunnel tests would enable them to calculate in advance the performance of their flying machine. Sep 19 Glider first flown as kite, then about 25 glides made, none entirely free. Daniel Tate assists brothers in glides on this and subsequent days. Sep 20 WW WW 11 sec ca. 200 ft 140 ft Nearly 50 glides made September 19 and 20. Wilbur made free glide. Sep 22 Glider flown as kite. Sep 23 OW 160 ft Orville made first free flight. Altogether about 75 glides were made, varying in length from 150 to 225 ft and in duration from 10-12 seconds. Machine damaged in landing at end of day, requiring delay in experiments for several days to make necessary repairs. Sep 29 1 OW 10-1/4 sec 150 ft 2 OW 198 ft 3 OW 216 ft 4 OW 25 ft 5 OW 40 ft 6 WW 6-1/2 sec 98 ft 7 WW 25 ft 8 WW 25 ft 9 WW 25 ft 10 WW 6-3/5 sec 90 ft 11 WW 6-2/5 sec 100 ft 12 WW 9 sec 140 ft 13 WW 8-3/5 sec 132 ft A Chronology • 71 I)ISrAN( J Kl MAUKS 14 WW 123 ft 15 WW 7 sec 150 ft 16 WW 5-1/5 sec 112 ft 17 WW 8 sec 160 ft 18 WW 9-1/2 sec 150 ft 19 WW 9-1/4 sec 159 ft 20 WW 6 sec 120 ft 21 WW 13 sec 230 ft 22 WW 12-4/5 sec 212 ft 23 ow 180 ft 24 ow 111 ft 25 ow 5-1/4 sec 120 ft Sep 30 1 OW 183 ft 2 OW 8-1/5 sec 191 ft 3 WW 7-2/5 sec 145 ft 4 WW 5 sec 78 ft 5 WW 5-1/4 sec 125 ft 6 WW 8 sec 150 ft 7 WW 7 sec 150 ft 8 WW 5-3/4 sec 132 ft 9 WW 25 ft per sec (ca. 6-1/2 sec) 162 ft Lorin Wright, who arrived at Kitty Hawk on the morning of September 30, witnessed Wright gliding experiments carried out between this date and October 10. Oct 1 George A. Spratt arrived in afternoon and witnessed Wright gliding experiments between this date and October 17. 1 WW 101ft 2 WW 7-1/5 sec 150 ft 3 WW 9-4/5 sec 180 ft 4 WW 3-3/5 sec 93 ft 5 WW 8-2/5 sec 165 ft 6 ow 129 ft 7 ow 133 ft 8 ow 8 sec 142 ft 9 ow 150 ft 10 ow 8-3/5 sec 162 ft 72 • WUbur & OrvUlc Wright 1902 11 WW 310 ft 12 WW ca. 25 sec 320 ft 13 OW 9 sec 183 ft 14 OW 5-1/4 sec 123 ft 15 OW 9-1/4 sec 176 ft 16 OW 9-1/2 sec 202 ft 17 WW 11-4/5 sec 226 ft 18 WW 312 ft 19 WW 238 ft 20 WW 18 sec 287 ft 21 OW 7 sec 156 ft 22 WW 11-1/2 sec 205 ft 23 WW 10-1/5 sec 210 ft 24 OW 7 sec 156 ft 1 WW 16 sec 252 ft 2 WW 22 sec 328 ft 3 WW 320 ft 4 WW 351ft 5 OW 217 ft 6 OW 216 ft 7 WW 24-1/2 sec 506 ft 8 WW 24-1/2 sec 504 ft 9 WW 23-1/2 sec 550 ft Oct 2 Only a partial record of glides was kept. Oct 3 1 OW 279 ft 2 OW 14-1/4 sec 315 ft 3 WW 12-1/5 sec 189 ft 4 WW 318 ft 5 WW 8 sec 168 ft 6 WW 13-1/4 sec 255 ft No records were maintained for glides made in the morning and only a few for those made in the afternoon. Oct 8 1 WW 3 sec 45 ft 2 WW 12 sec 180 ft 3 WW 9-1/2 sec 180 ft 4 WW 10-1/4 sec 135 ft Octave Chanute and Augustus M. Herring, who had arrived at Kitty Hawk on October 5, were present at glides made on October 8, 9, and 10. A Chronology • 73 DISIANCK REMARKS 5 WW 11-2/5 sec 225 ft 6 WW 12-4/5 sec 235 ft 7 WW short glide 8 WW 13-1/5 sec 237 ft 9 WW short ghde 10 WW 9-2/5 sec 162 ft 11 ow 8-2/5 sec 148 ft 12 ow 8-1/2 sec 151 ft 13 ow 9-3/5 sec 170 ft 14 ow 9 sec 165 ft 15 ow 7 sec 160 ft 16 ow 6 sec 155 ft 1 6-1/2 sec ca. 110ft 2 ow 6 sec 120 ft Oct 9 Oct 10 Many glides were undertaken on this date, but there are no available data on the time and distance of the glides. The first photograph of a Wright glide in a turn was taken on this date. Oct 15 Several attempts at gliding were made in the morning and two flights were made after dinner. Oct 17 Data unavailable on glides made on this date, but Orville did most of gliding before dinner and Wilbur made five or six glides after dinner for the purpose of obtaining pictures. Oct 20 1 OW 360 ft 2 WW 300 ft 3 ow 335 ft 4 WW 300 ft 5 ow 12 sec 300 ft 6 WW 21-4/5 sec 551ft 7 WW 24-4/5 sec 552 ft 8 WW 24-1/2 sec 525 ft 9 WW 22 sec 548 ft 10 ow 24-1/4 sec 505 ft 11 ow 18 sec 406-1/2 ft 12 ow 16-1/2 sec 335 ft 74 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright 1902-1903 Oct 21 1 WW 13-1/5 sec 150 ft 2 OW 10 sec 63 ft 1 WW short glide 2 OW 15-1/2 sec 336 ft 3 WW 17 sec 351ft 4 OW 16-1/4 sec 426 ft 5 WW 18-3/5 sec 394 ft 6 OW 16 sec 380 ft 7 WW 17 sec 418 ft 8 OW short glide 9 WW 26 sec 622-1/2 ft 10 OW 24 sec 540 ft 11 WW 24-1/5 sec 540 ft 12 OW 509 ft 13 OW 21-2/5 sec 615-1/2 ft Oct 23 This glide set a new duration and distance record. Oct 24 OW 255-1/2 ft Glides on this date averaged about 200 ft A number of glides were witnessed by passengers aboard a steamer cruising nearby. In the last 10 days of practice Wilbur and Orville made more glides than in all the preceding weeks. In two days they made about 250 glides in winds ranging from 9-16-3/4 meters per second. 1903 Kitty Hawk, N.C. Wright 1902 Glider, Sept, 28-Nov. 12 Wright 1903 Machine, Dec. 12-17 Following their gliding experiments of 1900, 1901, 1902, Wrights returned to Kitty Hawk for the fourth time, arriving September 25, to attempt to fly a larger and improved biplane, which they had designed and to which they added a small gasoline motor with two pusher type propellers. Airplane parts and engine arrived at Kitty Hawk October 8, were assembled and ready for testing November 5, and first trial occurred December 12. Sep 28 Wrights made between 60-100 glides during the day, using the 1902 glider which had been left in the Wright camp when Wilbur and Orville departed in 1902. Approximately 12 to 15 glides exceeded 26 seconds. Average of all glides was more than 20 seconds. WW WW 30-2/5 sec 26-2/5 sec 52 ft Oct 3 About 30 or 40 glides made. Five or six glides ranged from 32 to 35 seconds. Performance of the glider was improved by changes made in the vertical rudder and the twisting of the wings. WW OW 43 sec 34-1/2 sec ca. 450 ft ca. 450 ft A Chronology • 75 Oct 5 About a dozen glides were made from a steep incline. Glides ranged from 10 to 15 seconds each. Distance traveled was between 75 to 100 ft. Oct 8 Oct 10 Few glides made. Wilbur and Orville each made two glides. In Orvilles last glide a strong gust of wind forced him rapidly up, and in coming down glider broke at one end and struck Wilbur on head. Oct 19 1 OW 26-3/5 sec 520 ft 2 WW 21-3/5 sec 558 ft 3 OW 21-3/5 sec 603 ft 4 WW 20-2/5 sec 491ft Six or seven glides were made. Oct 20 OW WW Wilbur and Orville each made a glide from Big Hill. Subsequently they made about 25 or 30 glides of about 9 seconds each from Small Hill. Oct 21 1 WW 43-3/5 sec 2 OW 43-3/4 sec 3 OW 45 sec 4 WW 45-2/5 sec 5 OW 49 sec 6 WW 56 sec 7 OW 56-3/5 sec 8 OW 1 min 1/2 sec WW 59 sec Wrights made 15 to 20 gUdes. Five glides in morning averaged 400 feet. Later glides ran from 30 to 43 seconds, and the final 8 to 1 glides each increased in time and set new records. Many of the glides were made at heights from 40 to 60 feet, highest attained to date. Oct 26 OW 1 min 5-1/2 sec WW 1 min 4-1/5 sec WW 1 min 7-3/5 sec About 20 ghding attempts made. Former time record of 1 minute 1/2 second, made on October 21, was exceeded six times. Glides covered a distance of from 450 to 500 feet. Some glides reached an altitude of 60 feet. Gliding experiments, October 26-27, were witnessed by George A. Spratt, who had arrived at Kitty Hawk on October 23. He departed on November 6. 1^ • Wilbur & Orville Wright 1903-1904 DISIANC 1 11)1 Kl MARKS WW OW WW 1 min 7-2/5 sec 1 min 11-4/5 sec 1 min 9-1/2 sec Oct 27 Several glides were made by Wilbur and Orville, primarily for purposes of taking pictures. Height of glides not over 20 to 25 feet. Nov 7 Four or five glides were made. Further glides not attempted because of irregular speed and direction of wind. Octave Chanute, who had arrived at Kitty Hawk on November 6, witnessed glides on this day. Nov 12 Glider used to test starting truck and rails for the new 1903 machine, starting successfully five times out of six. After four or five glides were made, machine was returned to camp because the dilapidated condition of the machine rendered it unsafe fro further experiments. Dec 12 New Wright machine ready for trial, but there was insufficient wind. Machine was run along track, and in 40-ft run last 15 feet covered in 1-1/2 sec Dec 14 WW 3-1/2 sec 105 ft ca. 15 ft In first trial machine plunged to ground immediately after takeoff and was damaged in landing-one front skid, front rudder, and rudder frame broken, requiring two days' time for repairs. Five men (Robert Westcott, John T. Daniels, Thomas Beacham, W.S. Dough, and Benny O'Neal) from the Kill Devil Life Saving Station were present at the trial. Dec 17 OW ca. 12 sec 120 ft ca. 8-10 ft WW OW WW ca. 12 sec ca. 1 5 sec 59 sec ca. 175 ft ca. 200 ft 852 ft ca. 12-14 ft The four flights were witnessed by John X Daniels, W. S. Dough, and A. D. Etheridge, from the Kill Devil Life Saving Station. W. C. Brinkley of Manteo, and Johnny Moore from Nags Head. In an article entitled "How We Made the First Flight" in Flying December 1913, Orville described this flight as "the first in the history of the world in which a machine carrying a man had raised itself by its own power into the air in full flight, had sailed forward without reduction of speed and had finally landed at a point as high as that from which it started." Elevator damaged on landing. Shortly after, at camp, the machine was overturned by a gust of wind and wrecked, preventing further flights. 1904 Huffman Prairie, Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio Wright 1904 Machine At Huffman Prairie, at a field of 100 acres located about 8 miles from Dayton, the Wrights made 105 starts, the total flying time being about 50 minutes, enabling them to practice controlling and maneuvering their powered machine. The 1904 machine was similar in dimensions to the machine of 1903. The weight was increased and a new power plant was added similar to the 1903 motor but having A Chronology • 77 PilX)! riMK i:>isi /\Nc:i REMARKS a 1/8-inch large bore. Modifications were introduced during the year as experiments progressed and changes were deemed desirable to improve the performance of the machine. May 26 OW a. 25 ft , 6-8 ft Several pine spars were broken in landing, requiring postponement of further flights until repairs were made. The start of this flight was witnessed by Bishop Milton Wright, John G. Feight, Mr. and Mrs. Frank B. Hale, Mrs. William Werthner, a press reporter, and several others. Rain and lack of wind prevented attempted flights on May 23 and May 25. Jun 10 WW a. 60f^ Machine struck ground because of faulty steering. Machine was damaged, preventing further trials until repairs were made. Jun 21 OW ca. 100 ft ca. 100 ft 225 ft Jun 23 Aug 2 WW WW 264 ft 2 Tail damaged in landing. Jun 25 Machine struck ground while turning at full speed and was damaged, preventing further trials until repairs were made. July Two trials made. 160 ft 370 ft No systematic flight records were kept for 1 904 by the Wrights before this date. The first flight on this date is recorded in Wilbur Wrights Diary E as No. 14 for the year. End bow broken when machine landed near fence. Aug 4 10-2/5 sec 195 ft (down track) 20 sec (from start on track) 272 ft Aug 5 OW OW 4-3/4 sec 2-3/4 sec (last 80 ft on track) 60 ft 356 ft 236-ft track used. Aug 6 WW OW WW 8-1/4 sec 600 ft (down track) 7-3/4 sec 17-3/5 sec 235 m 210 m l45-ft track used. Aug 8 WW Wing struck ground before leaving track. 78 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1904 Aug 10 DISIANCK 1 OW 17-2/5 sec 205 m 2 WW 20-3/5 sec 640 ft Aug 13 1 OW 200 ft 2 WW 50-2/5 sec 705 m 3 OW 26 sec 425 m 4 WW 32-2/5 sec 475 m Rl MARKS l45-ft track used. Rudder and propeller broken. 195-ft track used. Aug 16 OW 432 ft 1 60-ft track used. Machine turned downward and was damaged when it landed on front rudder, breaking support. Aug 22 1 WW 400 ft 2 OW 44 sec 635 ft 3 WW 7 sec 175 ft 4 WW 48-1/2 sec 630 ft 1 OW 30-2/5 sec 525 m 2 WW 15-3/5 sec 160 m 1 60-ft track used on first three flights. 195-ft track used. Aug 23 Katherine Wright witnessed flight. Aug 24 WW OW 39-1/5 sec 530 m 7-1/2 sec 201 ft l45-ft track used. Machine was overturned and rudder frame broken when struck by gust of wind. Orville suffered body bruises and injured hand. Sep 7 9 sec 89 m WW 7 sec 200 ft 39-1/4 sec 610 m 8-4/5 sec 79 m 13-3/4 sec 496 ft 18 sec 205 m Catapult starting device first used on this date to aid in takeoff on their limited flying field and to make them more independent of weather conditions. Flight witnessed by Katharine Wright and Melba Silliman. Sep 9 WW WW Sep 13 WW WW 10-4/5 sec 12-3/5 sec 140 m 135 m Sep 14 WW 23-2/5 sec 370 m Sep 15 WW 59-3/5 sec 845 m First turn in air made, Wilbur making half circle. A Chronology^ • 79 piioi riMi Ul MAKKS WW 54 sec 835 m Sep 20 WW WW 1 min 5-3/5 sec 1 min 1005 m 1505 m 35-4/5 sec A complete circle was made for the first time. Flight witnessed by A, I. Root of Medina, Ohio, and Wright mechanic Charles E. Taylor. Sep 26 OW OW 8 sec 29-1/5 sec 70 m 375 m Sep 27 OW OW OW 18-3/5 sec 11 sec 8 sec 209 m 105 m 75 m Sep 28 OW WW 6-3/5 sec 12 sec 56 m 115m Sep 30 OW 36 sec 565 m Mr. Harshmann and Mr. Miller witnessed flight. Octl OW OW 56 sec 55 sec 810 m 870 m Wing tip of machine touched ground and skidded and front rudder struts were broken. Oct 4 OW OW 12-1/2 sec 45-2/5 sec 440 ft 681 m Oct 11 OW 1 min 6 sec 1010 m Oct 13 1 OW 2 OW 59 sec 850 m (? 1 OW 1 min 22-1/4 sec 1,220 m 2 OW 1 min 38 sec 1,505 m 3 WW 1 min 27-3/5 sec 1,495 m No start. Oct 14 Oct 15 OW 23-4/5 sec 420: Flight made in presence of Octave Chanute. Machine landed at speed of 45 to 50 miles an hour, skewed around, and was damaged requiring extensive repairs. Oct 26 WW 34 sec 465 m Machine struck ground, breaking upper spar, skids, and propeller. 80 • Wilbur & Orvillc Wright Nov 9 OW 18 sec 255 m 2 WW 5 min 4 sec 3 OW 11-2/5 sec 115m 1 OW 56-4/5 sec 820 m 2 OW 40-1/5 sec 535 m 3 OW 19-1/4 sec 650 ft (over ground) 4 WW 3 min 2-1/4 rounds 10-3/4 sec of field 1904 Dvn III (.III IMIOI IIMI l)ISIAN( 1 All rii:i)l Kl MAUKS Nov 2 1 OW 1 min 1,290 m 26-2/5 sec Four other Wright trials on this date were unsuccessful. Tail broken at start of fifth trial. Nov 3 1 WW 1 min 27-2/5 sec 1,325 m Two prior trials were unsuccessful. Wing struck ground, breaking propellers and tear lower spar. Second flight was best and longest of the year, witnessed by Brown and Reed of the Dayton, Springfield & Urbana Railway Co. Almost four rounds of field. Nov 16 Nov 22 150-200 ft Five starts were unsuccessful due to improper gasoline regulation. Charles W. Furnas and Amos I. Root were among the witnesses. Nov 25 1 OW 25-1/5 sec 335 m 2 WW 45-3/5 sec 635 m 3 OW 45-2/5 sec 690 m 4 WW 59 sec 840 m 5 OW 1 min 3 sec 890 m 1 OW 2 OW 8-4/5 sec 85 m 3 OW 5 min 8 sec (?) 4,515 m Decl Dec 9 WW WW Unsuccessful start. Dec 5 1 WW Flight terminated after propeller was broken to pieces when it struck truck shortly after machine left track. Dec 6 1 WW Gasoline shut off by mistake. Dec 7 1 WW 7-1/5 sec 100 m Gasoline shut off by mistake. Front rudder broken. A Chronology •SI DISIANC F !ni Rl MARKS 1905 Huffman Prairie, Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio Wright 1905 Machine A total of 50 flights were made during the year, with a total flying time of about 3 hours 40 minutes. The Wrights successfully achieved banking, turning, and circling and made figures of eight. The flights were made over a circular course of about three-fourths of a mile to the lap. The design of the 1905 machine was similar to that of the 1903 and 1904 machines. The horizontal control and rudder areas were enlarged and the whole structure increased in strength. Modifications were introduced in the course of year's experiments, including three different sets of propellers, the "bent end" type proving most successful. Jun23 OW 9-1/2 sec 272 ft Left wing was struck in landing, and four ribs were cracked at rear left corner. Jun24 1 WW 5-9/10 sec 160ft 2 OW 3 WW 3-1/2 sec 136ft Pilot scraped right wing tip all the way down the track and failed to get a start. Machine suddenly turned to left and struck left wing tip. Rear spar of left lower wing was broken and end b ow was cracked. Jun30 1 OW 6-3/5 sec 240 ft 2 WW 3 sec 96 ft 3 OW 13-1/2 sec 664 ft 4 WW 19-1/2 sec 744 ft 1 OW ca. 12 sec 568 ft On last flight, machine dropped very hard when power was shut off by mistake, breaking rear center and front center spar and two uprights. Engine was torn loose and several wires were broken. Further experiments were delayed for two weeks. Jul 14 Machine damaged in landing when it suddenly turned downward, breaking front skids, front rudder, upper front spar and about a dozen ribs, and lower front spar and one upright. Orville was thrown out through the broken top surface but suffered no injury. Repairs and heavy rains delayed ftirther experiments several weeks. Aug 24 WW 31-3/5 sec 480 m WW WW 45-3/5 sec 690 m WW 31 sec 505 m WW 49-4/5 sec 841 m WW 1 min 184/5 sec 1,250 m Speed insufficient to get start. Aug 28 Rear ends of skids broken in landing. Complete circle made and landing made at starting point. George Feight and six farmer witnessed the flight. 82 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1905 nvn IIKiMT IMKTI lIMf I>ISrAN( F All Win RIMARKS Aug 30 1 OW 12 sec 170 m Rear end of four ribs broken in landing. Aug 31 WW WW OW 1 min 5-1/5 sec 34-3/5 sec 14-4/5 sec 1041 m 543 m 95 m Flight witnessed by Torrence Huffman and three children and by Alfred W. Morley and two daughters. Sep 6 OW OW 40-1/5 sec 4 min 54 sec 620 m 4,730 m Field was circled 4 times, and landing was made at starting point. Sep 7 OW OW WW 52-1/2 sec 2 min 48-3/5 sec 4 min 45-3/5 sec 756 m 2,700 m 4,751 m Two complete circles of field were made. Sep 8 OW 2 min 46-1/5 sec One complete circle of the field and a figure eight were made. Sep 9 OW WW 9 sec 10-2/5 sec 80 m 105 m Sep 12 WW WW WW 4 min 19-3/4 sec 2 min 26-3/4 sec 5 min 31 SGC 3,900 m {3-1/2 circles of field) 2,310 m 5,056 m "Litde Jokers" (small surfaces resembling an elevator) were mounted on the propeller tips to reduce their pitch. Sep 14 OW OW 31 sec 4 min 23-2/5 sec 475 m 4,146 m More than three circles of field were made. Sep 15 Sep 25 OW OW 1 min 10-3/4 sec 2 min 34 sec 1,161 m 2,270 m WW 7 sec 65 m Flight witnessed by Ivonette and Lorin Wright. Sep 26 WW 18 min 11-2/5 sec 17,961 m (11-1/8 miles) Approximately 16 circles of the field were made. Flight ended when fuel was exhausted. Bishop Wright present. A Chronology • 83 I)ISIAN( I RIM ARKS Sep 27 WW 90 m Bishop Wright and Lorin, Ivonctte, and Horace Wright witnessed flights. WW 3 min 3,061 m 11-1/2 sec Sep 28 1 OW 9 min 44 sec 9,441 m A little more than eight rounds of the field were made. The flight is a memorable one because the Wrights at that time became more acutely aware that a more skillful operation of the machine, i.e., tilting the machine forward a little to restore the flying speeding, would help prevent stalling. Sep 29 WW OW 1 min 33-2/5 sec 19 min 56 sec 1,451 m 19,570 m (12 miles) Fourteen circles of the field were made. Flight ended when fuel was exhausted. Torrence Huffman witnessed the flight. Sep 30 OW OW 4 min 4,325 m 19-4/5 sec 17 min 12 rounds 15-1/2 sec of field Flight witnessed by Mr. Dornbusch. Flight witnessed by Lorin Wright, his son Milton, William Fouts, and William Weber. Oct 3 WW OW 2 min 26 min 11-1/5 sec 24,535 m (15-1/4 miles) Flight witnessed by William Fouts, Frank Hamberger, O. F. Jamieson, and Howard m Myers. Machine flown from flying field to shed. Oct 4 1 OW 33 min 33,456 m ca. 40-60 ft Flight witnessed by Charles Webbert, Henry Webbert, 17 sec (20-3/4 miles) C.S. Billman, Mrs. Salts, Ruth Salts, William H. Shank, Bernard H. Lambers, William Webbert, Katherine Wright, and Bishop Wright. Oct 5 WW WW 40-3/5 sec 59 min 23-4/5 sec 630 m 38,956 m (24-1/5 miles) This flight was the best of the year and longer than the 1 05 flights of 1 904 together. Flight covered about 30 rounds of the field. Flight ended when fuel was exhausted. Witnesses included Edgar W Ellis, Theodore Waddel, Torrence Huffman, William C, Fouts, and about a dozen others including Bishop Wright and David Beard, of the Dayton Journal. Oct 16 WW 1 min 4-3/5 sec 970 m (one circle of field) Late start prevented extended flight. 1908 Kitty Hawk, N.C. Modified Wright 1905 Machine The Wrights, having done no flying since October 1905, came to Kitty Hawk, Wilbur arriving on April 9 and Orville and the machine on April 25, to do some practice flying before undertaking the official U.S. government trials in Washington and the fulfillment of a contract 84 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1905-1908 niSIANC I I<IMAIU<S with Lazare Weiller in France. Twenty-two flights were made between May 6 and May 14. The 1905 Wright machine used was altered so that the operator and one passenger could sit upright on the lower wing surface. The 1908 flights were witnessed by the men of Kill Devil Hill Life Saving Station, by a number of newspapermen, and by a few persons who were hunting and fishing in the vicinity. May 6 WW 22 sec 1,008 ft May 8 1 ow 31 sec ca. 945 ft 2 WW 59-1/2 sec ca, 2,230 ft 3 ow 6 sec 23 m 4 ow 8-1/4 sec 5 WW 6 WW 7 ow 11-3/4 sec 69 m 8 WW 10-2/5 sec 68 m 9 ow 8-1/2 sec 22 m 10 WW 6-3/4 sec 47 m 11 WW 6 sec 25 m In his Diary T. Wilbur states "We made nine flights in the morning, and two in the afternoon." Machine scraped along ground and did not attain flight. Machine again scraped ground, did not attain flight. May 11 Wright flights of May 11, 13, 14 witnessed from distance by D. Bruce Salley, freelance reporter; Byron R. Newton of the New York Herald; and William Hoster of New York American. 1 OW 71 sec 1,280 m 2 WW 2 min 31 sec 2,989 m 3 OW 2 min 11 sec 2,515 m May 13 1 WW 50-4/5 sec 1,051 m 2 OW 2 min 44-1/4 sec 3,065 m 3 WW 2 min 39-3/4 sec ca. 2,000 m (complete circle made) 4 ow 3 min 20 sec 3,881 m (complete circle made) Reporters viewing flights on May 1 1 were joined by P. H. McGowan of the London Daily Mail, Arthur Ruhl, writer, and James H. Hare, photographer for Collier's Weekly, who witnessed flights of May 13 and May 14 and made a photograph from a distance which was published in Collier's, May 30, the first picture ever published of an airplane in flight. A Chronology • 85 DISI/XNCK RFMARKS May 14 WW 28-3/5 sec 600 ] OW WW 4 min 2-2/5 sec 7 min 29 sec 4,120 m 8,120 m Charles W. Furnas, mechanic, from Dayton, who had arrived at Kitty Hawk on April 1 5 to assist Wrights in their flights, was a passenger, the first carried by the Wrights. A complete circle was made and landing was near starting point. Charles Furnas again passenger with Orville. Three subsequent attempts by Wilbur were unsuccessfial. Machine plunged into the ground when traveling at a speed of about l4l miles an hour and was badly damaged. Flights were then discontinued. Wilbur suffered slight injuries. 1908 Hunaudieres Race Course, Le Mans, France Wright 1907 Machine Wilbur had arrived in France on May 29 to five a satisfactory demonstration of the Wright machine in fulfillment of the duration and speed requirements of a contract made on March 3 with Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe, representing a French syndicate. Built in 1907, the machine he used was designed to permit two to sit upright on the lower wing surface, had a skid undercarriage, and required derrick-and-rail launching. The race course, located 5 miles south of Le Mans, was 800 meters long and 300 meters wide. Aug 8 Aug 10 WW 1 min 2 rounds ca. 10 m Witnesses of the flights, the first public flight by the 45 sec of field (30-35 k) Wright brothers, included Ernest Archdeacon, Hart O. Berg, Leon Bollee, Louis Bleriot, Francois Peyrey, Rene Gasnier, Ernest Zens, Paul Zens, Pierre Gasnier, Robert Guerin, Capt. Alexandre Sazerac de Forge, Count Henri de Moy, and two Russian officers. A tick control was used by the Wrights for the first time. Wilber was assisted on the takeoff^by Hare O. Berg's chauffeur, Fleury, who held right wing in balance until accelerating speed of machine left: him behind. Witnesses of the flights included Leon Delagrange, Frank S. Lahm, Count Henry de La Valette, Mr. and Mrs. Leo Stern, Mr. and Mrs. Albert Omer-Decugis, Paul Rousseau, Frantz Reichel, A. Wimille, Stephane Drzewiecki, Pierre Gasnier, Ernest Zens, Paul Zens, and representatives of Parisian and American newspapers. The number of spectators was estimated at 2,000. WW WW 42 sec 1 min 41 sec 3/4 of circle 2 large figure eights ca. 10-12 m Aug 11 WW 3 min 43 sec more than 4 k (field circled three times) 2-20 m Flight witnessed by Frank S. Lahm and James C. McCoy, American aeronaut. Estimated 3,000 spectators present. Aug 12 WW WW 6 min 56-2/5 sec 40 sec 7-8k (6 times around the course) 15m 20 m Spectators included the Misses Anne Pierpont Morgan, Elizabeth Marbury, and Bertha Murray, daughter of a London publisher, Henry Kapferer, and two German officers. 86 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1908 DAii: Midi rr iMioi riMi DISIANCI Aiiiri n H RIMARKS 3 WW 1 min 44 sec 20 m Aug 13 WW WW 8 min Circled field 13-2/5 sec seven dmes. 20 m 2 min field circled 20 sec twice 30 m Flights witnessed by Hart O. Berg, Leon BoUee, Lt. Mario Calderara, Commander Borrel, Edouard Surcouf, Henry Kapferer, and Robert Guerin. Machine damaged in landing, spars, ribs and one skid runner being broken. Because of necessary repairs flying was not resumed until August 2 1 at a new field near Le Mans. 1908 Camp d'Auvours, Le Mans, France Wright 1907 Machine Wilbur seeking an enlarged and better flying field moved to Camp d'Auvours, French artillery testing grounds, 1 1 kilometers east of Le Mans, The field was one-half kilometer wide and extended for five to six kilometers without obstruction. Aug 21 To minimize crowds, only holders of special cards signed by the military commander and Hart O. Berg were permitted to enter grounds. Several German military experts witnessed flights. Following this date further flights were delayed by stormy weather and high winds. WW WW 1 min 2 k 200 m 49-1/5 sec 2 min 3-1/2 k 14 sec 8m 30 m Aug 31 WW 56 « Plane failed to attain altitude and was damaged in landing. Sep 3 Sep 4 A large figure eight completed. WW 10 min ca. Ilk 15-20 m Flights were timed officially by Leon BoUee, Paul 40 sec Jamin, and Baron R. de Sennevoy, all of the Aero-Club de la Sarthe. WW 300-400 m Machine did not rise due to insufficient engine power. WW 2 min 13 sec 2.5 k 5 m Flight witnessed by about 1 ,000 spectators, including representative of Aero-Club de la Sarthe. Sep 5 WW WW 19 min 48-2/5 sec 3 min 21 sec 23-24 k 3k 15-20 m 10 m Plane crash landed but Wilbur suffered only slight injury to one arm. Sep 10 WW 9 min 10-3/5 sec WW 21 min 43-2/5 sec ca. 10-1/2 k 27-28 k 60-80 ft About 3,000 spectators witnessed flights. 100-120 ft Sep 11 WW 2 min 43 sec WW 4 min 24-3/5 sec 15 m Flight was hampered by fog. A Chronology • 87 WW 4min 52-2/5 sec WW 4 min 32 sec ca. 4 k Flights three and four were terminated because of faulty magneto. 30 ft Sep 12 The flights were witnessed by Lazare Weiller, Rene Quinton, Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe, Henri Farman, Marcel Kapferer, Henry Kapferer, Lucien Beckmann, Paul Tissandier, Paul Zens, Paul Rousseau, Richard Popp, Count Gabriel de Laperouse, Jean Laroche, Mr. Dennery, Baron and Baroness R. de Sennevoy, and many other well known experts in aeronautics. WW WW 4 min 8-1/5 sec 6 min 41-4/5 sec 700 m 1000 m 30 ft 10 ft Sep 16 WW WW 39 min, 18-2/5 sec 2 min 28-1/5 sec 48 k 12 m Flight broke existing French record. 2-1/2 k 40 ft Ernest Zens, French balloonist, passenger. Spectators included Paul Tissandier, Frank S. Lahm, Leonard Tauber, Paul Zens, Ernest Zens, Mr. Dittenbach, Leon Bollee, Charles H. Botsford of Los Angeles, Count Georges Castillon de Saint- Victor, and French Gen. Arthur Joseph Poline. Sep 17 WW WW 6 min 43-2/3 sec 32 min 47 sec 4,600 yds ca. 36 k 600 m 4-5 m 25 m Sep 21 WW 1 hr 3 1 min 25-4/5 sec 66 k 600 m 15 m Flight established world duration and distance flying records. Paul Rousseau was official timekeeper. American Ambassador Henry White was among those congratulating Wilbur on his achievement. Spectators included officials of the Aero-club de la Sarthe, Gen. Georges A. Bazaine- Hayter, and a large number of French and foreign officers and airplane enthusiasts. The crowd was estimated at 10,000. Flight won Aero-Club de France prize of $1,000. Sep 22 1 WW 3 min 3 sec Flight witnessed by Prof Percival Lowell, Baron Paul d'Estournelles de Constant, and representatives of the Aero-Club de France. Sep 24 1 WW 54 min, 3-1/3 sec 55 k 24 m ca. 80 ft The flight was carried out in an especially strong and gusty wind, preventing Wilbur from attempt to break records established on September 21. Sep 25 WW 36 min 14-3/5 sec WW 5 min 4-2/5 sec WW 9 min 1-3/5 sec 15m 12 m Spectators included Lazare Weiller, Frank H. Butler of England, Ernest Archdeacon, Leon Delagrange, Louis Dausset, Mrs. Joseph Caillaux and Mrs. Pelletier. Paul Zens, French balloonist, passenger. 88 * WUbur & OrviUe Wright 1908 Sep 28 IMIOI II Ml DISIANCI WW 1 hr 7 min 24-4/5 sec 48 k 120 m WW 11 min 35-2/5 sec WW 6 min 15 sec Kl MARKS 10 m Flight won 5,000-franc prize of the Commission of Aviation of the Aero-Club de France. ca. 30 m Paul Tissandier, passenger. Flight was a world record. Count Charles de Lamben, passenger. Flight was witnessed by Simon Lake, inventor of the submarine, and by Paul Cornu, inventor of the helicopter. Oct 3 New propellers with larger blades were used for the first time. The landing on the last flight of the day was made in darkness, and Wilbur was guided by a lantern hung on the starting pylon. George P. Dickin, New York Herald reporter, passenger first journalist to be taken aloft on an airplane trip. Spectators included Maj. B. F. S. Baden- Powell, J. T, C. Moore-Brabazon, Mr. and Mrs. John Adams Thayer, Capt. and Mrs. Frank H. Mason, Alexandre Darracq, Albert Clemenceau, Leon Batthou, Baron Henri de Rothschild, Charles Mascart, and R. and Mrs. Lazare Weiller. 1 WW 4 min 50-1/5 sec 2 WW 9 min 31-2/5 sec 12k4l2m 3 WW 2 min 22-1/5 sec 4 WW 18 min 23-4/5 sec 14 k 5 WW 3 min 2-2/5 sec 6 WW 55 min 32-1/5 sec 1.50 m 10 m Frantz Reichel, writer for Figaro, was passenger on this world record flight. The flight with Reichel qualified as one of the two flights stipulated in the Wright contract with Lazare Weiller. Oct 5 1 WW 4 min 9 sec twice around field 2 WW 3 min 54 sec 3 WW 7 min 30 sec 4 WW 30 sec 5 WW 10 min 1 WW 1 hr 4 min 26-1/5 sec 70 k Leon Bollee, automobile manufacturer, passenger. Rene Pellier, passenger; also on rest of day's flights. Oct 6 25 m Arnold Fordyce, passenger. Flight set a world record and fulfilled the requirements of the Wright contract with Lazare Weiller which called for the payment of $100,000 to the Wrights and gave rights to manufacture and sell Wright airplanes in Europe to the French syndicate. Oct 7 WW 3 min 24 sec Hart O. Berg, passenger. A Chronology • 89 DISTANCF RFMARKS WW 2 min 3 sec WW 4 min 25-4/5 sec WW 4 min 22 sec WW 4 min 12-2/5 sec WW 4 min 24-4/5 sec Mrs. Hart O. Berg, passenger. Felix Lardry, secretary of the Aero-Club de la Sarthe, passenger. Paul Jamin, vice president of the Aero-Club de la Sarthe, passenger. A. Michalopoulo, age 11, nephew of Leon Bollee, passenger. Lt. Basile Soldotenkow, attache from Russian embassy in Rome, passenger. Oct 8 1 WW 4 min 22 sec 2 WW 4 min 20 sec 3 WW 4 min 31 sec 4 WW 4 min 5 WW 4 min 25 sec 6 WW 4 min 21-3/4 sec 7 WW 14 min 55-4/5 sec 1 WW 4 min 59-4/5 sec 2 WW 7 min 26-1/5 sec 3 WW 7 min 37 sec 4 WW 3 min 20 sec 5 WW 4 min 6 WW 4 min Several flights witnessed by Dowager Queen Margherita of Italy. Griffith Brewer, passenger, first Englishman to fly. Charles S. Rolls, founder of British Rolls-Royce automobile firm, passenger. Frank H. Butler, British Aeronautical Society member, passenger. Maj. B. F. S. Baden-Powell, president of Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, passenger. Serge Kaznakoff, chamberlain to the Russian Emperor, passenger. Mrs. Leon Bollee, passenger. Cmdr. Victor P. Bouttieaux, passenger. Oct 9 Mrs. Lazare WeiUer, passenger. Henri Deutsch de la Meurthe, oil magnate, passenger Mr. Edouard Bernheim, French naval constructor, passenger Captain NoUet, passenger Oct 10 WW 1 hr 9 min 45-2/5 sec 55 k 10 m (actual distance 77-80 k) Paul Painleve, mathematician and member of French Institute, passenger. Flight set a world record. Oct 12 WW 2 min 40 sec Capt. Lucas-Girardville, passenger. Engine performed poorly. Oct 15 1 WW 1 min 38 sec 2 WW 2 min 35 sec 3 WW 4 min 20 sec Arturo Mercanti, passenger. Rene Gasnier, passenger. 80 ft Oct 21 WW 6 min 40 sec 7 k Flight was made at Tourny. 90 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright Oct 24 PI I or riMK niSIANC 1 1908 RKMARKS 1 WW 2 min 30 sec 2 WW 3 min 17-2/5 sec 3 WW 4 min 58 sec 4 WW 3 min 2 sec Dr. Giovanni B. Pirelli, Italian automobile tire manufacturer from Milan, passenger. 15 m Cmdr. Emmanuel M. V. Petithomme, passenger. Baron Oskar von Lancken-Wakenitz, German charge d'affaires in Paris, passenger. Oct 28 WW 12 min WW 8 min WW 15 min 2-3/5 sec WW 7 min 5-3/5 sec WW 17 min 34-2/5 sec WW 19 min 25-3/5 sec 1 5 ft Count Charles de Lambert, student-passenger, received his first lesson. De Lambert, student-passenger, and on next flight also. Oct 29 De Lambert, student-passenger, on these flights. Oct 30 WW 15 min De Lambert, student-passenger. Failure of motor pre vented further flight. Oct 31 WW WW 4 min 30 sec 10 min 37 sec 200 ft 40 m Paul Doumer, member of French parliament, passenger. Flights witnessed by a committee sent by French minister of War and by several members of the Chamber of Deputies. Nov 10 WW WW 15 min 2-3/5 sec Capt. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger, received first lesson. Nov 11 WW WW WW WW 15 min 20 min 10 min Captain Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Upright broken in making sharp turn of the rear elevator prevented successful start. De Lambert, student-passenger; again on next flight. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Nov 12 WW WW WW 15 min De Lambert, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger; again on next flight. A Chronology •91 PMxri riMi DISIANC I Kl MARKS Nov 13 WW WW WW WW WW 15 min 5 min 15 min 60 m Start made without use of catapult. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Flight won prize for altitude give by the Aero-Club de la Sarthe. Georges Durand, passenger. De Lambert, student-passenger. Nov 16 WW WW WW WW 19 min 21 min 5 min mm 20 sec De Lambert, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Marquis de Viana, Grand Equerry of King of Spain, passenger Jose Quinones de Leon, Secretary of the Spanish Embassy in Paris, passenger. Nov 17 WW WW WW 29 min 34 sec 22 min 1 min 40 sec De Lambert, student-passenger; again on next flight. Attempt to compete for Aero-Club de France altitude prize was unsuccessful when faulty motor ended flight. Nov 18 WW 3 min 32 sec WW 9 min 24 sec WW 19 min 60 m Start made without use of catapult. Flight took altitude prize of the Aero-Club de France. Frank S. Lahm, passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Dec 4 1 WW 10 min 2 WW 25 min Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger on these flights. Dec 16 WW ca. 10 min WW 90 m Spectators included Prince Singh of Kapurthala, India, Col. And Mrs. H, S. Massy, Maurice Farman, W. S. Hogan, Stephen A. Marples, C. G. Grunhold, R. H. S. Abbott, Leon BoUee, and about 20 members of the Aeroplane Club of Great Britain. 60 m Dec 18 WW WW 1 hr54min 99 k 800 m 115 m 2/5 sec Flight set world record, surpassing Wilburs record of September 21. Flight took prize for altitude, Aero-Club de la Sarthe, value $200, for the third time. Dec 19 WW 10 min 92 • WUbur & OrvUlc Wright 1908 DAII 1 1 K.I II PIIOI riMi DISIANC I Al IIIUI )l lU MAKKS 2 WW 4 min 45 sec Flight witnessed by delegation from the French parliament. Dec 26 1 WW 10 min 12 m Dec 30 WW 1 hr 52 min 40 sec 96 k 800 m (real distance about 115 k) 60 m Flight carried out in extremely cold weather, 18 degrees F. Dec 31 1 WW 42 min 2 WW 2 hr 18 min 123 k 200 m 33-3/5 sec (extended to (extended to 124 k 700 m) 2 hrs 20 min 23-1/5 sec) 3 WW 3 min 57-3/5 sec 1 WW ca. 2 min 2 WW ca. 2 min 3 WW ca. 2 min 4 WW ca. 2 min Extended time and distance of flight set new world duration and distance records. Flight won Michelin Cup prize of 20,000 francs and Albert Triaca Prize of 500 francs. Weather at freezing point. Wilbur congratulated on landing by Louis Barthou, minister of Public Works. Other spectators included Cabinet Chief Henri Lillaz, Leon Barthou, and German engineers Ansbert Vorreiter, Koberg, and Bourcart. Designated official witnesses were Leon Bollec, George Durand, Rene Pcllier, L. Vernay, Veber, Bariller, Felix Lardry, and V. Leclerc. Louis Barthou, passenger. Jan 2 Wilburs last flying at Camp dAuvours. Four friends taken as passengers for several minutes each. L. Vernay, passenger Pean, foreman at the Bollee factory, passenger, Belouin, passenger. Patrice Doroty, passenger. 1908 Fort Myer, Va. Wright 1907 Machine Orville left Dayton on August 19 for Washington, arriv- ing there on August 20 to conduct acceptance tests with the Wright airplane for the U.S. Army. Two mechanics also came from Dayton to assist Orville in the trials, Charles E. Taylor arriving on August 19 and Charles W Furnas on August 21. The Wright machine arrived on August 20 and the engine on August 25. The period August 21 -September 2 was spent in assembling the machine and testing the engine. The committee which was to pass upon the trials consisted of Maj. George O. Squier, Maj. Charles S. Wallace, and Lts. Frank P. Lahm, Thomas E. Selfridge, and, Benjamin D. Foulois. The fatal accident on September 17 terminated the test flights for the year. Sep 3 1 OW 1 min 1 1 sec 1-1/2 times around field 35 ft Machine damaged in landing. Flight witnessed by Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. Sep 4 1 ow 4 min 1 5 sec 3 miles 40 ft Sep 7 1 OW 55 sec 7/8 mile Sep 8 OW 11 min, 10 sec 13 times around field A Chronology • 93 ow 7min, 34 sec 8 times around field Sep 9 OW 57min 37 times llOft 31 sec around field ow 62min 55 times soft: 15 sec around field ow 6 min 24 sec 6-1/2 times around field 60 ft Flight was world's record lo date. Witnessed by secretary of the Navy Victor H. Metcalf, Secretary of Commerce and Labor Oscar S. Straus, and Secretary of War Luke E. Wright. Lt. Frank P. Lahm, passenger, his first flight in a heavier- than-air machine. Three new world endurance records set: two for flights with pilot only, the third for pilot with passenger. Sep 10 OW 1 hour 5 min 52 sec 58 times around the field ca. 200 k Broke duration record set on September 9. Sep 11 OW OW 10 min 50 sec 70 min 24 sec 9 times around field 11 k440m 57-1/2 times around field Set new world endurance record. Sep 12 OW 9 min 6-1/3 sec OW 1 hour 14 min 71 times 20 sec around field Octave Chanute was among witnesses of flights. Maj. George O. Squier, U.S. Signal Corps, passenger. Flight established new world record for flight with two men. ca. 300 ft Set new world endurance record. Sep 17 OW ca. 3-4 min 4-1/2 times ca. 125 ft: High winds prevented any flights on September 14, 15 around field and 16. Lt. Thomas E. Selfridge, U.S. Army, passenger. Plane crashed when one of the propellers split, causing it to lose pushing power and a stay wire to the tail was then torn loose, making the tail uncontrollable. Lt. Selfridge was killed and Orville severely injured. His left leg was fractured and four ribs were broken. 1909 Pont-Long, Pau, France Wright 1907 Machine Wilbur, seeking a warmer climate to continue the training of his students, Count Charles de Lambert, Capt. P. N. Lucas-Girardville, and Paul Tissandier, went to Pau at the edge of the Pyrennees in southern France. The flying field, Pont-Long, located about six miles from Pau, comprised about 195 acres. Approximately 64 flights were made by Wilbur at Pau, February 3-March 20. In 40 of these he was the pilot, while on the remaining flights he was the passenger of one or the other his students. Feb 3 WW WW 5 min 57 sec 5 min 4-3/4 sec 35 m Wilbur congratulated by Alfred de Lassence, mayor of Pau, at conclusion of flights. Feb 4 j'ifz. mm 94 • Wilbur & Orville Wright 1908-1909 DiSIANCi: RlXIAkKS WW WW ca. 3 min 5 min Paul Tissandier, student-passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. Hubert Latham, French aviator, among spectators. Feb 5 WW Tissandier, student-passenger. Airplane damaged when leaving starting rail. Feb 6 1 WW 10 min 2 WW 28 min 21 sec 30 m 12 m Tissandier, student-passenger. Feb 8 WW 16 min 2 3 WW WW ca. 28 min ca. 31 min 1 WW 19 min 8 times around field Spectators included Edmond Blane, Louis Bleriot, Lt. Gen. Sir Henry H. and Lady Settle, and Count Castillon de Saint- Victor. Tissandier, student-passenger. Captain Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Feb 9 ca. 80 ft Tissandier, student-passenger. Louis Bleriot among spectators. Feb 11 WW 20 min WW 5 min Flights witnessed by Lord Arthur Balfour, former Prime minister of England. Feb 15 Count de 21 min Lambert WW 4 min WW 7 min 4 sec Wilbur, instructor-passenger. Countess de Lambert, passenger. Katharine Wright, passenger, her first flight. Feb 17 WW ca. 20 min WW ca. 20 min WW 20 min WW 22 min WW 26 min 40 sec Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. Feb 18 WW 12 min Count de Lambert, student-passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. De Lambert, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Spectators included Gen. Fran9ois, Henry Oudard, Charles S. Rolls, and Georges Clemenceau, son of French Premier. Feb 19 1 WW 22 min 40 sec 2 WW 21 min 3 WW 15 min De Lambert, student-passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. A Chronology • 95 I)ISrAN( I Feb 20 WW ca. 30 min Count de 13 min Lambert WW 22 min WW ca. lOmin WW Rl MARKS Two early morning flights made in presence of King Alfonso XIII of Spain, who was accompanied by Marquis de Viana, Jose Quinones de Leon, and Hart O. Berg, Mile de Lassence, daughter of the Mayor of Pau, Count de Lambert, Lord Alfred C. W. H. Northcliffe, and Georges Clemenceau. Wilbur, instructor-passenger, Tissandier, student-passenger. De Lambert, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Feb 21 1 WW 21 min 2 WW Tissandier, student-passenger. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. Feb 22 WW WW WW WW WW Several minutes. 12 min 5 min 6 min 15 min Tissandier, student-passenger. De Lambert, student-passenger. Louis Barthou, French minister of Public Works, passenger. Paul Lillaz, passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. Feb 23 WW WW 3 min 9 sec 4 min 2 sec De Lambert, student-passenger on these flights. Feb 24 1 WW 6 min 42 sec 2 WW 20 min De Lambert, student-passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. The Duke of Leuchtenberg, accompanied by two aides, witnessed these flights. Feb 25 Paul 15 min Tissandier Wilb ur, as mstructor-passenger. Feb 27 1 WW 6 min 2 WW 4 min 40 sec 1 WW 8 min 2 WW 21 min 3 WW Marquis Edgard de Kergariou, passenger. De Lambert, student-passenger. Marl De Lambert, student-passenger. 130 ft Tissandier, student-passenger. Col. Pedro Vives y Vich, head of the Spanish military aeronautics department, passenger. Rudder was broken and the machine damaged on takeoff. Spectators included Duke and Duchess of Manchester, Princess Bertha of Iscmburg, and Lord and Lady Galway, 96 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1909 KIMAKKS Mar 11 WW 2 min 22 sec WW 5 min 34 sec Flights were made for the first time without use of the starting derrick. Mar 12 WW WW 8 min 34 sec 10 min De Lambert, student-passenger. Tlssandier, student-passenger. Mar 13 1 WW 2 WW 3 WW 7 min 56 sec Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger on this and next flight. De Lambert, student-passenger, his last flight as student. Mar 16 WW 15 min Tissandier, student-passenger. Mar 17 1 WW 7 min 56 sec 2 WW 12 min 22 sec WW 3 min Flight witnessed by King Edward VII of England. Katharine Wright, passenger. Tissandier, student-passenger. Mar 20 WW WW 6 mir 3 min 3 WW 5 min 4 WW 4 min 5 WW 8 min Flight witnessed by delegation from the French Chamber of Deputies. Antony Joly, deputy for the Department of Basses-Alpes, passenger. J. L. Breton, deputy for the Depanment of Cher, passenger. Georges Tharel, Chamber of Deputies, passenger. Capt. P. N. Lucas-Girardville, student-passenger. This was Wilbur's last flight with his French student pilots. 1909 Ccntocellc Flying Field, Rome, Italy Wright 1907 Machine The Wrights came to Italy to undertake the training of two lieutenants, one from the Italian navy, the other from the army. Most of the more than 50 flights made were training flights. The rest were made with individuals who desired to be taken up as passengers. The flights by Wilbur were made at a field adjoining a military fort at Centocelle, 12 to 15 miles southeast of Rome, beginning on April 15 and continuing through April 27. Lack of documentary source materials makes it extremely difficult to record all individual flights on a particular day. Apr 15 WW ca. 10 min 30-40 m First flight in Italy witnessed by large and enthusiastic crowd. Apr 16 WW 6 min 5 sec 3 circuits 10-20 m Naval Lt. Mario Calderara, student-passenger, first around pylon training flight. WW 10 min 5 sec 20-40 m Lt. Umberto Savoia, Army Engineering Corps, passenger. WW 5 min 2 circuits of 40 m grounds Capt. Guido Castagneris, secretary of the Club Aviatori, passenger. A Chronology • 97 WW WW 14 min 5 min 5 circuits of grounds 2 circuits of grounds Lt. Mario Calderara, student-passenger. 60 m Former Premier of Italy Sidney Sonnino, passenger. Flight witnessed by Lloyd C. Griscom, American ambassador to Italy. Apr 17 1 WW ca. 10 min 2 WW ca. 10 min 3 WW 10 min 4 WW 10 min 1 WW 11 min 2 WW 10 min 3 WW 6 min Lt, Mario Calderara was a student-passenger on these flights. Apr 19 Calderara, student-passenger on this and next flight. Flight made without use of starting derrick. Motor damaged in landing. Spectators included Dr. Carlo Schwanzer, minister of Posts and Telegraphs; Signor Pietro Bertolini, minister of Public Works; Signor Luigi Luzzatti, Baron Sonnino, and Prince Scipione Borghese. Apr 21 WW WW WW WW WW WW WW 5 min 4 min 10 min 9 min 15 min ca. 70 m Ascent made without use of drop-weight derrick. 30 m Italian minister of Navy Admiral Mirabello, passenger. 70-80 m Calderara, student-passenger, minister of War Mario present, Calderara, student-passenger, on this and next flight. Duke of Gallese, passenger, Emilio Maraini, passenger. Apr 22 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW 15 min 20 min 8 min 8 min 17 min 20 min Calderara, student-passenger and on next two flights. Prince Scipione Borghese, passenger. Prince Filippo Doria, passenger. Teodor Mayor, passenger. Last flights witnessed by Italian Dowager Queen Margherita, Calderara, student-passenger and on next two flights. Apr 23 WW WW ca. 20 min ca. 20 min ca. 30 ft ca. 30 ft Calderara, student-passenger on both flights. 98 • Wilbur & Orville Wright 1909 Apr 24 1 i,k;i n piior 11 Ml 1 WW 5-1/2 min 2 WW 10 min 3 WW 7 min 4 WW 9 min 5 WW 8 min DISIANCl AlinUDI RFMaXRKS 10 25 m WW WW WW WW WW 7 min 8 min 3 min Calderara, student-passenger on flights 2, 3, 4, and 8. Flights 2, 3, and 4 were witnessed by King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. Maj. Mario Moris, passenger. Lloyd C. Griscom, American ambassador to Italy, passenger. Universal News cameraman accompanied Wilbur and took first successfiil motion pictures from an airplane in flight. Oscar Sinigaglia, Italian engineer, passenger. Countess Mary Macchi di Cellere, passenger, first Italian woman to fly as passenger in Italy. Several of these flights were witnessed by Italian ministers Tommaso Tittoni and Pierro Bertolini. Apr 26 1 WW ca. 5 min 2 WW 3 min 3 WW ca. 10 min 4 WW ca. 10 min 5 WW ca. 10 min 6 WW 1 min 7 WW 12 min 8 WW 6 min 9 WW 6 min 10 WW 8 min 11 WW 12 WW 6 min 13 WW 15m Calderara, student-passenger on flights 1, 3, and 6. 60 m Ascent made without use of lancing device. Lt. Umberto Savoia, student-passenger on this and next flight. Lt. Umberto Savoia, student-passenger. His training is later completed by Lt. Calderara. Prince Scipione Borghese, passenger. Prince Filippo Doria, passenger. Mrs. Sonia Lanino, passenger. Prince Mario Borghese, passenger. Ippolito Bondi, passenger. Mrs. Delafield of England, passenger. Apr 27 1 WW 8 min 3 circles of field 2 WW 8 min 2 circles of field 3 WW 5 min 2 circles of field 4 WW 5 min 2 circles of field Winners of lottery organized by the Duke of Gallese of the Italian Aero Club for the privilege of flying with Wilbur are taken for short flights. Mrs. Frank Belleville, passenger. Duke de Gallese, passenger. Emilio Maraini, passenger. Marcello Orilla, Italian sportsman, passenger. A Chronology • 99 1909 Fort Myer, Va. Wright 1909 Signal Corps Machine The flights of June and July were a continuation of the government trials that had been interrupted by the accident occurring on September 17, 1908. In the 1909 Signal Corps machine the Wrights introduced a combination of a front movable rudder with a fixed horizontal plane in the rear of the machine in contrast to the front horizontal rudder used in the 1903 to 1908 machines. The flights of June 29, June 30, and July 1 were witnessed by Bishop Wright and his eldest son, Reuchlin, who had come to Washington to see them. Jun29 1 OW 7-3/5 sec 2 OW 8 sec 3 OW 4 OW 40-1/3 se 60 yds 25 ft Jun30 OW 21-3/5 sec 20 ft Jull 1 OW 5 min 2 OW 7 min 52 sec 3 OW 9 min 11-2/5 sec 1 OW 7 min 41-1/5 sec 50 ft 30 ft 18 ft Jul 2 80 ft In landing, the branches of a dead tree ripped canvas, breaking 7 ribs of main plane and skids. Orville was forced to return to Dayton to make new wing covering, returning to Washington on July 7. Jul 12 OW 5 min 31 sec 85 ft Jul 13 OW OW 15 sec 15-3/5 sec Engine was not working satisfactorily. Jul 17 OW OW 13-3/5 sec 16 min 54 sec 80 ft Jul 19 OW OW 25 min 17-2/5 sec 29 min 57 sec Circled field 24,5 times Circled field 28.5 times 100 ft 125 ft Jul 20 OW 1 hour 20 min Circled field 45 sec 83 times 300 ft Three figure eights made. New duration record broke previous record set by Orville on September 12, 1908, at Fort Myer. Jul 21 OW 1 min 32-4/5 sec Circled field 60 ft 1-1/2 times 100 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright 1909 i:)isiAN(:i Rl MARKS OW 10 min Circled field 45 sec 12 times (about 8 miles) 20 min Circled field 26-1/2 sec 21 times. 2 min 20 sec 175 ft Jul 24 Jul 26 OW ow 50 ft Flight witnessed by President William Howard Taft. Jul 27 OW 1 hour 12 min Circled field 150 ft 37-4/5 sec 79-1/2 times Lt. Frank R Lahm, passenger. New record ft)r two-man flight established. This flight also ftilfilled Army requirement of remaining in air for an hour carrying two persons. Flight witnessed by Aeronautical Board of the Signal Corps appointed by the Chief Signal Officer of the Army to observe trials. Jul 30 OW 14 min 10 mile 450-500 ft Lt. Benjamin D. Foulois was passenger-observer. The 40 sec course, flight constituted the official government speed trial. An Fort Myer to average speed of 42.583 miles per hour was achieved, and Alexandria the Wrights received a bonus of $5,000 more than the and return basic price agreed upon, 10 percent for each complete mile per hour over 40. President William Howard Taft witnessed completion of flight and sent a message of congratulation to Orville, Flight was first cross country trip. 1909 Templehof Field, Berlin, Germany Wright 1907 Machine Purpose of Orville Wright s flights in Germany was to fulfill a contract made to give exhibition flights in Berlin for the German newspaper Lokal-Anzeiger and to train a flier from the German Wright Company, Flugmaschine Wright G.m.b.H. Aug 30 OW 15 min A test flight viewed only by soldiers at parade grounds. Aug 31 OW 51 min 57 sec Large gathering present, including Gen. Maximilian von Lyncken chief of German Army Transportation. Flight ended when fuel exhausted. Sep 4 OW 19 min 2 sec ca. 20 k 10 to 20 m Spectators included Gen. Helmuth J. L. von Moltke, Chief of the German General Staff, Gen. von Kessel, Grand Marshal Hans von Koester, American Ambassador David J. Hill, and Gen. von Schwarzkoppen. Sep 7 OW 51 min 58 sec ca. 50 k 10 to 30 m Sep 8 OW OW 35 min 52 sec 16 min 27 sec 85 m 10 m Alfred Hildebrandt, passenger. Flights witnessed by Emil Rathenau, president of the German Allgemeine Elektricitats-gesellschaft, and by Isidor Loewe, head of the Mauser rifle and machine tool works. Sep 9 OW 12 min 40: Flights witnessed by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm and Crown Princess Cecilie. Crowd estimated at 200,000. Capt, Paul Engelhard, passenger. Mrs. Alfred Hildebrandt, passenger, first woman to fly as passenger in an airplane in Germany. OW 14 min A Chronology •101 mO! !!ME niSTANCK AirnUDK REMARKS ow ow 12 min 15 sec 8 min 38 sec Sep 10 OW 1 hr 2 min 38 sec 37-1/2 miles 50 to 60 m Sep 11 OW 42 min 16 sec ow 4 min 45 sec more than 100 m Capt. Richard von Kehler, chairman of the German Wright Company, passenger. Defective motor curtailed flight. Sep 13 OW OW 7 min 36 sec 1 7 min 7 sec Prof. Hugo Hergesell, University of Strassburg, passenger. Sep 17 OW OW ca. 30 min 54 min 34 sec Engelhard, passenger. 172 m Flight w^itnessed by Empress of Germany, Prince Adalbert, Prince August Wilhelm, and Princess Viktoria Luise, broke existing altitude record. Sep 18 OW OW 1 hr 35 min 46 sec 1 hr 45 min Engelhard, passenger. Flight set record for flight v/ith passenger. 1909 Governors Island, N.Y.Wright 1907 Machine These flights were the first over American waters. The flights were in fulfillment of a contract signed by Wilbur in August providing for a series of flights by him during the Hudson-Fulton celebration to be held in September and October in New York. Sep 29 WW 7 min 10 sec ca. 2 miles (complete circle of island) WW WW Less than 5 min 12 min 40 to 100 ft Governors Island had been chosen as a starting point by the Judson-Fulton Celebration Commission. Flew from drill field on Governors Island on course around Statue of Liberty and return. Among vessels saluting the flight was the ocean liner Lusitania just starting to Liverpool. Strong wind, creating unfavorable flying conditions curtailed planned extended flight, which set unofficial altitude record. Oct 4 WW 33 min ca. 20 miles Average 33 sec height about 200 ft Flew over Hudson River to a point about 1,000 feet north of Grant's Tomb and return. On return passed over British warships Drake and Inflexible. Average speed about 36 miles an hour. Wilbur carried a canoe under the wing. A planned second flight on this date was abandoned when a cylinder head blew out in attempting to start. 102 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1909 piixn riMF niSIANCI Rl MARKS 1909 Bomstedt Field, Potsdam, Germany Wright 1907 Machine Having completed his exhibition flights at Tempelhof Field in Berlin, Orville moved to Bornstedt Field, a drilling ground for the Potsdam garrison, to give training lessons to Capt. Paul Engelhard, retired German Naval officer. Sep 29 OW 30 min Engelhard, student-passenger, received first lesson. Sep 30 GW 20 min 20 sec OW Engelhard, student-passenger. 250-300 m Empress of Germany, Prince Oskar, and Princess Viktoria Luise observed the flight. Oct 2 OW OW ca. I5min OW ca. 20 min 25-30 m Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, passenger, first member of a royal family to ride in an airplane. Following the flight the Crown Prince presented Orville with a gold tiepin with the Crown Princes initial "W" in rubies and diamonds. 500 m Flight established new unofficial world s altitude record. Oct? Engelhard Orville, passenger. Engine stopped suddenly causing forced landing. Front skid broken. Oct 13 OW OW OW OW 10 min OW 1 m Engelhard, student-passenger. Engelhard, student-passenger. Capt. Engelhard, student-passenger, who subsequently made three solo flights on this date, completing his training by Orville. Dr. Heinrich Adams, passenger. A speed test with Fridolin Keidel, passenger. Oct 14 OW OW OW 30 min ca. 25 min ca. 50 m Mr. Susemann, passenger. Machine almost destroyed when gasoline caught fire on starting and section of canvas on lower plane burned. Oct 15 OW 25-30 min 100-150 m Flight witnessed by German Emperor Wilhelm, the Empress, Princess Viktoria Luise, Gen. Hans G. H. von Plessen, and Baron Max B. A. Holzing Verstett. Orville had delayed his departure from Berlin on request of the Emperor. This was the first time the Emperor had seen and airplane in flight. Before leaving, he presented Katharine with an auto graphed photograph of himself This concluded Orville's flights in Germany. 1909 College Park, Md. Wright 1907 Machine Wilbur had arrived at College Park, Md., on October 5 to train Signal Corps officers in fulfillment of Wrights' contract with the War Department. A Chronology •103 Oct 8 1 WW 3 min 2 WW 4 min 51 sec 3 WW 3 min 4 WW 5 min 8 sec 5 WW 4 min 15 sec 1 WW 58-3/5 sec ca. 1,300 m 2 WW 6 min 33 sec 3 WW 3 min 23 sec 4 WW 1 min 6 sec ca. 30 ft ca. 100ft ca. 150ft Lt. Frank P. Lahm, student-passenger. Lt. Frederic E. Humphreys, student-passenger. Oct 9 Oct 15 WW WW WW WW WW 4 min 48 sec 1 min 32 sec 9 min 14-1/2 min 3-1/2 min Speed of 46 miles an hour established record ftjr flight over closed circuit 500-meter course. 4 WW 1 min 6 sec Minister Wu Ting-fang of China witnessed two flights. Oct 11 1 WW 3 min 50 sec Flight made without use of falling weight and starting derrick. Oct 12 1 WW 7 min 2 sec 5 rounds of Held Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Oct 16 WW WW WW 13 min 18 sec 13 min 44-1/5 sec 3 min 34-4/5 sec Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. For a minute or two Wilbur raced Baltimore and Ohio Railroad train traveling 50 miles an hour. Oct 18 WW WW WW WW WW 11 min 47-2/5 sec 18 min 37-2/5 sec 10 min 13-3/5 sec 11 min 34-2/5 sec 9 min 37-1/5 sec Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. 104 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright 1909 KIMARKS Oct 19 Oct 20 Oct 21 Oct 22 Oct 23 Oct 25 Oct 26 Oct 27 1 2 3 4 5 WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW WW 9 min 19-4/5 sec 12 min 7 sec 4 min 10-2/5 sec 3 min 15 sec 18 min 40 sec 18 min 6 sec 3 min 25 sec 6 min 28 sec 2 min 31 sec 27 min 33 min 1 min 2 min 3 min 42 min 18 min 8 min 13 min 11 min 13 min 11 min 18 min 1-1/2 min 2 min 4 min 2 min 2 circles of field Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Two spectators crossed in front of plane as it was landing and accident was narrowly avoided, Humphreys, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger. Benjamin. D. Foulois, student-passenger. Lahm, student-passenger. Foulois, student-passenger. Humphreys, student-passenger, Lahm, student-passenger. 100 ft Humphreys and Lahm made solo flights on this date. ca. 60 ft 125 ft Mrs. Ralph H, Van Deman is passenger, first woman to fly as passenger in the United States. A Chronology* 105 D! KIMAKKS 3 WW 28 min 21 sec 4 WW 6-1/2 min Foulois, student-passenger. Capt. Charles DeE Chandler, passenger. Nov 1 WW 2 min Flight made after dark. Nov 2 WW WW 2 min 2 min Lahm, student-passenger. 1910 Montgomery, Ala. Wright 1907 Machine Following the decision of the Wright Company to engage in exhibition flying Orville commenced the training of pilots to handle the exhibition planes being built by the company. The flights were carried out at Montgomery, Ala., on the site of the present Maxwell Air Force Base, chosen by Wilbur because the late winter and spring weather there was more conducive to the flight operations than in Dayton. The five students participating were: Walter Brookins, Dayton, Ohio; J. W. Davis, Colorado Springs, Colo.; Spencer C. Crane, Dayton; Arch Hoxsey, Dayton; and Arthur L. Welsh, Washington D.C. The training was conducted by Orville who arrived in Montgomery on March 24 and departed on May 7. The training of Welsh by Orville was resumed in Dayton on May 10. Brookins and Hoxsey resumed flying in Dayton on June 1. Mar 25 OW 2 flights, 10 miles altogether Mar 28 OW OW OW OW ca. 5-6 min 100 ft Walter Brookins, student-passenger. Piston valves and cylinder of engine damj^ed at start, preventing takeoff. Mar 31 OW Trial unsuccessful-airplane jumped back. Apr 1 1 OW 6 min 2 OW 11 min 3 OW 4 OW 1 OW 2 OW 3 OW 8 starts made-plane jumped back twice. Brookins, student-passenger on this and next flight. J. W Davis, student-passenger. Apr 2 17 miles Brookins, student-passenger. Valve broke in last flight. Apr 7 OW 6 flights with four student-passengers. 106 • Wilbur & Orville Wright 1909-1910 Apr 21 OW OW 4 min 5 min 2 circles of field 30 ft P^xll OW Walter Brookins, student-passenger. Apr 23 OW OW OW OW OW 10 min 10 min 10 min 10 min 10 min Brookins, student-passenger and on next two flights. Apr 2 1 2 3 4 5 OW OW OW OW OW 10 min 10 min 19 min Brookins, student-passenger and on next three flights. Apr 27 OW OW OW Brookins, student-passenger and on next flight. Apr 29 Apr 30 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 10 min 10 min 10 min 10 min 10 min Brookins, student-passenger on flights 1, 2, 3, 6, and 7. More than 1,000 persons were in attendance to witness flights. Arthur L Welsh, student-passenger, Spencer C, Crane, student-passenger. Largest crowd of season in attendance. Brookins, student-passenger. Crane, student-passenger. Arch Hoxsey, student-passenger. A Chronology •107 OlSIANCi: RFMARKS 6 Walter Brookins 10 min 7 OW 15 min 8 OW 10 min 9 OW 10 min 10 OW 10 min 1 OW ca. 30 min 2 OW 3 OW 4 OW 5 OW 6 OW 7 OW 8 OW 9 OW 10 OW 18 min Orville, passenger. May 3 11 OW 300 ft Frank D. Kohn of Montgomery, passenger. Brookins, student-passenger. Hoxsey, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. LOGO ft May 5 OW 17 min Brookins 12 min Brookins 4 min Brookins 13 min Brookins 8 min Orvilles last flight in Montgomery. He departed on May 7 leaving school and training in charge of Brookins. The last flight of Brookins and his students were on May 25. 1910 Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio Wright 1907 Machine, May 10-20— Model B, May 21-October 14 Shordy after the return of Orville from Montgomery, Ala., on May 8, 1910, the Wrights opened the Wright Flying School in Dayton to continue the training, begun in Montgomery, of pilots who would conduct exhibition flights for the Wright company. This school was in of>eration 1910-1916. Orville, in May and June, completed the training of Arthur L. Welsh and Duval La Chapelle. Walter Brookins, trained by Orville in Montgomery, trained Ralph Johnstone and Frank T Coffyn and completed the training of Arch Hoxsey begun in Montgomery. These men became the first Wright Company exhibition flyers. May 10 OW OW 8 min 7 sec 10 min 12 sec 108 • WUbur & OrviUe Wright 1910 niSIANC F RI \1\KKS ow ow ow 11 min 4 sec 10 min 6 sec 20 min 1 sec Arthur L. Welsh, student-passenger on this and next flight. May 12 OW OW OW OW OW 12 min 50 sec 14 min 50 sec 15 min 15 min 30 sec 8 min 30 sec Welsh, student-passenger on this and next flight. May 14 OW ow ow ow ow 8 min 14 min 30 sec 15 min 18 min 10 min 1,300 h Welsh, student-passenger on this and next two flights. May 16 OW OW 10 min 30 sec 12 min 30 sec Welsh, student-passenger. May 18 OW OW ow ow 9 min 8 sec 8 min 26 sec 10 min 7 sec 17 min 41 sec 5 OW 9 min 34 sec 6 OW 11 min 8 sec 7 ow 15 min 45 sec 8 ow 10 min Msec 1 ow 15 min 2 sec Welsh, student-passenger on flights 2, 3, 7, and 8. Arthur Ruhl, of Collier s, passenger. Albert B. Lambert, president of St. Louis Aero Club, passenger. (Lambert was later to become one of the backers of the New York to Paris flight of Lindbergh in the Spirit of St. Louis.) May 19 Welsh, student-passenger on flights 1, 2, 3, 6, and 8. A Chronology •109 REMARKS May 20 3 4 5 6 7 6 7 8 9 10 OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 14 min 52 sec 13 min 2 sec 8 min 44 sec 10 min 25 sec 9 min 28 sec 20 min 50 sec 10 min 29 sec 11 min 12 sec 12 min 41 sec 13 min 22 sec 1 1 min 32 sec 16 min 42 sec 9 min 53 sec 8 min 29 sec 10 min 25 sec 16 min 52 sec Duval La Chapelle, student-passenger. lJ60m Welsh, student-passenger. Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Engine did not start. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Coffyn, passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. May 21 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 OW OW OW OW WW OW OW 18 min 35 sec 11 min 39 sec 11 min 27 sec 11 min 11 sec 1 min 29 sec 5 min 37 sec 5 min 13 sec ca. 2000 ft A new machine, model B, tried for first time. Welsh, student-passenger. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. This was Wilburs last flight as a pilot in the U.S. Lorin Wright, brother, passenger. Charles E. Taylor, passenger. May 24 OW 11 min 25 sec Welsh, student-passenger on flights 1, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 11. 110 • WDbur & Orville Wright 1910 DISIANCh RIMARKS 6 7 8 9 10 11 OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 11 min 30 sec 1 min 42 sec 12 min 20 sec 12 min 12 sec 7 min 30 sec 9 min 42 sec 9 min 32 sec 10 min 8 sec 12 min 30 sec 1 5 min 9 sec Frank T. Coffyn, passenger on this and next flight. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. 900 ft La Chapelle, student-passenger. 1,200 ft May 25 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 6 min 32 sec 7 min 40 sec 5 min 1 sec 12 min 35 sec 15 min 11 sec 7 min 48 sec 8 min 8 sec 23 min 16 sec 7 min 41 sec 14 min 1 sec 6 min 26 sec 6 min 55 sec 8 min 22 sec Welsh, student-passenger on flights 1, 4, 7, and 10. 1,600 ft Unsuccessftil start. 2,700 ft 350 ft Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. Wilbur, passenger, the first time the brothers had flown together. Bishop Wright, passenger, his first time in an airplane. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. May 26 OW OW OW OW OW 11 min 2 min 25 sec 11 min 42 sec 8 min 24 sec 5 min 24 sec Welsh, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. 600 ft Welsh, student-passenger. A Chronology •111 May 27 8 9 10 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 OW OW OW OW OW 25 min 19 sec 13 min 34 sec 10 min 16 sec 10 min 33 sec 2 min 42 sec 2,100 ft OW 2 min 30 sec OW 12 min 38 sec OW 11 min 58 sec OW 9 min 59 sec OW 9 min 14 sec 625 ft OW 5 min 30 sec OW 11 min OW 7 min 1 sec OW 13 min 28 sec OW 5 min 2 sec Welsh 5 min 13 sec Welsh 2 min Welsh 2 min 6 sec Welsh 1 min 5 1 sec Welsh 1 min 58 sec La Chapelle, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger on next two flights. Welsh, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Orville, passenger and on remaining flights. May 28 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 OW OW Welsh Welsh Welsh OW Welsh OW OW OW 4 min 8 sec 8 min 4 sec 6 min 37 sec 18 min 12 sec 9 min 7 sec 1 1 min 8 sec 14 min 52 sec 25 min 47 sec La Chapelle, student-passenger. Orville, passenger. Orville, passenger. Engine failed to start. Orville, passenger. Engine failed to start. Wilbur, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger on this and next flight. 112 •Wilbur & Orville Wright 1910 Jun 1 Jun 2 Jun 3 Jun 4 Jun 7 11 Welsh 3min5sec 12 OW 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 4 5 6 7 8 9 OW 6 min 38 sec OW OW 13 min, 7 sec 6 min 10 sec OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 3 min 30 sec 12 min 17 sec 7 min 32 sec 17 min 23 sec 15 min 6 sec 20 min 15 sec 14 min 2 sec 17 min 20 sec 4 min OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW OW 14 min 46 sec 12 min 24 sec 12 min 18 sec 8 min 50 sec 7 min 8 min 5 sec 9 min 6 sec 7 min 45 sec 9 min 26 sec OW OW 21 min 16 min 38 sec Orville, passenger. Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. Engine failed to start. 500 ft La Chapelle, student-passenger. Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Engine stalled. Engine stalled. Engine stalled. La Chapelle, student-passenger on this and next flight. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Coffyn, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger. Arch Hoxsey, passenger. Frank T. Coffyn, passenger. La Chapelle, student-passenger and on last two flights. 2,000 ft La Chapelle, student-passenger and on flights 2, 3, 5, 6, and 7. A Chronology # 113 PILOl iiMi: nisiANc:!. RIMAKKS ow ow ow ow ow 12 min 20 sec 7 min 1 8 sec 3 min 35 sec 3 min 26 sec 3 min 2 sec Welsh, student-passenger. Jun8 OW OW ow ow ow 5 min 35 sec 15 min 11 sec 5 min 56 sec 8 min 50 sec 1 min 8 sec La Chapelle, student-passenger on this and next flight. Welsh, student-passenger. Ralph Johnstone, passenger. Welsh, student-passenger. Junl5 Jul 22 ow OW 4 min 30 sec 20 min 24 sec Jun 17 1 OW 30 sec Jun 18 1 OW 10 min Jul 21 1 ow Wrights installed wheels on their machine for the first time on experimental basis. 1 OW 3 min 45 sec 2 OW 9 min 3 ow 15 min 46 sec OW Airplane wheels tested on rough ground. Jul 23 1 OW 5 min 33 sec 2 OW 10 min 4 sec 3 ow 17 min 30 sec 4 OW 9 min 14 sec 5 ow 8 min 45 sqc 6 ow 7 min 17 sec 1 ow 19 min, 20 sec 1,200 ft Walter Brooldns, passenger. Jul 26 Jul 27 1 OW 4 min 1 14 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1910-1911 DISIANCF RIMARKS ow ow ow 12 min 10 min 30 sec 17 min 20 sec 800 ft 1,200 ft Jul 28 Jul 30 OW 6 min 52 sec OW OW OW OW OW 11 min 22 sec 4 min 58 sec 13 min 52 sec 23 min 16 sec Griffith Brewer, passenger. False start, ca. 400 ft Brewer, passenger. Aug 23 OW Bishop Wright recorded flight by Orville on this date. Sep 10 Oct 22 1 OW 10 min 2 OW 28 min 3 OW 5 min Alexander Ogilvie, student-passenger. Sep 22 1 OW 33 min ca. 25 miles 2,000 to 4,000 ft Orville flew from Simms Station over the city of Dayton and returned. Flight witnessed by 100,000 spectators. Sep 23 1 OW 1,000 ft Katharine Wright, passenger. Oct 14 1 ow Orville flew 7 times on this date. OW Orville testflew new Wright Model R, known also as "Baby Grand," built to compete for the Gordon-Bennett International Aviation Trophy race to be held at Belmont Park, N. Y. He attained speed of 77-78 miles an hour. 1911 Kitty Hawk, N.C Wright 1911 Glider Orville, in the company of his brother Lorin, his nephew Horace, and his friend Alexander Ogilvie, of England, left Dayton on October 7 and arrived in Kitty Hawk on October 10 for the purpose of conducting gliding experiments. The Wright 1911 glider generally resembled the Wright 1911 powered machine, weighed about one third as much, and lacked its motor. Modifciations in the design were made as the gliding experiments proceeded. It was the intention also to test the automatic stabilizer Orville had been working on for a number of years. However, the experiments were concluded without a test of the automatic stabilizer because of the presence of a group of newspaper men who came to camp each day during this entire stay. Four had arrived at Kitty Hawk on October 13: John Mitchell, Associated Press; Mitchell, New York Herald; D. Bruce Salley, a reporter from Norfolk; and Van Ness Harwood, New York World. Arnold Kruckman and Berges, of the New York American, reached Kitty Hawk A Chronology • 1 15 Rl MARKS on October 20. A new soaring record of nine minutes 45 seconds was established by Orville on October 24, which remained a world's record until broken in Germany 10 years later. The 1911 experiments were the last conducted by the Wrights at Kitty Hawk. Oct 16 OW West Hill, Kill Devil Hill Six glides made, longest 250 yds, maximum time 26 sec. OW OW 23 sec 637 ft in curved line plus 586 ft in straight line Three glides made. Orville pitched forward out of the glider. Oct 17 OW West Hill. Orville made two glides. Alexander Ogilvie three. Oct 18 OW OW 1 min 1 5 sec 1 min 15 sec Machine turned over, breaking both left wings and the rear horizontal rudder. Orville escaped injury. Oct 23 OW Two glides made. In second glide machine turned over, breaking both vertical and horizontal rudders. Orville again escaped injury. Oct 24 OW 9 min 45 sec ca. 1/4-mile ca, 200 ft About 20 glides made, ranging from one minute to 9 min 45 sec. Flight of 9 min 45 sec set new soaring record. Oct 25 1 OW 23 sec 2 OW 10 sec 3 OW 32 sec 4 OW 8 sec 5 OW 9 sec 6 OW 9 sec 7 OW 22 sec 8 OW 9 sec 9 OW 25 sec 10 OW 10 sec 11 OW 27 sec 12 OW 2 sec 13 OW 5 sec 14 OW 15 OW 16 OW 8 sec 17 OW 33 sec West Hill. Litde Hill. Kill Devil Hill, 1 16 • Wilbur & OrvUle Wright 1911 18 OW 43 sec 19 OW 28 sec 20 OW 44 sec 21 OW 44 sec 22 OW 59 sec 23 OW 24 sec 24 OW 33 sec 25 OW 26 sec 26 OW 26 sec 11 OW 29 sec 28 OW 31 sec 29 OW 22 sec 30 OW 25 sec 31 OW 23 sec Oct 26 1 OW 1 mln 13 sec 2 OW 1 min 26 sec 3 OW 46 sec 4 OW 1 min 8 sec 5 OW 1 min 24 sec 6 OW 1 min 31 sec 7 OW 2 min 25 sec 8 OW 2 min 52 sec 9 OW 41 sec 10 OW 29 sec 11 OW 49 sec 12 OW ca. 1 min 13 OW 36 sec 14 OW 37 sec 15 OW 41 sec 16 OW 1 min 1 sec 17 OW 18 sec 18 OW 49 sec 19 OW 58 sec 20 OW 25 sec 21 OW 41 sec 22 OW 29 sec Big HUl. A Chronologjr • 117 23 OW 1 min 5 sec 24 OW 42 sec 1911-1918 Simms Station, Dayton, Ohio Mar 25 Jul 19 Orville continued active flying and made numerous flights during the period 1911-1916, testflying new and experimental Wright Company aircraft, resting automatic flying and safety devices, and giving flight instruction to Army and Navy pilots and Wright Co. exhibition fliers. His last flight as a pilot occurred on May 13, 1918. Apr 17 OW Wright Model B Hov/ard W Gill, student-passenger on two flights. Apr 28 1 OW Wright Model B Orville made a series of flights "in which he gave an exhibition of graceful turns and slow flying such as is seldom seen." May 3-13 OW Wright Model B Arthur L. Welsh, student-passenger, received 28 postgraduate lessons during this period. May 14 1 OW Wright Model EX Orville test flew new Wright exhibidon model EX. Jun2 OW Wright Model EX Bishop Wright reported Orville conducting test flights. 1 OW Wright Model EX ca. 60 min 2-3 miles 2 OW Wright Model EX 35 min Capt. Washington J. Chambers, U.S. Navy, passenger. Jul 26 1 OW Wright Model B 13 min Lt. Frank P. Lahm, student-passenger on these flights for postgraduate lessons. 2 OW Wright Model B 10 min 3 OW Wright Model B 20 min Jul 31 1 OW Wright 1907 machine 4 min Lahm, student-passenger on these flights. 2 OW Wright 1907 machine 4 min 3 OW Wright 1907 machine 13 min Augl 1 OW Wright 1907 machine 20 min Lahm, student-passenger on these flights. 2 OW Wright 1907 flights 6 min 118 • Wilbur & OrviUe Wright 1911-1913 3 OW Wright 1907 13 min flights 4 OW Wright 1907 10 min machine Aug 7 OW Wright Model R Orville made moonlight flight at Hempstead, L.I. Aug 24- Sept 5 OW Wright Model R Orville accompanied Capt. Charles DeF. Chandler on a series of 25-35 postgraduate training flights. Aug 29 Apr 27 Jun5 OW Wright Model R ca. 10 min OW Wright Model R OW Wright Model R ca. 5 min OW Model C 31-3/5 sec Type C, M-1 OW Model C Type C, M-1 OW Wright Model CH Leontine Wright, age 12, passenger. Bertha EUwyn Wright, age 14, passenger. Ivonette Wright, age 15, passenger. Aug 30 1 OW Wright Model R 10 min 400 ft Brother Reuchlin, passenger. Sep 1 1 OW Wright Model R ca. 30 min 1,600 to 1,800 ft. Reuchlin, passenger. 1912 Arthur L. Welsh, passenger, Model C airplane, successor to Model B, had slightly flatter wing surfaces than the B, and the control system was somewhat simplified. A notable modification was the addition of vertical vanes to the forward ends of the skids. Welsh, passenger. May 2 1 OW Model C Type C, M-1 1 min 5 sec Welsh, passenger. Dec 8 1 OW Model C TypeC Orville reported to be tesnng his automatic flier. 1913 Jan 13 1 OW Wright Model C Automatic stabilizer tested. May 1 1 OW Wright Model CH Hydroplane tests conducted on Miami River. May 2 1 OW Wright Model CH Hydroplane tests on Miami River. May 3 1 OW Wright Model CH Hydroplane tests on Miami River. June-July OW Wright Model CH Orville made over 100 flights during this period, frequently with passengers. James M. H. Jacobs, Charles E, Taylor, and Taylor's son carried as passengers on flight over A Chronology •119 the Miami River, making a total load on the machine of almost 800 pounds. Sep 5 OW Wright Model E Sep 27 OW Wright Model E Dec 31 OW Wright Model E 500 ft Aug 20 OW modified Wright Model G May 13 OW Wright 1911 model Test flights made in series of experiments aimed at perfecting automatic stabilizer. Test flights made. Sep 30 OW Wright Model E Test flights made. Oct 11 OW Wright Model E Test flights made. Nov 13 OW Wright Model E Test flights made. Orville, in 17 flights using special experimental machine with very thick surfaces, demonstrated his automatic stabilizer. The flights were witnessed by three Aero Club of America representatives; Dr. L E. Custer and Dr. John C. Eberhardt of Dayton and Grover C. Loening of New York. Seven circles were made with heads off controls. The successful demonstration on this date resulted in the award to Orville on February 5 of the Aero Club of America Trophy for 1913 for the development of his automatic stabilizer. 1914 Apr 18 1 OW 19mLn Orville flew with hands off the controls, testing new device aimed at preventing airplane dives. Aug 12 1 OW Orville reported flying. Orville, accompanied by student pilot Lt. Kenneth Whiting, of the U.S. Navy, narrowly escaped drowning when the later model hydroplane he was piloting fell into the Miami River from an altitude of 30 feet when a wing broke. 1915 November OW Series of tests on automatic stabilizer made. 1916 Sept 19-21 OW Orville reported to be flying almost every day, on one afternoon making more than a dozen flights. Novl OW 1918 Orville made last flight as a pilot, flying his Wright 1911 biplane alongside the first De Havilland-4, built at Moraine City, Ohio, flown by Howard M. Rinehart. 120 • WUbur & Orville Wright The NASA History Series Reference Works, NASA SP-4000 Grimwood, James M. Project Mercury: A Chronology, NASA SP-4001, 1963. Grimwood, James M., and C. Barton Hacker, with Peter J. Vorzimmer. Project Gemini Technology and Operations: A Chronology, NASA SP-4002, 1969. Link, Mae Mills. Space Medicine in Project Mercury. NASA SP-4003, 1965. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1963: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4004, 1964. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1964: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy, NASA SP-4005, 1965. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1965: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4006, 1966. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1966: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy, NASA SP-4007, 1967. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1967: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy, NASA SP-4008, 1968. Ertel, Ivan D., and Mary Louise Morse. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume I, Through November 7, 1962, NASA SP-4009, 1969. Morse, Mary Louise, and Jean Kemahan Bays. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume II, Novembers, 1962-September 30, i56¥. NASA SP-4009, 1973. Brooks, Courtney G., and Ivan D, Ertel. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume III, October 1, 1964~January 20, 1966 NASA SP-4009, 1973. Ertel, Ivan D., and Roland W. Newkirk, with Courtney G. Brooks. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume IV, January 21 1966-July 13. 1974. NASA SP-4009, 1978. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1968: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP.4010, 1969. Newkirk, Roland W., and Ivan D. Ertel, with Courtney G. Brooks. Skylab: A Chronology. NASA SP-4011, 1977. Van Nimmen, Jane, and Leonard C. Bruno, with Robert L. Rosholt, NASA Historical Data Book, Volume I: NASA Resources, 1958-1968, NASA SP-4012, 1976, rep. ed. 1988. Ezell, Linda Neuman. NASA Historical Data Book, Volume II: Programs and Projects, 1958-1968, NASA SP-4012, 1988. Ezell, Linda Neuman. NASA Historical Data Book, Volume III: Programs and Projects, 1969-1978. NASA SP-4012, 1988. Gawdiak, Ihor Y, with Helen Fedor, compilers. NASA Historical Data Book, Volume IV: NASA Resources, 1969-1978. NASA SP-4012, 1994. Rumerman, Judy A., compiler. NASA Historical Data Book, 1979-1988: Volume V, NASA Launch Systems, Space Transportation, Human Spaceflight, and Space Science. NASA SP-4012, 1999. A Chronology • 121 Rumerman, Judy A., compiler. NASA Historical Data Book, Volume VI: NASA Space Applications^ Aeronautics and Space Research and Technology, Tracking and Data Acquisition! Space Operations, Commercial Pro-ams, and Resources, 1979-1988. NASA SP-2000-4012, 2000. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1969: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4014, 1970. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1970: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4015, 1972. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1971: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4016, 1972. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1972: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4017, 1974. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1973: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4018, 1975. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1974: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4019, 1977. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1975: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy NASA SP-4020, 1979. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1976: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4021, 1984. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1977: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4022, 1986. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1978: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4023, 1986. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1979-1984: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4024, 1988. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1985: Chronology of Science, Technology, and Policy. NASA SP-4025, 1990. Noordung, Hermann. The Problem of Space Travel: The Rocket Motor. Edited by Ernst Stuhlinger and J. D. Hunley with Jennifer Garland. NASA SP-4026, 1995. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1986-1990: A Chronology. NASA SP-4027, 1997. Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1990-1995: A Chronology. NASA SP-2000-4028, 2000. Management Histories, NASA SP-4100 Rosholt, Robert L. An Administrative History of NASA, 1958-1963. NASA SP-4101, 1966. Levine, Arnold S. Managing NASA in the Apollo Era. NASA SP-4102, 1982. Roland, Alex. Model Research: The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, 1915-1958. NASA SP-4103, 1985. Fries, Sylvia D. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. NASA SP-4104, 1992. Glennan, T. Keith. The Birth of NASA: The Diary ofT. Keith Glennan. J. D. Hunley, editor. NASA SP-4105, 1993. 122 • WUbur & OrviUe Wright Seamans, Robert C, Jr. Aiming at Targets: The Autobiography of Robert C. Seamans, Jr NASA SP- 4106, 1996. Garber, Stephen J., Looking Backward, Looking Forward: Forty Years of U.S, Human Spaceflight Symposium. NASA SP-4107, 2002. Project Histories, NASA SP-4200 Swenson, Loyd S., Jr., James M. Grimwood, and Charles C. Alexander, This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury. NASA SP-4201, 1966; rep. ed. 1998. Green, Constance McLaughhn, and Milton Lomask. Vanguard: A History. NASA SP-4202, 1970; rep. ed. Smithsonian Institution Press, 1971. Hacker, Barton C, and James M. Grimwood. On Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP-4203, 1977. Benson, Charles D., and William Barnaby Faherty. Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. NASA SP-4204, 1978. Brooks, Courtney G., James M. Grimwood, and Loyd S. Swenson, Jr Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. NASA SP-4205, 1979. Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. NASA SP-4206, 1980, rep. ed. 1997. SP-4207 not published. Compton, W. David, and Charles D. Benson. Living and Working in Space: A History ofSkylab. NASA SP-4208, 1983. Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project. NASA SP-4209, 1978. Hall, R. Cargill. Lunar Impact: A History of Project Ranger. NASA SP-4210, 1977. Newell, Homer E. Beyond the Atmosphere: Early Years of Space Science. NASA SP-4211, 1980. Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Linda Neuman Ezell. On Mars: Exploration of the Red Planet, 1958-1978. NASA SP-4212, 1984. Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. NASA SP- 4213, 1985. Compton, W. David. Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions. NASA SP-4214, 1989. Naugle, John E. First Among Equals: The Selection of NASA Space Science Experiments. NASA SP- 4215, 1991. Wallace, Lane E. Airborne Trailblazer: Two Decades with NASA Langleys Boeing 737 Flying Laboratory. NASA SP-4216, 1994. Butrica, Andrew J., ed. Beyond the Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication. NASA SP- 4217, 1997. Butrica, Andrew J. To See the Unseen: A History of Planetary Radar Astronomy. NASA SP-4218, 1996. Mack, Pamela E., ed. From Engineering Science to Big Science: The NACA and NASA Collier Trophy Research Project Winners. NASA SP-4219, 1998. A Chronology •123 Reed, R. Dale, with Darlene Lister, Wingless Flight: The Lifting Body Story, NASA SP-4220, 1997. Heppenheimer, T, A. The Space Shuttle Decision: NASA's Search fi)r a Reusable Space Vehicle. NASA SP-4221, 1999. Hunley, J. D,, ed. Toward Mach 2: The Douglas D-558 Program. NASA SP-4222, 1999. Swanson, Glen E., ed. "Befi)re this Decade is Out . . . ": Personal Reflections on the Apollo Program, NASA SP-4223, 1999. Tomayko, James E. Computers Take Flight: A History of NASA's Pioneering Digital Fly-by-Wire Project. NASA SP-2000-4224, 2000. Morgan, Clay. Shuttle-Mir: The U.S. and Russia Share History's Highest Stage. NASA SP-2001-4225, 2001. Mudgway, Douglas J. Uplink-Downlink: A History of the Deep Space Network, 1957-1997. NASA SP-2001-4227, 2002. Center Histories, NASA SP-4300 Rosenthal, Alfred. Venture into Space: Early Years ofGoddard Space Flight Center NASA SP-4301, 1985. Hartman, Edwin P. Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center, 1940-1965, NASA SP-4302, 1970. Halhon, Richard R On the Frontier: Flight Research at Dryden, 1946-1981. NASA SP-4303, 1984. Muenger, Elizabeth A. Searching the Horizon: A History of Ames Research Centen 1940-1976. NASA SP-4304, 1985. Hansen, James R. Engineer in Charge: A History of the Langley Aeronautical Laboratory 1917-1958. NASASP-4305, 1987. Dawson, Virginia P. Engines and Innovation: Lewis Laboratory and American Propulsion Technology. NASA SP-4306, 1991. DethlofF, Henry C. ''Suddenly Tomorrow Came . , . ": A History of the Johnson Space Center. NASA SP-4307, 1993. Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo. NASA SP-4308, 1995. Wallace, Lane E. Flights of Discovery: 50 Years at the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center. NASA SP-4309, 1996. Herring, Mack R. Way Station to Space: A History of the John C. Stennis Space Center NASA SP- 4310, 1997. Wallace, Harold D., Jr. Wallops Station and the Creation of the American Space Program. NASA SP- 4311, 1997. Wallace, Lane E. Dreams, Hopes, Realities: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center, The First Forty Years. NASA SP-4312, 1999. Dunar, Andrew J., and Stephen P. Waring. Power to Explore: A History of the Marshall Space Flight Center. NASA SP-4313. 1999. Bugos, Glenn E. Atmosphere of Freedom: Sixty Years at the NASA Ames Research Center NASA SP- 2000-4314,2000. 124 • WUbur & OrviUc Wright General Histories, NASA SP-4400 Corliss, William R. NASA Sounding Rockets, 1958-1968: A Historical Summary. NASA SP-4401, 1971. Wells, Helen T., Susan H. Whiteley, and Carrie Karegeannes. Origins of NASA Names. NASA SP- 4402, 1976. Anderson, Frank W, Jr. Orders of Magnitude: A History ofNACA and NASA, 1915-1980. NASA SP-4403, 1981. Sloop, John L. Liquid Hydrogen as a Propulsion Fuel, 1945-1959. NASA SP-4404, 1978. Roland, Alex. A Spacefaring People: Perspectives on Early Spaceflight. NASA SP-4405, 1985. Bilstein, Roger E. Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990. NASA SP- 4406, 1989. Logsdon, John M., ed., with Linda J. Lear, Jannelle Warren-Findley, Ray A. Williamson, and Dwayne A. Day. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US Civil Space Program, Volume I, Organizing for Exploration. NASA SP-4407, 1995. Logsdon, John M., ed., with Dwayne A. Day and Roger D. Launius. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume II, Relations with Other Organizations. NASA SP-4407, 1996. Logsdon, John M., ed., with Roger D. Launius, David H. Onkst, and Stephen J. Garber. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume III, Using Space. NASA SP-4407, 1998. Logsdon, John M., gen. ed., with Ray A. WilUamson, Roger D. Launius, Russell J. Acker, Stephen J. Garber, and Jonathan L. Friedman. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, Volume IV, Accessing Space. NASA SP-4407, 1999. Logsdon, John M., gen. ed., with Amy Paige Snyder, Roger D. Launius, Stephen J. Garber, and Regan Anne Newport. Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the US. Civil Space Program, Volume V, Exploring the Cosmos, NASA SP-2001-4407, 2001. Siddiqi, Asif A. Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974. NASA SP- 2000-4408, 2000. Monographs in Aerospace History, NASA SP-4500 Launius, Roger D,, and Aaron K. Gillette, comps. Toward a History of the Space Shuttle: An Annotated Bibliography. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 1, 1992. Out of print. Launius, Roger D., and J. D. Hunley, comps. An Annotated Bibliography of the Apollo Program. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 2, 1994. Launius, Roger D.Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 3, 1994. Hansen, James R. Enchanted Rendezvous: fohn C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 4, 1995. Gorn, Michael H. Hugh L. Drydens Career in Aviation and Space. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 5, 1996. Powers, Sheryll Goecke. Women in Flight Research at NASA Dryden Flight Research Center from 1946 to 1995. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 6, 1997. A Chronology * 125 Portree, David S. R, and Robert C. Trevino. Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 7, 1997. Logsdon, John M., moderator. Legislative Origins of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958: Proceedings of an Oral History Workshop. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 8, 1998. Rumerman, Judy A., comp. U.S, Human Spaceflighty A Record of Achievement 1961-1998. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 9, 1998. Portree, David S. F. NASA's Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age. Monograph in Aerospace History No. 10, 1998. Logsdon, John M. Together in Orbit: The Origins of International Cooperation in the Space Station. Monograph in Aerospace History No. 11, 1998. PhilKps, W. Hewitt. Journey in Aeronautical Research: A Career at NASA Langley Research Center Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 12, 1998. Braslow, Albert L. A History of Suction-Type Laminar-Flow Control with Emphasis on Flight Research. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 13, 1999. Logsdon, John M., moderator. Managing the Moon Program: Lessons Learned From Apollo. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 14, 1999. Perminov, V. G. The Difficult Road to Mars: A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 15, 1999. Tucker, Tom. Touchdown: The Development of Propulsion Controlled Aircraft at NASA Dryden. Monograph in Aerospace History, No. 16, 1999. Maisel, Martin D., Demo J. GiuHanetti, and Daniel C. Dugan. The History of the XV-IS Tilt Rotor Research Aircraft: From Concept to Flight. NASA SP-2000-4517, 2000, Jenkins, Dennis R. Hypersonics Before the Shuttle: A Concise History of the X'l5 Research Airplane. NASA SP-2000-4518, 2000. Chambers, Joseph R. Partners in Freedom: Contributions of the Langley Research Center to U.S. Military Aircraft in the 1990s. NASA SP-2000-4519, 2000. Waltman, Gene L. Black Magic and Gremlins: Analog Flight Simulations at NASA's Flight Research Center NASA SP-2000-4520, 2000. Portree, David S. F. Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning 1950-2000. NASA SP-2001-4521, 2001. Thompson, Milton O., with J. D. Hunley Flight Research: Problems Encountered and What They Should Teach Us. NASA SP-2000-4522, 2000. Tucker, Tom. The Eclipse Project. NASA SP-2000-4523, 2000. Siddiqi, Asif A. Deep Space Chronicle: A Chrononology of Deep Space and Planetary Probes 1958-2000. NASA SP-2002-4524, 2002. Merlin, Peter W. Mach 3+: NASA/USAF YF-12 Flight Research. 1969-1979. NASA SP-2001- 4525, 2001. Anderson, Seth B. Memoirs of an Aeronautical Engineer: Flight Test at Ames Research Center: 1940-1970. NASA SP-2002-4526, 2002. Renstrom, Arthur G. Wilbur and Orville Wright: A Bibliography Commemorating the One- Hundreth Anniversary of the First Powered Flight on December 17. 1903. NASA SP-2002-4527, 2002. 126 • Wilbur & Orville Wright There is no monograph 28. Chambers, Joseph R. Concept to Reality: Contributions of the NASA Langley Research Center to U.S, Civil Aircraft of the 1990s. NASA SP-2003-4529, 2003. Peebles, Curtis, ed. The Spoken Word: Recollections ofDryden History^ The Early Years. NASA SP- 2003-4530, 2003. Jenkins, Dennis R., Tony Landis, and Jay Miller. American X-Vehicles: An Inventory — X-1 to X-50. NASA SP-2003-4531, 2003. A Chronology •127	Isle of Wight
A silkie is what type of bird?	Chronology of Communication Events: Part 1 20 -580: According to Greek tradition, Thales of Miletus (624-546 BC) is the first to have investigated magnetic and electric forces. In particular, he is said to have noticed the phenomena of static electricity acquired by amber (in Greek elektron) -- i.e.,when rubbed with a piece of silk or fur amber develops the ability to attract little objects such as feathers. ( Source-1 , Source-2 and Source-3 ) -500 Greek and Chinese philosophers describe the principles of optics. The philosophical concepts developed by the Greeks lie at the root of all later philosophical speculation in the western world. The intuitive hypotheses of the 'golden age' (fifth and fourth centuries BC) philosophers has foreshadowed many theories of modern science and has provided a foundation for modern scientific thought. The majority of the ideas of the Greek philosophers deserve to be consider as strictly logical reasoning, carried out not only with common sense , but even with noticeable acumen. It was inevitable that these sages should turn their attention to light, but they were less interested in determining the nature of light than in explaining the mechanism of vision. The main goal of thinkers was to learn to understand man, his functions and his facilities. In the fifth century BC there was, without a doubt, an unceasing attempt to determine the link between the eye and the object seen. Nowadays we call this link light without reservations and without thinking as if it were an evident reality because of the studies and of the discussions which have gone on for over two thousand years. In the fifth century BC this type of link between the eye and the object seen was rightly considered as a possible solution, but not the only one. The Pythagoreans held that the link could be thought to be due to 'something' (quid ) which was emitted by the eye and traveled towards the object while the Atomists of the school of Democritus favored a theory of an emission of 'something' which traveled towards the eye from the object. Empedocles of Agrigentum supported the notion of the coexistence of somethings' traveling in opposite directions. Even with these conjectures, all the possible solutions were not exhausted, since some other type of link could be imagined, without any motion in either direction, but merely a modification of the medium interposed between the eye and the object seen (Aristotle). -460: The "Marathon Run." ( Source ) -427: Thucydides records the use of beacon fires to warn a fleet of 53 Spartan vessels that 60 Athenian triremes were heading towards them and preparing to attack. -350 or 360 As described by the historian Polybius (ca. 200-118 ), "Aeneas the Tactician" develops a "hydro-optical telegraph" that is described as a "synchronous telegraph." ( Picture-1 and Picture-2 ; Source-1 and Source-2 ). Aristotle describes image projection in terms of the camera obscura. His concept involves a 'darkened box or chamber' with a small hole on one side through which light is admitted. An inverted image of the scene is projected onto an interior wall, where it can be viewed and traced by an artist. -150 Polybius, building on ideas of Cleoxenus and Democleitus, designs a "code book" torch telegraphy ( Picture ; Source ). - 65 Titus Lucretius Carus - ( 98 - 55 BC ) 'De Rerum Natura' - Book 4 pp. 768 - First reference to persistence of vision ..."This ( perception c.f. movement ) is to be explained in the following way; that when the first image passes off, and a second is afterwards produced in another position, the former then seems to have changed its gesture" also from another source... "Titus Lucretius Carus, a Roman poet and philosopher, describes frame sequential animation almost two thousand years before the advent of motion pictures." BC 113: Roman Legions may have used signal beacons. See one of a set of three Roman guard houses depicted on Trajan's Column ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) 130: From Ptolemy's 'Optica' "...if a sector of a disk be coloured, the whole will appear of that colour when rapidly revolved and if the sector be variously coloured at different distances from the centre, the disk will appear ringed". 180: Inventor Ting Huan perfects a device, for projecting moving images. Similar inventions are reported in China as early as 207 B.C. 500: It is said that lantern carrying kites were used as a communication vehicle during the siege of Nanking. In any case, very early use of "communication" kites in China is clearly substantiated by the many other instances of sending "red lanterns" aloft and dispatching messages from kite lines. ( Source ) 1030: Abu 'Ali Al-Hasan Ibn Al-Haitham, or Al-Hazen, writes the text Optical Illusion in which describes the "Camera Obscura" and the "Persistance of Vision." Al-Hazen's theory is that light carries the reflection of an object to the eye, thus implying the eye's need to focus. These concepts significantly influence the work of Italian Rennaissance painter Brunelleschi, who applies them to his perspective painting. 1437 : Architect Leon Battista Alberti demonstrates the art of perspective in drawings observed though a pinhole. Alberti is significantly influenced by the painter Brunelleschi, who is credited with the first paintings to manifest the concept of perspective. Alberti honors the artist by translating his perspective geometry into a Latin treatise on the subject that includes classical references, but is still simple enough for any painter or architect to understand. 1481: Geronimo Cardano makes the first camera lens. 1553 : Gemma Frisius constructs a functional "Camera Obscura" 1558 : Giovanni Battista Della Porta, a physicist and philosopher in Naples publishes the book 'Natural Magic'.The first edition is in four volumes, the second - in 1589 - is in twenty. It will be reprinted more than twenty-seven times. The book discusses methods for exploiting the forces of nature to perform feats of "magic." The first edition describes the "camera obscura." Sections of the book deal with magnetism, optics and such topics of contemporary interest as demonology and astrology. Della Porta also publishes books on meteorology, optics, pneumatics, architecture, astronomy, astrology and mnemonics. 1575 : An Englishman, Thomas Ruckert, devises an instrument which records compass bearings on a paper tape. 1588: A system of beacon fires successfully used to mobilize England against the onslaught of the Spanish Armada. ( Source-1 , Source-2 , and Source-3 ) 1600: William Gilbert (1544-1603), physician to Elizabeth I James I of England, publishes the first and, perhaps, most significant treatise on electrical and magnetic phenomena, De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure ("On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on That Great Magnet the Earth"). Widely regarded as the founder of electrical science, he seems to be the first person to use the terms electricity, electric force and electric attraction and to suggest a link between static electricity and magnetism. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) 1604 : The astronomer Johann Kepler publishes a work on the optical principles involved in the study of astronomy. He explains how the eye focuses light and demonstrates that as light travels from its source, its intensity falls at a rate of the distance squared. 1609: Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) designs and presents to the Venetian doge Leonardo Donà a 10-power spyglass which is more powerful and of better quality than any telescope yet produced. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) The Dutch spectacle maker Hans Lippershey (1570-1619) is usually credited with making telescopes widely known. ( Source ) 1649: Athansius Kircher, a German Jesuit, constructs his "projector" and publishes Ars Magna Lucis et Umbrae. ( Source ) 1650: Otto von Guericke (1602 - 1686) invents the air pump and demonstrates effects of vacuum. ( Picture ; Source ) 1659: Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) constructs a "Magic Lantern." ( Source ) 1663: Otto von Guericke develops the first frictional electric machine ( Picture-1 and Picture-2 ; Source-1 and Source-2 ) 1671: Athansius Kircher publishes a text on the principles of "Persistence of Vision." 1676: The Danish astronomer Olaus Roemer (1644-1710) establishes that light travels at a finite velocity. ( Source ) 1675: On his way home from the Paris Observatory one night, French astronomer Jean Picard discovers that the more he shakes his mercury-filled barometer, the more it glows with an unexplainable light. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) 1678: Dutch natural philosopher Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) proposes his wave theory of light in Traite de la lumiere. It is overshadowed by Newton's corpuscular theory, but will finally be recognized in the 19th century. It marks the beginning of physical optics. 1684: Robert Hooke (1635-1703) proposes a coded optical telegraph system. In a lecture entitled On showing a Way How to Communicate One's Mind At Great Distances Hooke describes an optical encoding device. ( Source ) A dubious representation of a synchronized telegraph system . which is based, more or less, on Hooke's encoding scheme. ( Source ). 1702-09: Francis Hauksbee (c.1666-1713) conducts a brilliant series of seminal experiments. Hauksbee is probable best known for his experiments with electroluminescence -- i.e. making something glow using electricity. Of particular importance and enduring value is his invention of a two-cylinder air pump that is a great improvement on von Guericke's 1650 design. ( Picture ; Source-1 , Source-2 and Source-3 ) In experiments before the Royal Society in 1705, Hauksbee establishes that sound needs a medium to support propagation by demonstrating that a ringing bell in an evacuated glass jar gives off no sound. Also in 1705, Hauksbee is able to repeatably replicate the glow in mercury first observed by Jean Picard in 1675. By adding an air valve to a barometer, he is able to demonstrate that the glow is best when the barometer was half-filled with air. He hypothesizes that friction between the glass and mercury was responsible. Interestingly, the phenomenon is still not completely understood. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) In 1706, Hauksbee introduces new, more powerful and reproducible electrostatic generator, his so called influence machine. It is essentially an improvement on von Guericke's friction electrical machine wherein a glass globe is substituted for von Guericke's sulfur sphere. ( Picture ) Hauksbee describes his extensive experiments in his book Physico-Mechanical Experiments on Various Subjects published 1709. ( Source ) 1704: Newton's "Optics" is published, detailing his "corpuscular" theory of light. Newton believes light to be a particle phenomenon, and accounts for its occasional wave-like behavior by conceding that the particles may cause vibrations in the ether - a hypothetical substance which, it is assumed, pervades all space. 1720 : Louis Bertrand Castel invents a "clavecin oculaire" or optical harpsichord. The keys of the instrument move colored tapes over a light source, creating a light show to accompany the music. 1727: Johann Heinrich Schulze (1684-1744) discovers the darkening action of light on mixtures of chalk and siver nitrate. ( Source ) 1729: Stephen Gray (1666-1736) demonstrates that the static charges of electricity can be conducted by some materials (e.g., wet twine) for distances as great as 765 feet while others (e.g., silk thread) do not conduct electricity. His observations are published in a series of papers in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society from 1731 to 1736. ( Source-1 , Source-2 , Source-3 and Source-4 ) (Also see picture of the Electric Boy ) 1745: Ewald Georg von Kleist (1715-1759), the dean of the cathedral at Cammin in Pomerania (Germany), and Pieter van Musschenbroek (1692-1761), a professor at the University of Leiden (sometimes spelled Leyden ) in the Netherlands, discover independently that a glass vessel filled with water and charged by a friction source can store the electric charge for later use. The device became known as the Leyden jar. ( Source-1 , Source-2 and Source-3 ) "A glass vial is filled partly with water and stopped with a cork that is pierced with a wire or nail that dips into the water. When the wire is brought into contact with a device that produces static electricity, the jar stores that electricity so it can be used in later experiments." ( Source ) Somewhat later Sir William Watson (1715-87) and Dr. John Bevis (1693-1771) improved the jar by coating the inside and outside with tin foil. Shortly after the discovery of the Leyden jar Benjamin Franklin, became the first electrical experimenter to understand and explain how it functioned. Franklin based his understanding on another of his observations that electrical energy has both positive and negative charges. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ) 1748: In Britain, William Watson describes watching rays of electricity in a tube. Watson is a contemporary of Benjamin Franklin. Together they originate the principle of conservation of charge: the total quantity of electricity in an insulated system is constant. 1752: Benjamin Franklin proves that lightning is electricity through a series of experiments culminating with the famous 'flying of a kite' during a thunderstorm. In theory ( the actual experiment is more one of folk lore ) the lightning is drawn to the steel-tipped kite and the electricity runs down the kite string to an iron key. The next two people to try this experiment are electrocuted. Following this experiment, Franklin mounts lightning rods on his own home and on two public buildings. The steel-pointed rods draw the lightning away from the buildings and discharge it into the ground. Although he does a great deal to popularize electricity, Franklin laments later that he has done nothing of direct use to mankind. 1753: In a letter, dated February 1st and published February 17th, to the Scots' Magazine entitled "An expeditious method for conveying intelligence," the mysterious C.M. (perhaps Charles Morrison or Charles Marshall) proposes the first practical telegraph based on the discharge of static electricity. ( Source-1 , Source-2 and Source-3 ) 1760: Tiphaigne de la Roche predicts photography in Giphantie. 1765: Abbe Nollet wrote in his Lecons de Physique..."When an object moves very rapidly before our eyes, we often attribute to it size and shape which it does not possess". 1770: John Cuthbertson, an English instrument maker living in Amsterdam, makes an electric battery out of 135 Leyden jars. 1774: An electrostatic telegraph is demonstrated in Geneva, Switzerland by George Louis Lesage. He built a device composed of 24 wires separated from each other by insulators. At the end of the wire was a pith ball which was repelled when a current was initiated on that particular wire. Each wire stood for a different letter of the alphabet. When a particular pith ball moves, it represents the transmission of the corresponding letter. ( Picture ) 1775: Count Alessandro Volta, physicist and Professor of Natural Philosophy at Pavia, Italy, invents the 'Electrophorus', a device that produces static electricity by friction. 1781: Painter and set designer Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg creates a device he calls the Eidophusikon. This uses moving pictures to represent natural phenomena. Loutherbourg, who is known for his collaboration with the actor and manager David Garrick, exhibits his invention in London. 1784: Charles Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806) invents the torsion balance for measuring the force of magnetic and electrical attraction. With this invention, Coulomb is able to formulate the principle, to become known as Coulomb's law, governing the interaction between electric charges. From the court at Versailles, Seraphin's famous 'Chinese Shadow Theatre' transferred to the Palais Royale and captivated Paris as a public attraction 1786: Gilles-Louis Chrétien develops the 'Physionotrace' for profile portraits 1788: An Irish painter, Robert Barker, paints a panorama, a 360° view of Edinburgh, around the wall of a circular building. 1788-91: Luigi Galvani (1737-98) develops a theory of "animal electricity" or, as it comes to be called, 'Galvanic Electricity', after observing that a salinated dead frog lying on a zinc surface twitches when touched with a scalpel. These findings will lead to the invention of the 'Voltaic Pile', the world's first battery. ( Source-1 and Source-2 ; Picture ) 1792: Claude Chappe (1763-1805), a mechanic, and Abraham Louis Breguet, a watchmaker, are the first to construct a functioning semaphore (T-type moving arms) optical telegraph machine. After a successful demonstration of the machine before representatives of the National Convention on July 12, 1793, the Chappe Telegraph Line will be established between Paris and Lille in 1794. In the wake of the French Revolution, the optical telegraph was to acquire great military importance. The optical semaphore telegraph system will eventually covered France with a total of 556 stations spanning 4800 KM. ( Source-1 , Source-2 1794: Robert Barker opens the first 'Panorama', a prototype of future movie houses Volta finds elecricity is generated by different metals 1798: Belgian physicist Etienne Gaspard Robert professionally known as 'Robertson' develops the 'Fantasmagorie' 1800: Inspired by Luigi Galvani's discovery of animal electricity in 1786, Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, discerns that Galvani induced a twitch in a frog's leg by using dissimilar metals in his experiment. Volta then groups sheets of zinc and copper in acid to produce a continuous flow of electricity. He calls it a 'continuous current pile', and the marketed version - the "Voltaic Pile." ( Source-1 , Source-2 , Source-3 ; Picture ) Sir William Herschel, a British astronomer (born in Germany), discovers (the existence of infrared rays) the infrared region of the spectrum of light. Inauguration of the first U.S. optical sema-phore/telegraph system between Martha's Vineyard and Boston. 1801: Depillon, a former artillery officer in the French Army, develops a semaphore system for a signal machine with three or four arms. This system has a vocabulary of 301 signals. Depillon's machines are installed all along the French coastline to signal ships at sea. Cambridge scientist Thomas Young formulates the wave theory of light. 1802: Thomas Wedgewood, following experiments of Schulze and Scheele, produces silhouettes by use of siver nitrate but is unable to fix the images 1807: Dr. William Hyde Wollaston, the London chemist and physicist, invents the 'Camera Lucida'. This is an optical device that projects the virtual image of an object onto a screen. 1808: Humfrey Davy produces the first electric arc light 1808-10: A complex telegraphic system, based on an electrochemical current, is designed and demonstrated before he Munich Academy of Science by S.T. von Sommering (or von Soemmerring) (1755-1830). Commissioned by Margrave Leopold of Bavaria, an ally of Napoleon, the electrolytic telegraph consisting thirty-five wires, one for each letter of the alphabet and one for each number. At the transmitting end of his system, arrangements are provided for passing currents from a "voltanic pile" through any one of the signal wires. At the receiving end each wire is connected to one of a series of thirty-five electrodes that are immersed in an acid bath. Completion the circuit caused the evolution of bubbles of hydrogen at the electrode corresponds to a particular letter or a number. ( Picture ) 1816: A French inventor, Joseph Nicephore Niepce, produces the first photograph through a process he calls heliography or sun drawing. Niepce's process uses an instrument like the camera obscura to record an image on paper coated with silver chloride. The image is only temporary, however. It will be another six years before Niepce is able to capture images permanently. Joseph Henry proposes a single wire telegraph. Sir Francis Ronalds demonstrates such a device in 1816, in his garden at Hammersmith. Others do not share his vision, though, and his ideas, published in 1823, go largely ignored. In the words of the British Admiralty, to whom Ronalds has offered his invention, "Telegraphs of any kind are wholly unnecessary..." Admiral Sir Home Riggs Popham tests a semaphore telegraph, mounting the semaphores on ships in the English Channel. The trial run takes place sixteen years after the initial invention of the Popham system. It is a success, the Admiral receives £2000, and lines are thereafter established between Whitehall, Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham and Dover. 1817: Swedish Baron Jons Berzelius isolates the element selenium and shows that its electric conductivity reacts to light. 1819-20: Hans Christian Oersted (1777- l851), professor of physics at the University of Copenhagen, discovers the link between electricity and magnetism during a lecture he gives at Kiel University. A wire from the galvanic battery he is using accidentally falls on a compass, whose needle is thus deflected from the Polar North position. Inadvertently, he gives the first demonstration of electromagnetic induction. His discovery will lead to William Sturgeon's development of the electromagnet. 1820: Davy shows that electric current forms a magnetic sheath around the wire Ampere formulates the right-hand rule John Herschel discovers the photographic fixative, hyposulfite of soda. James Bowman Lindsay conduced experiments in communication utilizing the conductive properties of water. 1821: A theater for the display of large panoramas is designed by showman and scene painter Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre. Known as the Diorama, its effects are enhanced by dramatic lighting. (In 1824 Daguerre will attempt to capture and preserve the images of the camera obscura, unaware that Nicephore Niepce has already accomplished this goal. In 1826, Daguerre will become aware of Niepce's work and begin corresponding with him. In 1829, after Daguerre overcomes Niepce's initial reluctance, they will become partners.) Schweigger invents the galvanometer. In England, Sir Francis Ronalds builds a 'telegraph' in his garden; no one is interested. 1824: William Sturgeon creates a practical application for magnetism with the electromagnet. He discovers that by running an electric current through a coil of copper wire wrapped around a soft piece of iron, a magnetic field is produced. This discovery lays one of the cornerstones for Bell's invention of the telephone. Physicist Andre-Marie Ampere demonstrates the galvanometer at the National Institute of Paris, a device that uses a freely moving needle to measure electric current. The unit of electricity known as the ampere or "amp," is named after him. Peter Mark Roget discovers ability of retina to retain image for 1/20 - 1/5 of a second - demonstrates the persistence of vision with his 'Thaumatrope' 1825: André-Marie Ampère establishes mathematical basis for electrodynamics An English doctor, John Ayrton Paris, invents the 'Thaumatrope', an optical parlor toy that exploits the phenomenon of persistence of vision. A small piece of cardboard with a different picture on either side is rotated quickly. As one image replaces the other, the eye combines the two pictures into one. Paris had based his idea on work by the astronomer Herschel and William Fritton. Thaumatropes are also referred to as 'Magic Disks' 1826: Joseph Nicéphore Niépce uses Bitumen of Judea for photographs on metal 1827: What is now known as Ohm's law appears in Die galvanische Kette, mathematisch bearbeitet. Between 1825-27, Georg Simon Ohm (1789-1854), professor of mathematics at the Jesuit College of Cologne, had been studying electrical conduction following as a model Fourier's study of heat conduction. Ohm's Law states that the strength of an unvarying electric current is directly proportional to the electromotive force, and inversely proportional to the resistance of the circuit concerned. Need it be said, the unit of resistance is named after him. ( Source 1 and Source 2 ) The visionary English inventor Charles Wheatstone, increasingly intrigued by the transmission and amplification of sound and voice, designs a microphone. Wheatstone's work in acoustics will win him a professorship of experimental physics at King's College in London in 1934. It is here that he will conduct his groundbreaking experiments in electricity. 1829: Niépce and Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre form a 10 year partnership to develop photography Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau invents a parlor toy, the 'Phenakistoscope'. A series of drawings showing successive stages of a continuous motion are displayed on a spinning disc. When the drawings are seen one at a time through a small opening, an illusion of motion is created.This is considered the first motion picture device. 1830: Joseph Henry discovers phenomenon of electrical self inductance. The unit of inductance known as the 'henry' is named after him Michael Faraday passes electricity through vacuum tube. 1831: The Englishman Michael Faraday and the American Joseph Henry independently discover the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. (However, Henry discovered the properties of mutual- and self-induction) In independent experiments, Faraday and Henry observe that an electric current is induced in a closed coil of wire when a magnet is passed through it. Henry, a teacher of mathematics in Albany, New York, demonstrates his findings with a bell that rings when stimulated by an electrical impulse. Faraday, the son of an English blacksmith and Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institute in London, discovers electromagnetic induction using an electromagnet. He is credited with building the first electrical transformer, and his findings lead directly to the development of electrical machinery for industry. Faraday proposes a single wire telegraph based on this discovery. The work of both men will inspire Samuel Morse to develop the telegraphic receiver. Further, it will play a significant role in Bell's invention of the telephone. In Paris, physicist Antoine Cesar Becquerel investigates electromagnetic balance. 1832: Charles Wheatstone invents a non-photographic 'stereoscopic viewing device' ( This is also reported as far ahead as 1838 ? ) Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau invents a parlor toy - the Phenakistoscope. A series of drawings showing successive stages of a continuous motion are displayed on a spinning disc. When the drawings are seen one at a time through a small opening, an illusion of motion is created. This is considered the first motion picture device. It is marketed as the 'Phantascope' ( also called in England the 'Fantascope' ) Plateau loses his eyesight by conducting too many experiments on his own retinae. The Wheel of Life, or Daedalum, an optical toy, is introduced by W.H. Horner. Thirty years later, the device will be patented in the US by the Milton Bradley toy company. Simon Von Stampfer invents the stroboscope, ( a phenakistiscope in reverse ) which casts regular flashes of light on moving objects - making their motions appear jerky and abrupt. William Henry Fox Talbot begins experiments with photogenic drawings On a visit to Berlin, Tsar Nicholas 1 saw a demonstration of the first telegraph system which did not need a wire for each letter. It was developed by a Russian diplomat, Baron Schilling, based on Oersted's electromagnetic ideas and German inventor Samuel Thomas von Sömmering's early experiments. Signals were sent along between one and six wires, causing movement in compass needles, suspended over coils, which indicated the letters. Carl Friedrich Gauss, the mathematician, physicist and astronomer, constructs the first electric telegraph, assisted by physics professor Wilhelm Eduard Weber. Scientist S.H. Christie invents an electrical bridge circuit for measuring the value of a resistance. Though created by Christie, the device is named for Sir Charles Wheatstone, who popularizes its use ten years later. 1834: William George Horner patents the 'Daedelum' - The wheel of the Devil. Later ( around 1864 ) French inventor Pierre Desvignes refines the device and markets it under the name 'Zoetrope' - The Wheel of Life. The device consists of a drum with equally spaced vertical slits ( peepholes ) down the side and a series of images on strip of paper ( showing a figure or object in graduating stages of motion ) laid flat against the inside surface below the line of slits. As the drum spins and the viewer looks through the slits at the strip of spinning images ( faster than 12 images per second ), the individual frames merge into one sequence and the figure or object appears to move. This truly was the beginning of what we now call cinema - a series of sequential images presented to the eye at such a rate that the so called persistence of vision convinces us that the images are indeed one continuous motion. Equally the Zoetrope introduced the concept of 'scanning' or breaking down an image into small fragments to be re assembled either in the brain 'on site' or at a distant point by converting the segments into electrical signals which themselves can be reassembled to recreate the original scanned image. In Scotland, James Bowman Lindsay, an inventor and scientist without formal education, uses galvanic cells to produce continuous electric light. 1835: P. C. Munck af Rosenschöld (Sweden) observes that resistance of powdered conductors is drastically reduce by high voltage discharges. 1836: A constant electrical current is achieved by John Frederick Daniell, a chemistry professor in London, when he introduces a non-polarizing battery: the Daniell Cell. 1837: Together with William F. Cooke, Sir Charles Wheatstone, a physicist and inventor, patent an electric telegraph in England on July 10. Their telegraph, an improved version of the Schilling electric telegraph, ( just ) predates Samuel Morse's device. The first test of their system is conducted in a transmission spanning the 1.2 miles between Euston and Camden. When it is perfected, they will offer their telegraph to the British Railroad System. Working with student Alfred Lewis Vail, whose father owns a small electromechanical factory, American painter Samuel F.B. Morse develops and patents ( September 28 ) a working electric telegraph. Morse first conceives his system of electromagnetic communication while returning by ship from studying art in Europe. In the course of his journey, he is inspired by a conversation regarding the newly discovered electromagnet. Electrical telegraphic systems have already been worked on by other inventors, most notably Sir Charles Wheatstone. It is Morse, however, who makes the significant addition of the electromagnet upon which his receiver is based. Louis Daguerre invents 'Daguerreotype' cutting exposure time down to 20 minutes 1838: K.A. Steinheil of Munich shows that one of two wires used in overland telegraphy could be dispensed with by using an earth ground. He looked forward to a time that the second wire could also be eliminated, and 'wireless' telegraphy could be used. Samuel F.B. Morse's telegraph is augmented in 1838 by a system of dots and dashes he devises, representing numbers and letters of the alphabet. Known as the Morse Code, this signalling strategy is used to communicate complete messages which can be listened to or read on a printed tape as they are transmitted across the telegraphic wire by electrical pulses of varied lengths. Visual signals, such as flashing lights, can also be used to transmit coded messages. Physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone invents an optical viewing device, the stereoscope. With the aid of strategically placed mirrors, two slightly different pictures converge when seen through the apparatus, thereby giving a sense of depth to the image. In 1849, David Brewster will improve the stereoscope and the twin camera, enhancing the three dimensional realism when pictures are viewed. 1839: Antoine César Becquerel examines electrochemical effect of light. The Daguerreotype is publicly announced at the Academy of Sciences in Paris and given to the world Hippolyte Bayard produces direct-positive images on sensitized paper 1840: Alexander Walcott issued first American patent in photography for his camera The Austrian optician Joseph Petzval introduces the f 3.6 Petzval photographic lens. Designed to diffuse 16 times more light than the field lens, it is perfectly suited for portrait photography. 1841: William Henry Fox Talbot patents the Calotype process 1842: Alexander Bain proposes facsimile telegraph transmission that scans metal letters and reproduces image by contact with chemical paper. Synchronized scanning is part of proposed transmission system. Joseph Henry first produced high-frequency electric oscillations and discovered that a condenser (Leyden Jar) discharge is oscillatory. Samuel Morse, artist and pioneer of the electric telegraph in America, directs the construction of an underwater telegraphic cable that is laid between the Battery and Governor's Island in New York. 1843: Alexander Bain, patents his 'pantelegraph', an electrical method for transmitting images over a distance. This facsimile system can be said to be a primitive forerunner of television. In Bain's system of two synchronous pendulums with styluses attached, the movement of one stylus is communicated to the other, using nonconducting ink on conductive paper on the one end, and sensitive paper on the other. Although the system looks good on paper, it proves to be somewhat unreliable, since the pendulums are not truly synchronized as they should be. Others improve on Bain's invention in the years to come. Charles Wheatstone devises the rheotstat, a variable resistor designed to regulate electrical current. He uses it in experiments with the Wheatstone Bridge, an electrical circuit invented by S.H. Christie to measure the value of a resistance. It is named for Wheatstone though, as he is the first to put it to extensive and significant use. 1844 : It has taken Samuel Morse several years of perseverance to talk Congress out of the $30,000 needed for the experimental telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. The decision is made with a narrow margin, and the line is completed. Morse's dot and dash code makes the single wire telegraph practical. Public usage is inaugurated on the Baltimore-Washington telegraph line in 1844 when Morse transmits the first message, "What hath God wrought!" through coded interruptions of an electric current. The dots and dashes can be heard or recorded on paper tape. The telegraph spawns signals communication, and the analysis thereof, called "signals intelligence" (SIGINT). Arc lights are used in the Paris Opera House 1846: Faraday suggests that light and electricity may be different manifestations of the same force. The Electric Telegraph Company is established by William Fothergill Cooke who, with Sir Charles Wheatstone, devised an electric telegraph nine years ago. Within a year, two networks will have been established: one in the north, linking major cities from Edinburgh to Birmingham, the other in the south, linking London, Dover and Southhampton. In a six year period after its founding, the company will lay 4000 miles of telegraph wire. J.E. Fuller combines his personally designed time telegraph with the Fuller circular slide rule to create a computing telegraph. 1847: Frederick Bakewell improves on Bain's idea by using tin-foil covered revolving drums ( for transmitting and receiving recorded pictures ) 1848: Claude Felix Abel Niépce de Saint-Victor uses albumen on glass plates for negatives A Hampstead engineer named Francis Whishaw creates a "speaking telegraph." The device, known as the telekouphonon, serves as a sort of intercom for long-distance communications in dockyards or large firms. The telekouphonon's cable is made of gutta-percha, caoutchouc, glass or earthenware, and connects with an ivory, bone, wood or metal mouthpiece. The telegraph now links New York and Chicago. 1849: The Continental Telegraphen Compagnie of Berlin, also known as the Wolff Agency, is the first telegraph news service. Like the Agence Havas of Paris, founded in 1835, and the Reuter Telegram Company of London - Reuters - founded in 1851, the Wolff Agency begins as a service providing financial information to bankers but soon offers world news to newspapers and other periodicals. Engineer Antonio Meucci develops and tests an experimental telephone while working in Havana. 1850: Albumen printing paper introduced by L. D. Blanquart-Evrard Fizeau measures the velocity of electricity The brothers W. and F. Langenheim of Philadelphia produce the first photographic lantern slides, used to project narrative sequences. These were the immediate forerunners of narrative films. 1851: Frederick Scott Archer publishes wet-collodion process William Henry Fox Talbot makes first instantaneous photographs using electric spark illumination Morse Code is adopted and modified by a special conference of European nations to produce a simpler and more precise system. Known as International Morse Code or Continental Code, it replaces spaced letters with unspaced letters. Moreover, the Continental Code uses dashes of uniform length, as opposed to the original Morse system which used three different lengths. International Morse code is still used today for ship-to-shore communications and amateur radio. Louis Jules Duboscq designs a stereoscopic still camera, based on the concepts developed two years earlier by Sir David Brewster in England. The camera produces right and left monocular photographs that appear three-dimensional when viewed through a stereoscope. 1852: The theory of fluorescence is developed and introduced by George Gabriel Stokes, a professor of physics and mathematics and Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. William Henry Fox Talbot patents a prototype of photo-engraphing In 1852, there are 6500 km of telegraph wire strung in England. By 1862, the number is up to 24,000 km. 1853: Duplex telegraphy is explored by Dr. Wilhelm Julius Gintl, allowing simultaneous transmission of signals in opposite directions. Moses Gerrish Farmer of Massachusetts pioneers multiplex telegraphy, a system which increases the capacity of a telegraph line, allowing up to six operators to share it. The system is perfected by Emile Baudot in 1874. 1854: The telegraph is used in Crimean War French engineer Charles Bourseul, an expert in telegraphy, experiments with ideas for a kind of telephone. A telegraph that prints letters of the alphabet is suggested by the designs of David Edward Hughes, an English music professor living in Kentucky. Cyrus Field invites a syndicate of ten capitalists to to join an venture team to undertake the laying of a transatlantic cable. The enterprise organized as the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company. The most important feature of this newly chartered company was its exclusive cable landing rights in Newfoundland and Labrador for the next fifty years! ( Source ) 1855: German inventor Heinrich Geissler develops mercury pump and produces the first good vacuum tubes. 1856: Celluloid is synthesized by British chemist Alexander Parkes, under the name "parkesine." Parks will form The Parkesine Company, Ltd. ten years later, but it will last only two years. The synthetic plastic material he creates as a prototype for celluloid will be developed as a commercial product by John Wesley Hyatt in 1869. 1857: Painter Leon Scott de Martinville designs the phonautograph, a precursor of the phonograph. His device makes permanent visual records of sound waves, which can then be analyzed. Alexander Graham Bell observes the phonautograph at the Massachussets Institute of Technology in 1874. Kirchhoff relates static and current electricity by the constant velocity 'c' German scientist Hermann von Helmholtz notices that he can make the strings in his piano vibrate when he sings into it. He then causes a tuning fork to vibrate and produce sound by switching an electromagnet on and off. This principle is the basis of the audio speaker, and sets one of the cornerstones of the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell. 1858: Heinrich Geissler, a German glass blower and maker of scientific instruments creates the Geissler tube. A vacuum is created in a glass container sealed with electrodes at either end. Electrons moving through the tube are visible as patterns of light, varying according to the shape of the tube or the type of gas introduced into the vacuum. This invention will lead to the discovery of cathode rays, a basic principle of video technology. Julius Plücker shows that cathode rays bend under the influence of a magnet suggesting that they are connected in some way. The first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable is laid and operates for only four weeks. Photographer Thomas Skaife builds the Pistolgraph, a novelty snapshot camera that almost gets him arrested when he aims it at Queen Victoria. 1859: Establishing an important principle for the future of electronics, the German mathematician and physicist Julius Plucker discovers that cathode rays ( electrons ) are deflected by a magnetic field. Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, a member of the noted family of French physicists, uses a Geissler discharge tube filled with fluorescent material to create the first primitive fluorescent lamp. Thomas Sutton, an editor of the English publication "Photographic Notes," is the first to develop a panoramic liquid lens, more commonly known as the wide angle photographic lens. Thomas Du Mont patents his 'camera zootropica', capable of reproducing the phases of movement in 12 successive images Johann Wilhelm Ritter's discovery of the secondary cell, almost 60 years earlier, forms the foundation for the Frenchman Gaston Plante's invention of the first electric storage cell: the lead-acid storage battery. 1861: James Clerk Maxwell's On the Theory of the Three Primary Colours Oliver Wendell Holmes invents the popular 'stereoscope viewer' American inventor Coleman Sellers patents the 'Kinematoscope': posed photographs mounted on a turning paddlewheel. In picture parlors, the Kinematoscope crudely projected the photographs for the audience by flashing them rapidly on a screen. Developed by Philadelphia Coleman Sellers, this antecedent of the cinema consisted of a series of stereoscopic pictures printed on glass plates which were strung together by chain mounted in a box. The spectator turned a crank and saw moving images. The Kinematoscope, a device that takes stereoscopic photographs, is invented in Philadelphia by Coleman Sellers. Like David Brewster's double camera, the device simultaneously takes two pictures of the same subject, but at slightly different perspectives. This gives the resulting photographs a suggestion of depth and dimension when they are observed through a special viewing device. NB: The above "kinematoscopes" is obviously incorrectly named as the descriptions of operation seems to represent a distinctly different device to the two above - to be researched. Western Union completes construction of a transcontinental telegraph line. This line, which links New York and San Francisco, has been completed despite interference by hostile Indians and Confederate guerrillas. German schoolteacher Johann Philipp Reis ( 1834-74 ) suceeds in transmitting speech and music electrically down a wire using a device he called das Telephon - the 'telephone.' These come in various shapes and sizes; one resembles a large wooden ear. Reis' devices are fragile and clumsy laboratory models, never put to public use, and are sold only to research labs or other experimenters. 1862: In 1852, there are 6500 km of telegraph wire strung in England. By 1862, the number is up to 24,000 km. Signalling distances have been improved with the introduction of an electromagnetic receiver that supplements the line current with the use of local battery power, thereby "lengthening" the line. Italian physicist, Abbe Giovanni Caselli, is the first to send fixed images over a long distance, using a ( wired ) system he calls the 'pantelegraph'. Maxwell, "On Physical Lines of Force" 1863: Using the work of civil engineer Henry Dircks as a foundation, analytical chemist John Henry Pepper creates a machine that uses mirrors and lenses to project a ghostly image. 'Pepper's Ghost' is demonstrated at London's Royal Polytechnic Institute. 1864: James C. Maxwell theorized, in the paper entitled "A Dynamic Theory of the Electromagnetic Field," to the effect that electrical disturbances should travel at light speed. The Maxwell's Equations are an extension and mathematical formulation of Faraday's theories of electricity and magnetic lines of force. In Virginia, USA, wireless electromagnetic waves are transmitted 14 miles Joseph Wilson Swan perfects the carbon process Around this time French inventor Pierre Desvignes refines William George Horner's 'Daedelum' and markets it under the name 'Zoetrope' - The Wheel of Life. Toy magnate Milton Bradley packages a study drum, rotation device and supply of animations sold for $2.50 1865: Mahlon Loomis transmits wireless telegraph messages between two mountains in Virginia. Loomis used two kites flown18 miles apart, each carrying a wire that reached to the ground. When he interrupted the flow of electricity from the atmosphere, through the wire, to an earth ground, a galvanometer on the other kites wire measured a change in current. He obtained a patent for this system in 1872, but never obtained financial backing to develop his idea. Atlantic cable ties Europe and U.S. for instant communication 1866: Cyrus Field has eventual success with a Transatlantic Cable from Ireland to Newfoundland. Varley brothers (England) patented a lightning surge protector based on Munck's observation that the resistance of powdered carbon is drastically reduce by high voltage discharges. The 'Woodburytype' process is patented American dentist Mahlon Loomis ( 1826-1886 ) uses radio waves to send telegraph messages between two mountains in West Virginia - a distance of 22.5km - using aerials held in the air by kites. Western Union Telegraph acquires two other telegraph companies and becomes the first great industrial monopoly in the US. French physicist Antoine Becquerel develops the first fluorescent lamp. It uses a mercury arc and a fluorescent phosphor coating to provide an extremely efficient light source. Becquerel is the grandfather of Henri Becquerel, the discoverer of radioactivity. 1867: Professor Charles Wheatstone, a key contributor to the development of the English telegraph, creates the first automatic printing telegraph system. Messages are typed on an instrument like a typewriter, and automatically coded and transmitted as a series of pulses. Siemens invents the modern dynamo 1868: Amos Dolbear while a professor at Bethany College invented the 'electrostatic telephone'. Dolbear also work on converting sound waves into electrical impulses. The forerunner of today's dry cell battery is developed by French chemist Georges Leclanche. The cell is assembled inside a glass jar and generates about 1.5 volts. 1869: Louis Ducos du Hauron's 'Colors in Photography' describes the principles of color photography using the subtractive method Basing independent experiments on Young and Helmholtz' theories of color separation and mixing, France's Charles Cros and Louis Ducos du Hauron both develop a subtractive method of color photography. Three different color positives representing cyan, magenta and blue respectively are superimposed on one another to create the final picture. These colors are described as subtractive primaries because they each represent the remaining color after one primary color has been subtracted from white light. Communications entrepeneur Cyrus Field completes construction of a telegraph cable connecting the US to continental Europe for the first time. The cable runs from France to Duxbury, Massachusetts. Richard Leach Maddox invents the 'gelatin dry plate silver bromide' process 1872: John W. Hyatt begins manufacturing 'celluloid' Eadweard Muybridge started his photographic compilation of animals in motion Léon Vidal combines chromolithography with Woodburytype printing U.S. patent (entitled an 'Improvement in Telegraphy') granted to Mahlon Loomis for a wireless (probably induction) telegraph on July 20 (or 30), 1872. Anson Stager, Enos Barton and Elisha Gray found the Western Electric Company. Their main business is selling telegraph equipment, but Gray is experimenting with the electrical transmission of actual sound - the telephone. Australia completes its first telegraph network; soon it will be linked to to Indonesia, India and Europe. 1873 : Maxwell publishes a text on electricity, magnetism and theory of radio waves Two English telegraph engineers, Joseph May and Willoughby Smith, note that the electrical conductivity of the element selenium changes when light falls on it. This property, called photoconductivity, will give inventors a way of transforming images into electrical signals. May uses selenium to send a signal through the Atlantic cable Hermann Wilhelm Vogel increases the spectral sensitivity of photographic emulsions by adding dyes First color photographs A daguerreotype disk is devised at the Astrophysical Observatory at Meudon, France by Pierre Jules Cesar Janssen, to photograph the movement of the stars. 1874: Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918) discovers unilateral or "one way" conduction (rectification) at metal wire contacts on metal (lead) sulfide (galena) crystals. The Irish physicist George Johnstone Stoney (1826-1911) hypothesizes the existence of an "electrine" as the "atom of electricity" and estimates its charge to be about 10-20 coulomb (close to the modern value of 1.6021892 x 10-19 coulomb). He actually applies the term "electron" in a 1891 paper in the Scientific Transactions of the Royal Dublin Society. ( Source ) The Logograph, built by W.H. Barlow, creates a graphic representation of the sound vibrations produced by speech. Quadruplex telegraphy, introduced by Thomas Alva Edison, allows the transmission of two messages simultaneously in both directions, producing a total of four messages being transmitted at the same time. 1875 : Werner Siemens shows that electricity travels along a wire with a velocity approximately equal to that of light. George Carey builds a rudimentary facimile system using dozens of tiny light-sensitive selenium cells. 1876 : Alexander Graham Bell invents the "telephone" The radiometer, an instrument used to detect the effect of light radiation, is invented by Sir William Crookes. The first Teletypewriter is used on Telegraph lines. 1877: Thomas A. Edison records sound on cylinders. The first recording - "Mary had a little lamb." Working independently, E.W. Siemens in Germany and the team of Cuttris and Redding in the U.S. develop the dynamic microphone. In this device, the diaphragm is attached to a light coil that generates voltage through electromagnetic induction as it moves back and forth between the poles of a permanent magnet Alexander Graham Bell and his father-in-law, Gardiner Hubbard, found the Bell Telephone Association. Western Union establishes the American Speaking-Telephone Co. to compete with them, but the Bell company is already leasing telephones at the rate of 1000 a month. The first telephone switchboard is installed at the office of a burglar alarm company in Boston. Local telephone exchanges go into business in New England, Iowa, and the Great Lakes region. Emile Berliner, a German-American inventor, develops a loose-contact telephone transmitter superior to Bell's. The following year, Bell buys the rights to the invention. By that time, Berliner is patenting an induction coil for use as a transmitter. (?)The 'radiometer', an instrument used to detect the effect of light radiation, is invented by William Crookes. English-American photographer Eadweard Muybridge used a battery of 24 cameras to record the cycle of motion of a running horse for Leland Stanford. Chemist and railway engineer Georges Leclanche introduces the solid depolarizer battery, after ten years of development. Although it is not portable, it is popularly used to power telephones and doorbells for many years. Today's dry cell battery is derived directly from Leclanche's model. 1878: Sir William Crookes develops the 'cathode ray' tube that confirms the existence of cathode rays. Maurice Senlacq proposes the use of selenium in facsimile machines to transmit paper documents. Eadweard Muybridge publishes 'The Horse in motion' He goes on to invent the 'Zoogyroscope' (projector) which in turn became the 'Zoopraxograph' and then the Zoopraxiscope, a sensation at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893 in Chicago. In France, Emile Reynaud invents the the 'Praxinoscope', an optical toy and the first practical device for projecting successive images on a screen 1879 : The Berlin Academy of Sciences offers a prize to the scientist who can show experimentally that a changing electric field generates a transient electric field, and vice-versa. The challenge is taken up by, among others...Heinrich Hertz. In Ireland, Denis Redmond builds ( possibly in 1879 ) his 'Electric Telescope' transmitting an image electrically. Argueably the first 'television' system American, George Carey transmits pictures over wire bundles Carlo Peresino suggests the concept of television 'scanning'. This is the practice of breaking down an image into picture elements which are then reassembled on the screen of the television receiver. In the 1880s the idea is seconded by W. E. Sawyer and Maurice Leblanc. Following his photographic series of a horse in motion, commissioned by Leland Stanford to settle a bet, English photographer Eadweard (that's the way he spells it!) Muybridge develops the zoopraxiscope. The device reconstructs motion from series of photographs on a revolving transparent glass disc, and foreshadows the onset of motion pictures. American engineer Leroy B. Firman invents the multiple switchboard, capable of handling more than the fifty telephone lines previous switchboards were limited to. The subsequent improvement in service will help to quadruple the number of telephones in service in the US in the next ten years. In 1884 the Western Electric Company will introduce the multiple switchboard to England. On October 21, 1879, inventor Thomas Edison demonstrates the carbon filament light bulb, making good his bold promise to solve the problem of the incandescence that had been plaguing scientists for 50 years. The lamp glows for 40 hours, powered by a special high-voltage dynamo. The key to Edison's success is the filament material that is housed inside the vacuum bulb: carbonized cotton thread, which demonstrates a greater resistance than platinum wire, the material used formerly. Edison constructs a parallel circuit of 30 lamps, supplied with current from a special high-voltage dynamo. Each of the lamps operates independently from the others, so that one can be turned down without effecting the operation of the rest. Within three years, the Pearl Street central power station in downtown New York City is constructed, the first of many such large-scale operations that light the cities of the world. The Pearl Street plant is equipped with steam-driven generators of 900 hp, which can provide enough power for 7,200 lamps.1875 Anglo-American inventor David Edward Hughs demonstrated the reception of radio signals from a spark transmitter located some hundreds of meters away. In these experiments, he conducted a current from a voltaic cell through a glass tube filled loosely with zinc and silver fillings, which "cohered" when radio waves impinged on it. 1880: Maurice Leblanc suggests 'photoelectric scanning' or transmitting a picture in segments also offers the first proposal for color television. An early scanning device was developed by George Carey. The image was scanned by a selenium cell which travelled across the image in a spiral path. The signal currents were transmitted through a single line wire. The system lacked any synchronisation between scanning transmission and reception. Denis Redmond publishes the first book about television, 'La Telescopie Electrique' ( The Electric Telescope ). Piped-in music, transmitted by a device known as the electrophone, telharmonium or dynamophone, is introduced by Dr. Thaddeus Cahill. The system allows subscribers to dial in to a central switchboard in order to receive transmissions of musical and theatrical performances from concert halls and theaters. U.S. patent granted for a mirror-optical telephone that transmits speech by light rays, called the "photophone" (later rechristened the "radiophone") designed by Alexander Graham Bell and Sumner Tainter. A further patent covering fundamental improvements to this invention was granted to the American Bell Company in 1897. A forerunner of today's fiber optic communications, Bell considered the lightwave system for sending sound to be his greatest invention, although it had no practical application at the time. 1881: The 'Scanning Phototelegraph' is invented by physicist Shelford Bidwell. The process uses electricity and selenium to transmit the image of a chart, map or photograph over a distance, producing a wirephoto. The telautograph, an electrical device used to transmit handwriting and line drawing, is invented by Elisha Gray. French inventor Clément Ader builds an ultra-sensitive microphone and, with it, discovers the stereo effect. He uses twelve of these microphones to transmit the sounds of the Paris Opera, via lines laid through the Paris sewers, to the Exhibition Hall at the Palais de l'Industrie. Up to 48 listeners can hear the opera using two receivers each, one for each ear. * Ader called his system the 'Theatrephone'. This is the first public broadcast entertainment. Feedback: I'm the author of the Clement Ader's homepage. Ader discovered the stereo effect with his theatrophone and not with his microphone. If you want more information and pictures on Ader's phone visit my site: http://village.cyberbrain.com/musee/Eole/autresin.htm ( use an automatic translator:the english site isn't ready ) and for the Théatrophone: http://www.telemuseum.se/historia/teatrophon/theatro2.html Amicalement Olivier Russell Naughton answers: Yes, Ader's system was indeed called the Theatrephone as I have added now * ( March 98 ). The original data was taken from the excellent Arthur C. Clark site. The discovery of the stated 'stereo effect' was however due to Ader's use of more than one microphone and the subsequent delivery of a number of phase different signals to the listeners ears. In reality, the overall sound would have, without implementation ( or knowlege? ) of the correct phase relationship required by the use of multiple microphones, been quite 'muddy' but none the less acoustically 'diffuse' and somewhat 'stereophonic' in nature. The rechargeable battery, designed with a lead latticework grid, is introduced. Constantin Senlecq, a French lawyer, invents the teletroscope. 1882: Professor Amos E. Dolbear of Tufts University communicates over a distance of a quarter of a mile without wires and is issued a US patent for a wireless telegraph. Striving to capture the minute details of motion, Dr. Jules Etienne Marey, a French physiologist, develops the fusil photographique, or photographic pistol. It can take 12 consecutive pictures per second. Edison's Pearl Street station begins operation in New York The induction coil system or "secondary generator" is developed by Lucien Gaulard in France, and John Gibbs in the UK. 1883: Thomas Edison accidentally discovers what comes to be known as the "Edison effect" while trying to find a way to keep the inside of his electric lights free of soot. While experimenting with the incandescent bulb, Edison placed a metal plate inside the evacuated bulb and connected a wire to it creating, in effect, a vacuum diode! He noted a curious unidirectional or "one-way" flow of electrical current from the light emitting hot filament across the vacuum to the metal wire. This phenomenon defied immediate explanation by the inventor as well as his contemporaries. Unfortunately, he did not realize the implications - or did not take time to pursue them because of other interests at the time. The current flow is due to the thermionic emissionof electrons from the hot electrode flowing to the cold electrode. The Edison effect is the basis of all the vacuum tube devices, and, thus, the foundation of the electronics industry in the early 20th century. Edison patents the Fuse. Fitzgerald predicts the existence of electromagnetic waves 1884 : T. Calzecchi-Onesti, in Italy, carefully studies studied how the resistance of metal filings in an ebonite or glass tube is effected by electrical discharges. German scientist Paul Gottlieb Nipkow patents his electric telescope a device for scene analyzation that consisted of a rapidly rotating disk placed between a scene and a light sensitive selenium element. What has became known as the Nipkow disk is a spirally perforated disc that rotates in front of the image to be analyzed and, thus, progressively reveals the image to the sensor.. Although a mechanical design, it was the first system, to propose and embody the principle of image scanning. It is believed a working model was never built by Nipkow himself. It would take the development of the amplification tube before the Nipkow Disc would become practical. A synchronous multiplex telegraph system is designed by Patrick Delany, allowing several operators to use the same telegraph line at once, instead of sharing it on a cyclic basis. Etienne Jules Marey develops the 'Chronophotographe' and in the coming decade, in collaboration with Georges Demeny, perfected techniques for both the analysis and synthesis of movement. Gulielmo Marconi first experiments with Hertzian Waves. A practical design for a commercial transformer is produced by Max Deri, Otto Blathy and Karl Zipernowsky. 1885: J. J. Thompson uses magnetism to deflect Crookes' 'cathode rays'. Edouard Branly begins his work investigating the transmission of nerve impulses. His research over the next several years will result in what will later be called the 'coherer' - a device for detecting 'Hertzian waves'. 1886: Eugene Goldstein, a German physicist, identifies canal rays in the electric charge carriers inside the discharge tube. The canal rays are composed of different, positively charged ions in the gases formed by the discharge. The electric light bulb or "bayonet cap" is marketed in the UK by the Edison & Swan United Electric Light Co. The firm represents the combined forces of Thomas Alva Edison, the American inventor, and Sir Joseph Wilson Swan, the pioneering English chemist and physicist who made an incandescent lamp using a carbon filament 20 years before Edison's lamp. The chemical element germanium is discovered by German chemist Clemens Alexander Winkler. He isolates the silver-grey metal from the mineral argyrodite, which is a mixed sulfide of silver and germanium. The existence of germanium, named after Winkler's homeland, was predicted in 1871 in the Russian chemist Mendeleyev's periodic table, hypothetically named "ekasilicon." It will be used extensively in the manufacture of semiconductor materials and devices. At the Volta Laboratory in Washington, DC, Chichester Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter develop the graphophone, a variant of Edison's phonograph. They substitute wax for tinfoil as a covering for the cylinder, and use a sapphire stylus. 1887: In a remarkable series of experiments, Heinrich (Rudolph) Hertz (1857-1894), a professor at the Karlsruhe Polytechnic, establishes the validity of Maxwell's theoretic analysis by showing that a field generated by an electric spark can travel through space as waves and that these waves have the same physical properties as light. In particular, he demonstrated that the velocity of these electromagnetic waves is equal to that of light. Hertz never tried to use electromagnetic waves for communication and even denied the practicability of such an undertaking. Thomas Edison starts research work into motion pictures. An American Episcopalian minister Hannibal Williston Goodwin (1822-1900) invents the use of celluloid as an emulsion base, an essential step in the development of cinematography. He became interested in photography through the magic lantern entertainments he gave for his congregation. The number of telephones in service in the US reaches 200,000. Boston has over 5000 phones, Hartford and New Haven each have more than 1000. Oberlin Smith imagines the tape recorder. 1888: German physicist Wilhelm Hallwachs noted that certain substances emit electrons when exposed to light. Hallwachs demonstrated the possibility of using photoelectric cells in cameras. This property called photoemission was applied in the creation of image orthicon tubes allowing the creation of the electronic television camera. Tired of the unwieldy glass plate system normally used in his work, photographer John Carbutt commissions a celluloid manufacturer to provide him with thin sheets, coated with emulsion, that will roll through a camera. This same year, George Eastman will market a paper photographic film in rolls. Up to this point, photography has been the exclusive domain of professionals. With the introduction of the flexible roll film camera by a dry plate manufacturer named George Eastman, it is now made available to anyone who can press a button. The inexpensive, fixed-focus Kodak camera uses roll film with a paper base, coated with a photosensitive emulsion. One roll of film has the capacity for 100 circular pictures with a 2 1/4in diameter. The Kodak, which establishes Eastman's hold on the photographic products market, is made famous with the slogan "You press the button, we do the rest." W. K. Laurie Dickson ( working for Edison ) starts to develop Kinetograph camera. Louis Le Prince's camera initially uses paper roll film but changes to the new Eastman celluloid film in 1899. Le Prince, his films and equipment disappeared without a trace in September 1890. A commercial model of the phonograph, first devised by Thomas Edison almost ten years earlier, is built in his Menlo Park laboratory. It is equipped with a clockwork motor and wax cylinders. 1889: Lazare Weiller scans with mirrors on a revolving drum. At the Eastman Kodak factory, Henry Reichenbach using a nitro-cellulose base creates celluloid roll film, an improvement on Eastman's earlier emulsion-coated paper variety. Thomas Edison and his assistant, William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, patent and market an electric peephole viewing machine called the Kinetoscope. It uses 158 glass plates, later to be replaced by Eastman and Goodwin's roll film which projected a 50ft length of film in approximately 13 seconds. Having little faith in the Kinetoscope or motion pictures in general, Edison neglects extending his patent rights to England and Europe. Within the next five years, two Frenchmen will manufacture the portable Cinematographe projector based on Edison's ideas, initiating the era of motion pictures. A coin-operated telephone for public use is designed by William Gray, and the prototype is installed at the Hartford Bank. Soon the Gray Telephone Pay Station Co. is established to rent the devices to merchants and businesses. Thomas Edison and his assistant William Kennedy Dickson develop the Edison camera or Kinetograph, using the phonograph as a foundation for the device. Dickson abandons the wax cylinders for celluloid film, a far superior medium for motion pictures, and between 1891 and 1895, shoots the first films. Each averaging about 15 seconds, these films are designed be shown on the Kinetoscope. Edison's disinterest in the Kinetograph and its European patent rights opens up the field for the Lumiere brothers, who develop the Cinematographe in 1895. 1890: Edouard Branly, Physics Professor at the Catholic University of Paris, found that a nearby electromagnetic disturbance can lower the resistance of a thin layer of copper and is, thus, credited as the inventor of the coherer wireless detector. Michael Pupin studies low pressure vacuum-tube discharges, and invents an electrical resonator. Charles Driffield and Ferdinand Hurter publish their work on emulsion sensitivity and exposure measurement The Kinematograph camera and projector are publicly demonstrated in London. Invented by William Friese-Green, a Bristol born photographer and self-taught scientist, the camera is able to take pictures on modified celluloid film at 50 fps (frames per second) by means of parallel sprocket holes. Friese-Green's invention is unreliable and does not meet with great success. The High Frequency Generator is invented by Elihu Thomson, a US engineer and inventor, with Edward James Houston. 1891: Thomas Edison receives a patent for wireless telegraphy. Edison patents 'Kinetograph' camera and 'Kinetoscope' viewer. The Kinetoscope is not a projector. The coin-operated machines were introduced in public parlors in New York City in 1894 and appeared in London, Berlin, and Paris before the end of the year. Suspecting that his competitor's wife - an operator at the local telephone exchange - is redirecting business calls to her husband's company, Kansas City undertaker Almon Brown Strowger creates the automatic telephone switchboard. He patents what he calls a "girl-less, cuss-less, out-of-order-less, wait-less" telephone system, which is activated when a caller selects a number by pressing a combination of three buttons. Also in 1891, Strowger patents a dial telephone and founds the Automatic Electric Co. to promote his invention. The first automatic system will be put into commercial use in La Porte, Indiana the following year. The Strowger system can link up to 99 subscribers, and is later licensed to ATT. In 1919, the Bell Telephone System will adopt the automatic switchboard and the dial phone. In the same year he is granted his US citizenship, inventor Nikola Tesla constructs what is known as the Tesla coil. This air-core transformer converts low voltage high current to high voltage low current at high frequencies; it is soon considered essential equipment in research laboratories across the country, to supplement the weak oscillations of the Hertz circuit. 1892: William Crookes distinctly foresaw the application of Hertzian waves to practical telegraphy in a paper in the Fortnightly Review in February. Frederick Ives invents first complete system for natural color photography. Telephone service between New York and Chicago commences. 1893: The 'photoelectric cell' is invented by German physicists Julius Elster and Hans F. Geitel. Also called the 'photocell' or 'electric eye', the photoelectric cell varies its electric output in relation to the light it receives. Thomas Edison patents Dickson's 'Kinetoscope' under his own name. The Kinetographic Theater, a film studio, is designed by W.K.L. Dickson, an associate of Thomas Edison, at Menlo Park, New Jersey. The entire studio revolves on a pivot to follow the sunlight. It is nicknamed 'The Black Maria' Edweard Muybridge projects many of his sequences of human beings in motion at the Chicago fair, in a specially constructed building of classical design, the Zoopraxographical Hall, a forerunner of the Cinema theatre Electricity wizard Nikola Tesla has applied for and received over 40 US patents on the AC electrical system, which will form the basis of electrical power distribution systems throughout the world. The competition between the Westinghouse - Tesla alliance and Thomas Edison is fierce. Edison has ignored Tesla's discoveries in favor of his own direct current electrical system, but the DC method ultimately fails because it is unable to distribute power efficiently for more than a few miles. Unwilling to accept his competitors' success, Edison wages a venomous smear campaign which includes the electrocution of small animals with AC power, to demonstrate its potential danger to the public. Despite such efforts, the inventor fails to turn the tide of progress. In 1893, Edison loses the competition to supply the Niagara Falls with hydroelectric power generation facilities. Westinghouse and Tesla win the contract, and the 15,000 hp two-phase facility is up and running by 1895. Nicola Tesla demonstrated his system for wireless signaling. Tesla successfully tested a small radio controlled and powered boat on a lake at New York's Madison Square Gardens. 1894: Oliver Joseph Lodge delivered a series of seminal lectures entitled "The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors." In particular, he emphasized that Branly's powders were "The most astonishingly sensitive detector of Hertz waves" and coined the term "coherer." Guglielmo Marchese Marconi (1874 - 1937) embarked on a study of the research of Hertz (who had died that year) and began to speculate that Hertzian waves might be used in communication. His interest was presumably prompted by a commemorative article written by Righi, since he had been familiar with the mathematical conclusions of Maxwell and Kelvin. He had also read a description of the results obtained by Branly and Onesti, with detectors consisting of imperfect electrical contacts. Marconi started his experiments on the application of Hertzian waves to wireless telegraphy in late 1894 at the the family estate,Villa Griffone, in Pontecchio Bologna. ( Source1 and Source2 ) US inventor Charles Francis Jenkins patents the phantascope, one of the first practical motion picture projection machines. Michael Idvorsky Pupin, a Hungarian physicist and former student of Hermann von Helmholtz, is now living in the United States, where he makes innovations in multiplex telegraphy 1895: On May 7 Alexander Stepanovitch Popov (1859 - 1906) demonstrated a system for detecting distant electromagnetic disturbances (viz. lightning discharges in the atmosphere many miles away) before a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society in St. Petersburg. Popov's receiver consisted of a metal filings coherer he had developed as the detector element together with an antenna, a relay, and a bell. The relay was used to activate the bell which both announced the occurrence of a lightning discharge and served as a "decoherer" (tapper) to ready the coherer to detect the next lightning discharge. ( Source ) The young physicist Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937), newly arrived at Cambridge from New Zealand, employs an magnetic effect to detect Hertzian waves over a distance of two miles. Only twenty-four, Rutherford delivers an experimental lecture on this research before the Cambridge Physical Society. (This lecture is later published by the Royal Society of London.) In fact, Rutherford's 1894 work, in New Zealand, on the magnetic detection of electromagnetic waves had resulted in two substantial scientific papers and won him a scholarship, which provided for further education in England. ( Source ) Marconi continued his experiments on Hertzian waves at Villa Grifone throughout the year. Using oscillators similar to those used by Hertz and Righi (although Marconi's had much greater capacitance and hence greater radiating power), he discovered that the distance over which signals could be transmitted and received, varied in proportion to the square of the length of the vertical wires (antenna or aerial) attached to the transmitter or the receiver. In particular, he found 2m antenna gave a range of 30m, a 4m antenna 100m and an 8m antenna a range of 400m. He also devote a great deal of effort to improving performance of Branly's mysterious coherer detector. Finally, in early summer (or September or March 30, 1995) and despite an intervening hill, Marconi achieved signal transmission and reception (three dots -- i.e., the letter "S") over a distance of about 2.4 km. ( Source1 and Source2 ) Captain H. B. Jackson, a scientifically minded officer at the British Royal Navy's Torpedo School, constructed a wireless set that would send Morse code signals from one end of a ship to the other. The following year, he performed the same experiment from ship to ship within a harbor. (In September of 1896, Captain Jackson was an observer at Marconi's demonstration on Salisbury Plains.) ( Source ) Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen discovers x-rays Louis and Auguste Lumière issued a patent for a device called a cinematograph capable of projecting moving pictures and on Dec 28, 1895, the brothers show the first motion pictures at the Grand Cafe on the Boulevard Des Capucines. In the US, Enoch Rector invents a device to prevent motion picture film from breaking in the camera. The device is called the Latham Loop, after Rector's employers, the Latham Brothers. Thomas Armat produces the same device independently for his Vitascope Beater Movement projector. May 1895 - Birt Acres ( 1854-1918 ) patents his Kineopticon and becomes the first Englishman to successfully produce and publicly show animated pictures, initially at the Royal Photographic Society in London on 14th January the following year. The demonstration includes film strips of the 1895 Derby and the opening of the Kiel canal by the German Emperor. Photographic typesetting (kinematography) is invented by William Friese-Greene, of London. He takes out a patent but his system is never built for commercial use. 1896: March 24, 1896 Alexander Popov demonstrated the transmission and reception of information by wireless telegraphy before another meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society ate St. Petersburg University. The message "HEINRICH HERTZ" was transmitted a distance of over 800 feet between two campus buildings. ( Source ) In January, after eighteen months of experimentation and development, Marconi and his family were convinced that his wireless telegraphy system was patentable and ready for public demonstration. Thus, in the middle of February, he and his mother (nee Annie Jameson whose family was the Jameson Distillers of Belfaest) travelled to Great Britain in pursuit of two alternative and, perhaps, conflicting strategies. Prior to applying for a patent he felt that he should make his information available to the Italian government and seek some financial help from the government's Post and Telegraph Service. To that end, he and his mother contacted a family friend, General Ferrero, who was the Italian Ambassador in London. After many months of consideration, there apppeared to be little enthusiasm for his invention in Italy: in fact, the appropriate Italian minister reported that it was "not suitable for telecommunications!" While awaiting response from the Italian government, Marconi and his mother were using the influence of the Jameson name to provide introductions to important people in positions to help get support for the further development. In particular, she secured a hearing before Sir William Preece, then Engineer-in-Chief for the Post Office, who immediately saw the importance of Marconi's apparatus. Under the guidance of his cousin Henry Jameson Davis, on June 2nd he filed the world's first patent application for a system of telegraphy using Hertzian waves -- British Patent number 12039. In July he demonstrated his apparatus to both the Post Office and the War Office, and a historic demonstration took place at Three Mile Hill on Salisbury Plain on the September 2nd, with officials from the GPO, the Navy and the Army present. Many more experiments followed in 1897. Marconi returned to Salisbury Plain and achieved a range of 7 miles (11.2km). On June 2 of that year, Marconi filed a preliminary patent application for his wireless telegraphy system. Because of the need to protect his patent interests, the specific details of Marconi's equipment were not disclosed publicly until June 4, when William Preece (1834-1913), Engineer-in-Chief for the Post Office gave a public lecture at The Royal Institution in London. (The relatives of Marconi's mother had provided him with an introduction to Preece.) The lecture was published in the next issue of The Electrician [20]. Guglielmo Marconi takes his system of wireless telegraphy to England. Enlisting the support of the Chief Engineer of the British Post Office, Marconi patents his system in England and, in 1897, founds the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, Ltd. In 1900 the name of the company will be changed to Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company, Ltd.April 23, ( Source1 , Source2 and Source3 ) http://www.antrim.net/rathlin/Marconi.htm http://www.thriftyweb.com/dcarc/Vol98no9R.htm http://www.optonline.com/comptons/ceo/03010_A.html Marconi worked on his system for the next two years when he then felt it was ready to be demonstrated publicly. The Italian government showed no interest so his mother took her son and his two trunks of equipment to Preece immediately saw the importance of Marconi's apparatus and in June 1896 Marconi took out a patent on his system of wireless telegraphy. With the help of the Jameson family money and connections he set up the Wireless Signal Telegraph Company which later became the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. ( Source )1896: Based on small scale trials at Bologna, Guglielmo Marconi on June 2, 1896 applied for a patent in England and demonstrated his system to postal-telegraph authorities in sequence of trials of in London and over Salisbury Plain. Thus, he received from the British government the first wireless patent which was based, in part, on the theory that the communication range increases substantially as the height of the antenna is increased. He continued through 1897 with trials over water and reached 18 miles in November of that year. Thomas Edison, using Thomas Arnat's 'Vitascope', shows the first motion pictures in the USA in Koster and Bial's Music Hall in New York. Thomas Edison's company, General Electric, licenses Nikola Tesla's AC (alternating current) system and in 1896 builds a transmission and distribution system linking the Niagara Falls Powerhouse to Buffalo, NY. This signals the winding down of the war between Edison and Westinghouse over the superiority of the electric currents, Edison having failed to win the public over to his own DC (direct current) system. Westinghouse, the first to supply the Niagara Falls with hydroelectric power generation facilities, will eventually build seven more generating units, raising the yield to 50,000 hp. The high-yield AC voltages make possible the manufacture of aluminum, as Tesla had predicted, and enables the Pittsburgh Reduction Company--later to be known as the Aluminum Company of America (ALCOA)--to feed raw materials to the youthful aircraft industry. 1897: Marconi transmitted signals from shore to a ship at sea 18 miles away. In the summer, Marconi's Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, is incorporated under the laws of England. Later (1900) the name is changed to Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company In March Popov equips a land station at Kronstadt and on the Russian navy cruiser Africa with his wireless communications apparatus for ship-to-shore communications. Karl Ferdinand Braun constructs the first cathode ray to incorporate a scanning capability. Marconi was granted a patent on July 2, 1897 (the complete patent specification had been filed on March 2, 1897). Josef Maria Eder and Eduard Valenta publish stereoscopic Röntgen photographs. At the University of Strasbourg, German physicist Karl Ferdinand Braun invents the 'oscilloscope', the first cathode ray tube (CRT). In this laboratory device ( the forerunner of television and radar tubes ) a narrow stream of electrons traces patterns on the fluorescent screen of the tube. Braun is also the inventor of the crystal rectifier, a device that allows current to flow in only one direction and improves radio transmission. He will share the 1909 Nobel Prize with Guglielmo Marconi for the development of radio. The British Ministry gives Marconi money and technicans to continue his work. Marconi signals reached 5, 8, 15, 30 and 100 km. In July Marconi formed the Wireless Telegraph Trading Signal Co. Ltd. J. J. Thomson, head of the experimental physics program at Cambridge University in England, discovers and identifies units of electrical current--electrons-- in cathode rays. Thomson believes that these units are a fundamental part of all matter. He suggests that in a model of atomic structure, the negatively charged subatomic particles, electrons, are embedded in a sphere of positive electricity, and that the two charges neutralize each other. Thomson's findings revolutionize the study of physics, and win him the Nobel Prize 1906. The strength of his gift as a researcher and a teacher is evidenced by the fact that seven of his research assistants, and his son George, will win Nobel prizes, and he will lead his country to the forefront of the field of subatomic particles in the early 20th century. The oscillograph is invented by William du Bois Duddell, a British engineer. The American Mutoscope and Biograph Company (later to be known as Biograph) produces the mutoscope, a peep-show viewer developed to rival Edison's Kinetoscope. The device uses large cardboard photographs that flip when a hand crank is rotated, and outperforms the Kinetoscope with its electrically driven film strip. Mutoscopes can still be found at some carnivals, amusement parks and penny arcades. 1898: The Marconi Company negotiates arrangements for a maritime intelligence network with Lloyds, the marine underwriters's association in May. In July Marconi radio reports the Kingston Yacht Regatta for Dublin's Daily Express. Marconi comes to the US in September, where he demonstrates for the Navy a telegraph link between the cruisers New York and Massachusetts. John G. Pickard (for American Wireless Telephone and Telegraph Company), Lee de Forest (for Wireless Telegraph Company of America) and Guglielmo Marconi (for Marconi Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, Ltd.) battle to cover the America Cup Race in September and October. Marconi installs the worlds first commercial radio service on Rathlin Island off the coast of Ireland. Marconi was called back to Italy by the minister of the Italian navy. As a naval officer, he conducts some of his most important experiments aboard naval ships. Lodge invents a means of radio tuning (the sintonic circuit) and is granted a patent in the USA. The Bellowing Telephone (a speaker phone) is developed by Sir Oliver Lodge, Professor of Physics at University College, Liverpool. The loudspeaker is invented by Horace Short of London. The compressed air "Auxetophone" is first used to broadcast records of operatic arias from the tops of the Blackpool Tower in England and the Eiffel Tower in France. December 1 - Danish electrical engineer and inventor Valdemar Poulsen ( 1869-1942 ) patents the first practical magnetic sound recorder, the 'Telegraphone', using magnetised piano wire as the recording medium. Poulsen demonstrates his device at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and later adapts it to create a recording telephone. 1899: The first wireless telegraph message is sent across the English Channel by Marconi in March. The Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company of America is formed on November 22nd and, eventually becomes the Radio Corporation of America in 1919. After being rammed by a freighter the East Goodwin Sands Lightship, on the evening of March 3rd sent the first recorded maritime radio request for help. ( Source ) Nikola Tesla, gazing at the Colorado Springs skies during a Fourth of July electrical storm, makes what he believes to be his most important discovery. By studying the movement of clouds, he perceives the existence of terrestrial stationary waves that transmit energy, and is thereby assured of the possibility of wireless telegraphy (which he has suspected for some time). Even more fantastic is the fact that using the earth as a conductor will make possible the transmission of unlimited power to any location on the planet. This means, among other things, that the modulations of the human voice can be heard around the world. Tesla builds a magnifying transmitter and, in one experiment, lights 200 incandescent lamps from a distance of 26 miles without the use of wires. In the most spectacular demonstration of his career, he creates a bolt of lightning 135 feet long, the crack of which can be heard 15 miles away from his laboratory. The experiment is cut short only by the Colorado Springs Electric Company who, complaining of a burned out generator, crisply informs him that his service is thereby terminated. It is during this same year that Tesla receives what he believes to be communications from Venus or Mars. Public reaction ranges from the polite to the incredulous, but sixty years later scientists will acknowledge the fact that radio signals from beyond our atmosphere are indeed often picked up by earthbound receivers. Valdemar Poulsen of Denmark invents a sound recording device, forerunner of the modern tape recorder. Poulsen's invention, which he calls the telegraphone, records sound on a magnetic wire. Poulsen demonstrates his device at the Paris Exhibition of 1900, and later adapts it to create a recording telephone. In the US, Michael Idvorsky Pupin, an immigrant Hungarian physicist and inventor, devises the so-called Pupin "loading" coil - a system for extending the range of long distance telephone service by placing inductance coils around the transmitting wires. AT&T patents the invention in 1901. A photoelectric cell designed for practical use is invented by German physicists Julius Elster and Hans Friedrich Geitel. Originally introduced in 1893, photoelectric cells permit the conversion of luminous flux into an electric current. Thereafter, variations in light are transmitted by an electric current and then turned back into identical light variations upon arrival. The end result is the successful transmission of static or luminous imagery.	i don't know
What is the title of Timothy Dalton’s first James Bond film?	James Bond (Timothy Dalton) \| James Bond Wiki \| Fandom powered by Wikia James Bond (Timothy Dalton) 10 November 1948 London , England Hair color "Stuff my orders! I only kill professionals." ― James Bond to Saunders — [src] Commander James Bond is a Senior Operational Officer of the 'Double-O' ('00') Branch, an ultra-covert Black Ops unit within the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6). As an agent of MI6, Bond holds code number "007". The 'double-O' prefix indicates his discretionary licence to kill in the performance of his duties. Welsh actor Timothy Dalton took over the role from Roger Moore in 1987. He appeared in The Living Daylights (1987) and Licence to Kill (1989). Legal issues between the Bond producers and the studio over distribution rights resulted in the cancellation of a proposed third Dalton film scheduled for release in 1991 [1] and put the series on a hiatus for several years. Contents Film biography Shared background Although very little of Bond's past is directly addressed in Timothy Dalton's films, it is assumed that his Bond continues to share the common background laid out by the Ian Fleming novels and preceding Bond films. In the novels, James' parents ( Andrew Bond of Scotland and Monique Delacroix-Bond of Switzerland) were tragically killed during a climbing accident in the French Alps when he was eleven. He had acquired a first-class command of the French and German languages during his early education, which he received entirely abroad. After the death of his parents, Bond goes to live with his aunt, Miss Charmian Bond , where he completes his early education. Later, he briefly attends Eton College at "12 or thereabouts", but is removed after two halves because of girl trouble with a maid. After being sent down from Eton, Bond was sent to Fettes College in Scotland, his father's school. [2] After leaving Fettes, earlier EON films note that Bond studied at Cambridge University. [3] [4] There, he achieved a first in Oriental languages. [5] In Fleming's novels, Bond alluded to briefly attending the University of Geneva (as did Fleming), before being taught to ski in Kitzbühel. [6] Following his graduation, Bond joined the Ministry of Defence and became a lieutenant in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserves, rising though the ranks to commander. Bond applied to M for a position within the " Secret Service ", part of the Civil Service, and rose to the rank of principal officer. The Living Daylights (1987) James Bond is assigned to aid the defection of KGB officer, General Koskov , covering his escape from a concert hall in Bratislava during the orchestra's intermission. During the mission, Bond notices that the KGB sniper assigned to prevent Koskov's escape is a female cellist from the orchestra. Disobeying his orders to kill the sniper, he instead shoots the rifle from her hands, then uses the Trans-Siberian Pipeline to smuggle Koskov across the border into Austria and then on to Britain. Bond returns to Bratislava to track down the cellist, Kara Milovy . He determines that Koskov's entire defection was staged, and that Kara is actually Koskov's girlfriend. Bond convinces Kara that he is a friend of Koskov's and persuades her to accompany him to Vienna, supposedly to be reunited with him. Meanwhile, Pushkin meets with arms dealer Brad Whitaker in Tangier, informing him that the KGB is cancelling an arms deal previously arranged between Koskov and Whitaker. During his brief tryst with Kara in Vienna, Bond meets up with his MI6 ally, Saunders , who discovers a history of financial dealings between Koskov and Whitaker. As he leaves their meeting, Saunders is killed by Necros , who leaves the message "Smiert Spionam." Bond with his gun on Pushkin. Bond and Milovy promptly leave for Tangier, where Bond confronts General Pushkin . Pushkin disavows any knowledge of "Smiert Spionam", and reveals that Koskov is evading arrest for the misusing of state funds. Bond and Pushkin then join forces and Bond fakes Pushkin's assassination, inducing Whitaker and Koskov to progress with their scheme. Meanwhile, Kara contacts Koskov, who tells her that Bond is actually a KGB agent and convinces her to drug him so he can be captured. Koskov, Necros, Kara, and the captive Bond fly to a Soviet air base in Afghanistan (part of the Soviet war in Afghanistan) where Koskov betrays Kara and imprisons her along with Bond. The pair escape and in doing so free a condemned prisoner, Kamran Shah , leader of the local Afghan resistance, the Mujahideen. Bond and Kara discover that Koskov is using Soviet funds to buy a massive shipment of opium from the Mujahideen, intending to keep the profits with enough left over to supply the Soviets with their arms. With the Mujahideen's help, Bond plants a bomb aboard the cargo plane carrying the opium, but is spotted and has no choice but to barricade himself in the plane. Meanwhile the Mujahideen attack the air base on horseback and engage the Soviets in a gun battle. Kara drives a jeep into the back of the plane as Bond takes off, and Necros also leaps aboard at the last second. After a struggle, Bond throws Necros to his death and deactivates the bomb. Bond then notices Shah and his men being pursued by Soviet forces. He re-activates the bomb and drops it out of the plane and onto a bridge, blowing it up and helping Shah and his men gain an important victory over the Soviets. Bond returns to Tangier to kill Whitaker, as Pushkin arrests Koskov, sending him back to Moscow. Bond is later waiting in Kara's dressing room after she preformed at a concert in front of M and General Gogol . Licence to Kill (1989) DEA agents collect Bond and Felix Leiter , on their way to Leiter's wedding, to assist in capturing drug lord Franz Sanchez . Bond and Leiter capture Sanchez by attaching a hook and cord to Sanchez's plane in flight near The Bahamas and pulling it out of the air with a Coast Guard helicopter. Afterwards, Bond and Leiter parachute down to the church in time for the ceremony. When Bond learns Sanchez has escaped, he returns to Leiter's house to find his wife Della dead and Felix alive, but seriously wounded; Bond swears to take his revenge on Sanchez. As the DEA refuse to help because Sanchez is out of their jurisdiction, Bond, with Felix's friend Sharkey , start their own investigation into what happened to Felix. The pair discover a marine research centre run by Milton Krest , one of Sanchez's henchmen. After Bond kills Killifer by pushing him into the tank with the shark that maimed Leiter, M meets Bond in Key West's Hemingway House and orders him to an assignment in Istanbul , Turkey . Bond resigns after turning down the assignment, but M suspends Bond instead and immediately revokes his licence to kill. Bond flees from MI6 custody and becomes a rogue agent, bereft of official backing but later surreptitiously helped by Miss Moneypenny and MI6 armourer Q . Bond boards the Wavekrest—a ship run by Milton Krest— and foils Sanchez's latest drug shipment, stealing five million dollars in the process, but later discovers that Sharkey had been killed by Sanchez's henchmen. Bond recruits Pam Bouvier , an ex-CIA agent and pilot whom he rescues from Dario at a Bimini bar, and journeys with her to the Republic of Isthmus. In Isthmus City, Bond is met by Q. He finds his way into Sanchez's employment by posing as an assassin looking for work. Two Hong Kong Narcotics Bureau officers foil Bond's attempt to assassinate Sanchez and take him to an abandoned warehouse. They are joined by Fallon , an MI6 agent who was sent by M to apprehend Bond either dead or alive. Bond is about to be sedated via injection and sent back to the United Kingdom in disgrace when Sanchez's men rescue Bond and kill the officers, believing them to be the assassins. Bond before his attempted shooting of Sanchez. Later, with the aid of Bouvier, Q and Sanchez's girlfriend Lupe Lamora , Bond frames Krest by placing the five million dollars he had stolen into the hyperbaric chamber on board the Wavekrest. An angry Sanchez traps Krest in the chamber and then rapidly depressurizes it, killing him; meanwhile, for Bond's perceived loyalty, Sanchez admits him into his inner circle. Sanchez takes Bond to his base, which is disguised as a meditation retreat. Bond learns that Sanchez's scientists can dissolve cocaine in petrol and then sell it disguised as fuel to Asian drug dealers. During Sanchez's presentation to potential Asian customers, Dario discovers Bond and reveals him to Sanchez. Bond starts a fire in the laboratory and attempts to flee, but is captured again and placed on the conveyor belt that drops the brick-cocaine into a giant shredder. Bouvier arrives and distracts Dario, allowing Bond to pull Dario into the shredder, killing him. Sanchez flees as fire consumes his base, taking with him four articulated tankers full of the cocaine and petrol mixture. Bond pursues them by plane, with Bouvier at the controls. During the course of a stunt-filled chase through the desert, three of the four tankers are destroyed and Bond kills many of Sanchez's men. Sanchez attacks Bond with a machete aboard the final remaining tanker, which loses control and crashes down a hill side. Soaked in petrol from the leaking tanker, Sanchez attempts to kill Bond with his machete. Bond then reveals his cigarette lighter – the Leiters' gift for being the best man at their wedding – and sets fire to Sanchez, taking revenge for Felix and Della. Sanchez stumbles into the wrecked tanker, blowing it up and killing himself. Bouvier, driving the tractor from one of the destroyed tankers, rescues Bond. Bond and Bouvier reconciling. Later, a party is held at Sanchez's former residence. Bond speaks to Leiter on a telephone informing him of his now stable condition and telling him that he had heard from M, who is offering him his job at MI6 back. He then hangs up and is prompted by his hostess for a one on one chat where she kisses him. Seeing this, Pam runs off which Bond notices. He rejects Lupe's advances and sets her up with Hector Lopez , President of Isthmus. He opts to romance Pam instead, jumping off the balcony into the pool below, pulling her in aswell. On-Screen Kills Behind the scenes Timothy Dalton had been approached to play Bond several times before finally signing a three film contract on 30 July 1986 following Roger Moore 's retirement from the role. Dalton took the Bond character away from the light-hearted playboy of Moore, harking back to the gritty realism of Ian Fleming 's novels instead of fantasy plots and humour. Dalton stated in a 1989 interview: "I think Roger was fine as Bond, but the films had become too much techno-pop and had lost track of their sense of story. I mean, every film seemed to have a villain who had to rule or destroy the world. If you want to believe in the fantasy on screen, then you have to believe in the characters and use them as a stepping-stone to lead you into this fantasy world. That's a demand I made, and Albert Broccoli agreed with me."	The Living Daylights
Which British city was European Capital of Culture in 1990?	The 007 Film That Never Was: Dalton’s Third Bond – The James Bond International Fan Club Previous Next The 007 Film That Never Was: Dalton’s Third Bond With a new book now on the market about Timothy Dalton’s first James Bond movie, it seems a good moment for the JBIFC to look back at the screen treatment for the film that was never made: a third Dalton 007 adventure. Charles Helfenstein, the author of the superb book The Making of On Her Majesty’s Secret Service (2009), recently published a second book entitled The Making of The Living Daylights, which went on sale in October. As with his first book, it is another very high quality exploration of how a James Bond movie is planned, made and marketed, with some fascinating insights, rare anecdotes, excellent glimpses of storyboards, and containing all the detail that made his first volume worth its weight in gold. At one point in his new book, Helfenstein touches upon the film that came close to being made but never was: a third Timothy Dalton 007 adventure. The JBIFC has trawled its archives once again to bring you some details about the ‘Bond 17’ outline that was actually put together during the planning stages for the proposed movie. Dalton’s Third 007 Adventure. Yes, it nearly did happen. As we know, Timothy Dalton made two Bond movies and was all set for a third, but then complex legal wrangles halted pre-production on Bond 17. After waiting patiently for five years for MGM/UA to sort out the various legal battles, in the spring of 1994 Dalton announced he was leaving the role of 007. “Bond removes his parachute harness and turns to find the decidedly unpleasant barrel of a pistol thrust against his temple. Mi Wai tells him to keep his hands in sight as she speaks rapidly into a small hand held radio. In a few moments Bond hears the distinctive beat of a helicopter… Mi Wai prods Bond forward… he sees the insignia of the Chinese Red Army on the side of the helicopter”. The above extract, at first glance, looks like something out of Colonel Sun but comes from the screen treatment that nearly became the basis for the third Tim Dalton Bond movie in 1990/91 – had it gone ahead. In fact, not many fans realize how advanced the plans were for Bond 17 in 1989-90. Moreover, all the evidence suggests that Dalton’s third Bond movie would have placed Fleming’s ‘blunt instrument’ (as grittily played by Dalton) in a much more ambitious and visionary story which had an element of sci-fi at its heart. An outline treatment by Michael G. Wilson and Alfonse Ruggiero was completed in May, 1990, and, although it was not a full script, it contained a detailed outline story, with descriptions of locations, key characters and major plot concepts. As envisaged in 1990, Dalton’s third would-be Bond movie would have entailed the Bond series continuing to move in the notably realistic direction set out in Licence to Kill, but also brimming with ambitious hi-tech concepts. Wilson and Ruggiero penned an outline which used robotic designs, microchips and advanced electronic apparatus to provide the film with a markedly scientific backdrop. At the beginning of the treatment there was an intriguing preface saying that the ‘robotic devices’ referred to in the outline were ‘complex and exotic machines designed for specific tasks’ and they would be designed ‘especially for the film for maximum and dramatic and visual impact’. The opening sequence was set in a chemical weapons laboratory in Scotland, and involved technicians performing tests with robotic devices. Suddenly, one of the robotic machines would run amok and the building would explode. After a ‘bitter debate’ in the House of Commons, the Prime Minister would be seen being questioned by MPs about the explosion, and he would assure the House that the ‘full resources’ of the government were being used to investigate the incident. Enter 007, who, in the treatment, is summoned to MI6’s HQ and to M’s office for the traditional briefing about his mission. There followed a storyline which took Bond to Hong Kong, Japan and mainland China, with the main villain being Sir Henry Lee Ching, described in the treatment as ‘a brilliant and handsome thirty year old British-Chinese entrepreneur’ who, in the traditional Bond sense, is a dab hand at science and electronic circuits, and is also nicely demented. Sir Henry has a habit of arranging ‘accidents’ at nuclear plants, and demonstrates this by having a robotic device run amok at a Chinese atomic plant in Nanking. The main point to Wilson and Ruggiero’s treatment for Bond 17 was that Sir Henry wanted Britain to withdraw from Hong Kong (remember, this was 1990, some years before the UK actually did hand over the colony). With his expertise in electronics, Sir Henry threatened to unleash a computer virus that would paralyse every military and commercial unit in the world. The climax of the treatment involved James Bond being led to Sir Henry’s base of operations through the sewer system under Hong Kong, with 007 gaining access to the building via a waste-pipe. There followed a classic confrontation between Bond and Sir Henry, with the latter eventually killed when 007 turns a welding torch in his face! Whether this treatment for Dalton’s third Bond movie sowed some of the seeds for later ideas for the Pierce Brosnan films is difficult to say, but the 1990/91 Bond 17 treatment gives us an intriguing glimpse of the film that might have been.	i don't know

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.