question
stringlengths 18
1.2k
| facts
stringlengths 44
500k
| answer
stringlengths 1
147
|
|---|---|---|
What was the name of the ' white horse ' who famously helped to keep the crowds in order at the first Wembley F.A. Cup Final in 1923 ? | West Ham United F.C. : Wikis (The Full Wiki)
West Ham United Football Club are East London club based in Upton Park , London Borough of Newham , East London . They have played their home matches at the Boleyn Ground stadium since 1904.
The club was founded in 1895 as Thames Ironworks FC . In 1900 the club reformed as West Ham United. They initially competed in the Southern League and Western League before eventually joining the full Football League in 1919 and subsequently enjoyed promotion to the top flight for the 1923 season. 1923 also saw the club feature in the first FA Cup Final to be held at Wembley against Bolton Wanderers .
In 1940 the team won the inaugural Football League War Cup . Subsequently the club has won the FA Cup three times: in 1964, 1975 and 1980 as well as being runners-up twice, in 1923 and 2006. In 1965, they won the European Cup Winners Cup , and in 1999 they won the Intertoto Cup . The club's best final league position is third place in the 1985–86 (old) First Division .
Three West Ham players were considered an important factor behind England 's triumph in the 1966 World Cup , as England's captain at the time was West Ham's Bobby Moore , and both goalscorers in the final were the West Ham players Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters .
West Ham currently compete in the Premier League , and finished in 9th position in the 2008–09 season. They have been members of the Premier League for all but three seasons since its creation in 1992, and their highest finish in the Premier League was 5th in 1998–99 .
Their current manager is former International Italian Forward Gianfranco Zola , who replaced former player Alan Curbishley in September 2008 after his resignation was accepted.
Contents
18 External links
History
Past few years. Chelsea 4-1 West Ham Reading 6-0 West Ham West Ham 1-4 Chelsea West Ham 0-4 Chelsea Chelsea 4 - 1 West Ham United
This "Past few years" section looks very much like one of those nihilistic bits that Chelsea fans seems to be putting in all over the Wiki football pages. Can I suggest an editor takes it out - it certainly is utterly out of context.
Advertisements
Origins
Earliest club shot, during its founding year as Thames Ironworks in 1895
The earliest generally accepted incarnation of West Ham United was founded in 1895 as the Thames Ironworks team by foreman and local league referee Dave Taylor and owner Arnold Hills [2] and was announced in the Thames Ironworks Gazette of June 1895.
The team played on a strictly amateur basis for 1895 at least, with a team featuring a number of works employees including Thomas Freeman (ships fireman), Walter Parks (clerk), Tom Mundy, Walter Tranter and James Lindsay (all boilermakers), William Chapman, George Sage, and William Chamberlain and apprentice riveter Charlie Dove . [2]
1895-96: First kit [3]
The club, Thames Ironworks [4] were the first ever winners of the West Ham Charity Cup in 1895 contested by clubs in the locality, then won the London League in 1897. They turned professional in 1898 upon entering the Southern League Second Division, and were promoted to the First Division at the first attempt. [5] The following year they came second from bottom, but had established themselves as a fully fledged competitive team. They comfortably fended off the challenge of local rivals Fulham in a relegation play-off, 5–1 in late April 1900 and retained their First Division status. [5]
The team initially played in full dark blue kits, as inspired by Mr. Hills, who had been an Oxford University " Blue ", but changed the following season by adopting the sky blue shirts and white shorts combination worn through 1897 to 1899. In 1899 they acquired their now traditional home kit combination of claret shirts and sky blue sleeves in a wager involving Aston Villa players, who were League Champions at the time.
Following growing disputes over the running and financing of the club in June 1900 Thames Ironworks F.C. was disbanded, [4] then almost immediately relaunched on 5 July 1900 as West Ham United F.C. with Syd King [4] as their manager and future manager Charlie Paynter as his assistant. Because of the original "works team" roots and links (still represented upon the club badge), they are still known to this day as 'the Irons' or 'the Hammers' amongst fans and the media. [4] [6] [7]
Birth of West Ham United
The reborn club continued to play their games at the Memorial Ground in Plaistow (funded by Arnold Hills) but moved to a pitch in the Upton Park area when the team officially severed ties with the company (losing their works provisioned offices in the process). After being made groundless in 1901 the team became transient, playing their home games on a number of local teams' grounds until moving to its current home, Upton Park (in the guise of the Boleyn Ground stadium), in 1904.
West Ham's first game in their new home was against local rivals Millwall [4] (themselves an Ironworks team, albeit for a rival company) drawing a crowd of 10,000 and with West Ham running out 3–0 winners, [8] and as the Daily Mirror wrote on 2 September 1904:
“
"Favoured by the weather turning fine after heavy rains of the morning, West Ham United began their season most auspiciously yesterday evening; when they beat Millwall by 3 goals to 0 on their new enclosure at Upton Park."
”
West Ham Utd had joined the Western League for the 1901 season [9] in addition to continuing playing in the Southern Division 1. In 1907 West Ham were crowned the Western League Division 1B Champions, and then defeated 1A champions Fulham 1–0 to become the Western Leagues Overall Champions. [9]
Billie the White Horse, saviour of the 1923 FA Cup Final
In 1919, still under King's leadership, West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , the first game being a 1-1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923, also making the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium. Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final . This is because so many people turned up to the game, (estimated at 200,000), that they spilled out on to the pitch. The pitch had to be cleared prior to kick-off, by Billie, a giant white horse (actually grey) being ridden by PC George Scorey. The Cup Final match itself ended 2–0 to Bolton Wanderers. The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for 10 years and reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1927.
In 1932 the club was relegated to Division Two and long term custodian Syd King was sacked after serving the club in the role of Manager for 32 years, and as a player from 1899 to 1903. He was replaced with his assistant manager Charlie Paynter who himself had been with West Ham in a number of roles since 1897 and who went on to serve the team in this role until 1950 for a total of 480 games.
The club spent most of the next 30 years in this division, first under Paynter and then later under the leadership of former player Ted Fenton . Fenton succeeded in getting the club once again promoted to the top level of English football in 1958 and in helping develop both the initial batch of future West Ham stars and West Ham's approach to the game.
The Glory Years
Ron Greenwood was appointed as Fenton's successor in 1961 and he soon led the club to two major trophies, winning the FA Cup in 1964 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1965.
During the 1966 World Cup , key members of the tournament winners England were West Ham players, including the captain, Bobby Moore ; Martin Peters (who scored in the final); and Geoff Hurst , who scored the only hat-trick (to date) in a World Cup final.
Champions Statue on Barking Road
There is a "Champions" statue in Barking Road , opposite The Boleyn pub, commemorating West Ham's three sons who helped win the 1966 World Cup: Bobby Moore, Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters. Also included on the statue is Everton's Ray Wilson .
After a difficult start to the 1974–75 season, Greenwood moved himself "upstairs" to become General Manager and without informing the board, appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager. The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in the their first four games combined and won the FA Cup, becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all English side when they beat Fulham 2–0 in the 1975 final.
Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners' Cup final in 1976, though the team lost the match 4–2 to Anderlecht . Greenwood's tenure as General Manager lasted less than three years, as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie 's resignation in 1977.
Ups and Downs
In 1978, West Ham were again relegated to Division Two, but Lyall was retained as manager and led the team to an FA Cup Final win against Arsenal in 1980. This was notable because no team outside the top division has won the trophy since that time. West Ham were promoted to Division One in 1981, but were relegated again in 1989. This second relegation resulted in John Lyall's sacking, despite the fact that that stay in Division One saw West Ham achieve their highest-ever placing in the top division, finishing 3rd in 1986.
After Lyall, Lou Macari briefly led the team, though he resigned after less than a single season in order to clear his name of allegations of illegal betting whilst manager of Swindon Town . He was replaced by former player Billy Bonds . In Bonds' first full season ( 1990–91 ), West Ham again secured promotion to Division One. The following season they were again relegated to Division 2, which had been renamed Division One as part of the league realignments surrounding the creation of the English Premier League in 1992. West Ham spent the 1992–93 season in Division One. finishing second and returning to the Premier League in May 1993.
After the 1993–94 season, Bonds quit and was replaced by Harry Redknapp in August 1994. Redknapp was active in the transfer market , and gained a reputation as a "wheeler-dealer" especially with foreign players being more available following the Bosman ruling . He led West Ham to fifth place in the 1998–99 season, but missed automatic qualification for the UEFA Cup, and instead qualified as winners of the Intertoto Cup . Despite consolidating the league placings for a handful of seasons, a disagreement with the board of directors during the close of the 2000–01 season , found Redknapp replaced with Glenn Roeder , promoted from youth team coach.
In Roeder's first season the team finished seventh, but West Ham lost by wide margins in several matches (7–1 to Blackburn , 5–0 to Everton and 5–1 to Chelsea ) The subsequent season started badly and eventually resulted in relegation. Roeder, who had missed some of the season after being diagnosed with a brain tumour that was treated) was sacked on 24 August 2003, three games into the Championship campaign.
West Ham players on open-top bus near Upton Park celebrate winning the 2005 play-off final in Cardiff. From L-R Shaun Newton (crouching), Back row, Matthew Etherington , Jimmy Walker , Teddy Sheringham , Marlon Harewood , Front row Don Hutchison , Carl Fletcher , Elliott Ward and Mark Noble (with flag)
Trevor Brooking (who served as manager during Glenn's ill health the previous season) stepped in as interim manager before being replaced by Alan Pardew in October 2003, headhunted from fellow promotion contenders Reading . Pardew led the team to a playoff final, though they were beaten by Crystal Palace . The club stayed in Division One (which at this time became the Championship) for another season, when they again reached the playoff final , but this time won, beating Preston North End 1–0, gaining re-entry to the Premier League.
Recent seasons
On their return to the top division, West Ham finished in 9th place, [10] The highlight of the 2005–06 season, however, was reaching the FA Cup final , and taking favourites Liverpool to a penalty shootout , after a thrilling three-all draw. Although West Ham lost the shootout, they gained entry to the UEFA Cup as Liverpool had already qualified for the Champions League through league position.
In August 2006, West Ham completed a major coup on the last day of the transfer window, after completing the signings of Carlos Tévez and Javier Mascherano . [11] The club was eventually bought by an Icelandic consortium, led by Eggert Magnússon in November 2006. [12] Manager Alan Pardew was sacked after poor form during the season [13] and was replaced by former Charlton manager Alan Curbishley . [14]
The signings of Mascherano and Tévez were investigated by the Premier League, who were concerned that details of the transfers had been omitted from official records. The club was found guilty and fined 5.5 million pounds in April 2007. [15] However, West Ham avoided a points deduction which ultimately became critical in their avoidance of relegation at the end of the 2006–07 season. Following on from this event, Wigan Athletic chairman Dave Whelan , supported by other sides facing possible relegation, including Fulham and Sheffield United, threatened legal action. [16]
West Ham escaped relegation by winning seven of their last nine games, including a 1–0 win over Arsenal, and on the last day of the season defeated newly crowned League Champions Manchester United 1–0 with a goal by Tévez to finish 15th, above the relegation zone. Tévez' contributions were arguably important to the survival of the club in the Premier League as he scored seven goals, five of them crucial, in the last couple of months of the season to enable the team to stay up, notwithstanding his ineffectiveness throughout the early part of the season.
In the 2007–08 season , West Ham had a reasonably consistent place in the top half of the league table despite a slew of injuries; new signings Craig Bellamy and Kieron Dyer missed most of the campaign. The last game of the season, at the Boleyn Ground , saw West Ham draw 2–2 against Aston Villa ; ensuring 10th place, finishing three points ahead of rivals Tottenham Hotspur . It was a five-place improvement on the previous season, and most importantly West Ham were never under any realistic threat of relegation.
After a row with the board over the sale of defenders Anton Ferdinand and George McCartney to Sunderland , manager Alan Curbishley resigned on 3 September 2008. His successor, the former Chelsea striker Gianfranco Zola took over on 11 September 2008 and in so doing became the club's first foreign manager (The Scottish manager Lou Macari was the only other manager not from England), to coach the club and became West Ham's 12th manager. [17]
In the 2008–09 season , under Zola's stewardship West Ham finished 9th. Zola's team had an impressive second half of the season just missing out on European qualification after being one point above the relegation zone on Christmas Day.
In the 2009–10 season , West Ham started strongly with a 2–0 win over newly promoted Wolves with goals from Mark Noble and newly appointed captain Matthew Upson . However the victory was soon overshadowed as the club were once again in the media spotlight for the wrong reasons. A League Cup match against old rivals Millwall brought about violent riots outside the ground as well as pitch invasions and crowd trouble inside Upton Park . [18] [19]
In August 2009 finanicial worries continued at the club with the current owners unable to provide any funds until a new owner was found. Shirt sponsor SBOBET provided the club with support to help purchase a much needed a striker with the Hammers having Carlton Cole as the only fit, experienced striker on the books. SBOBET 's backing enabled the purchase of Alessandro Diamanti for an undisclosed amount. [20]
Crest
The previous club crest 1987–1997
The original club crest was a crossed pair of rivet hammers; tools commonly used in the iron and shipbuilding industry. A castle was later (circa 1903/04) added to the crest and represents a prominent local building, Green Street House, which was known as "Boleyn Castle" through an association with Anne Boleyn . The manor was reportedly one of the sites at which Henry VIII courted his second queen, though in truth there is no factual evidence other than the tradition of rumour. [21]
The castle may have also been added as a result of the contribution made to the club by players of Old Castle Swifts , or even the adoption (in 1904) of Boleyn Castle FC [22] as their reserve side when they took over their grounds on the site.
The crest was redesigned and updated by London design agency Springett Associates in the late 1990s, featuring a wider yellow castle with fewer cruciform "windows" along with the peaked roofs being removed; the tops of the towers had previously made the castle appear more akin to Disneyland 's Sleeping Beauty's Castle than a functioning fortress. The designer also altered other details to give a more substantial feel to the iconography.
When the club redesigned the facade of the stadium (construction finished 2001/02) the 'castle' from the later badge was incorporated into the structure at the main entrance to the ground. A pair of towers are now prominent features of the ground's appearance, both bearing the club's modern insignia (which is also located in the foyer and other strategic locations).
Colours
The original colours of the team were dark blue, due to Thames Ironworks chairman Arnold Hills being a former student of Oxford University . However the team used a variety of kits including the claret and sky blue house colours of Thames Ironworks, as well as sky blue or white uniforms. [23] [24]
The Irons permanently adopted claret and blue for home colours in the summer of 1899. Thames Ironworks right-half Charlie Dove received the Aston Villa kit from his father William Dove, who was a professional sprinter of national repute, as well as being involved with the coaching at Thames Ironworks. Bill Dove had been at a fair in Birmingham , close to Villa Park , the home ground of Aston Villa and was challenged to a race against four Villa players, who wagered money that one of them would win.
Bill Dove defeated them and, when they were unable to pay the bet, one of the Villa players who was responsible for washing the team's kit offered a complete side's 'uniforms' to Dove in payment. The Aston Villa player subsequently reported to his club that the kit was 'missing'.
Thames Ironworks, and later West Ham United, retained the claret yoke/blue sleeves design, but also continued to use their previously favoured colours for their away kits, and indeed, in recent years the club have committed to a dark blue-white-sky blue rotation for the away colours. For instance, the 2008–09 squad will wear sky blue away kits, while last year's campaign saw white away kits, the year before saw navy blue, etc. However, last year's away kit will be the Hammers' third kit for the coming season. Interestingly enough, the 2009–10 version of West Ham's claret home kits do not feature the traditional sky blue sleeves. Instead the sleeves are also claret, with some sky blue trim added to the shoulders.
Supporters, hooliganism and rivalries
pretty bubbles in the air.
”
—original lyrics to "Bubbles", from John Helliar [25]
The team's supporters are famous for their rendition of the chorus of their team's anthem, " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " introduced to the club by former manager Charlie Paynter in the late 1920s. At the time, a Pears soap commercial featuring the curly haired child in the Millais " Bubbles " painting who resembled a player Billy J. "Bubbles" Murray in a local schoolboy team of Park School for whom the headmaster Cornelius Beal coined singing the tune " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " with amended lyrics.
Beal was a friend of Paynter, whilst Murray was a West Ham trialist and played football at schoolboy level with a number of West Ham players such as Jim Barrett . Through this contrivance of association the clubs fans took it upon themselves to begin singing the popular music hall tune before home games, sometimes reinforced by the presence of a house band requested to play the refrain by Charlie Paynter. [25]
There is a slight change to the lyrics sung by the Upton Park faithful. The second line's "nearly reach the sky" is changed to "they reach the sky", "Then like my dreams" is also changed to "And like my dreams". In addition the fans begin a chant of "United, United!" to cap it off.
“
—Supporters song to the tune of 'The Bells are Ringing' , circa 1960 [26]
The 1975 FA Cup version – which contains the original lyrics, and features vocals from the teams then current players – is always played before home games, with the home crowd joining in and carrying the song on after the music stops at the verse line "Fortune's always hiding". The song was originally released as a single by the 1975 Cup Final squad and has been covered on occasion by such as the Cockney Rejects .
Like other teams (such as Liverpool's adoption of " You'll Never Walk Alone ") the team also have a history of adopting or adapting popular songs of the day to fit particular events, themes, players or personas. These have included serious renditions of theatre and movie classics such as " The Bells are Ringing ", along with more pun laden or humorous efforts such as chanting former player Paolo di Canio 's name to the canzone La donna è mobile by Verdi , or D.I. Canio to the tune of Ottawans D.I.S.C.O. , or singing That's Zamora to the tune of Dean Martins 1953 classic That's Amore in honour of former Iron striker Bobby Zamora (this chant was originally created by the Brighton fans when he was at the club).
On the fans' darker side, they gained national attention after giving a torrid time to David Beckham in his first away match of 1998–99 the season after the England midfielder was sent off for a petulant foul on Diego Simeone . [27] Coinciding with the game there were claims (and an image taken) that fans, organised by a hardcore, had hung an effigy of the player outside a local pub. Although it was later revealed that the pub was in South-East London , the heartland of West Ham's greatest rivals Millwall . The West Ham fans did boo Beckham's every touch of the ball during the game, however. [28]
They have also displayed a particular zeal when it comes to abusing former players particularly those who are perceived to have abandoned the club, or performed some disservice. Famously Paul Ince ("Judas, Judas" [29] ), Frank Lampard ("Fat Lumpolard" [30] ), Jermain Defoe ("You're just a small Paul Ince" [31] ), Craig Bellamy [32] and Nigel Reo-Coker [33] have born the brunt of verbal assaults and a guaranteed hostile reception at Upton Park. However, players such as Joe Cole , Michael Carrick , Rio Ferdinand , Bobby Zamora and Carlos Tévez receive applause and even standing ovations in honour of their contributions during their time at the club.
West Ham fans display their rosettes, scarves and novelty hammers at an FA Cup match in 1933
Many West Ham fans also follow Leyton Orient and Dagenham and Redbridge , West Ham fans can be seen at either Leyton Orient or Dagenham and Redbridge, whenever West Ham are playing away from home, although the warmth felt by West Ham fans for Orient is not usually reciprocated by the Orient supporters.
On 6 September 2009 the Daily Mirror newspaper carried a report that HM Queen Elizabeth II had admitted to being a long time West Ham supporter. She had overheard staff discussing football, one admitting to being a Millwall supporter. [34]
Hooliganism
The origins of West Ham's links with organised football-related violence starts in the 1960s with the establishment of The Mile End Mob (named after a particularly tough area of the East End of London). [35]
During the 1970s and 1980s (the main era for organised football-related violence ) West Ham gained further notoriety for the levels of hooliganism in their fan base and antagonistic behaviour towards both their own and rival fans, and the police.
The Inter City Firm were one of the first " casuals ", so called because they avoided police supervision by not wearing football-related clothing and travelled to away matches on regular "Inter City" trains, rather than on the cheap and more tightly policed "football special" charter trains. The group were an infamous West Ham-aligned gang. As the firm's moniker "inter city" suggests violent activities were not confined to local derbies – the hooligans were content to cause trouble at any game, though nearby teams often bore the brunt.
During the 1990s, and to the present day, sophisticated surveillance and policing coupled with club supported promotions and community action has reduced the level of violence, though the intense rivalry and association with Millwall, Chelsea and other major players in the 'firm' scheme remains.
The 2005 film Green Street (an allusion to the road on which the Boleyn Ground stands) depicted an American student played by Elijah Wood becoming involved with a fictional firm associated with West Ham, with an emphasis on the rivalry with Millwall . The two teams and their Chairmen moved to distance the clubs from the movie at the time. West Ham hooliganism was again highlighted in film in 2008, with the film based on the life of well known former hooligan Cass Pennant , Cass . Also a gang of armed robbers who supported West Ham were portrayed in the 2008 episode "Are We Not Men?" of the British sitcom The IT Crowd .
Rivalries
West Ham have strong rivalries with several other clubs. Most of these are with other London clubs, especially with their neighbours Tottenham Hotspur , Arsenal and also with Chelsea , which sublimates the age-old East versus West London rivalry. The rivalry between West Ham and Tottenham has been fuelled by players such as Jermaine Defoe leaving the Hammers to join Tottenham. Most of the matches are well contested. The rivalry has also deepened as former Hammers manager Harry Redknapp is Tottenham's manager.
The "Champions" statue, of Moore , with the World Cup , Hurst , Peters and Ray Wilson , boarded-up for protection before the visit of Millwall on 25 August 2009
The strongest and oldest rivalry is with Millwall known as The East London derby . The two sides are local rivals, having both formed originally around the works sides Thames Ironworks and Millwall Ironworks shipbuilding companies. They were rivals for the same contracts and the players lived in the same locality The early history of both clubs are intertwined, with West Ham proving to be the more successful in a number of meetings between the two teams, resulting in West Ham being promoted at the expense of Millwall. Millwall later declined to join the fledgling Football League while West Ham went on to the top division and an FA Cup final. Later in the 1920s the rivalry was intensified during strike action started by the East End (perceived to be West Ham fans) which Isle Of Dogs -based companies (i.e. Millwall fans) refused to support, breeding illwill between the two camps.
The rivalry between West Ham and Millwall has involved considerable violence and is one of the most notorious within the world of football hooliganism. The teams were drawn against each other in the second round of the 2009–10 League Cup and met on 25 August 2009 at Upton Park . This was the first time in four years that the two clubs had played each other, and the first ever in the Leauge Cup. Clashes between hundred of fans occurred outside the ground, resulting in violence erupting up to half a mile away from the stadium, with serious injuries, damage to property and several arrests reported by police. There were also several pitch invasions which brought a temporary halt to the game. [36]
Another rivalry which developed is with Sheffield United . The Blades have tried to sue West Ham and the Premier League for damages, over their claim that West Ham had an unfair advantage by playing Carlos Tévez . In April 2007 The FA fined West Ham a record £5.5 million for a contract allowing third party influence (illegal in the Premier League) and for attempting to conceal the existence of such a contract in the deal that brought Tévez and Javier Mascherano to Upton Park . [37] [38] The day after West Ham were fined, they continued their fight to stay in the Premier League by defeating Wigan Athletic 3–0. In their last nine games West Ham picked up 21 points by winning seven games and losing only two. Sheffield United only won two of their last nine games, one of which was by defeating West Ham 3–0 at home to initially go five points above them. Their 2–1 defeat by Wigan on the last day of the season sealed their relegation. Meanwhile, West Ham won 1–0 away to Manchester United, with Carlos Tévez scoring the only goal, to ensure that they remained in the Premier league.
The FA has sat twice on the matter and has thrown the case out twice. Settlement was reached between West Ham United and Sheffield United on 14 March 2009. The settlement amount was undisclosed but has been quoted as anything from £10 million to £25 million. [39] [40] [41]
This action by Sheffield United has increased fan and club rivalry and they are now seen as rivals.
Nicknames
The fans and club alike are known as "The Hammers" by the media, partly because of the club's origins as Thames Ironworks company football team (see club crest) and also (incorrectly) due to the club's name. However, they are also known as "The Irons" by their own supporters. They are also known as "The Cockney Boys" from their history of being a Cockney team. Yet another nickname is "The Academy of Football", or just "The Academy", a nickname given, then adopted by West Ham United, by the London media.
Stadium
See also: Boleyn Ground
The Boleyn Ground.
West Ham are currently based at the Boleyn Ground , commonly known as Upton Park , in Newham , East London . The capacity of the Boleyn Ground is 35,303. [1] This has been West Ham's ground since 1904. Prior to this, in their previous incarnation of Thames Ironworks , they played at Hermit Road in Canning Town and briefly at Browning Road in East Ham , before moving to the Memorial Grounds in Plaistow in 1897. They retained the stadium during their transition to becoming West Ham United and were there for a further four seasons before moving to the Boleyn Ground in 1904.
Former chairman Eggert Magnússon made clear his ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics . However, the move to the Olympic Stadium was abandoned when it was revealed that the stadium would have a reduced capacity from the current Boleyn Ground, and would have to remain primarily an athletics venue. [42]
Former Club Chief Executive Scott Duxbury revealed in an interview with a West Ham fan website [43] , that there was planning permission to expand the East Stand to take capacity to over 40,000 although financial constraints of the current owners meant this would not happen for sometime. He said he would prefer to stay at Upton Park. Any progress on expansion or a move from Upton Park seems unlikely until a new owner is found and/or the 2012 Olympics are over.
When current chairmen Gold and Sullivan assumed control of West Ham they also stated their ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics and felt it was a logical move for the Government as it was in the borough of Newham . But, in the month of February 2010, the British Olympic Minister stated that West Ham wouldn't get the stadium, and it would instead be used for track and field. [44]
The Academy of Football
Main article: The Academy of Football
"Academy of Football"
The club promotes the popular idea of West Ham being " The Academy of Football ", with the moniker adorning the ground's new stadium façade. The comment predominantly refers to the club's youth development system which was established by manager Ted Fenton during the 1950s, that has seen a number of international players emerge through the ranks. [45] Most notably the club contributed three players to the World Cup winning England side of 1966 including club icon Bobby Moore , as well as Martin Peters and Geoff Hurst who between them scored all of England's goals in the eventual 4–2 victory. Other academy players that have gone on to play for England have included Trevor Brooking , Alvin Martin , Tony Cottee and Paul Ince .
Since the late 1990s Rio Ferdinand , Frank Lampard , Joe Cole , Michael Carrick and Glen Johnson begun their careers at the club and all are playing for one of the "Big Four" clubs. Most recently the likes of first team midfield regulars Mark Noble and Jack Collison and younger stars Freddie Sears , Junior Stanislas , James Tomkins , Josh Payne and Zavon Hines have emerged through the Academy. Frustratingly, for the fans and managers alike, [46] the club has struggled to retain many of these players due to (predominantly) financial [47] reasons. West Ham, during the 2007/08 season, had an average of 6.61 English players in the starting line up, higher than any other Premier League club, [48] which cemented their status as one of the few Premier League clubs left that were recognised to be bringing through young English talent and were recognised as having 'homegrown players'.
Much of the success of The Academy has been attributed to Tony Carr who has been West Ham youth coach since 1973. [49]
A sign of the success of the academy was shown in an England International Friendly against Holland (finished 2-2) where no less than seven of the players on the field had some affiliation with the club, a large proportion from the academy itself.
Players
Current squad
As of 18 March 2010. [50]
Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
No.
Alan Devonshire
Hammer of the Year
The following is a list of the "Hammer of the Year award" won by West Ham United players. [51] Trevor Brooking is the only player for West Ham United to have been honoured with the title of 'Hammer of the Year' three times in a row (1976, 1977 and 1978). He also is the player who has won the award most times as he has won it on five occasions (1972, 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1984). Bobby Moore, Billy Bonds and Julian Dicks have won it four times each.
Bobby Moore has been runner-up four times, while Billy Bonds and Tony Cottee have both been runner-up three times.
Billy Bonds and Trevor Brooking's wins are notable in the amount of time between first and last "Hammer of the Year Award". Bonds has sixteen years separating his wins whilst Brooking has twelve.
Year
Steve Rigby
Managers
West Ham have had only 12 managers in their history, fewer than any other major English club. Up until 1989 the club had only had five different managers. Before the appointment of Gianfranco Zola in 2008 the club never had an overseas manager, with the only non-Englishman being the Scot, Lou Macari. Numerous former Hammers have taken on temporary managerial roles at the club, between permanent managers. Ronnie Boyce briefly took the reins, in February 1990, following Lou Macari's resignation and the appointement of Billy Bonds . Former Hammers player and board member Trevor Brooking was briefly in charge during two separate spells as caretaker manager in 2003, first during the illness of Glenn Roeder and again between Roeder's sacking and the appointment of Alan Pardew. Former player Kevin Keen was a brief caretaker manager (just one game), prior to Zola's reign.
Manager
38.87
Ownership
West Ham United was owned by Terry Brown until 2006, when Eggert Magnússon and Björgólfur Guðmundsson bought the club. Soon after, manager Alan Pardew was sacked and ex- Charlton Athletic Manager Alan Curbishley was hired. In a bizarre twist of fate, Pardew replaced Les Reed as Charlton manager a few weeks later and the two managers met each other in a relegation battle where the Hammers lost 4–0 to their South East London rivals. However, West Ham eventually stayed up and Charlton were relegated. Terry Brown was criticised by some sections of the fans (including pressure group Whistle specifically formed for this purpose) due to a perception of financial and staff mismanagement. On 18 September 2007, it was announced that Magnússon would step down as executive chairman [54] but would still retain the role as club non-executive chairman overseeing a new management structure, and would keep his stake in the club. [55]
However on 13 December 2007, it was announced that Magnússon had left West Ham and that his 5 per cent holding had been bought by club majority owner Björgólfur Guðmundsson . [56] On 8 June 2009, Icelandic CB Holding which is 70% owned by Straumur-Burdaras bank and 30% owned by Icelandic based banks Byr and MP [57] took over Hansa Holding, which only had West Ham United as their asset and filed for bankruptcy protection. Straumur was one of Hansa Holding's largest creditors. Straumur appointed one of their directors, Andrew Bernhardt, as the new chairman. In January 2010, David Sullivan and David Gold acquired a 50 percent share in West Ham, from CB Holding, given them overall operational and commercial control. [58]
Shirt sponsors and kit suppliers
On 11 September 2008, the BBC News Channel reported that the team's main sponsor, XL Leisure Group had been placed in administration, although Simon Calder of The Independent confirmed the group's website was still taking bookings.
The XL Leisure Group confirmed on their website that 11 companies associated with the group had been put into administration on 12 September 2008. This included XL Airways UK Limited, Excel Aviation Limited, Explorer House Limited, Aspire Holidays Limited, Freedom Flights Limited, The Really Great Holiday Company plc, Medlife Hotels Limited, Travel City Direct, and Kosmar Villa Holidays plc. It did not affect the German and French divisions of the company's operations.
On 12 September 2008 the club terminated its contract with XL Leisure group. [59] [60]
During this brief period, players had their squad numbers ironed over the existing sponsorship logo. On 3 December 2008 West Ham announced that they had signed a shirt sponsorship deal with Far Eastern betting firm SBOBET . The deal was set to run until the end of the 2009/10 season, and saw the company's logo on First Team and Reserve Team kit, and adult replica shirts; all Academy teams and child replica shirts carry the logo of the Bobby Moore Fund due to the main sponsor being a betting firm. [61]
In September 2009, the club officially announced that SBOBET had extended their deal with the team until 2013 after their welcomed help in securing Diamanti.
The club will end their relationship with Umbro and instead have Italian firm Macron make the kit starting from the 2010/11 season. West Ham will be the first Premier League club kit to be made by the firm who produce several Championship clubs strips including rival Sheffield United . [62]
Shirt sponsors
West Ham United L.F.C. , the affiliated women's team
Sources
Belton, Brian (2007). "BROWN OUT": The Biography of West Ham Chairmen, Terence Brown. Pennant Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-906015112.
Belton, Brian (2006). West Ham United Miscellany. Pennant Books. ISBN 0-9550394-4-4.
Blows, Kirk and Hogg, Tony (2000). The Essential History of West Ham United. Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7036-8.
Hellier, John and Leatherdale, Clive (2000). West Ham United: The Elite Era - A Complete Record. Desert Island. ISBN 1-874287-31-7.
Hogg, Tony (2005). Who's Who of West Ham United. Profile Sports Media. ISBN 1-903135-50-8.
Kerrigan, Colm (1997). Gatling Gun George Hilsdon. Football Lives. ISBN 0-9530718-0-4.
Nawrat, Chris and Hutchings, Steve (1996). The Sunday Times Illustrated History of Football. Hamlyn. ISBN 1-85613-341-9.
Pickering, David (1994). The Cassell Soccer Companion. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-34231-9.
Redknapp, Harry With Derek McGovern (1998). Harry Redknapp - My Autobiography. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-218872-4.
Ward, Adam and Smith, Dave (2003). The Official West Ham United Dream Team. Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-60835-2.
References
| Billie |
For which 1988 a cappella song is Bobby McFerrin best known ? | West Ham United F.C. : Wikis (The Full Wiki)
West Ham United Football Club are East London club based in Upton Park , London Borough of Newham , East London . They have played their home matches at the Boleyn Ground stadium since 1904.
The club was founded in 1895 as Thames Ironworks FC . In 1900 the club reformed as West Ham United. They initially competed in the Southern League and Western League before eventually joining the full Football League in 1919 and subsequently enjoyed promotion to the top flight for the 1923 season. 1923 also saw the club feature in the first FA Cup Final to be held at Wembley against Bolton Wanderers .
In 1940 the team won the inaugural Football League War Cup . Subsequently the club has won the FA Cup three times: in 1964, 1975 and 1980 as well as being runners-up twice, in 1923 and 2006. In 1965, they won the European Cup Winners Cup , and in 1999 they won the Intertoto Cup . The club's best final league position is third place in the 1985–86 (old) First Division .
Three West Ham players were considered an important factor behind England 's triumph in the 1966 World Cup , as England's captain at the time was West Ham's Bobby Moore , and both goalscorers in the final were the West Ham players Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters .
West Ham currently compete in the Premier League , and finished in 9th position in the 2008–09 season. They have been members of the Premier League for all but three seasons since its creation in 1992, and their highest finish in the Premier League was 5th in 1998–99 .
Their current manager is former International Italian Forward Gianfranco Zola , who replaced former player Alan Curbishley in September 2008 after his resignation was accepted.
Contents
18 External links
History
Past few years. Chelsea 4-1 West Ham Reading 6-0 West Ham West Ham 1-4 Chelsea West Ham 0-4 Chelsea Chelsea 4 - 1 West Ham United
This "Past few years" section looks very much like one of those nihilistic bits that Chelsea fans seems to be putting in all over the Wiki football pages. Can I suggest an editor takes it out - it certainly is utterly out of context.
Advertisements
Origins
Earliest club shot, during its founding year as Thames Ironworks in 1895
The earliest generally accepted incarnation of West Ham United was founded in 1895 as the Thames Ironworks team by foreman and local league referee Dave Taylor and owner Arnold Hills [2] and was announced in the Thames Ironworks Gazette of June 1895.
The team played on a strictly amateur basis for 1895 at least, with a team featuring a number of works employees including Thomas Freeman (ships fireman), Walter Parks (clerk), Tom Mundy, Walter Tranter and James Lindsay (all boilermakers), William Chapman, George Sage, and William Chamberlain and apprentice riveter Charlie Dove . [2]
1895-96: First kit [3]
The club, Thames Ironworks [4] were the first ever winners of the West Ham Charity Cup in 1895 contested by clubs in the locality, then won the London League in 1897. They turned professional in 1898 upon entering the Southern League Second Division, and were promoted to the First Division at the first attempt. [5] The following year they came second from bottom, but had established themselves as a fully fledged competitive team. They comfortably fended off the challenge of local rivals Fulham in a relegation play-off, 5–1 in late April 1900 and retained their First Division status. [5]
The team initially played in full dark blue kits, as inspired by Mr. Hills, who had been an Oxford University " Blue ", but changed the following season by adopting the sky blue shirts and white shorts combination worn through 1897 to 1899. In 1899 they acquired their now traditional home kit combination of claret shirts and sky blue sleeves in a wager involving Aston Villa players, who were League Champions at the time.
Following growing disputes over the running and financing of the club in June 1900 Thames Ironworks F.C. was disbanded, [4] then almost immediately relaunched on 5 July 1900 as West Ham United F.C. with Syd King [4] as their manager and future manager Charlie Paynter as his assistant. Because of the original "works team" roots and links (still represented upon the club badge), they are still known to this day as 'the Irons' or 'the Hammers' amongst fans and the media. [4] [6] [7]
Birth of West Ham United
The reborn club continued to play their games at the Memorial Ground in Plaistow (funded by Arnold Hills) but moved to a pitch in the Upton Park area when the team officially severed ties with the company (losing their works provisioned offices in the process). After being made groundless in 1901 the team became transient, playing their home games on a number of local teams' grounds until moving to its current home, Upton Park (in the guise of the Boleyn Ground stadium), in 1904.
West Ham's first game in their new home was against local rivals Millwall [4] (themselves an Ironworks team, albeit for a rival company) drawing a crowd of 10,000 and with West Ham running out 3–0 winners, [8] and as the Daily Mirror wrote on 2 September 1904:
“
"Favoured by the weather turning fine after heavy rains of the morning, West Ham United began their season most auspiciously yesterday evening; when they beat Millwall by 3 goals to 0 on their new enclosure at Upton Park."
”
West Ham Utd had joined the Western League for the 1901 season [9] in addition to continuing playing in the Southern Division 1. In 1907 West Ham were crowned the Western League Division 1B Champions, and then defeated 1A champions Fulham 1–0 to become the Western Leagues Overall Champions. [9]
Billie the White Horse, saviour of the 1923 FA Cup Final
In 1919, still under King's leadership, West Ham gained entrance to the Football League Second Division , the first game being a 1-1 draw with Lincoln City , and were promoted to Division One in 1923, also making the first ever FA Cup Final to be held at the old Wembley stadium. Their opponents were Bolton Wanderers . This was also known as the White Horse Final . This is because so many people turned up to the game, (estimated at 200,000), that they spilled out on to the pitch. The pitch had to be cleared prior to kick-off, by Billie, a giant white horse (actually grey) being ridden by PC George Scorey. The Cup Final match itself ended 2–0 to Bolton Wanderers. The team enjoyed mixed success in Division 1 but retained their status for 10 years and reached the FA Cup semi-final in 1927.
In 1932 the club was relegated to Division Two and long term custodian Syd King was sacked after serving the club in the role of Manager for 32 years, and as a player from 1899 to 1903. He was replaced with his assistant manager Charlie Paynter who himself had been with West Ham in a number of roles since 1897 and who went on to serve the team in this role until 1950 for a total of 480 games.
The club spent most of the next 30 years in this division, first under Paynter and then later under the leadership of former player Ted Fenton . Fenton succeeded in getting the club once again promoted to the top level of English football in 1958 and in helping develop both the initial batch of future West Ham stars and West Ham's approach to the game.
The Glory Years
Ron Greenwood was appointed as Fenton's successor in 1961 and he soon led the club to two major trophies, winning the FA Cup in 1964 and the European Cup Winners' Cup in 1965.
During the 1966 World Cup , key members of the tournament winners England were West Ham players, including the captain, Bobby Moore ; Martin Peters (who scored in the final); and Geoff Hurst , who scored the only hat-trick (to date) in a World Cup final.
Champions Statue on Barking Road
There is a "Champions" statue in Barking Road , opposite The Boleyn pub, commemorating West Ham's three sons who helped win the 1966 World Cup: Bobby Moore, Geoff Hurst and Martin Peters. Also included on the statue is Everton's Ray Wilson .
After a difficult start to the 1974–75 season, Greenwood moved himself "upstairs" to become General Manager and without informing the board, appointed his assistant John Lyall as team manager. The result was instant success – the team scored 20 goals in the their first four games combined and won the FA Cup, becoming the last team to win the FA Cup with an all English side when they beat Fulham 2–0 in the 1975 final.
Lyall then guided West Ham to another European Cup Winners' Cup final in 1976, though the team lost the match 4–2 to Anderlecht . Greenwood's tenure as General Manager lasted less than three years, as he was appointed to manage England in the wake of Don Revie 's resignation in 1977.
Ups and Downs
In 1978, West Ham were again relegated to Division Two, but Lyall was retained as manager and led the team to an FA Cup Final win against Arsenal in 1980. This was notable because no team outside the top division has won the trophy since that time. West Ham were promoted to Division One in 1981, but were relegated again in 1989. This second relegation resulted in John Lyall's sacking, despite the fact that that stay in Division One saw West Ham achieve their highest-ever placing in the top division, finishing 3rd in 1986.
After Lyall, Lou Macari briefly led the team, though he resigned after less than a single season in order to clear his name of allegations of illegal betting whilst manager of Swindon Town . He was replaced by former player Billy Bonds . In Bonds' first full season ( 1990–91 ), West Ham again secured promotion to Division One. The following season they were again relegated to Division 2, which had been renamed Division One as part of the league realignments surrounding the creation of the English Premier League in 1992. West Ham spent the 1992–93 season in Division One. finishing second and returning to the Premier League in May 1993.
After the 1993–94 season, Bonds quit and was replaced by Harry Redknapp in August 1994. Redknapp was active in the transfer market , and gained a reputation as a "wheeler-dealer" especially with foreign players being more available following the Bosman ruling . He led West Ham to fifth place in the 1998–99 season, but missed automatic qualification for the UEFA Cup, and instead qualified as winners of the Intertoto Cup . Despite consolidating the league placings for a handful of seasons, a disagreement with the board of directors during the close of the 2000–01 season , found Redknapp replaced with Glenn Roeder , promoted from youth team coach.
In Roeder's first season the team finished seventh, but West Ham lost by wide margins in several matches (7–1 to Blackburn , 5–0 to Everton and 5–1 to Chelsea ) The subsequent season started badly and eventually resulted in relegation. Roeder, who had missed some of the season after being diagnosed with a brain tumour that was treated) was sacked on 24 August 2003, three games into the Championship campaign.
West Ham players on open-top bus near Upton Park celebrate winning the 2005 play-off final in Cardiff. From L-R Shaun Newton (crouching), Back row, Matthew Etherington , Jimmy Walker , Teddy Sheringham , Marlon Harewood , Front row Don Hutchison , Carl Fletcher , Elliott Ward and Mark Noble (with flag)
Trevor Brooking (who served as manager during Glenn's ill health the previous season) stepped in as interim manager before being replaced by Alan Pardew in October 2003, headhunted from fellow promotion contenders Reading . Pardew led the team to a playoff final, though they were beaten by Crystal Palace . The club stayed in Division One (which at this time became the Championship) for another season, when they again reached the playoff final , but this time won, beating Preston North End 1–0, gaining re-entry to the Premier League.
Recent seasons
On their return to the top division, West Ham finished in 9th place, [10] The highlight of the 2005–06 season, however, was reaching the FA Cup final , and taking favourites Liverpool to a penalty shootout , after a thrilling three-all draw. Although West Ham lost the shootout, they gained entry to the UEFA Cup as Liverpool had already qualified for the Champions League through league position.
In August 2006, West Ham completed a major coup on the last day of the transfer window, after completing the signings of Carlos Tévez and Javier Mascherano . [11] The club was eventually bought by an Icelandic consortium, led by Eggert Magnússon in November 2006. [12] Manager Alan Pardew was sacked after poor form during the season [13] and was replaced by former Charlton manager Alan Curbishley . [14]
The signings of Mascherano and Tévez were investigated by the Premier League, who were concerned that details of the transfers had been omitted from official records. The club was found guilty and fined 5.5 million pounds in April 2007. [15] However, West Ham avoided a points deduction which ultimately became critical in their avoidance of relegation at the end of the 2006–07 season. Following on from this event, Wigan Athletic chairman Dave Whelan , supported by other sides facing possible relegation, including Fulham and Sheffield United, threatened legal action. [16]
West Ham escaped relegation by winning seven of their last nine games, including a 1–0 win over Arsenal, and on the last day of the season defeated newly crowned League Champions Manchester United 1–0 with a goal by Tévez to finish 15th, above the relegation zone. Tévez' contributions were arguably important to the survival of the club in the Premier League as he scored seven goals, five of them crucial, in the last couple of months of the season to enable the team to stay up, notwithstanding his ineffectiveness throughout the early part of the season.
In the 2007–08 season , West Ham had a reasonably consistent place in the top half of the league table despite a slew of injuries; new signings Craig Bellamy and Kieron Dyer missed most of the campaign. The last game of the season, at the Boleyn Ground , saw West Ham draw 2–2 against Aston Villa ; ensuring 10th place, finishing three points ahead of rivals Tottenham Hotspur . It was a five-place improvement on the previous season, and most importantly West Ham were never under any realistic threat of relegation.
After a row with the board over the sale of defenders Anton Ferdinand and George McCartney to Sunderland , manager Alan Curbishley resigned on 3 September 2008. His successor, the former Chelsea striker Gianfranco Zola took over on 11 September 2008 and in so doing became the club's first foreign manager (The Scottish manager Lou Macari was the only other manager not from England), to coach the club and became West Ham's 12th manager. [17]
In the 2008–09 season , under Zola's stewardship West Ham finished 9th. Zola's team had an impressive second half of the season just missing out on European qualification after being one point above the relegation zone on Christmas Day.
In the 2009–10 season , West Ham started strongly with a 2–0 win over newly promoted Wolves with goals from Mark Noble and newly appointed captain Matthew Upson . However the victory was soon overshadowed as the club were once again in the media spotlight for the wrong reasons. A League Cup match against old rivals Millwall brought about violent riots outside the ground as well as pitch invasions and crowd trouble inside Upton Park . [18] [19]
In August 2009 finanicial worries continued at the club with the current owners unable to provide any funds until a new owner was found. Shirt sponsor SBOBET provided the club with support to help purchase a much needed a striker with the Hammers having Carlton Cole as the only fit, experienced striker on the books. SBOBET 's backing enabled the purchase of Alessandro Diamanti for an undisclosed amount. [20]
Crest
The previous club crest 1987–1997
The original club crest was a crossed pair of rivet hammers; tools commonly used in the iron and shipbuilding industry. A castle was later (circa 1903/04) added to the crest and represents a prominent local building, Green Street House, which was known as "Boleyn Castle" through an association with Anne Boleyn . The manor was reportedly one of the sites at which Henry VIII courted his second queen, though in truth there is no factual evidence other than the tradition of rumour. [21]
The castle may have also been added as a result of the contribution made to the club by players of Old Castle Swifts , or even the adoption (in 1904) of Boleyn Castle FC [22] as their reserve side when they took over their grounds on the site.
The crest was redesigned and updated by London design agency Springett Associates in the late 1990s, featuring a wider yellow castle with fewer cruciform "windows" along with the peaked roofs being removed; the tops of the towers had previously made the castle appear more akin to Disneyland 's Sleeping Beauty's Castle than a functioning fortress. The designer also altered other details to give a more substantial feel to the iconography.
When the club redesigned the facade of the stadium (construction finished 2001/02) the 'castle' from the later badge was incorporated into the structure at the main entrance to the ground. A pair of towers are now prominent features of the ground's appearance, both bearing the club's modern insignia (which is also located in the foyer and other strategic locations).
Colours
The original colours of the team were dark blue, due to Thames Ironworks chairman Arnold Hills being a former student of Oxford University . However the team used a variety of kits including the claret and sky blue house colours of Thames Ironworks, as well as sky blue or white uniforms. [23] [24]
The Irons permanently adopted claret and blue for home colours in the summer of 1899. Thames Ironworks right-half Charlie Dove received the Aston Villa kit from his father William Dove, who was a professional sprinter of national repute, as well as being involved with the coaching at Thames Ironworks. Bill Dove had been at a fair in Birmingham , close to Villa Park , the home ground of Aston Villa and was challenged to a race against four Villa players, who wagered money that one of them would win.
Bill Dove defeated them and, when they were unable to pay the bet, one of the Villa players who was responsible for washing the team's kit offered a complete side's 'uniforms' to Dove in payment. The Aston Villa player subsequently reported to his club that the kit was 'missing'.
Thames Ironworks, and later West Ham United, retained the claret yoke/blue sleeves design, but also continued to use their previously favoured colours for their away kits, and indeed, in recent years the club have committed to a dark blue-white-sky blue rotation for the away colours. For instance, the 2008–09 squad will wear sky blue away kits, while last year's campaign saw white away kits, the year before saw navy blue, etc. However, last year's away kit will be the Hammers' third kit for the coming season. Interestingly enough, the 2009–10 version of West Ham's claret home kits do not feature the traditional sky blue sleeves. Instead the sleeves are also claret, with some sky blue trim added to the shoulders.
Supporters, hooliganism and rivalries
pretty bubbles in the air.
”
—original lyrics to "Bubbles", from John Helliar [25]
The team's supporters are famous for their rendition of the chorus of their team's anthem, " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " introduced to the club by former manager Charlie Paynter in the late 1920s. At the time, a Pears soap commercial featuring the curly haired child in the Millais " Bubbles " painting who resembled a player Billy J. "Bubbles" Murray in a local schoolboy team of Park School for whom the headmaster Cornelius Beal coined singing the tune " I'm Forever Blowing Bubbles " with amended lyrics.
Beal was a friend of Paynter, whilst Murray was a West Ham trialist and played football at schoolboy level with a number of West Ham players such as Jim Barrett . Through this contrivance of association the clubs fans took it upon themselves to begin singing the popular music hall tune before home games, sometimes reinforced by the presence of a house band requested to play the refrain by Charlie Paynter. [25]
There is a slight change to the lyrics sung by the Upton Park faithful. The second line's "nearly reach the sky" is changed to "they reach the sky", "Then like my dreams" is also changed to "And like my dreams". In addition the fans begin a chant of "United, United!" to cap it off.
“
—Supporters song to the tune of 'The Bells are Ringing' , circa 1960 [26]
The 1975 FA Cup version – which contains the original lyrics, and features vocals from the teams then current players – is always played before home games, with the home crowd joining in and carrying the song on after the music stops at the verse line "Fortune's always hiding". The song was originally released as a single by the 1975 Cup Final squad and has been covered on occasion by such as the Cockney Rejects .
Like other teams (such as Liverpool's adoption of " You'll Never Walk Alone ") the team also have a history of adopting or adapting popular songs of the day to fit particular events, themes, players or personas. These have included serious renditions of theatre and movie classics such as " The Bells are Ringing ", along with more pun laden or humorous efforts such as chanting former player Paolo di Canio 's name to the canzone La donna è mobile by Verdi , or D.I. Canio to the tune of Ottawans D.I.S.C.O. , or singing That's Zamora to the tune of Dean Martins 1953 classic That's Amore in honour of former Iron striker Bobby Zamora (this chant was originally created by the Brighton fans when he was at the club).
On the fans' darker side, they gained national attention after giving a torrid time to David Beckham in his first away match of 1998–99 the season after the England midfielder was sent off for a petulant foul on Diego Simeone . [27] Coinciding with the game there were claims (and an image taken) that fans, organised by a hardcore, had hung an effigy of the player outside a local pub. Although it was later revealed that the pub was in South-East London , the heartland of West Ham's greatest rivals Millwall . The West Ham fans did boo Beckham's every touch of the ball during the game, however. [28]
They have also displayed a particular zeal when it comes to abusing former players particularly those who are perceived to have abandoned the club, or performed some disservice. Famously Paul Ince ("Judas, Judas" [29] ), Frank Lampard ("Fat Lumpolard" [30] ), Jermain Defoe ("You're just a small Paul Ince" [31] ), Craig Bellamy [32] and Nigel Reo-Coker [33] have born the brunt of verbal assaults and a guaranteed hostile reception at Upton Park. However, players such as Joe Cole , Michael Carrick , Rio Ferdinand , Bobby Zamora and Carlos Tévez receive applause and even standing ovations in honour of their contributions during their time at the club.
West Ham fans display their rosettes, scarves and novelty hammers at an FA Cup match in 1933
Many West Ham fans also follow Leyton Orient and Dagenham and Redbridge , West Ham fans can be seen at either Leyton Orient or Dagenham and Redbridge, whenever West Ham are playing away from home, although the warmth felt by West Ham fans for Orient is not usually reciprocated by the Orient supporters.
On 6 September 2009 the Daily Mirror newspaper carried a report that HM Queen Elizabeth II had admitted to being a long time West Ham supporter. She had overheard staff discussing football, one admitting to being a Millwall supporter. [34]
Hooliganism
The origins of West Ham's links with organised football-related violence starts in the 1960s with the establishment of The Mile End Mob (named after a particularly tough area of the East End of London). [35]
During the 1970s and 1980s (the main era for organised football-related violence ) West Ham gained further notoriety for the levels of hooliganism in their fan base and antagonistic behaviour towards both their own and rival fans, and the police.
The Inter City Firm were one of the first " casuals ", so called because they avoided police supervision by not wearing football-related clothing and travelled to away matches on regular "Inter City" trains, rather than on the cheap and more tightly policed "football special" charter trains. The group were an infamous West Ham-aligned gang. As the firm's moniker "inter city" suggests violent activities were not confined to local derbies – the hooligans were content to cause trouble at any game, though nearby teams often bore the brunt.
During the 1990s, and to the present day, sophisticated surveillance and policing coupled with club supported promotions and community action has reduced the level of violence, though the intense rivalry and association with Millwall, Chelsea and other major players in the 'firm' scheme remains.
The 2005 film Green Street (an allusion to the road on which the Boleyn Ground stands) depicted an American student played by Elijah Wood becoming involved with a fictional firm associated with West Ham, with an emphasis on the rivalry with Millwall . The two teams and their Chairmen moved to distance the clubs from the movie at the time. West Ham hooliganism was again highlighted in film in 2008, with the film based on the life of well known former hooligan Cass Pennant , Cass . Also a gang of armed robbers who supported West Ham were portrayed in the 2008 episode "Are We Not Men?" of the British sitcom The IT Crowd .
Rivalries
West Ham have strong rivalries with several other clubs. Most of these are with other London clubs, especially with their neighbours Tottenham Hotspur , Arsenal and also with Chelsea , which sublimates the age-old East versus West London rivalry. The rivalry between West Ham and Tottenham has been fuelled by players such as Jermaine Defoe leaving the Hammers to join Tottenham. Most of the matches are well contested. The rivalry has also deepened as former Hammers manager Harry Redknapp is Tottenham's manager.
The "Champions" statue, of Moore , with the World Cup , Hurst , Peters and Ray Wilson , boarded-up for protection before the visit of Millwall on 25 August 2009
The strongest and oldest rivalry is with Millwall known as The East London derby . The two sides are local rivals, having both formed originally around the works sides Thames Ironworks and Millwall Ironworks shipbuilding companies. They were rivals for the same contracts and the players lived in the same locality The early history of both clubs are intertwined, with West Ham proving to be the more successful in a number of meetings between the two teams, resulting in West Ham being promoted at the expense of Millwall. Millwall later declined to join the fledgling Football League while West Ham went on to the top division and an FA Cup final. Later in the 1920s the rivalry was intensified during strike action started by the East End (perceived to be West Ham fans) which Isle Of Dogs -based companies (i.e. Millwall fans) refused to support, breeding illwill between the two camps.
The rivalry between West Ham and Millwall has involved considerable violence and is one of the most notorious within the world of football hooliganism. The teams were drawn against each other in the second round of the 2009–10 League Cup and met on 25 August 2009 at Upton Park . This was the first time in four years that the two clubs had played each other, and the first ever in the Leauge Cup. Clashes between hundred of fans occurred outside the ground, resulting in violence erupting up to half a mile away from the stadium, with serious injuries, damage to property and several arrests reported by police. There were also several pitch invasions which brought a temporary halt to the game. [36]
Another rivalry which developed is with Sheffield United . The Blades have tried to sue West Ham and the Premier League for damages, over their claim that West Ham had an unfair advantage by playing Carlos Tévez . In April 2007 The FA fined West Ham a record £5.5 million for a contract allowing third party influence (illegal in the Premier League) and for attempting to conceal the existence of such a contract in the deal that brought Tévez and Javier Mascherano to Upton Park . [37] [38] The day after West Ham were fined, they continued their fight to stay in the Premier League by defeating Wigan Athletic 3–0. In their last nine games West Ham picked up 21 points by winning seven games and losing only two. Sheffield United only won two of their last nine games, one of which was by defeating West Ham 3–0 at home to initially go five points above them. Their 2–1 defeat by Wigan on the last day of the season sealed their relegation. Meanwhile, West Ham won 1–0 away to Manchester United, with Carlos Tévez scoring the only goal, to ensure that they remained in the Premier league.
The FA has sat twice on the matter and has thrown the case out twice. Settlement was reached between West Ham United and Sheffield United on 14 March 2009. The settlement amount was undisclosed but has been quoted as anything from £10 million to £25 million. [39] [40] [41]
This action by Sheffield United has increased fan and club rivalry and they are now seen as rivals.
Nicknames
The fans and club alike are known as "The Hammers" by the media, partly because of the club's origins as Thames Ironworks company football team (see club crest) and also (incorrectly) due to the club's name. However, they are also known as "The Irons" by their own supporters. They are also known as "The Cockney Boys" from their history of being a Cockney team. Yet another nickname is "The Academy of Football", or just "The Academy", a nickname given, then adopted by West Ham United, by the London media.
Stadium
See also: Boleyn Ground
The Boleyn Ground.
West Ham are currently based at the Boleyn Ground , commonly known as Upton Park , in Newham , East London . The capacity of the Boleyn Ground is 35,303. [1] This has been West Ham's ground since 1904. Prior to this, in their previous incarnation of Thames Ironworks , they played at Hermit Road in Canning Town and briefly at Browning Road in East Ham , before moving to the Memorial Grounds in Plaistow in 1897. They retained the stadium during their transition to becoming West Ham United and were there for a further four seasons before moving to the Boleyn Ground in 1904.
Former chairman Eggert Magnússon made clear his ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics . However, the move to the Olympic Stadium was abandoned when it was revealed that the stadium would have a reduced capacity from the current Boleyn Ground, and would have to remain primarily an athletics venue. [42]
Former Club Chief Executive Scott Duxbury revealed in an interview with a West Ham fan website [43] , that there was planning permission to expand the East Stand to take capacity to over 40,000 although financial constraints of the current owners meant this would not happen for sometime. He said he would prefer to stay at Upton Park. Any progress on expansion or a move from Upton Park seems unlikely until a new owner is found and/or the 2012 Olympics are over.
When current chairmen Gold and Sullivan assumed control of West Ham they also stated their ambition for West Ham United to move to the Olympic Stadium after the 2012 Olympics and felt it was a logical move for the Government as it was in the borough of Newham . But, in the month of February 2010, the British Olympic Minister stated that West Ham wouldn't get the stadium, and it would instead be used for track and field. [44]
The Academy of Football
Main article: The Academy of Football
"Academy of Football"
The club promotes the popular idea of West Ham being " The Academy of Football ", with the moniker adorning the ground's new stadium façade. The comment predominantly refers to the club's youth development system which was established by manager Ted Fenton during the 1950s, that has seen a number of international players emerge through the ranks. [45] Most notably the club contributed three players to the World Cup winning England side of 1966 including club icon Bobby Moore , as well as Martin Peters and Geoff Hurst who between them scored all of England's goals in the eventual 4–2 victory. Other academy players that have gone on to play for England have included Trevor Brooking , Alvin Martin , Tony Cottee and Paul Ince .
Since the late 1990s Rio Ferdinand , Frank Lampard , Joe Cole , Michael Carrick and Glen Johnson begun their careers at the club and all are playing for one of the "Big Four" clubs. Most recently the likes of first team midfield regulars Mark Noble and Jack Collison and younger stars Freddie Sears , Junior Stanislas , James Tomkins , Josh Payne and Zavon Hines have emerged through the Academy. Frustratingly, for the fans and managers alike, [46] the club has struggled to retain many of these players due to (predominantly) financial [47] reasons. West Ham, during the 2007/08 season, had an average of 6.61 English players in the starting line up, higher than any other Premier League club, [48] which cemented their status as one of the few Premier League clubs left that were recognised to be bringing through young English talent and were recognised as having 'homegrown players'.
Much of the success of The Academy has been attributed to Tony Carr who has been West Ham youth coach since 1973. [49]
A sign of the success of the academy was shown in an England International Friendly against Holland (finished 2-2) where no less than seven of the players on the field had some affiliation with the club, a large proportion from the academy itself.
Players
Current squad
As of 18 March 2010. [50]
Note: Flags indicate national team as has been defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.
No.
Alan Devonshire
Hammer of the Year
The following is a list of the "Hammer of the Year award" won by West Ham United players. [51] Trevor Brooking is the only player for West Ham United to have been honoured with the title of 'Hammer of the Year' three times in a row (1976, 1977 and 1978). He also is the player who has won the award most times as he has won it on five occasions (1972, 1976, 1977, 1978 and 1984). Bobby Moore, Billy Bonds and Julian Dicks have won it four times each.
Bobby Moore has been runner-up four times, while Billy Bonds and Tony Cottee have both been runner-up three times.
Billy Bonds and Trevor Brooking's wins are notable in the amount of time between first and last "Hammer of the Year Award". Bonds has sixteen years separating his wins whilst Brooking has twelve.
Year
Steve Rigby
Managers
West Ham have had only 12 managers in their history, fewer than any other major English club. Up until 1989 the club had only had five different managers. Before the appointment of Gianfranco Zola in 2008 the club never had an overseas manager, with the only non-Englishman being the Scot, Lou Macari. Numerous former Hammers have taken on temporary managerial roles at the club, between permanent managers. Ronnie Boyce briefly took the reins, in February 1990, following Lou Macari's resignation and the appointement of Billy Bonds . Former Hammers player and board member Trevor Brooking was briefly in charge during two separate spells as caretaker manager in 2003, first during the illness of Glenn Roeder and again between Roeder's sacking and the appointment of Alan Pardew. Former player Kevin Keen was a brief caretaker manager (just one game), prior to Zola's reign.
Manager
38.87
Ownership
West Ham United was owned by Terry Brown until 2006, when Eggert Magnússon and Björgólfur Guðmundsson bought the club. Soon after, manager Alan Pardew was sacked and ex- Charlton Athletic Manager Alan Curbishley was hired. In a bizarre twist of fate, Pardew replaced Les Reed as Charlton manager a few weeks later and the two managers met each other in a relegation battle where the Hammers lost 4–0 to their South East London rivals. However, West Ham eventually stayed up and Charlton were relegated. Terry Brown was criticised by some sections of the fans (including pressure group Whistle specifically formed for this purpose) due to a perception of financial and staff mismanagement. On 18 September 2007, it was announced that Magnússon would step down as executive chairman [54] but would still retain the role as club non-executive chairman overseeing a new management structure, and would keep his stake in the club. [55]
However on 13 December 2007, it was announced that Magnússon had left West Ham and that his 5 per cent holding had been bought by club majority owner Björgólfur Guðmundsson . [56] On 8 June 2009, Icelandic CB Holding which is 70% owned by Straumur-Burdaras bank and 30% owned by Icelandic based banks Byr and MP [57] took over Hansa Holding, which only had West Ham United as their asset and filed for bankruptcy protection. Straumur was one of Hansa Holding's largest creditors. Straumur appointed one of their directors, Andrew Bernhardt, as the new chairman. In January 2010, David Sullivan and David Gold acquired a 50 percent share in West Ham, from CB Holding, given them overall operational and commercial control. [58]
Shirt sponsors and kit suppliers
On 11 September 2008, the BBC News Channel reported that the team's main sponsor, XL Leisure Group had been placed in administration, although Simon Calder of The Independent confirmed the group's website was still taking bookings.
The XL Leisure Group confirmed on their website that 11 companies associated with the group had been put into administration on 12 September 2008. This included XL Airways UK Limited, Excel Aviation Limited, Explorer House Limited, Aspire Holidays Limited, Freedom Flights Limited, The Really Great Holiday Company plc, Medlife Hotels Limited, Travel City Direct, and Kosmar Villa Holidays plc. It did not affect the German and French divisions of the company's operations.
On 12 September 2008 the club terminated its contract with XL Leisure group. [59] [60]
During this brief period, players had their squad numbers ironed over the existing sponsorship logo. On 3 December 2008 West Ham announced that they had signed a shirt sponsorship deal with Far Eastern betting firm SBOBET . The deal was set to run until the end of the 2009/10 season, and saw the company's logo on First Team and Reserve Team kit, and adult replica shirts; all Academy teams and child replica shirts carry the logo of the Bobby Moore Fund due to the main sponsor being a betting firm. [61]
In September 2009, the club officially announced that SBOBET had extended their deal with the team until 2013 after their welcomed help in securing Diamanti.
The club will end their relationship with Umbro and instead have Italian firm Macron make the kit starting from the 2010/11 season. West Ham will be the first Premier League club kit to be made by the firm who produce several Championship clubs strips including rival Sheffield United . [62]
Shirt sponsors
West Ham United L.F.C. , the affiliated women's team
Sources
Belton, Brian (2007). "BROWN OUT": The Biography of West Ham Chairmen, Terence Brown. Pennant Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-906015112.
Belton, Brian (2006). West Ham United Miscellany. Pennant Books. ISBN 0-9550394-4-4.
Blows, Kirk and Hogg, Tony (2000). The Essential History of West Ham United. Headline. ISBN 0-7472-7036-8.
Hellier, John and Leatherdale, Clive (2000). West Ham United: The Elite Era - A Complete Record. Desert Island. ISBN 1-874287-31-7.
Hogg, Tony (2005). Who's Who of West Ham United. Profile Sports Media. ISBN 1-903135-50-8.
Kerrigan, Colm (1997). Gatling Gun George Hilsdon. Football Lives. ISBN 0-9530718-0-4.
Nawrat, Chris and Hutchings, Steve (1996). The Sunday Times Illustrated History of Football. Hamlyn. ISBN 1-85613-341-9.
Pickering, David (1994). The Cassell Soccer Companion. Cassell. ISBN 0-304-34231-9.
Redknapp, Harry With Derek McGovern (1998). Harry Redknapp - My Autobiography. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-218872-4.
Ward, Adam and Smith, Dave (2003). The Official West Ham United Dream Team. Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-60835-2.
References
| i don't know |
Which British astronomer - a proponent of the steady state theory of the universe - is usually credited with having coined the term ' big bang ' ? | Astronomers - Crystalinks
Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543
Polish developed a simple heliocentric model of the solar system that explained planetary retrograde motion and overturned Greek astronomy Tycho Brahe 1546-1601
Danish observed a supernova now known as ``Tycho's supernova''; made the most precise observations of stellar and planetary positions then known Galileo Galilei 1564-1642
Italian performed fundamental observations, experiments, and mathematical analyses in astronomy and physics; discovered mountains and craters on the moon, the phases of Venus, and the four largest satellites of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede Johannes Kepler 1571-1630
German established the most exact astronomical tables then known; established the three laws of planetary motion John Babtist Riccioli 1598-1671
Italian made telescopic lunar studies and published detailed lunar maps in which he introduced much nomenclature for lunar objects; discovered the first double star (Mizar) Giovanni Cassini 1625-1712
Italian-born French measured rotational periods of Jupiter and Mars; discovered four satellites of Saturn and the gap in Saturn's rings now known as ``Cassini's division'' Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695
Dutch discovered Saturn's first satellite, Titan, and the true shape of Saturn's rings Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727
English developed theories of gravitation and mechanics, and invented differential calculus Edmond Halley 1656-1742
British used his theory of cometary orbits to predict that the comet of 1682 (later named ``Halley's comet'') was periodic Charles Messier 1730-1817
French discovered 19 comets, 13 being original and 6 independent co-discoveries; compiled a famous catalog of deep-sky objects Joseph-Louis Lagrange 1736-1813
French developed new methods of analytical mechanics; made many theoretical contributions to astronomy, improving our understanding of lunar motion and the perturbing effects of planets on cometary orbits; found solution to 3-body problem showing there could be two points (now called Lagrange points) in orbit of Jupiter where minor planets could stay almost indefinitely - the Trojan group of asteroids were later discovered at these positions William Herschel 1738-1822
British discovered Uranus and its two brightest moons, Titania and Oberon; discovered Saturn's moons, Mimas and Enceladus; discovered the ice caps of Mars, several asteroids and binary stars; cataloged 2,500 deep sky objects Giuseppe Piazzi 1746-1826
Italian discovered the largest asteroid, Ceres; accurately measured positions of many stars, resulting in a star catalog Johann Bode 1747-1826
German popularized a relationship giving planetary distances from the Sun, which became known as ``Bode's law''; predicted an undiscovered planet between Mars and Jupiter, where the asteroids were later found Pierre-Simon Laplace 1749-1827
French made important mathematical contributions to differential equations; promoted the solar nebula hypothesis for the origin of the solar system Heinrich Wilhelm Olbers 1758-1840
German invented first successful method for calculating cometary orbits; discovered several comets, including the comet of 1815, now called Olber's comet; discovered the asteroids Pallas and Vesta; posed the famous Olber's paradox: ``Why is the night sky dark?'' Friedrich Bessel 1784-1846
Prussian first to measure distance to the star 61 Cygni; proposed that Sirius has an unseen companion; worked out the mathematical analysis of what are now known as Bessel functions Joseph von Fraunhofer 1787-1826
German made detailed wavelength measurements of hundreds of lines in the solar spectrum; designed an achromatic objective lens Johann Franz Encke 1791-1865
German discovered the first short-period comet, now called Encke's comet Friedrich von Struve 1793-1864
German-born Russian founded the study of double stars; published catalog of over 3000 binary stars; first to measure distance to the star Vega Wilhelm Beer 1797-1850
German prepared and published maps of the Moon and Mars Thomas Henderson 1798-1844
Scottish first to measure distance to a star (Alpha Centauri) William Lassell 1799-1880
British discovered Triton, the largest satellite of Neptune Sir George Airy 1801-1892
British improved orbital theory of Venus and the Moon; studied interference fringes in optics; made a mathematical study of the rainbow Urbain Le Verrier 1811-1877
French accurately predicted the position of Neptune, which led to its discovery Johann Gottfried Galle 1812-1910
German first person to observe Neptune, based on calculations by French mathematician, Urbain Le Verrier; however, Neptune's discovery is usually credited to Le Verrier and English astronomer, John Crouch Adams, who first predicted its position Anders Ångström 1814-1874
Swedish discovered hydrogen in the solar spectrum; source of the Angstrom unit Daniel Kirkwood 1814-1895
American discovered the ``Kirkwood gaps'' in the orbits of the asteroids between Mars and Jupiter; explained the gaps in Saturn's rings William Huggins 1824-1910
British first to show that some nebulae, including the great nebula in Orion, have pure emission spectra and thus must be gaseous Sir Joseph Lockyer 1836-1920
British discovered in the solar spectrum a previously unknown element that he named helium Henry Draper 1837-1882
American made first photograph of a stellar spectrum (that of Vega); later photographed spectra of over a hundred stars and published them in a catalog; studied spectrum of Orion Nebula, which he showed was a dust cloud Edward Charles Pickering 1846-1919
American discovered the first spectroscopic binary star, Mizar Jacobus Cornelius Kapteyn 1851-1922
Dutch discovered that the proper motions of stars were not random, but stars could be divided into two streams moving in opposite directions, representing the rotation of our galaxy Edward Barnard 1857-1923
American discovered eight comets and Almathea, the fifth moon of Jupiter; also discovered star with largest proper motion, now called Barnard's star
Nobel Laureates
Hannes Alvén 1908-1995
Swedish developed the theory of magnetohydrodynamics Subramanyan Chandrasekhar 1910-1995
Indian-born American made important theoretical contributions concerning the structure and evolution of stars, especially white dwarfs William Fowler 1911-1995
American carried out extensive experimental studies of nuclear reactions of astrophysical significance; developed, with others, a complete theory of the formation of chemical elements in the universe Antony Hewish 1924-
British led the research group that discovered the first pulsar Arno A. Penzias 1933-
German-born American co-discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation Robert W. Wilson 1936-
American co-discovered the cosmic microwave background radiation Joseph H. Taylor, Jr. 1941-
American co-discovered the first binary pulsar Russell Alan Hulse 1950-
American co-discovered the first binary pulsar Others Annie Jump Cannon 1863-1941
American classified spectra of many thousands of stars; published catalogs of variable stars (including 300 she discovered) Maximilian Wolf 1863-1932
German discovered hundreds of asteroids using photography George E. Hale 1868-1938
American revolutionized spectral observations by inventing and using the spectroheliograph; discovered magnetic fields in sunspots; first astronomer to be officially called an astrophysicist; founded the Yerkes, Mt. Wilson, and Palomar Observatories Henrietta Swan Levitt 1868-1921
American discovered the period-luminosity relation for Cepheid variables Willem de Sitter 1872-1934
Dutch studied the astronomical consequences of Einstein's theory of general relativity; deduced that a near-empty universe would expand Ejnar Hertzsprung 1873-1967
Danish invented the color-magnitude diagram; by studying star clusters, independently discovered the relationship between absolute magnitude and spectral types of stars; a plot of this relationship is now called a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (or H-R diagram); determined distance to the Small Magellanic Cloud Karl Schwarzchild 1873-1916
German first to give an exact solution of Einstein's equations of general relativity, giving an understanding of the geometry of space near a point mass; also made the first study of black holes Vesto M. Slipher 1875-1969
American first to measure the radial velocity of the Andromeda galaxy Walter Sydney Adams 1876-1956
American identified Sirius B as the first white dwarf star known Henry Norris Russell 1877-1957
American used photographic methods to measure stellar parallaxes, leading to the discovery of the relationship between absolute magnitude and spectral types of stars; a plot of this relationship is now called a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (or H-R diagram) Bernhard Schmidt 1879-1935
Swedish-born German invented and constructed the first Schmidt reflecting telescope using a corrector plate he devised to eliminate aberration of the image Arthur S. Eddington 1882-1944
British first to confirm Einstein's prediction that light will bend near a star; discovered the mass-luminosity relation for stars; theoretically explained the pulsation of Cepheid variables Harlow Shapley 1885-1972
American discovered the size of our galaxy and the direction of its center by studying the distribution of globular clusters; determined the orbits of many eclipsing binary stars Edwin Hubble 1889-1953
American first to measure distance to the Andromeda nebula, establishing it to be a separate galaxy; later measured distances to other galaxies and discovered that they recede at a rate proportional to their distance (Hubble's law) Walter Baade 1893-1960
German-born American discovered the asteroids Hidalgo and Icarus; established two different stellar classes: the younger, hotter ``Population I'' and the older, cooler ``Population II'' Georges-Henri Lemaitre 1894-1966
Belgian advanced idea that the Universe originated as a small, dense ``cosmic egg'' that exploded and set its expansion into motion Rudolph Minkowski 1895-1976
German divided supernovae into Types I and II; optically identified many of the early radio sources Bernard-Ferdinand Lyot 1897-1952
French invented the coronagraph Otto Struve 1897-1963
Russian-born American made detailed spectroscopic studies of close binary stars; discovered interstellar matter (H II regions) Fritz Zwicky 1898-1974
Swiss-born American observed Coma cluster of galaxies and determined that most of the cluster must be ``dark matter''; proposed existence of and then observed dwarf galaxies; proposed existence of supernovas (a term he coined) and that their collapse might lead to neutron stars; anticipated discovery of quasars by proposing that compact blue galaxies might be mistaken for stars; anticipated that dark matter could be studied by observing galaxies that acted as gravitational lenses Jan Hendrik Oort 1900-1992
Dutch calculated distance to center of galaxy; determined period for sun to complete one revolution of Milky Way; calculated the mass of the Milky Way; proposed existence of huge spherical cloud of icy comets (the Oort cloud) left behind from formation of the solar system George Gamow 1904-1968
Russian-born American first suggested hydrogen fusion as source of solar energy Karl G. Jansky 1905-1950
American discovered radio waves from space, thereby pioneering the birth of radio astronomy Gerard P. Kuiper 1905-1973
Dutch-born American discovered Miranda, the fifth satellite of Uranus; discovered Nereid, the second satellite of Neptune; discovered the atmosphere of Titan, Saturn's largest satellite; his spectroscopic studies of Uranus and Neptune led to discovery of comet-like debris at the edge of the solar system, now called ``Kuiper's belt'' Bruno B. Rossi 1905-1993-
Italian pioneer of x-ray astronomy and space plasma physics; participated in discovery of the first known x-ray source outside the solar system (Scorpius X-1) Bart Jan Bok 1906-1983
Dutch suggested that small dark globules of interstellar gas and dusk (now called Bok globules) are collapsing to form new stars Clyde Tombaugh 1906-1997
American discovered the planet Pluto Fred Whipple 1906-
American proposed the ``dirty snowball'' model of cometary structure Grote Reber 1911-
American built the first radio telescope (a parabolic reflector 31 feet in diameter), thereby becoming the first radio astronomer Carl K. Seyfert 1911-1960
American discovered the first active galaxy, part of a group now called Seyfert galaxies John A. Wheeler 1911-
American made theoretical contributions to understanding of quantum gravity; coined the term ``black hole''; introduced the concept of ``spacetime foam'' Karl F. von Weizsäcker 1912-
German contributed to the development of the model nebular theory for the formation of the solar system; proposed (with Hans Bethe) the proton-proton reaction as the thermonuclear energy source for the sun James A. Van Allen 1914-
American a space scientist best known for discovering the Earth's magnetosphere Sir Fred Hoyle 1915-
British proponent of the steady-state model of the universe; well-known author of science fiction; proposed that earliest forms of life were carried through space on comets and that these primitive forms of life found their way to Earth; derisively coined the term ``Big Bang'' for a cosmic theory with which he did not and does not agree Robert H. Dicke 1916-1997
American proposed that radiation near 1-cm wavelength is left over from the hot Big Bang; invented the microwave radiometer, used to detect this radiation George H. Herbig 1920-
American independently discovered the Herbig-Haro objects, which are gas clouds associated with young stars E. Margaret Burbidge 1919-
British performed observational research on the spectra of quasars and other peculiar galaxies; contributed to understanding of stellar nucleosynthesis Edwin E. Salpeter 1924-
Austrian-born American explained how the triple-alpha reaction could make carbon from helium in stars; worked on atomic theory and quantum electrodynamics; co-developed the Bethe-Salpeter equation; contributed to nuclear astrophysics, stellar evolution, statistical mechanics, and plasma physics Allan R. Sandage 1926-
American identified the first quasar, and discovered many more; determined ages of many globular clusters Vera Rubin 1928-
American measured rotation curves for distant galaxies and ultimately concluded that 90% or more of the universe is made of invisible dark matter Riccardo Giacconi 1931-
Italian pioneer of x-ray astronomy; participated in discovery of the first known x-ray source outside the solar system (Scorpius X-1) John N. Bahcall 1934-
American made important theoretical contributions to understanding solar neutrinos and quasars Carl Sagan 1934-1996
American was a leader in the search for extraterrestrial intelligence; contributed to most of the space missions to explore Mars and the outer planets; warned that all-out nuclear war could lead to a ``nuclear winter'' James W. Christy 1938-
American discovered Pluto's satellite, Charon William K. Hartmann 1939-
American well-known painter of astronomical themes; co-developed the most widely accepted theory of the formation of the Moon (from the collision of a giant planetismal with the Earth at the close of the planet-forming period of the solar system) Kip S. Thorne 1940-
American contributed to the theoretical understanding of black holes and gravitational radiation; co-founded the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory Project (LIGO) Stephen W. Hawking 1942-
British combined general relativity with quantum theory to predict that black holes should emit radiation and evaporate Sir Roger Penrose
British contributed to the development of general relativity by showing the necessity for cosmological singularities; elucidated the physics of black holes Jocelyn Bell 1943-
Irish co-discovered the first pulsar Charles Thomas Bolton 1943-
Canadian identified Cygnus X-1 as the first black hole Paul F. Goldsmith
Director of National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center; developed techniques to study structure of dense molecular clouds where star formation is occurring Alan H. Guth 1947-
American developed the theory of cosmic evolution known as the inflationary universe
| Fred Hoyle |
What type of dog is Beethoven in the film franchise of that name ? | Miscellaneous Quotations on Big Bang Cosmology
Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time , New York: Bantam Books, 1998, p. 9.
Edwin Hubble's discovery of the expansion of the universe promoted theorists to consider that if the cosmic matter density is decreasing, than there must have been a time long ago when everything in the universe was as hot and dense as the center of a star and perhaps even hotter and denser than that. The Belgian cosmologist Georges Lema�tre dubbed this original state the �primordial atom,� and wondered whether the universe might have begun expanding through a process roughly analogous to the radioactive decay of an unstable atomic nucleus. Lecturing in the early 1930s, in the library of Mt. Wilson observatory offices in Pasadena to an audience that included Albert Einstein, Lema�tre declared: �In the beginning of everything we had fireworks of unimaginable beauty. Then there was the explosion followed by the filling of the heavens with smoke. We come to late to do more than visualize the splendor of creation's birthday.� Lema�tre account of genesis was long on oratory and short on specifics and where it did get specific it was wrong But Einstein, who understood that style can count for as much as substance, arose at the end of the talk and called it: �the most beautiful and satisfying interpretation I have listened to.� Neither Lema�tre as a physicist nor physics as a discipline� was yet up to the task of analyzing the big bang. But by viewing the early universe through the lens of nuclear physics, Lema�tre inaugurated what was to become a potent collaboration between cosmologist interested in cosmic evolution and high energy physicists capable of calculating� thermonuclear events in the early universe.
Timothy Ferris, The Whole Shebang , New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996, pp. 108-109.
In the late 1940s George Gamow, a Russian-born physicist then teaching at George Washington University, and two young colleagues, Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, had begun investigating what would come to be called the Big Bang model for the creation of the universe. Although not adept at everyday maters such as spelling or even mathematics, Gamow possessed an unusual genius for asking penetrating questions and broaching new ideas for his colleagues to pursue.
Born in Odessa in 1904, Gamow had studied at the University of Petrograd in St. Petersburg during the 1920s with the theorist Alexander Friedmann, who had speculated mathematically on the ways the universe might evolve in brilliant new solutions to Einstein's field equations of general relativity. Later Gamow moved on to the university in G�ttingen, Germany, where he performed so well in particle physics that he drew the attention of Niels Bohr. Bohr was a Danish theorist who by then was legendary for his role in the creation of quantum mechanics, the branch of physics devoted to the fundamental particles of matter and the forces controlling them. In 1928 Gamow formulated an early theory about radioactive decay and was one of the first physicists to address the problem of how stars evolved.
John C. Mather, John Boslough, The Very First Light , New York: Basic Books, 1996, pp. 30-31.
[Fred Hoyle devoted] his life to fighting the notion that the cosmos began at a certain point in time, with a big bang. He preferred the view Aristotle held millennia earlier: The universe has always existed, and always will. A turning point in Hoyle's young life came at age thirteen, when his parents gave him the gift that has changed so many other young lives: a small telescope. They allowed him to stay up all night looking at the stars and planets. As fate would show, Hoyle and Gamow had more in common than the fact that each had received a telescope in his thirteenth year. Each was a father, intellectually speaking, and each exploded with far more ideas than could ever be true. After working on radar in England during the Second World War, Hoyle became an astronomy Professor at Cambridge University. He also began developing talks about astronomy on BBC radio and writing popular articles and books. Like Gamow, Hoyle was becoming a highly visible interpreter of science to laypeople. During one of his popular radio broadcasts in 1950 Hoyle coined the phrase big bang as a description of Gamow's repugnant (to Hoyle) theory. Hoyle had meant the term to be derogatory, but it was so compelling, so stirring of the imagination, that it stuck, but without the negative overtones. Hoyle became the most visible proponent of an alternative theory to big bang, known as the steady state theory. The struggle for intellectual supremacy between these two theories dominated cosmology for almost two decades.
George Smoot and Keay Davidson, Wrinkles in Time , New York: William Morrow & Company, 1993, pp. 67-68.
It did not help adherents of the Big Bang that Gamow was its most vocal supporter. Or that Einstein, now living out his remaining years in Princeton as the world's most famous scientist, was still philosophically more comfortable with a static universe. Or, most important, that [Ralph] Alpher and [Robert] Herman's prediction of the cosmic background radiation, which could not plausibly be accounted for in steady-state cosmology, had been all but forgotten during the 1950s. With problems on both sides, neither was a clear winner. This was how matters stood until the early spring of 1965, cosmology stalemated.
Had Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson known in 1964 of the prediction of Alpher and Herman sixteen years earlier, the two Bell scientists would have been spared a year's work trying to uncover the source of the noise in their horn antenna. Had [Robert] Dicke been aware of the prediction, he could have begun work on his own antenna years earlier without having to wait for Jim Peebles to do the theoretical calculations from scratch.
John C. Mather, John Boslough, The Very First Light , New York: Basic Books, 1996, pp. 49-50.
Arno Penzias comes from a Jewish family in Munich. He was born in 1933, on the same day (26, April) that the Gestapo was formed. The family was one of the last to get out of Nazi Germany to England in 1939Arno and his brother were sent on in the spring, and were later followed by his father and, finally, mother. Reunited, the family left England in December 1939, sailing for New York, where they landed in January 1940 and stayed. Education provided the opportunity for this son of an impoverished immigrant family to make his way in the world, and in 1954 Penzias graduated from the City College of New York with a degree in physics. After two years in the Army Signal Corps, he joined Columbia University as a graduate student, working for his PhD, which was awarded in 1962. [
]
[Robert] Wilson comes from a very different background to Penzias. Born in Houston, Texas, in 1936, he is the son of a chemical engineer, and both his parents went to college. With straight A's in all his science courses at Rice University, in Houston, when Wilson graduated in 1957 he was offered places in the graduate schools at both MIT and Caltech, the two premier scientific research institutes in the US; he chose Caltech, but with no clear idea of just what line of research he would like to take up. There, he was influenced by two British astronomersFred Hoyle, who taught the cosmology course during a spell as visiting professor at Caltech, and whose presentation left Wilson with a fondness for the Steady State theory; and David Dewhirst, who suggested that Wilson might like to work with John Bolton, an Australian radio astronomer then at Caltech. [...] Where as Penzias left Columbia just before completing his PhD, Wilson stayed on at Caltech for a year after completing his, in 1962. So it was in 1963 that, hearing about Bell Labs' interest in radio astronomy and the availability of the still relatively new horn antenna at Crawford Hill, he decided to take the plunge, and joined Penzias in New Jersey.
John Gribbin, In Search of the Big Bang , New York: Penguin Books, 1998, p. 161.
Walter Sullivan, a Times science writer, had heard about the detection of the cosmic microwave background from an editor at the Astrophysical Journal. He called [Arno] Penzias for the details. Neither Penzias nor Wilson had thought much would come of Sullivan's call. In his article, Sullivan correctly explained the importance of Penzias and Wilson's discovery of isotropic radiation at approximately 3º Kelvin with a wavelength of just over 7 centimeters: the fact that the radiation was isotropic meant it was the same across the sky. This was precisely what those astronomers who supported the Big Bang hypothesis had expected.
Radiation that was a remnant of the Big Bang, which had occurred everywhere in the universe at once, should have been of equal intensity everywhere. Of course, a measurement at only one frequency could not prove conclusively that the radiation was blackbody radiation from the Big Bang (a finding that would not occur for twenty-five years). The discovery by the Bell Labs scientists soon was confirmed by the Princeton team had to a shorter wavelength. The blackbody nature of the background radiation was something Big Bang astronomers also expected. As we've already seen, this kind of radiation occurs whenever particles collide in a thermal equilibrium of the kind that might occur inside a black box. The Big Bang should have produced extremely intense particle collisions. Most cosmologistnot including Fred Hoyle, of course, and the other who still believe in a steady-state universewere now believers: a huge amount of blackbody radiation had been produced during the earliest moments of the universe and was still present in a sufficient quantity to detect (the test of its blackbody spectrum being, of course, one of the most important reasons for flying the COBE).
Robert Wilson met George Gamow for the first and only time in December 1965 at a hotel in New York City during the annual Texas symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. By then the discovery of the background radiation was already well established not only in astrophysical circles but in the public mind as well. Even the reluctant Wilson had started becoming a believer. Gamow seemed somewhat upset over the fact that no credit had been given him for the early theoretical prediction of the cosmic background temperature, Wilson recalled. �If I lose a penny and someone finds it in the same place where lost it, then I still know it's my penny even if I can't prove it.� Gamow told Wilson. Wilson was dumbfounded. This was a first time he learned that anybody other than Dicke and Peebles had worked out a theoretical scheme that would account for their famous accidental discovery with the horned antenna. Whether Gamow at the time sought scientific credit for himself or his colleagues Alpher and Herman is not clear. Gamow himself had not published a word about the background radiation before Alpher and Herman's 1848 paper, contrary to what has been written in many popular accounts, including one by Peeples and Wilkinson published by 1983.
A 1948 paper in Nature by Gamow, widely cited as the first theoretical prediction of a 10º Kelvin background temperature, was concerned with primordial nucleosynthesis and early galaxy formation. It made no mention of background radiation. In any event, by early 1967 Gamow and his colleagues, Alpher and Herman, had become �very perturbed by how our early work continued to be ignored.� Gamow suggested to Alpher and Herman that they try to set the historical record straight. They made the attempt in a lengthy article the three wrote the same year. Their choice of journals, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, was unfortunate because it is a publication for all scientists and not for one specific discipline, which is what really interests any scientist with his salt. The piece documented Alpher and Herman's theoretical work on the cosmic background radiation in the 1940's as well as their joint efforts with Gamow on galaxy and star formation. But almost no astronomers were physicists read it with. Gamow lived out his life in relative obscurity at the University of Colorado in Boulder. He died in 1968, still believing he had not received due credit for his early work on the origin of the universe. By the mid-1970s Big Bang cosmology was almost universally established in the minds of astrophysicist and theorists. In the summer of 1978, Penzias read an article in Omni magazine stating that he would be awarded the Nobel Prize.
John C. Mather, John Boslough, The Very First Light , New York: Basic Books, 1996, pp. 62-64.
The big bang theory implied that as the universe expanded there should have come a time, nowadays reckoned at about five hundred thousand years after the beginning, with the primordial plasma thinned out sufficiently to become transparent to light. Physicists call this event photon decoupling, meaning that photons, the particles that constitute light and other forms of electromagnetic energy, were at this point set free. Thereafter they did not often interact with one other, or with matter, but went souring unhampered throughout the constant expanding reaches of cosmic space. Hence most of them should still be around today. Cosmic expansion would have stretched out, increasing their wavelengths from those of light to the wavelengths we call microwave radio. In microwave frequencies it is convenient to express energy in terms of temperature as does, say, the instruction manual that accompanies a microwave oven so another way to reason through this argument is to say that the universe, having once been hot, should remain a bit warm even today. Physicists theorizing about the existence of this cosmic microwave background, or CMB, calculated that this should have a temperature of about three degrees above absolute zero. They also noted that it would display a �black body� spectrum, as is dictated by the relevant quantum physics equations, and that it should be isotropic, meaning that any observer, anywhere in the universe, should measure the background as having the same temperature everywhere in the sky [
] In 1989, the American space agency launched a satellite designed to study the CMB from orbit, where its detectors were free from the interference of Earth's atmosphere. Preliminary findings obtained by the COBE (Cosmic Background Explorer) satellite were announced the following year, and turned out to constitute a stunning confirmation of the big bang model. The CMB is indeed isotropic that is, it has equal intensity all over the sky, as anything genuinely universal must. And, as expected, its temperature is about three degrees above absolute zero 2.72 degrees, to be exact.
Timothy Ferris, The Whole Shebang , New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996, pp. 32-33.
The announcementthat the [COBE] satellite's orbiting instruments had detected tiny variations in the cosmic background radiationelectrified the cosmological community, and drew headlines around the world. Many astrophysicists believed that the discovery confirmed the reigning cosmological model, the Big Bang theory, beyond the shadow of a doubt, perhaps solving the mystery of the universe's origin once and for all. Stephen Hawking, the Cambridge University theorist and best-selling author of A Brief History of Time, was the most effusive of all: �It is the discovery of the century, if not of all time.�
High praise, indeed. The reason for Hawking's exuberance was that the COBE discovery had gone right to the heart of cosmology, the science that seeks to explain the very origin and structure of the universe. Did the universe begin at a specific point in time, or has it always existed? For thousands of years most scientists regarded this question as one beyond their concern, lying within the metaphysical realms of philosophers or theologians. Not until the middle of this century did physicists and astronomers begin acquiring theories powerful enough and experimental equipment sensitive enough to begin addressing the problem. COBE had shown emphatically that the universe is not static, but has changed remarkably over time.
John C. Mather, John Boslough, The Very First Light , New York: Basic Books, 1996, pp. xvii-xviii.
Not often in science do competing hypotheses rise or fall as the result of only one experimental finding or discovery. This is something that should occur more frequently, according to the ideas of Sir Karl Popper , an Austrian born philosopher of science who died in 1994. Popper argued that science should be a process in which various hypotheses are created to predict natural phenomena that then can be tested or observed. If the prediction fails, then the hypothesis should be abandoned. Thomas S. Kuhn, a historian of science at Princeton at the time Dicke and his colleagues met with Penzias and Wilson, argued effectively that Popper's scenario rarely happened in the real world of scientific enterprise. In fact, Kuhn maintained, it was an idealized way of looking at scientific progress. According to Kuhn, who coined the term �scientific paradigm� in his 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, acceptance of a new hypothesis among scientists usually occurs only as adherents of an older, no longer valid hypothesis either die or lose influence within the scientific community.
Neither Kuhn's nor Popper's concept of how science progressesor, in their opinion, should progressapplies fully to the case of the competing steady-state and Big Bang theories. This is because neither of these hypotheses was entrenched within the astronomy community. Astronomers were about equally divided in their support of each one. Yet, as events unfolded, Popper's idealized principle seemed to predict the outcome more than Kuhn's more cynical concept.
With neither theory fully acceptable to astronomers before the discovery of the cosmic background radiation, the scientific credibility of the competing hypotheses was the determining factornot the prevailing cultural climate among astronomers. In the light of the new discovery, the Big Bang theory was the clear winner for the simple reason that the steady-state model did not predict and could not reasonably account for the presence of the cosmic background radiation. On the other side, the Big Bang theory not only predicted the background radiation but required it.
John C. Mather, John Boslough, The Very First Light , New York: Basic Books, 1996, pp. 51-52.
The picture of an expanding universe implies that something cataclysmic must have occurred in the past. If we reverse the expansion of the universe and trace it backward in time, we appear to encounter a �beginning,� at which everything hits everything else: all the mass in the universe is compressed into a state of infinite density. This state is known as the �initial singularity.� The specter of its presence in our past has sparked all manner of metaphysical and theological extrapolations of the ideas of modern cosmology. [
]
In the early 1930s, many cosmologists were loath to believe that the expansion really pointed to a singular beginning of infinite density. Two objections were raised. If we try to squeeze a balloon down to smaller and smaller size, we find our efforts opposed and ultimately defeated by the pressure exerted by the molecules of air within the balloon. As the volume in which they are free to move is decreased, they beat harder upon its boundaries. Likewise with the universe; we would expect the pressure exerted by the matter and radiation within the universe to prevent its ever being squeezed to zero volume. It might rebound, like a collection of colliding pool balls. Others claimed that the idea of an initial singular point of infinite density arose only because we had adopted a picture in which the universe was expanding at the same rate in every direction. Thus when the expansion was traced backward everything arrived at one point simultaneously. If, however, the expansion were slightly asymmetrical (and in reality it is), then when we traced it backward the imploding material would be out of step, so it might well avoid producing a singularity.
When these objections were explored, they failed to remove the expected singularity. In fact, the addition of pressure actually assisted its creation, because of Einstein's famous discovery that energy and mass are equivalent ( E=mc
2
). Pressure is just another form of energy and thus is equivalent to mass; when it grows very large, it creates a gravitational force that opposes the repelling effect we usually associate with a pressure. Trying to avoid the singularity by increasing pressure was self-defeating; it actually made the singularity worse! Moreover, when Einstein's theory of gravitation was used to find other possible types of universesuniverses that expand at different rates in different directions, or possess variations from place to placethe singularity remained. It was not just an artifact of symmetrical universe models. It seemed to be ubiquitous.
John D. Barrow, The Origin of The Universe , New York: Basic Books, 1994, p. 37-39.
According to the standard big-bang theory the universe came into existence in a moment of infinite temperature and density some ten to fifteen billion years ago. Again and again when I have given a talk about the big-bang theory someone in the audience during the question period has argued that the idea of a beginning is absurd; whatever moment we say saw the beginning of the big bang, there must have been a moment before that one. I have tried to explain that this is not necessarily so. It is true for instance that in our ordinary experience however cold it gets it is always possible for it to get colder, but there is such a thing as absolute zero; we cannot reach temperatures below absolute zero not because we are not sufficiently clever but because temperatures below absolute zero simply have no meaning. Stephen Hawking has offered what may be a better analogy; it makes sense to ask what is north of Austin or Cambridge or any other city, but it makes no sense to ask what is north of the North Pole.
Steven Weinberg, Dreams of a Final Theory , New York: Pantheon Books, 1992, pp. 173-174.
Inflationary cosmology is a new twist on the big-bang theory. It doesn't in any way do away with the big-bang theory. It's completely consistent with everything that's been talked about in terms of the big-bang model. What it does is change our conception of the history of the first small fraction of a second of the big bang. According to the new theory, the universe during this sliver of time underwent a period of inflation, a brief era of colossal expansion.
There are two key features that are different in inflationary cosmology from the standard big bang. One is that the inflationary model contains a mechanism by which essentially all the matter in the universe can be created during the brief period of inflation. In the standard big-bang model, by contrast, it was always necessary to assume that all the matter was there from the beginning, and there was no way to describe how it might be created. By the way, the inflationary production of matter is consistent with the principle of energy conservation, even though it can literally produce a universe from almost nothing. Energy is still conservedthis is all calculated in the context of standard classical general relativity. The unusual feature is that gravity plays a major role in the energy balance. It turns out that the energy of a gravitational fieldany gravitational fieldis negative. During inflation, as the universe gets bigger and bigger and more and more matter is created, the total energy of matter goes upward by an enormous amount. Meanwhile, however, the energy in gravity becomes more and more negative. The negative gravitational energy cancels the energy in matter, so the total energy of the system remains whatever it was when inflation startedpresumably something very small. The universe could, in fact, even have zero total energy, with the negative energy of gravity precisely canceling the positive energy of matter. This capability for producing matter in the universe is one crucial difference between the inflationary model and the previous model.
Alan Guth, " A Universe in Your Backyard ," The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution , New York: Simon & Shuster, 1995, pp. 278-279.
We have at present only two kinds of physics to choose from, classical and quantum; and classical physics, as Alex Vilenkin notes, �fails to describe the beginning of the universe� Its breakdown is clearly signaled by the fact that general relativity invokes a singularity a time zero, which is to say that its equations yield infinities and can produce no meaningful result. Roger Penrose and a youthful Stephen Hawking proved this in 1970, in theorems demonstrating that if gravitation is always attractive and if the universe has anything like the matter density we observe to have, then there must have been a singularity at the outset of time. so we are left with quantum cosmology the attempt to apply quantum precepts, previously employed in studying subatomic particles and fields, to the universe as a whole.
Timothy Ferris, The Whole Shebang , New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996, pp. 249-250.
Where did all the matter and radiation in the universe come from in the first place? Recent intriguing theoretical research by physicists such as Steven Weinberg of Harvard and Ya. B. Zel'dovich in Moscow suggest that the universe began as a perfect vacuum and that all the particles of the material world were created from the expansion of space
Think about the universe immediately after the Big Bang. Space is violently expanding with explosive vigor. Yet, as we have seen, all space is seething with virtual pairs of particles and antiparticles. Normally, a particle and anti-particle have no trouble getting back together in a time interval
short enough so that the conservation of mass is satisfied under the uncertainty principle. During the Big Bang, however, space was expanding so fast that particles were rapidly pulled away from their corresponding antiparticles. Deprived of the opportunity to recombine, these virtual particles had to become real particles in the real world. Where did the energy come from to achieve this materialization?
Recall that the Big Bang was like the center of a black hole. A vast supply of gravitational energy was therefore associated with the intense gravity of this cosmic singularity. This resource provided ample energy to completely fill the universe with all conceivable kinds of particles and antiparticles. Thus, immediately after the Planck time, the universe was flooded with particles and antiparticles created by the violent expansion of space.
William J. Kaufmann, Universe , New York: W. H. Freeman & Company, 1985, pp. 529-532.
| i don't know |
What was the nickname of Dr McCoy in Star Trek ? | Star Trek McCoy, Leonard H.
STARFLEET HISTORICAL FILE: McCoy, Leonard H.
Mid-level Biography Brief Mode
Full Name: Leonard H. McCoy, M.D.
Year of birth: 2227
Parents: Mr. and Mrs. David McCoy
Education: University of Mississippi, 2245-49; medical school, 2249-53
Marital status: Divorced
Quarters: Original Enterprise : 3F 127
Starfleet Career Summary
2266 – As lieutenant commander, named chief medical officer under Capt. James T. Kirk
2270 – Retires to private medical practice
2271 – Returns to duty under Starfleet reactivation clause, promoted to commander as chief medical officer on refit U.S.S. Enterprise for V'Ger mission
2285 – As Academy medical faculty and training instructor, forced into Genesis mission; detained over leaks regarding secret Genesis Project
2286 – Charged but cleared with shipmates in theft of U.S.S. Enterprise
2287 – Returns to active Enterprise service under Kirk
2293 – Participated in Khitomer peace mission after liberation from Klingon Rura Penthe prison
2364 – As retired admiral, gave inspection tour of Galaxy-class U.S.S. Enterprise upon departure
Nicknamed 'Bones' by his longtime friend and commander, Captain James T. Kirk, McCoy replaced Mark Piper as chief medical officer in 2266 on one of the ship's five-year missions but clearly became the most renowned of its CMOs. By that first year he had already won the commendations of the Legion of Honor, awards of valor, and was decorated by Starfleet Surgeons.
His temperament was sometimes argumentative, a cynic's outer crustiness masking deep caring beneath the surface. His "old South" roots led to the old-time physician manner of doctoring, with a Southern accent that was most apparent when under stress. He distrusts transporter technology and travels by shuttlecraft whenever possible.
McCoy was married once and later divorced, a relationship never discussed except for his one daughter, Joanna, who later graduated from nursing school. In the era before ship's counselors, McCoy played his role as psychologist expertly to the hilt — especially for the ship's two senior officers. As such an emotional watchdog he was not afraid to take on his captain, but it was his running battle of wits with Spock which became legendary. Spock showed his true feelings, though, as when inviting McCoy down to Vulcan for his "wedding" and in storing his katra with him before a known suicidal saving of their ship before the Genesis detonation.
McCoy contracted the always-fatal xenopolycythemia and retired from Starfleet in 2369 to spend his remaining days on the asteroid ship, Yonada , and that world's high priestess, Natira — whom he soon married. By exploring Yonada's computers, Spock found a cure for xenopolycythemia and McCoy left Natira to return to the service. Earlier, McCoy had been infected with the strange 'aging' virus that infected the Gamma Hydra IV landing party.
After the U.S.S. Enterprise's triumphant return from its five-year mission, McCoy retired from Starfleet, grew a beard and went into virtual seclusion with a rural practice, only to be forced back to duty by Kirk and Admiral Nogura when V'Ger threatened Earth in 2271. After that he continued through the years of renewed Enterprise service with Kirk until at least the Khitomer peace talks of 2293, having survived imprisonment with him on trumped-up charges at the Rura Penthe mining prison when he could not revive assassinated Klingon Chancellor Gorkon . Spock's deposit of his katra in 2285 had nearly driven McCoy crazy and landed him in Starfleet detention until the refusion took place, whereupon he delighted in the Vulcan's re-education process.
As a retired admiral he remained active in his later years, serving at the age of 137 and shuttling aboard the U.S.S. Enterprise-D in 2364 in his role of inspecting medical facilities on new starships.
McCoy was an active practitioner well before his Starfleet days, of course. In 2253, some 12 years before he signed aboard with Kirk, he had developed a neural grafting procedure employing the creation of axonal pathways between the graft and a subject basal ganglia that was still the practice over a century later. He had also been stationed on Capella for a few months and knew the intricate customs of the Ten Tribes there.
| Bone |
In the children's show Trumpton, what was the profession of Pugh, Barney McGrew, Cuthbert, Dibble and Grub ? | Leonard McCoy (alternate reality) | Memory Alpha | Fandom powered by Wikia
Leonard McCoy (alternate reality)
For the prime reality counterpart, please see Leonard McCoy .
"Space is disease and danger, wrapped in darkness and silence!"
Leonard H. "Bones" McCoy, MD, was a Starfleet medical officer serving in the 23rd century . He became the chief medical officer of the USS Enterprise during the destruction of Vulcan , serving under acting captain Spock and then his classmate at Starfleet Academy , Captain James T. Kirk . ( Star Trek )
Contents
Dr. Leonard McCoy was born in Georgia , USA , Earth , in 2227 . He was the son of David McCoy . ( Star Trek III: The Search for Spock ; TAS : " Once Upon a Planet "; TOS : " This Side of Paradise "; TNG : " Encounter at Farpoint "; Star Trek V: The Final Frontier )
This event predates the point of divergence to the alternate reality , and so does not differ from the prime universe. According to his dossier on the official site, McCoy still attended Earth's University of Mississippi .
The IDW comic " Bones " showed a young McCoy dreaming of being a pro basketball player when he grew up. He broke an arm while climbing a tree , which his father, also a doctor, splinted and later repaired. At the time, he casually dismissed the idea of becoming a doctor, as he felt he'd spent enough time in a clinic already.
McCoy departs for Starfleet Academy
While at medical school, McCoy witnessed an extremely severe allergic reaction . He completed medical school and was a certified doctor sometime prior to 2255 . McCoy was married, but endured a harsh divorce . Afterwards, with nowhere else to go, he decided to enlist in Starfleet. McCoy boarded the Starfleet shuttle for new recruits which departed from Riverside Shipyard in 2255. McCoy suffered from aviophobia and attempted to remain in the shuttle's bathroom during the flight, as there were no windows in that section of the craft. However, a flight officer discovered him and forced him to sit with the other passengers and buckle up. He sat next to James T. Kirk, who assured McCoy of the shuttle's safety, to no avail; the nervous doctor kept ranting to Kirk about the health hazards of flying in a shuttle. McCoy confided to Kirk his reasons for joining Starfleet, saying that his wife "took the whole damn planet in the divorce," and "all I have left are my bones." He and Kirk then introduced each other and shared a flask of alcohol as the shuttle took off for Starfleet Academy . ( Star Trek )
In the script of Star Trek, McCoy was described thus; "At 34, he has a Southern lilt and looks like a prisoner waiting for the guillotine to fall." As of 5 November 2007 , the script did not include McCoy commenting, "All I got left is my bones," nor introducing himself as "Leonard McCoy" to Kirk, though he says both lines in the final version of the film. [1]
IDW 's " Bones " explains that after a young patient of his, Jenny ( β ), died from an incurable illness, McCoy dedicated his Starfleet service to her, as she had dreamed of being a captain one day.
Starfleet career
Edit
McCoy spent three years at Starfleet Academy, during which time he and Kirk became close friends; Kirk was now referring to McCoy as "Bones", based on McCoy's statement three years ago that his bones were his only remaining possession.
According to his dossier at the official Star Trek movie website, McCoy was top of his class in anatomical and forensic pathology , and organized the Academy's first astrophobia seminar.
McCoy thought Kirk was mad for wanting to retake the Kobayashi Maru test , and knew Kirk well enough not to believe him when he claimed he was going to "study." Indeed, Kirk had gone off to engage in sexual foreplay with a fellow cadet , Gaila .
McCoy in the Kobayashi Maru simulator
At Kirk's request, McCoy participated in Kirk's third attempt to beat the Kobayashi Maru simulation, serving at the helm station. McCoy believed Kirk would fail miserably as he had done the first two times, but he was surprised when his friend somehow defeated the simulation. Shortly thereafter, however, McCoy was among the cadets in attendance in the Academy assembly hall when Kirk was accused of cheating. As it turned out, Kirk had reprogrammed the simulation to make it possible to win. McCoy watched as Kirk faced off against his accuser, Commander Spock , the programmer of the Kobayashi Maru test.
Kirk's hearing was interrupted when the ruling council received word of a distress call from Vulcan . All cadets, including McCoy, were ordered to report to Hangar 1 for assignment. McCoy was assigned to the newly commissioned USS Enterprise , which had yet to have its maiden voyage . Kirk, however, was on academic suspension , which prohibited him from being assigned to a starship . McCoy decided to smuggle his friend aboard the Enterprise; to do so, he injected Kirk with a vaccine to protect against a viral infection from Melvaran mud fleas . The injection caused Kirk to experience the symptoms of the infection, allowing McCoy to bring Kirk aboard the Enterprise as a patient. ( Star Trek )
Chief medical officer of the USS Enterprise
Edit
McCoy becomes CMO of the Enterprise
After successfully sneaking Kirk aboard the Enterprise, McCoy brought him to the ship's medical bay , sedated him, and prepared for duty. Kirk awoke as the Enterprise neared Vulcan, and McCoy was horrified to find that Kirk's hands had swollen, an allergic reaction to the Melvaran mud flea vaccine. Kirk, however, was preoccupied with the notion that the Enterprise was heading into a trap, a deduction he reached after hearing Ensign Pavel Chekov 's announcement over the intercom .
McCoy chased Kirk through the ship, injecting him with various medications while Kirk searched for Nyota Uhura to confirm his theory. Afterward, McCoy and Uhura chased after Kirk as the seemingly delusional officer ran onto the ship's bridge to warn Captain Christopher Pike that they were heading into a Romulan trap. McCoy attempted to explain Kirk's presence to Pike, accepting full responsibility for his actions, but Kirk was ultimately able to convince the crew that there were indeed Romulans waiting for them at Vulcan.
Doctor Puri , the Enterprise's chief medical officer , was on deck six when he was killed by missiles fired by the Romulan ship, Narada . McCoy took over his role and later received acknowledgment from Spock over the comm as being Puri's replacement. He later treated the injuries Kirk sustained while attempting to deactivate the Narada's drilling platform , and also saw to the survivors of the Narada's destruction of Vulcan. With Captain Pike captured by the Romulans, McCoy joined Kirk, Acting Captain Spock, and the rest of the bridge crew in discussing the continuing threat of Nero , the captain of the Narada. Kirk argued with Spock over their next course of action, with McCoy siding with Spock's decision to rendezvous with the rest of the Federation fleet in the Laurentian system . McCoy then laid witness to Kirk's attempted – and failed – mutiny .
"Are you outta your Vulcan mind?"
Later, in a private discussion with Spock, McCoy voiced his extreme displeasure with the acting captain's decision to maroon Kirk on Delta Vega . Spock disagreed with McCoy's assertions, and when Spock left, an infuriated McCoy referred to the acting captain as a "green- blooded hobgoblin ." Shortly thereafter, McCoy was on the bridge when Kirk – who had returned to the Enterprise via transwarp beaming – instigated a brawl between himself and Spock, proving that Spock was emotionally compromised by the mission at hand, having lost his planet and his mother , and could not continue commanding the Enterprise. After coming to his senses, Spock reported to McCoy that he was emotionally compromised and that he was resigning his command as a result.
McCoy conferring with the crew of the Enterprise to defeat Nero
In spite of his obvious support of Kirk, McCoy was still vocally incredulous when Kirk became acting captain of the Enterprise following Spock's resignation, crying out, "You've gotta be kidding me!" when his friend sat in the command chair . He reacted much the same way towards Ensign Chekov and his idea for beaming onto the Narada without being noticed after learning that Chekov was only 17 years old. Chekov's calculations proved to be correct, however, and Kirk and Spock were able to rescue Captain Pike and stop Nero before he destroyed Earth.
McCoy continued serving aboard the Enterprise after Kirk received full command of the ship. McCoy was on the bridge when Kirk assumed command for the first time. With a slap on the shoulder, Kirk advised McCoy to "buckle up," referring back to the first time they met aboard the recruitment shuttle. ( Star Trek )
Nibiru
Edit
Pursued by natives of the planet Nibiru
A year later , McCoy was on Nibiru helping prevent a volcano from causing the extinction of the Nibirans , all while avoiding breaking the Prime Directive . McCoy greeted Kirk with a docile animal as their getaway transport, but Kirk accidentally stunned it, forcing them to run and jump off a cliff to dive to the Enterprise, hidden beneath the waves. On the bridge McCoy listened as Spock, who was activating a cold fusion device to stop the volcano's eruption, asked them to leave him, as getting the Enterprise in range to beam him out would expose the ship to the natives and ignore the Prime Directive. While McCoy asked Kirk to consider what Spock would do in his position, Kirk opted to rescue him and ignore the Directive anyway.
Hunting down "John Harrison"
Edit
Later, Kirk was ordered to hunt down the traitor John Harrison , who was behind a bombing in London and an attack on Starfleet Headquarters that left many, including Admiral Pike, dead. McCoy expressed skepticism, believing his friend was too inexperienced to combat him. Kirk found Harrison on Qo'noS , and witnessed him taking down scores of Klingons singlehandedly, so he ordered McCoy to investigate the source of his superhuman strength. McCoy analyzed his blood, and found it possessed extraordinarily regenerative platelets , which he experimented with by injecting into a dead tribble .
McCoy and Carol Marcus discover a cryotube inside a torpedo
In the meantime, Harrison was reticent about his motives but suggested Kirk examine the 72 experimental photon torpedoes Admiral Alexander Marcus had given them to fire on his location. McCoy was skeptical, but took a shuttle with Marcus's daughter Carol to examine one of the classified weapons on a planetoid. He accidentally activated it and trapped his hand: Kirk ordered him to be beamed up, but was warned doing would also bring an exploding torpedo aboard. Fortunately, Marcus deactivated it before she could be beamed up. The two then opened up the torpedo and discovered it contained a man in cryogenic stasis .
During his foray with Marcus, McCoy mentions having delivered Gorn octuplets by Caesarean section , though it is never stated when this occurred. The 2013 Star Trek video game goes into more detail about this incident (see the Apocrypha section for more details), but does not show the incident happening either.
Harrison explained he was actually Khan Noonien Singh, having been revived and forced by Admiral Marcus to design weapons and ships for a war with the Klingon Empire . He had attempted to smuggle out his fellow Augments on the torpedoes, but was forced to escape when his scheme discovered: believing Marcus killed his family, he responded in kind in London and San Francisco. Marcus appeared in the Dreadnought-class USS Vengeance and opened fire on the Enterprise when Kirk refused to hand over Khan, but its weapons were deactivated by Montgomery Scott , who boarded the ship during a leave of absence. Kirk and Khan allied to fly over and commandeer the ship, but a suspicious Spock asked McCoy to remove the cryopods from the torpedoes.
McCoy discovers a way to save Kirk
As expected, Khan took the Vengeance for himself, but McCoy removed the cryopods so Spock was able to use the torpedoes against Khan, crippling his ship. Both damaged ships began hurtling to Earth: Kirk entered the warp core to reactivate the Enterprise's engines, but did not put on a containment suit and suffered radiation poisoning . Kirk was brought to sickbay, where he lay dying as McCoy examined him. When he returned to his desk, the tribble he had injected came back to life. McCoy ordered one of the augments' cryotubes brought to sickbay. Its occupant was removed and reanimated, but McCoy ordered them maintained in a medically-induced coma. He and Marcus then placed Kirk in the cryotube, placing him in suspended animation to preserve his brain. Spock and Uhura beamed down, subduing Khan after he crashed in the Vengeance, allowing McCoy to perform a blood transfusion on Kirk.
When asked why McCoy had Khan retrieved to perform a blood transfusion on Kirk instead of using the seventy-two other augments on the ship, Roberto Orci said, "Everyone is frozen, they could die if awakened improperly as Bones says, and Bones KNOWS John's blood works. He doesn't know anything about the others." [2]
McCoy later greeted a conscious Kirk in a hospital room as his attending physician, checking his vital signs and whether the transfusion had any psychological effects as well.
The five-year mission
Edit
Almost a year after their encounter with Khan, McCoy attended a memorial service for the lives lost, and continued serving on the repaired Enterprise. He was less than pleased, however, to learn they were embarking on a five-year mission . ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
Conflict with Krall
Edit
In 2263 , after a failed diplomatic mission, Kirk and McCoy shared a drink while Kirk discussed his reasons for joining Starfleet and how everything seems to have become "episodic." Kirk also requested of McCoy to not tell the crew about his thirtieth birthday.
Following the arrival of Kalara at Yorktown , McCoy traveled with the rest of the Enterprise crew to Altamid inside the Necro Cloud . There, the Enterprise was attacked by Swarm ships and McCoy, who had been on the bridge when the battle began, headed for med bay with Spock. After a brief engagement with Swarm drones , the two men boarded a turbolift , only to be ejected into space when the Swarm severs the Enterprise's saucer from the secondary hull. The turbolift was captured by a Swarm ship, but McCoy and Spock ejected the crew and McCoy took over piloting the ship. McCoy ultimately crashed the Swarm ship on Altamid.
On the surface of Altamid, McCoy discovered that Spock had a piece of metal stuck in his abdomen . Lacking the proper tools to treat Spock's injuries, McCoy removed the piece of metal and crudely cauterized the wound, which he states is only a temporary fix. The two men then began making their way across Altamid, attempting repeatedly to contact the Enterprise, unaware that the ship had been destroyed. While resting, Spock noted the architecture on the planet matched that of the Abronath and told McCoy of Spock Prime's death and his decision to leave Starfleet. McCoy became concerned that Spock was delirious after he laughed at one of McCoy's jokes . As the two continued, Spock admitted to having a great deal of respect for McCoy, who continued to attempt to contact the Enterprise before they were cornered by three Swarm ships. Spock was suddenly beamed away, startling McCoy who was beamed out shortly after the Vulcan to the USS Franklin by Scotty after Chekov detected McCoy's latest attempt to contact the Enterprise and used it to track him and Spock.
On the Franklin, McCoy took Spock to the mess hall where he used a device from the Franklin to properly treat Spock's wound. McCoy then took part in the debate over how to rescue the crew and was amused to hear that Spock had given his girlfriend essentially a tracking device . McCoy aided in the rescue mission with Kirk, Spock and Jaylah , breaking the crew out of their pens and helping them beam out to the Franklin in groups of twenty. He refused to beam the last group until they were joined by Spock and Uhura and the rescue mission was ultimately successful.
After the crew's rescue, McCoy used what he couldfind on the Franklin to treat their injuries and remained in med bay for the first part of the battle with Krall's forces. After Spock decided to beam to a Swarm ship to get their cyberpathic connection, he chose to take McCoy along as McCoy was both familiar with his injury and piloting a Swarm ship. Though McCoy protested the idea, he was beamed with Spock to a Swarm ship.
After taking over the Swarm ship, McCoy takes the controls of the craft, proving himself to be a somewhat clumsy but effective pilot. Spock was able to locate the cyberpathic connection, allowing the Franklin to use a VHF disruption signal to destroy the Swarm. Struggling to stay ahead of the exploding Swarm ships and arguing with Spock about Spock's backseat driving , McCoy was startled to recognize the signal as " classical music ".
After Krall and three ships made it into Starbase Yorktown, McCoy followed them in his Swarm ship and attempted, without success, to intercept the three ships. On Kirk's orders, McCoy flew head on at Krall's ships, forcing them low to the ground towards Yorktown Central Plaza where they were intercepted by the Franklin. McCoy then attempted to figure out how to land the Swarm ship before Krall was revealed to be heading towards the Yorktown's central atmospheric processor. McCoy remained in the air during the fight between Krall and Kirk and recognized that Kirk won't be able to get out in time if he attempted to vent the Abronath to space. Kirk succeeded in venting the Abronath and Krall harmlessly into space and McCoy and Spock rescued the captain in their Swarm ship before he can suffer the same fate.
McCoy later lead Kirk to a surprise birthday party with the crew and wondered if Kirk really intended to return to space. Kirk had regained his enthusiasm for spaceflight and expounded upon McCoy what new wonders there were for them to explore.( Star Trek Beyond )
Relationships
Edit
McCoy and Kirk at Starfleet Academy
McCoy and Kirk met on a transport shuttle to Starfleet Academy, when the pair found themselves in adjacent seats where a slightly neurotic McCoy instantly opened up to the rebellious and somewhat incredulous Kirk. The two remained good friends throughout their time together at the Academy. When the time came, McCoy always had Kirk's back, such as helping to get him aboard the Enterprise after his suspension, and berating Spock for throwing Kirk off the ship and marooning him on Delta Vega . Despite this, he did not support Kirk's mutiny and was annoyed when he later forced Spock to resign command. Despite his friendship with Kirk, McCoy expressed shock at the idea that he was now acting captain, but supported him. ( Star Trek )
In the script of Star Trek, McCoy was bothered by Kirk repeatedly calling him "Bones", at Starfleet Academy. In the film, though, he shows no such annoyance. An ultimately unused line of dialogue from the script involved McCoy commenting about Kirk, "One thing's for damn sure – that kid doesn't know how to lose. Just isn't in his DNA ." [3]
The friendship between McCoy and Kirk in the alternate reality pleased Leonard Nimoy , who remarked, "The two of them work so well together: they were just so wonderful to watch." ( Star Trek Magazine issue 145 , p. 57)
Karl Urban has commented that more regarding the friendship between McCoy and Kirk could have been established in Star Trek Into Darkness . "McCoy's relationship with Kirk was completely inferred in Into Darkness," he critiqued. ( Empire , issue 326, p. 67) By comparison, Urban is extremely pleased with how the relationship develops in Star Trek Beyond and has noted that McCoy's bond with Kirk therein "is not inferred – it's there, you see it. You see him being a supportive friend, a consigliere, even a psychologist in a way." ( SFX , issue 276, p. 48) Urban also stated, "It's nice to have that really affirmed in this film [....] That's something I had been yearning for, to actually see the depth and meaning of his friendship with Kirk." ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , pp. 62 & 63)
The scene between McCoy and Kirk in Star Trek Beyond was inspired by the interaction between Dr. Boyce and Captain Pike in a particular scene from TOS : " The Cage ", as that was one of Beyond Director Justin Lin 's favorite installments of TOS. ( SFX , issue 276, p. 47)
Spock
Edit
This article or section is incomplete This page is marked as lacking essential detail, and needs attention . Information regarding expansion requirements may be found on the article's talk page . Feel free to edit this page to assist with this expansion.
After seeing Spock for the first time at Kirk's disciplinary hearing, McCoy expresses dislike for the half- Vulcan , calling him a "green-blooded hobgoblin." This animosity presumably stems from the fact that Spock is trying to get Kirk, McCoy's best friend, in trouble with Starfleet. On board the Enterprise, McCoy retains his animosity towards Spock, though he works with Spock as the new Chief Medical Officer after the death of Doctor Puri and the promotion of Spock to acting captain . After Spock ejects Kirk from the Enterprise for attempted mutiny , McCoy loudly berates him for the act after gaining Spock's permission to speak freely. During Spock and Kirk's later fight on the Enterprise bridge, McCoy stays out of it like everyone else but berates Kirk for his actions as he believes they now lack a commanding officer. Following Kirk's official promotion to Captain and Spock becoming First Officer, McCoy is noticeably not pleased by Spock's continued presence on the ship. ( Star Trek )
Over the next few years, the relationship between Spock and McCoy only marginally improves though the two gain respect for the other. During the conflict with Khan , Spock requests McCoy replicate his accidental arming of an advanced long-range torpedo on all of the torpedoes as well as to remove Khan's crew from them, showing faith in McCoy's ability to perform a task that could destroy the Enterprise if improperly performed. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
During the conflict with Krall in 2263 , Spock and McCoy were forced to work together extensively, starting with hijacking a Swarm ship during the Battle of Altamid . After crashing on Altamid , McCoy assessed Spock's injuries and admitted that though either of his options could lead to Spock's death, he didn't want Spock to die. During their trek across the planet, McCoy refused to leave Spock behind and the two were friendly enough to have a candid conversation about Spock's plans for the future and relationship with Uhura. Spock also admitted to harboring a great deal of respect for McCoy, something he had thought to be obvious. After Spock reveals that Uhura bears an amulet he can use as a tracking device, McCoy is amused by the idea that Spock gave his girlfriend a tracking device. During the attack on Yorktown , Spock specifically requests McCoy accompany him in hijacking a Swarm ship, feeling that McCoy is the best choice as he's familiar with the ship and Spock's wound. While flying the Swarm ship together, McCoy and Spock bicker and banter several times but prove to be an effective team. Working together, they play a pivotal role in the defeat of the Swarm and save Kirk's life. ( Star Trek Beyond )
During the writing of Star Trek Beyond , concentrating on McCoy's relationship with Spock interested the film's writers, Simon Pegg and Doug Jung . Remembered Pegg, "We thought it would be nice to send them away together for a while, and have them butt heads, because they have such opposing views. At the same time, there's a deep and abiding respect they have for each other, which is marked by this banter – or one-way banter, at least – from Bones to this perplexed, trulucent resistance from Spock. We thought it would be really fun to have them exist in the same space, and see what that did, what effect that has on a situation. Doug and I had the most fun writing for those two characters." Jung offered, "You [usually] have the emotional represented in McCoy, and the rational represented in Spock, and they're both a little like the angel and the devil on Kirk's shoulder. But in isolating those two, it becomes the greatest odd couple storyline that you could have." ( Star Trek Magazine issue 184 , p. 18) The film's director, Justin Lin , also very much wanted to see what would happen if McCoy became isolated with Spock, away from Kirk. ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 9)
For McCoy actor Karl Urban , the character's scenes with Spock in Star Trek Beyond were absolutely delightful. "I was probably most thrilled with my scenes in the film opposite Spock, who I spend quite a lot of the movie with," he enthused. "That's a great pairing [....] The wonderful thing about pairing those two together is they are diametrically opposed to each other in their perspectives – cultural, historical, and as beings. Their relationship is taken to a new level [in Star Trek Beyond] – a level I don't believe we've seen before in Star Trek [....] The relationship with Spock develops wonderfully [in the film]. There's a deeper understanding between the two characters as a result of their experience." ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , pp. 60 & 62) Spock actor Zachary Quinto likewise approved of both the relationship between those two characters, as well as how it is depicted in Star Trek Beyond. ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 34)
Romantic relationships
Edit
McCoy was married prior to enrolling in Starfleet Academy . His divorce from her prompted him to join, given that he felt she had gotten everything in the ensuing settlement – "the whole damn planet ", in his words – and left him with nothing but his bones . ( Star Trek )
The IDW comic " Bones " establishes her name as Pamela Branch ( β ) and reveals that they met when he "cured" her of an ice cream headache. Though initially happily married, they eventually grew apart as a result of their careers going in different directions. Among the items she got in the settlement were their house, their cars, and a piece of "weird" (according to his father) Vulcan art that McCoy never cared for.
Carol Marcus
Edit
Marcus rebuffs McCoy's awkward advances
McCoy awkwardly flirted with Dr. Marcus while helping her disassemble one of the advanced long-range torpedoes , much to Kirk's annoyance. Marcus ignored his overtures, choosing instead to focus on the task at hand. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
In the Star Trek: Starfleet Academy novel The Gemini Agent , he appears interested in a Starfleet Intelligence officer named Samarra Caan ( β ), while The Assassination Game has McCoy taking an interest in a fellow cadet named Nadja Luther ( β ).
The IDW Star Trek: Ongoing comic " Where No Man Has Gone Before, Part 1 " credits the alternate reality counterpart of Elizabeth Dehner ( β )'s decision not to transfer to the Enterprise to an awkward former relationship with McCoy, thus sparing her the same fate as Gary Mitchell ( β ), unlike her prime universe counterpart .
Key dates
2260 : Embarks on the five-year mission
Memorable quotes
Edit
"I don't need a doctor, damn it! I am a doctor!"
- Leonard McCoy, being forced to his seat from the bathroom of the cadet shuttle at Riverside Shipyard ( Star Trek )
"I suffer from aviophobia . It means fear of dying in something that flies!"
"I might throw up on you."
- Leonard McCoy to James T. Kirk, in the shuttle just before liftoff. ( Star Trek )
"Don't pander to me, kid. One tiny crack in the hull and our blood boils in thirteen seconds. A solar flare might crop up, cook us in our seats. And wait 'til you're sitting pretty with a case of Andorian shingles . See if you're still so relaxed when your eyeballs are bleeding! Space is disease and danger wrapped in darkness and silence."
"Well, I hate to break this to you, but Starfleet operates in space."
"Yeah. Well, I got nowhere else to go, the ex-wife took the whole damn planet in the divorce. All I got left is my bones."
- Leonard McCoy and James T. Kirk, about the safety of their shuttlecraft and why McCoy enlisted in Starfleet. ( Star Trek )
"Who was that pointy-eared bastard?"
"I don't know. But I like him."
- Kirk and McCoy, after meeting Spock for the first time ( Star Trek )
"I might throw up on you."
- James T. Kirk to Leonard McCoy, in the shuttle on the way to the Enterprise, after McCoy had injected him with the Melvaran mud flea vaccine. ( Star Trek )
"Damn it, man, I'm a doctor, not a physicist!"
- Leonard McCoy, in response to Spock's explanation of Nero's origins. ( Star Trek )
"Are you out of your Vulcan mind? Are you making a logical choice sending Kirk away? Probably. But the right one? You know, back home we have a saying: If you're gonna ride in the Kentucky Derby, you don't leave your prize stallion in the stable.""
- Leonard McCoy to Spock, discussing Spock's marooning of Kirk on Delta Vega. ( Star Trek )
- Leonard McCoy, about Spock. ( Star Trek )
"Well congratulations Jim. Now we've got no captain and no goddam first officer to replace him!"
"Yeah we do."
"Pike made him first officer."
"You've got be kidding me!"
"Thanks for the support."
- Leonard McCoy, Jim Kirk and Hikaru Sulu after Kirk forces Spock to resign. ( Star Trek )
"Same ship, different day."
- Leonard McCoy after Kirk backslaps him ( deleted scene , Casting DVD featurette )
"Damn it Man, that was our ride! You just stunned our ride."
- Leonard McCoy to James Kirk when Kirk stuns a Nibrian mammal ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Jim, you're not actually going down there, are you? You don't rob a bank when the getaway car has a flat tire."
- Leonard McCoy, in response to Kirk going down to Qo'nos to find John Harrison ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Jim, wait. You just sat that man down at a high stakes poker game with no cards and told him to bluff. Now Sulu's a good man but he's no captain."
"Well for the next two hours he is... and enough with the metaphors alright? That's an order."
- Leonard McCoy and James Kirk on putting Sulu in command ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Mr. Sulu... remind me never to piss you off."
- Leonard McCoy, reacting to the tone of Sulu's warning message to John Harrison. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Are you out of your corn fed mind?!"
- Leonard McCoy to James T. Kirk on opening up a torpedo. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"You know, when I dreamed about being stuck on a deserted planet with a gorgeous woman, there was no torpedo."
- Leonard McCoy to James T. Kirk on working with Dr. Carol Marcus.
"Sweetheart, I once performed an emergency C-section on a pregnant Gorn; octuplets and let me tell you those little bastards bite ."
- Leonard McCoy to Carol Marcus on opening up a torpedo. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Damn it, man, I'm a doctor, not a torpedo technician!"
- Leonard McCoy, in response to Spock asking him to do surgery on a torpedo. ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"Don't be so melodramatic. You were barely dead."
- Leonard McCoy on the Five Year Mission ( Star Trek Into Darkness )
"To perfect eyesight and a full head of hair."
- Leonard McCoy making a toast to James Kirk a few days before his birthday. ( Star Trek Beyond )
"It looks like a giant snowglobe in space just waiting to break."
- Leonard McCoy regarding the look of Starbase Yorktown. ( Star Trek Beyond )
"You guys break up? What'd you do?"
"A typically reductive inquiry, doctor."
"You know Spock, if an Earth girl says, uh, "It's me, not you", it's definitely you."
- Leonard McCoy to Spock after witnessing Spock and Uhura end their relationship at Yorktown. ( Star Trek Beyond )
"Leaving me behind will significantly increase your chances of survival, Doctor."
"Well that's damn chivalrous of you, but completely out of the question."
"It is imperative that you locate any surviving crew."
"Here I was thinking you cared."
"Of course I care, Leonard. I always assumed my respect for you was clear. The dialogue we have had across the years has always..."
"It's okay, Spock. You don't have to say it."
[McCoy and Spock are surrounded by three of Krall's drone ships]
"Well, at least I won't die alone"
[Spock is beamed out from behind McCoy]
"Well that's just typical."
- Spock and McCoy ( Star Trek Beyond )
"COME ON YOU BASTARDS!"
-Leonard McCoy to Krall's Drone ships before being transported away. ( Star Trek Beyond )
"Next time you have a piece of pipe stuck in your transverse... call a plumber ."
Edit
Urban as McCoy in a US poster promoting Star Trek Into Darkness
Leonard McCoy was played by Karl Urban . In the audio commentary for the film Star Trek , J.J. Abrams stated that the " Bones " line was not actually in the script, but was an on-set improvisation by Urban, a Star Trek fan long before being cast in the film. Urban himself said of McCoy, "'"It's his point of view that I love, and his expression of character. I've been pretty blessed with some fantastic dialogue, particularly from the first film. I had such amazing lines as, 'Space is full of disease and danger, wrapped in darkness and silence.'" ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 63)
Karl Urban felt disappointed about the extent to which McCoy is featured in Star Trek Into Darkness . "There wasn't anything for me to do," he complained. ( Empire , issue 326, p. 67) Scotty actor Simon Pegg agreed, "We didn't really hear much from Bones in [the film]." ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 77)
During filming of Star Trek Into Darkness, Urban became concerned McCoy's lines were making him "some [kind of] metaphor man"; J.J. Abrams' response was to add the line where Kirk orders him to stop using metaphors. Urban's personal favorite of McCoy's metaphors was "You don't rob a bank when the getaway car has a flat tire." [4]
Karl Urban's reaction to McCoy's limited involvement in Star Trek Into Darkness influenced him when he was asked to reprise the role of McCoy in the next film, Star Trek Beyond . "I was actually on the fence about committing to this movie," he related. "Unless I had a function and purpose in this film, what's the point of me being there?" ( Empire , issue 326, p. 67) A conversation with Justin Lin , who was due to direct the movie, persuaded the actor to indeed appear in it as McCoy. "It became clear McCoy was going to have a valid function in this film," Urban continued. "That's something I had been yearning for, to [...] further develop and cement his role." ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 63) Other factors that convinced Urban to appear in the movie were that McCoy's relationships with Kirk and with Spock would be explored therein. ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 63; Empire , issue 326, p. 67)
As co-writer of Star Trek Beyond, Simon Pegg was thrilled to script dialogue for McCoy, who he described as "such an interesting character." "Bones is really fun to write for, just because he's so straight-talking, he uses a lot of metaphors, and his 'Southern charm' is loads of fun," Pegg remarked. ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , pp. 74 & 77) The character's dialogue in Star Trek Beyond deliberately included some call-backs to previous statements made by the McCoy of the prime universe. "There are a couple of moments of dialogue, a couple of McCoy expressions, that we just took as his parlance," admitted Pegg. "Like 'in a pig’s eye' from the end of ' Amok Time ', and we thought, if that's in his parlance, he can say it in this movie. So there were little things that I think fans will go, 'I know that!'" ( The Fifty-Year Mission: The Next 25 Years , p. 812)
Karl Urban thoroughly enjoyed helping craft the depiction of McCoy in Star Trek Beyond, later commenting, "I had a fantastic time collaborating with Doug [Jung] and Simon [Pegg] to deliver what we believe to be some truly quintessential Bones beats." ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 60) Indeed, Urban was proud of their results. "There's a lot more McCoy in this movie than probably the last two movies combined," he observed. ( SFX , issue 276, p. 48) The actor particularly liked performing McCoy's duration on Altamid, despite additionally enjoying the time he spent on the bridge of the Enterprise. "I was [also] very excited I got to 'beam' in this film, which I didn't get to do in the previous two," Urban commented. ( Star Trek Magazine Movie Special 2016 , p. 60)
Justin Lin likewise appreciated the chance to help develop McCoy. "On a personal note, with Karl [Urban] I had so much fun," Lin enthused. "Because Bones was my favorite growing up. So to be able to re-engineer Bones, and to see where he is today but then at the same time how he would interact with challenges and how that would shape who he is and evolve him... That was part of the joy [of making Beyond]." ( SFX , issue 276, p. 49)
Apocrypha
Edit
His female counterpart
In the novelization of Star Trek , as McCoy nervously watches Kirk, Spock and Pike beaming back from the Narada, a throwaway line states that he is never confident about transporter use, establishing that he hates the device just like his counterpart does.
The opening issue of IDW's Star Trek comic series – the first half of an alternate reality re-imagining of " Where No Man Has Gone Before " – reveals that McCoy had a prior relationship with Dr. Elizabeth Dehner ; it ended badly, and relations still so strained that she withdraws a transfer to the Enterprise after discovering McCoy is aboard. This turn of events is fortuitous for Dehner, as therefore, unlike Gary Mitchell , her fatal encounter with the galactic barrier never takes place.
McCoy is also the protagonist of issue 17 , which recounts his backstory, suggesting that his reasons for joining Starfleet were a combination of his failed marriage and as a tribute to a little girl named "Jenny" who died under his care (she had expressed a desire to join Starfleet when she grew up.). His wife's name in the issue is given as Pamela Branch.
The virtual collectible card battle game Star Trek: Rivals uses screenshots for card #35 Recruit L. McCoy, card #55 Cadet L. McCoy, card #82 Medical Officer L. McCoy, and card #98 Chief Medical Officer L. McCoy.
In the 2013 Star Trek video game, McCoy plays a prominent role, developing the vaccine for the Gorn virus. At one point, Kirk and Spock have to rendezvous with McCoy when Commodore Daniels' frontier starbase is attacked by the Gorn, as the doctor had barricaded himself in a room to avoid being attacked. Later, after landing on the Lymax planet, McCoy is hesitant to remain behind on the shuttle and offers to accompany Kirk and Spock in their quest to retrieve T'Mar. Upon donning a wingsuit and looking over the edge of the cliff they plan to jump from, he changes his mind and elects to stay behind with Sulu and "get a head start on that vaccine". At some point, he delivers the babies of a pregnant Gorn by Caesarean after Sulu stuns it, and they almost "bit (his) hand off," as he explains later to Kirk, who finds the story amusing. Just as Kirk defeats Spock in the ring, the shuttle arrives and McCoy gives them a "little care package" of weapons.
Like the rest of the crew of the Enterprise, McCoy has a female counterpart in the parallel timeline portrayed in Parallel Lives, Part 1 and 2 .
In the First issue of IDW's Star Trek: Boldly Go comic series that is set after the events of Star Trek Beyond , McCoy temporarily accepts a lower rank and agreed to serve under Chief Groffus on the USS Endeavour in order to join Kirk and Pavel Chekov who had also been stationed onboard the Endeavour.
| i don't know |
Pulpo is the Spanish word for what type of seafood ? | Pulpo a la Gallega Recipe | Spanish-food.org
Origin: Galicia
Pulpo a la gallega -Galician style octopus- takes us back many centuries, not because the recipe was the same, but because octopus has been consumed in this autonomous region for longer than we can count.
Octopus was one of the few types of seafood that was transported from the coasts to the interior towns and in fact it was far more appreciated in these towns than near the sea, as those had other products such as lobster, king crab and a great variety of fish.
When America was discovered many products appeared in the Spanish markets, including a fake spice obtained from some crushed red chiles , in Spanish they call it pimentón, in English: paprika .
Not only does paprika give a tempting copperish tinge, but it's also great for preserving food in those time before frozen products and easy land transportation. Now it would be possible to preserve the meat and fish products without problems of rotting, molds or even worse. Eureka
But it wasn't until a few years later that pulpo a la gallega became and actual dish. Some 125 years ago, when muleteers went to cattle fairs, they bought large amounts of octopus and then they'd prepare it with olive oil and paprika. Quite simple.
The name in galician for pulpo a la gallega is "pulpo a feira" (fair style octopus) for a very simple reason. During the cattle fairs the farmers would buy or sell cattle, sell their farm products, etc, and buy groceries such as salt, sugar and other products they didn't have daily access to.
The trip to the town where the fair took place took a long time and most people would stay for lunch or dinner. Those who stayed near the fair venue could eat octopus (as we've mentioned before, it was a very typical dish in fairs).
The "pulpeiras" (specialized in octopus) would cook the animal in copper cauldrons and serve the octopi in wooden plates. It is said that the copper pot gives it an incomparable taste that it's impossible to obtain with any other material
Today the story is a little different, we don't need paprika to preserve food, since we freeze it, but in Galicia, which is still a largely rural region, it's possible to go to cattle fairs and eat pulpo a la gallega and watch the preparation process which has it's own special magic. The good news, it's also possible to prepare it at home.
Pulpo a la Gallega | Galician Style Octopus
Ingredients (four portions):
1 octopus of 2 kilos
500 grams of potatoes
Olive oil
Preparation:
If it's a fresh octopus first we must soften the octopus, there are two ways to this, you can either beat it with a wooden rolling pin until its texture softens or freeze it for two days and defrost it the day before cooking it in the fridge (put it in a bowl because it will release a lot of liquid)
Dice the onion and add it to a pan with water. When it begins to boil is time to add the octopus. Grab it's head and dip it in the pan three times. After the third time you put it in and take it out add to the pan permanently. Cook for 50 minutes
Once cooked remove the pan from the fire and let it cool for 15 minutes.
Using the same water in which the octopus was cooked, cook the potatoes (previously peeled and diced). While they boil dice the octopus in medium sized slices.
When the potatoes are cooked remove from water and add to a platter. We add the octopus slices on top.
The final touch is adding the olive oil and paprika and abundant coarse salt. You can prepare a vinaigrette previously or add the ingredients separately.
So, pulpo a la gallega doesn't present many problems and it's always tastes great, however, it is said that all food is better when tasted in its source of origin. Should you ever decide to travel to Spain, we suggest you ask the locals for the best Galician style octopus in town.
| Octopus (disambiguation) |
Which Manchester City player scored the winning goal against Queen's Park Rangers to win the Premier League in 2012 ? | Octopus Salad (Ensalada de Pulpo) Recipe | SimplyRecipes.com
Octopus Salad (Ensalada de Pulpo) Recipe
Cook time: 2 hours
Yield: Serves 4
If you are using frozen octopus, unwrap it and place it in a large rectangular dish filled with cold water to defrost.
Ingredients
One 2 pound octopus, cleaned*
Salt
Several large sprigs of fresh oregano
Several large sprigs of fresh parsley
Several sprigs of fresh cilantro
1 cup seeded, chopped cucumber (peeled if the peels are thick and bitter, otherwise leave them on)
1/2 cup finely chopped red onion
3 green onions, sliced, including some of the darker green ends
1 fresh jalapeno, seeded and minced (test for heat, if really hot, only use a small amount)
1/2 cup (loose) chopped fresh cilantro, including tender stems
1/2 teaspoon dried oregano
1/4 cup olive oil
2 cups chopped, seeded tomatoes
*If you buy a frozen octopus, it has already been cleaned. If you have an octopus fresh from the sea, there are a few steps you need to take to get it ready to cook, i.e. removing the beak, the eyes, and the ink sac. See this video or this blog post for good explanations on how to do that.
Method
1 Heat a large pot of lightly salted water to a boil. Place the raw octopus in the boiling water, return the water to a boil, and boil for 2 minutes. Then remove the octopus from the pot and place to cool on a sheet pan. Discard the cooking water.
2 Cut the octopus into large pieces, discard anything that doesn't look like meat (innards, beak, etc.) that somehow slipped by the cleaning process. Place the pieces of the octopus on the bed of herbs.
3 Prepare a bed of herbs (parsley, cilantro, fresh oregano) in a small Dutch oven or covered casserole. Place the octopus pieces on top of the herbs, cover and bake in a 250°F (120°C) oven for 1 3/4 hours, until tender (adjust cooking time for smaller or larger octopi).
4 Remove the pieces of octopus to a sheet pan to cool. When cool to touch, pull off any gelatinous bits that surround the pieces of the octopus that you don't want to eat. (It's a texture thing. If you don't mind the texture, don't worry about it, it tastes good.) You may also notice small round pieces of meat that sort of look like eyeballs. They're not eyeballs, but pieces from the octopus' suction cups on the tentacles. They taste good too, just like the rest of the octopus. Cut the meat into 1/2-inch pieces. You should have close to 2 cups of chopped octopus meat.
5 Place the chopped octopus into a large, non-reactive bowl. Add the cucumbers, red onion, scallions, cilantro, dried oregano, and jalapeño. Add the lime juice, cider vinegar, olive oil, a sprinkle of salt, and stir to combine. Cover and chill for 2 hours or overnight. Once ready to serve, stir in the chopped tomatoes.
Hello! All photos and content are copyright protected. Please do not use our photos without prior written permission. If you wish to republish this recipe, please rewrite the recipe in your own unique words and link back to Octopus Salad (Ensalada de Pulpo) on Simply Recipes. Thank you!
If you make this recipe, snap a pic and hashtag it #simplyrecipes — We love to see your creations on Instagram , Facebook , & Twitter !
Links:
| i don't know |
Who was the First Lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945 ? | Eleanor Roosevelt Biography - Facts, Childhood, Family Life & Achievements of the American First Lady & Human Rights Act
Miscellaneous
Eleanor Roosevelt Biography
Eleanor Roosevelt was the the First Lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945. Check out this biography to know about her childhood, family life, achievements and other facts related to her life.
Quick Facts
Wife of American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Activist and Promoter of New Deal
Nationality
Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr., Gracie Hall Roosevelt
Spouse/Partner:
Franklin D. Roosevelt
children
Elliott Roosevelt, Anna Roosevelt Halsted, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr., James Roosevelt, John Aspinwall Roosevelt, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr.
education
Finishing school
Image Credit By Unknown or not provided (U.S. National Archives and Records Administration) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
Eleanor Roosevelt was the wife of former American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the First Lady of the United States from 1933 to 1945. After the death of President Roosevelt, Eleanor rose to fame with her work related to womenâs empowerment, New Deal coalition and as a writer, public speaker and political activist. She was a keen political figure who had chaired the John F. Kennedy administration's path breaking committee that brought the start of second-wave feminism. Her role as the chairman of the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women from 1961 to 1962 made her rank in the top ten of the âGallup's List of Most Widely Admired People of the 20th Centuryâ. Eleanor Roosevelt was a powerful figure who played a significant role in co-founding the NGO, âFreedom Houseâ and supporting the formation of the United Nations. She worked hard to bring positive changes in statuses of working women. She was a woman of various roles. She was invited by President Harry S. Truman and confirmed by the United States Senate to become a delegate to the UN General Assembly from 1945 and 1952. Eleanor Roosevelt rose much higher than being just the wife of President Roosevelt as she not only supported her husbandâs New Deal policies but also became a prominent advocate of Americaâs civil rights.
Childhood & Early Life
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt was born on October 11, 1884 in New York City. Her parents, Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt and Anna Rebecca Hall, were well-known socialites.Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States, was her fatherâs elder brother.
Eleanor, who preferred to be known by her second name, was the eldest of her parentsâ three children and had two brothers, Elliott Bulloch Jr. and Gracie Hall Roosevelt. In addition, she had a half brother named Elliott Roosevelt Mann, born through her father's liaison with a family employee Katy Mann.
In October 1892, Eleanorâs mother died from diphtheria and in May 1893, her brother Elliott passed away from the same disease. Soon her alcoholic father had to be confined into a sanatorium. He died there in August 1894.
Eleanor and Hall now began to live in the household of their maternal grandmother, Mary Livingston Ludlow, in Tivoli, New York. Although all her material needs were taken care of, mentally she was very unhappy and insecure. In spite of that, she took good care of Hall.
Eleanor was educated at home up to the age of fifteen. Thereafter, at the insistence of her aunt Anna Roosevelt Cowles, her fatherâs sister and a trusted confidante of President Roosevelt, she was sent to Allenswood Academy, a private finishing school in Wimbledon, England.
Here she studied from 1899 to 1902 and under the guidance of the headmistress she began to blossom. Her training during this period played a key role in shaping her social as well as political ambitions.
Return To USA
In 1902, Eleanor returned to USA at the bidding of her grandmother to be presented at the debutante ball in December. However, by then she had changed a lot and was more interested in social activities than parties and balls.
She now joined the National Consumers League as well as the Junior League for the Promotion of Settlement Movements and volunteered to teach at the College Settlement. Her dedication soon attracted the attention of reform circles in New York.
Also in the summer of 1902, she met Franklin Delano Roosevelt, her fatherâs fifth cousin from the Hyde Park line of the family. Subsequently, they got married on March 17, 1905 with Theodore Roosevelt signing the marriage certificate as a witness.
For about a decade, Eleanorâs life was controlled by her dominant mother-in-law Sara Ann Delano Roosevelt. She lived in the neighboring property in Hyde Park and for easier access into her sonâs home, had connecting doors built between the two properties. She ran both the households.
Later, when her children began to be born, Sara also took control of their upbringing. Eleanor continued to struggle, concentrating on her domestic duties.
Sometime in 1911, FDR, as Franklin Roosevelt was popularly known, was elected to the New York Senate. Taking this opportunity, Eleanor moved to Albany, away from her dominating mother-in-law and set up her first real home.
Political Awakening
In the fall of 1913, FDR joined Woodrow Wilsonâs administration as an Assistant Secretary of Navy. Eleanor now began to have a more proactive role, overseeing FDRâs transition from a Senator to a Junior Cabinet Member.
It not only increased her managerial skills, but also boosted her self-confidence. She now became more independent. During the First World War, Eleanor began her war-related work, volunteering to serve the navy hospitals and American Red Cross.
In September 1918, as the WWI was drawing to an end, she discovered that FDR was having an affair with his secretary Lucy Mercer and was contemplating of leaving her. Although the marriage survived, Eleanor became disillusioned with it and from then on the marriage was reduced to a political partnership.
Emergence As A Public Figure
In 1920, FDR was nominated as the Democratic vice presidential candidate. Eleanor toured the country with him, making her first campaign appearances. As the Democrats lost the election, they returned to New York, where she continued with her public works.
In August 1921, FDR was afflicted with polio and became paralyzed. While his mother wanted him to retire from politics, Eleanor persuaded him to continue with it. She not only tended him devotedly, but also began to serve as a stand-in, making public appearances for him.
At the same time, she started working with the Women's Trade Union League, raising funds for them. Over the time, she became an influential leader with the New York State Democratic Party.
In 1924, she campaigned for Democrat Alfred E. Smith against her first cousin Theodore Roosevelt, Jr. in their run for New York State governorship. While Smith won the election by 105,000 votes, her relationship with her family became sour.
In 1927, Eleanor, along with few of her friends established Val-Kill Industries to provide supplemental income for local farming families; here they made furniture, pewter, and homespun cloth using traditional craft methods. She also played an important role in expanding the Dalton School.
In 1928, she played a significant role in promoting FDR in his successful bid as the governor of New York. During her husbandâs governorship, Eleanor traveled widely through the state, inspecting state facilities, giving speeches and reporting to FDR at the end of each trip.
Tenure As The First Lady
On March 4, 1933 Franklin Delano Roosevelt became the 32nd President of the United States of America and with that Eleanor Roosevelt became the First Lady of the country. However, the designation actually depressed her because she could not envisage a life similar to the ones led by the previous First Ladies.
Therefore, she set on redefining the role and with her husbandâs firm support, continued looking after her business interests and also giving speeches. While this attracted criticism, she earned $75,000 from her lectures and writing in the very first year.
While the âBonus Armyâ of WWI veterans and their families came marching to Washington DC, Eleanor went to meet them. She defused the tension between the administration and the veterans, paving the way for a permanent solution.
During her tenure as the First Lady between 1933 and 1945, she traveled widely, appeared regularly at press conferences and spoke about human rights, womenâs issues and childrenâs causes. She also appeared regularly at labor meetings, reaching out to the workers during the Great Depression.
Moreover, she actively supported American Youth Congress and National Youth Administration, the latter being a New Deal Agency formed in the response to the Great Depression. She also dedicated a lot of her time and energy for anti-lynching campaigns and for fair housing for minorities.
As the Second World War broke out in 1939, she took up war time causes like allowing immigration of European refugee children to USA. She also tried to persuade the administration to accept greater number of Jews, persecuted by Nazis, but was not very successful in that.
In 1941, Eleanor Roosevelt co-chaired the Office of Civilian Defense and also wrote a script for a short film 'Women in Defense', which was released in the same year. Concurrently, she began to encourage women of all classes to learn trade and be independent.
In October 1942, she went to England, where she visited American troops as well as the British forces. In August 1943, to boost the morale of the American troops stationed in the South Pacific, she travelled there and was most shaken by what she saw.
Life After White House
Franklin Roosevelt suffered a cerebral hemorrhage in April 1945 and died on 12 April. Eleanor now returned to Val-Kill, a property she herself had built. Although she now decided to lead a private life, it was not to be.
In 1945, she was appointed a delegate to the United Nations General Assembly by President Truman, a position she held until 1953. From April 1946 to 1951, she was the chairperson of the preliminary United Nations Commission on Human Rights.
In 1961, she was reappointed to the United States delegation by President John F. Kennedy. She was later appointed to the National Advisory Committee of the Peace Corps and to chair the President's Commission on the Status of Women.
Major Works
As Chairperson of United Nations Commission on Human Rights, she played an important role in drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). It was adopted by the General Assembly on December 10, 1948 by a vote of 48 in favor, none against; though eight countries abstained from voting.
Apart from her public work, she also found time to write several books about her life and experiences, including âThis Is My Storyâ (1937), âThis I Rememberâ (1949), âOn My Ownâ (1958) and âAutobiographyâ (1961). Besides, from 1936 until her death she wrote a syndicated column, âMy Dayâ, which appeared six days a week.
Awards & Achievements
In 1968, in recognition of her work, the United Nation awarded her one of its first Human Rights Prizes posthumously.
Personal Life & Legacy
Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt had six children, Anna Eleanor Roosevelt, James Roosevelt II, Franklin Roosevelt, Elliott Roosevelt, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Jr. and John Aspinwall Roosevelt II.
In April 1960, Eleanor Roosevelt was diagnosed with aplastic anemia. In 1962, she had to be given steroids, which activated a dormant case of bone marrow tuberculosis.
On November 7, 1962 she died from cardiac failure at her Manhattan home. On November 8, the United States flag was flown at half-mast in her honor throughout the world.
Later in 1973, she was posthumously inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame and in 1977 her stone cottage at Val-Kill was declared Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site.
In addition, the Eleanor Roosevelt Monument in Riverside Park, New York, Eleanor Roosevelt College in San Diego, and the Eleanor Roosevelt Awards for Human Rights, established in 1998 by the President Bill Clinton carry her legacy even today.
Translate this page to Spanish, French, Hindi, Portuguese
Pictures of Eleanor Roosevelt
| Eleanor Roosevelt |
Each September at Abbots Bromley in Staffordshire , men perform an ancient animal dance holding what ? | Franklin D. Roosevelt | whitehouse.gov
Air Force One
Franklin D. Roosevelt
Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression as our 32nd President (1933-1945), Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves.
Assuming the Presidency at the depth of the Great Depression, Franklin D. Roosevelt helped the American people regain faith in themselves. He brought hope as he promised prompt, vigorous action, and asserted in his Inaugural Address, "the only thing we have to fear is fear itself."
Born in 1882 at Hyde Park, New York--now a national historic site--he attended Harvard University and Columbia Law School. On St. Patrick's Day, 1905, he married Eleanor Roosevelt.
Following the example of his fifth cousin, President Theodore Roosevelt, whom he greatly admired, Franklin D. Roosevelt entered public service through politics, but as a Democrat. He won election to the New York Senate in 1910. President Wilson appointed him Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and he was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1920.
In the summer of 1921, when he was 39, disaster hit-he was stricken with poliomyelitis. Demonstrating indomitable courage, he fought to regain the use of his legs, particularly through swimming. At the 1924 Democratic Convention he dramatically appeared on crutches to nominate Alfred E. Smith as "the Happy Warrior." In 1928 Roosevelt became Governor of New York.
He was elected President in November 1932, to the first of four terms. By March there were 13,000,000 unemployed, and almost every bank was closed. In his first "hundred days," he proposed, and Congress enacted, a sweeping program to bring recovery to business and agriculture, relief to the unemployed and to those in danger of losing farms and homes, and reform, especially through the establishment of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
By 1935 the Nation had achieved some measure of recovery, but businessmen and bankers were turning more and more against Roosevelt's New Deal program. They feared his experiments, were appalled because he had taken the Nation off the gold standard and allowed deficits in the budget, and disliked the concessions to labor. Roosevelt responded with a new program of reform: Social Security, heavier taxes on the wealthy, new controls over banks and public utilities, and an enormous work relief program for the unemployed.
In 1936 he was re-elected by a top-heavy margin. Feeling he was armed with a popular mandate, he sought legislation to enlarge the Supreme Court, which had been invalidating key New Deal measures. Roosevelt lost the Supreme Court battle, but a revolution in constitutional law took place. Thereafter the Government could legally regulate the economy.
Roosevelt had pledged the United States to the "good neighbor" policy, transforming the Monroe Doctrine from a unilateral American manifesto into arrangements for mutual action against aggressors. He also sought through neutrality legislation to keep the United States out of the war in Europe, yet at the same time to strengthen nations threatened or attacked. When France fell and England came under siege in 1940, he began to send Great Britain all possible aid short of actual military involvement.
When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Roosevelt directed organization of the Nation's manpower and resources for global war.
Feeling that the future peace of the world would depend upon relations between the United States and Russia, he devoted much thought to the planning of a United Nations, in which, he hoped, international difficulties could be settled.
As the war drew to a close, Roosevelt's health deteriorated, and on April 12, 1945, while at Warm Springs, Georgia, he died of a cerebral hemorrhage.
The Presidential biographies on WhiteHouse.gov are from “The Presidents of the United States of America,” by Frank Freidel and Hugh Sidey. Copyright 2006 by the White House Historical Association.
For more information about President Roosevelt, please visit
| i don't know |
Which Mediterranean herb is also known as wild marjoram ? | What Is Oregano? (Is It the Same as Marjoram?)
What is oregano? Is oregano the same as marjoram?
Oregano is often confused with marjoram
Answer
Common oregano is botanically known as Origanum vulgare, Greek for "joy of the mountains." It can be found growing wild on mountainsides of Greece and other Mediterranean countries where it is a herb of choice. Also known as wild marjoram, the oregano plant is a perennial which grows up to two feet tall and bears tiny leaves which lend a pungent aroma and strong flavor to a variety of savory foods.
When in bloom, the plant sports pink or purple flowers , which are also edible. The leaves are used fresh from the plant or dried. Oregano is one of the few herbs that is stronger when dried than when fresh. Commercially, oregano's biggest market is in perfumes.
Oregano, commonly called "the pizza herb," is one of the most widely-used herbs worldwide, so it is hard to imagine anyone not having tried it. However, oregano was virtually unused in America until returning World War II soldiers heightened the popularity of pizza .
In fact, sales of oregano increased by 5200 percent between 1948 and 1956 due to pizza mania. Yet oregano to one person may be something completely different to another, as it is easily confused with its close relative, marjoram.
Oregano Confusion
There are a number of different varieties of oregano. The strongest is considered to be Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens), which is actually from a different botanical family. Mexican oregano is also known as Mexican marjoram or Mexican wild sage, and if your recipe calls for this specifically, try not to substitute. Spanish (Origanum vivens) and Greek (Origanum heraclites) oregano follow in a depth of flavor.
Adding more confusion to the mix is the close relationship between marjoram (Origanum majorana) and oregano, which naturally means they also look very much alike. While its gentler flavor is sweeter and its aroma not quite as pungent, marjoram is often confused with oregano. Sweet marjoram has leaves which are slightly hairy and more gray-green in color.
More about Oregano and Oregano Recipes:
| Oregano |
What was adopted as the official motto of the United States in 1956 ? | Oregano (spices, oils and condiments)
spices, oils and condiments
Recipes
Oregano, also known as wild marjoram, is an aromatic and medicinal herb native to the Mediterranean region. Oregano leaves are small, green, and slightly rounded. They are commonly used in Mediterranean cuisine and are an ingredient in the Herbes de Provence mixture, together with others such as rosemary and lovage.
Buying
Fresh oregano is found between May and September. It is found in the fresh herb section of supermarkets and sometimes at fruit and vegetable dealers. Dried oregano can be used throughout the year. It is sold in bags or jars in the spice section of supermarkets.
Preparation
Before using fresh oregano, it should be washed and dried on kitchen paper towels. Because the leaves are small, there is no need to chop them. They can be added to dishes whole.
Cooking
Oregano should not be cooked for a long time or it will lose its flavor. It should be added to a dish once it has finished cooking.
Use
Oregano is a very common ingredient of Italian and Greek cuisine. It is widely used on pizzas and for tomato sauces, grilled meats, stuffings, focaccia, and pissaladière. It can also be used to flavor olive oil. Just add a sprig to a bottle of olive oil and let infuse for a few days before use. Generally, it is suitable for a large number of Mediterranean recipes.
Storage
A bunch of fresh oregano should be kept in a slightly moistened kitchen paper towel inside a plastic bag in the vegetable crisper drawer of the refrigerator, where it will keep for several days. Dried oregano should be stored in an airtight container in a dry place away from light and heat.
Nutritional value
Oregano is a herb that contains a lot of vitamins A and C, in addition to iron and calcium. It has been attributed antiseptic properties.
Flavor pairings
| i don't know |
Which fish, with the scientific name Pleuronectes platessa , is a flatfish immediately identifiable by the reddish or orange spots on its upper side ? | A guide to buying seafood and fish | Living a Life in Colour
Living a Life in Colour
a guide to Italian food, wine and culture
Seafood and Fish
Atlantic white-spotted octopus – See Octopus
Boston lobster – See Lobster
Chiocciola di mare – See Sea snail
Clams, Razor clams (Vongola / Arsella, Lupino, Tellina / Tartufo di mare, Caparozzoli, Cappa liscia/Fasolaro / Cannolicchio, Cappalunga) (Venerupis decussata / Tapes decussatus, Venerupis semidecussatus / Tapes philippinarum, Chamelea gallina, Venerupis semidecussatus / Tapes philippinarum, Venus verrucosa, Donax trunculus, Callista chione and Solen vagina / Solen marginatus / Ensis Minor / Ensis Ensis / Pharus legume)
Vongole verace by Meimanrensheng
Wedge shelled clams by Gia Parsons
Razor clams by Rubber Slippers in Italy
Buy: Buy only very fresh clams of medium size (not too big or small). Clams can also be purchased frozen and tinned but fresh and alive are the best. Vongole verace and razor clams are only sold fresh. All the shells should be firmly shut with no cracks in the shells. If some of the clams are open, shake them around and they should shut immediately. They should not have a fishy or sharp odour.
Varieties:
Carpet shell clams (Vongola verace, Falsa verace/Vongola gialla, and Lupino/Venus gallina are the most important varieties) (Venerupis decussata / Tapes decussatus, Venerupis semidecussatus / Tapes philippinarum, Chamelea gallina): These have a rounded shell.
Lupino/Venus gallina (Chamelea gallina) clams are rounded with deep concentric grooves on the shell and a greyish brown zig-zag patterned colouring. They are 3 to 4cm in diameter and are harvested throughout the year except June. They are prevalent in the Adriatic Sea. They are quite flavourful. Lupini cannot be farmed and should be purchased packaged and labelled as a guarantee to the consumer.
Falsa verace/Vongola gialla (Venerupis semidecussatus / Tapes philippinarum) have shells which are thinner and more elongated than venus gallina. It is more vividly coloured with brown colour has spots of lighter or darker colour. They are 4cm or less in diameter. It is distinguishable from the vongola verace by its siphons which form a “II”. Many of these clams originate in the Philippines. They are inferior in flavour to the vongola verace.
Vongola verace (Venerupis decussata / Tapes decussatus) are the most prized of the clams but are more rare nowadays. They have irregular concentric grooves on the shell and are a varied smokey brown colour. They grow to a maximum of 4 to 5cm in diameter. They are different from the vongola gialla as the inside is more yellow, the shell is so thin you can break it with your thumbnail, it is less vividly coloured on the outside and the siphons form a “V” shape. Vongole verace are farmed in the Po delta and in the Venetian lagoon.
Venus (bumpy shelled: Tartufo di mare / Caparozzolo) (Venus verrucosa): These are one of the largest clams and can reach 5 to 6 cm in diameter. They are distinguishable by the concentric circles on their shell. They should be purchased packaged and labelled as a guarantee to the consumer. These clams can be eaten raw with a squeeze of lemon juice and a sprinkle of black pepper or cooked with pasta like vongole verace (linguine con vongole).
Wedge shelled clams (Tellina / Arsella) (Donax trunculus): Wedge shelled clams live on sandy beaches. Wedge shelled clams should be purchased packaged and labelled as a guarantee to the consumer. They have a refined and elegant flavour so should not be paired with strong flavours.
Smooth clam (Cappa liscia/Fasolaro) (Callista chione): The smooth clam can reach a diameter of 8 cm. It has a thick dark brown shell. They should be purchased in packaged net bags and labelled as a guarantee to the consumer.
Razor clams (Cannolicchio / Cappalunga) (Solen vagina): Razor clams have an elongated, thin, rectangular brown or cream shell and can be up to 15cm long and 2 cm wide. They live in the Adriatic and Tyrrhennian Seas. They are sold in bunches fresh or frozen.
Store: Keep the clams alive until it is time to cook them. Place them on a damp towel in the refrigerator at 0-6C. They can be kept like this for 2 to 3 days. Razor clams are difficult to store out of the water as they dehydrate quickly so try to use them the same day. Razor clams should be stored with the foot downwards and the siphons upwards.
Prepare: Frozen clams should be defrosted in the refrigerator. Discard any shells which are open or cracked. The day you are going to cook the clams, scrub the shells under cold running water. Then mix together 100 grams of non-iodised salt per 1 litre of cold water and cover the clams with this salted water for 4 to 5 hours in the refrigerator so that they filter out any sand or grit. Any shells which float to the surface should be discarded. Seafood is best cooked gently- by steaming, sautéing, poaching, or light broiling for about 10 minutes. Do not overcook. You know they are done cooking when the shell opens. Razor clams also have a sack at one end which holds sandy deposits which should be removed before serving. Clam cooking liquid can be collected, strained, and used in dishes to add additional flavour. Discard any clams which have not opened during cooking.
Smooth clams need to be shelled and the red part beaten with a meat tenderiser.
Eat: Clams are good with pasta (linguine con vongole), soup (zuppa di vongole), or as a stew (vongole alla napoletana). Razor clams are good eaten raw, steamed, baked, stewed, deep-fried, broiled, grilled, in soups, gratinéed, or in seafood salads.
Conchiglia di San Giacomo – See Scallop
Conchiglia di San Jacopo– See Scallop
Crab (Granchio / Granciporro / Grancevola / Granseola / Favollo) (Cancer pagarus, Carcinus aestuarii, Maja squinado, Liocarcinus vernalis, Macropipus depurator, Macropipus corrugatus, Eriphia verrucosa)
Brown crab by Marine Stewardship Council
Green crabs by Michael Horne
Spider crab by Swimfinfan
Sand crab by Hans Hillewaert
Yellow shore crab by Narice28
Equivalent: 450 grams of crab in the shell = 115 grams crab meat
There are different types of crabs in Italy but the spider crab is a distinct type that is highly prized.
Edible crab / Brown crab (Granciporro) (Cancer pagarus) is large, about 40cm and is found in lagoons around Venice and in the Atlantic Ocean. It is hazelnut to light yellow in colour with large claws. It should have a slightly raised tail under the body. It is fished year-round.
Green crab / Shore crab (Granchio comune / Granchio verde) (Carcinus aestuarii) is grey with shades of green or red. A green crab is about 7cm long and is found on the beaches, particularly around the northern Adriatic Sea. It is also eaten after it has molted when its shell is soft (then called “moeca” or “moleca”). It is fished year-round. In Venice the females (called “masanate“) are particularly prized at the end of summer when they are full of eggs.
Spider crab (Grancevola / Granseola) (Maja squinado) can be up to 20cm long with long legs and a rounded body in a pear shape with spines. It’s name in Italian derives from “granzo seola” which in Venetian dialect means “onion crab”, referring to its shape. They are found in the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Females are smaller but have more meat while males are bigger but have less meat, although their meat is more delicate. The females are distinguishable as their underbelly is round whereas in the males it is triangular and elongated. These crabs are meatiest between mid-December until the end of February. They are ideally purchased live.
Swimmer crab / Sand crab (Granchio di sabbia) (Liocarcinus vernalis, Macropipus depurator, Macropipus corrugatus) has a greenish back and yellow-white belly. Some swimmer crabs have claws and others don’t. The males grow to 5 to 6cm while the females grow to 3 to 4cm. The meat is very flavourful and it can survive for a long time out of the water. A swimmer crab can molt its hard shell from March to June and from September to December. During this time it can be eaten whole.
Yellow shore crab / Furry crab (Favollo/Granchio fellone) (Eriphia verrucosa) is a large, 10-12 cm dark red-brown coloured crab with large claws, hairy legs, and spikes near the eyes. It lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea and is eaten in the winter and for most of the spring. It is one of the tastiest crabs to eat. It is highly prized in Toscana where it is boiled and used for pasta sauces and soups.
Mediterranean Geryon (Granchio di fondo) (Geryon longipes) is red and grows up to 8 cm long. It lives in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea and the north and central Adriatic Sea. It is particularly enjoyed in Liguria where it is served simply with tomato sauce or in soups.
Box crab / Shame-faced crab (Granchio melograno) (Calappa granulata) has a 10-15 cm round brownish body with red nodules. It lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It has delicate, delicious meat which is usually boiled and served in salad with olive oil.
Store: Like with most seafood, crabs are ideally bought live or freshly cooked and eaten the same day as purchased. If the crab is purchased alive, then keep it in an empty pot or other container to keep it from escaping. Wet newspapers and place on top of the crabs to keep them moist but do not cover so that they can breathe. Leave in a cool spot in the kitchen. If it is freshly cooked then keep the crab in the refrigerator until ready to use.
Prepare: Wash the crab in cold running water, brushing to remove any sand or mud. If you want to present the crab whole and are using live crabs, you may want to dunk it in ice water before cooking to help keep the legs attached. This relaxes the crab so that it doesn’t panic when being cooked and drop its legs as a defensive instinct.
Brown crabs must be boiled in salt water or ideally court-bouillon for 20 minutes in order to shell. Green crabs should be boiled in salted water for 10 minutes and left to cool in the liquid. Spider crabs must be boiled first for 3-4 minutes before you can open the shell if to be used in sauces, pasta or risotto or 10-15 minutes (depending on the size) for salads.
Seafood is best cooked gently- by steaming, poaching, or light broiling. Seafood needs very little flavourings if very fresh. For a step-by-step guide on how to dress a crab, click here. The shells can be used for broth.
Eat: Crabs are good in fish soup (cacciucco and ciuppino), in pasta (spaghetti al favollo and linguine con granchio), stuffed, risotto (granseola in risotto), or served on their own boiled, poached, or steamed and dressed in lemon juice and olive oil (granseola olio e limone). Crabs can be baked, deep-fried, grilled, poached, sautéed, steamed, and stewed. If using crab in a soup, stew, or sauce, you can fry the crab in the shell first before removing the meat to add more flavour. Spider crab (grancevola) is cooked whole and the flesh and claws are eaten. Soft shell crabs are eaten grilled or deep-fried. Yellow shore crabs can also be eaten raw with a squeeze of lemon.
Cuttlefish (Seppia / Seccia / Sepa / Sepia / Scarpetta) (Sepia officinalis, Sepia elegans, Sepiola rondeleti)
Cuttlefish by Barcelona
Substitutes: Squid (calamaro), European flying squid (totano) or octopus
Cuttlefish is similar to squid but with a larger head and wider body. It is light brown with stripes with bright white flesh. It lives in the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. They are fished from spring to autumn and in the winter. Cuttlefish is more tender than squid or octopus. They have a very mild flavour. There are two other minor species of cuttlefish which live in the Mediterranean: the Elegant cuttlefish (Seppia di fango) (Sepia elegans) and the Dwarf bobtail squid (Seppolina) (Sepiola rondeleti) which have a rounded body and are inferior.
Buy: Cuttlefish can grow up to 25cm long and have 10 tentacles (8 long and 2 short). It is best eaten in the winter. Buy only very fresh cuttlefish if you need to use the ink as the ink changes from liquid when fresh, to grainy if it has been frozen. Otherwise frozen cuttlefish are pretty good as they don’t lose much flavour and become more tender after having been frozen. The ink can also be purchased separately in little sacks. The best quality cuttlefish are the young ones as they have better flavour, are tender, and cook more quickly although the size is not necessarily an indication of age. Tiny cuttlefish are known as “seppoline”. Under 5cm are definitely young but once they are over 15cm, it is more difficult to determine the age. The dish you are preparing will determine what size cuttlefish to buy. The large ones are better for a main course dish which require long cooking times whereas the smaller ones, between 10 to 15cm in length, are better for deep-frying, grilling and in pasta. The reproductive organs of the cuttlefish (uova di seppia / gonadi / ovi o latti di sepa) are also sold and are boiled and served in salad in Venezia.
Store: The larger ones are better stored in the refrigerator for a day or two before cooking. They can be successfully frozen for months if well-sealed.
Prepare: The preparation for cuttlefish is similar to that for squid. Inside the cuttlefish is a white shell or cuttlebone, which is removed in preparation. See here for a guide on how to prepare squid. The texture of the larger cuttlefish can be improved by marinating in wine vinegar, and salt. The smaller ones cook faster than the larger ones.
Eat: Cuttlefish must be cooked either very quickly (2-3 minutes) or for a very long time (more than 30 minutes, the older the cuttlefish, the longer it needs to be cooked) to achieve a good texture. The quickly cooked cuttlefish may be slightly rubbery in texture and have a marine-like flavour. This is suitable for salads, stuffing and deep-frying (seppie fritte and seppioline), grilling (seppie ai ferri), broiling or griddling. Slow-cooked cuttlefish will become soft and tender in texture with a more intense flavour. The head, tentacles and wings are most suited to slow-cooking. This is suitable for soups and stewing (seppie alla veneziana, zimino / zemin, and seppie coi carciofi). They can also be baked (seppie al forno), boiled, steamed and roasted. Sometimes the baby cuttlefish are eaten raw (allievei crudi). The ink is used in pasta and risotto dishes (risotto nero), particularly in Veneto and Toscana.
Date Mussel – See Mussels
Dattero di mare – See Mussels
Dublin Bay prawn – See Lobster
Fragoline di mare – See Octopus
Langoustine – See Lobster
Lesser octopus – See Octopus
Lobster / Boston lobster / American lobster / Spiny lobster / Rock lobster / Norway lobster / Dublin Bay prawn / Langoustine (Astice / Aragosta, Scampo) (Homarus gammarus, Homarus americanus, Palinurus elephas, Nephrops norvegicus)
Boston lobster by Christophe Quintin
Langoustine by Hans Hillewaert
Spiny lobster by José Antonio Gil Martínez
Equivalents: 450 gram lobster = 1 main dish serving = 2 starter serving
800 grams langoustines in the shell = 250 grams langoustine shelled = 2 servings
Whole lobster weight x 30% = meat weight
Langoustine weight x 30% = meat weight
Buy: Lobster is a shellfish which is sold frozen, alive, fresh, and cooked. It is best to buy live lobsters. Do not buy dead fresh lobsters, tinned lobster, or cooked picked lobster meat. Lobsters range in colour depending on the species, see Type below. A lobster weighing about 600-700 grams is the optimal size for most dishes. Don’t buy a lobster weighing more than 2 kilos as the meat can be stringy. Look for a lobster which is not missing legs or claws, not floppy, and feels heavy for its size. If the lobster is alive, there should be tension in its tail and claws. The lobster should have been fished in the past couple of days as a lobster in captivity shrink and the meat becomes rubbery. If it smells fishy then do not buy it. For cooked lobster, pull the tail straight and see if it springs back to determine if it was cooked when alive. Italians prefer Mediterranean spiny lobsters to Boston lobsters.
Langoustine is sold frozen, cooked or fresh. It needs to be eaten directly after being fished so is often frozen or cooked. To judge the freshness of a langoustine, look at the eyes which should be dark black and plump, not sunken and grey. The shell should have a sheen even if it is not wet and not appear dehydrated. The head should not be brown and should not be separating from the tail. Sometimes only their tails are sold frozen. Frozen langoustine is also good but fresh is preferable. They are often treated with sulphites to prevent their discolouration.
Types:
European lobster / Common Lobster, Boston lobster / American lobster (Astice / Astaco) (Homarus gammarus, Homarus americanus) The European lobster (homarus gammarus) has a blue and black shell with white spots and lives in the north Atlantic between France and Norway. The Boston lobster (homarus americanus) is smaller, more brown in colour and lives along the North American Atlantic coast from Maine to Canada. Both types turn brick red on the back and cream and coral colour on the underside when cooked. Unlike other lobsters, this lobster has claws (which are bigger on the male). They can grow to 60 cm in length. The flesh is more elastic than that of the spiny lobster with a less delicate flavour. The best lobsters are from the coldest waters. The male lobster has firmer flesh than the female and has larger, meatier claws. The female lobster has more delicately flavoured flesh, a broader tail, and may have roe. The flesh is a creamy pink colour, and is firm and delicate in texture, with excellent flavour. Their dark green coral (usually in the males) and whitish liver have an excellent flavour and are good in sauces and risotto.
They are at their best and are at their most abundant during the summer. There are also Boston lobsters from Africa which are brown in colour with inferior meat. They are in season from October through June.
Norway lobster / Langouste / Scampo / Dublin Bay prawn / Langoustine (Scampi / Scampo / Arganello / Astrocio /Lempitu di fangu / Renfele ‘e funnale) (Nephrops norvegicus) is a very small pink-orange shelled Mediterranean lobster with small spines, which can grow to 25cm. The flesh is delicate and soft. The Mediterranean langoustine has a thinner shell than the one in the UK. It has pale claws. They are found in the Adriatic and Tyrrhenian Seas, northern hemisphere seas, and along northern Africa. They are in season in the spring or autumn. They are usually sold frozen as they discolour within hours of fishing if not treated with sulfites (this only stops the discolouration rather than halts the deteriation of the quality of the meat). The use of sulfites is not ideal as some people are allergic. If the langoustine are not fresh, there may be a smell of ammonia and will appear dehydrated with the head separating from the body. Italians tend to prefer spiny lobster most, with langoustine then Boston lobster considered close contenders.
Spiny lobster / Rock lobster (Aragosta / Elefante di mare /Agosta / Langusta / Aligusta / Alaustra) (Palinurus elephas) is a crustacean rather than a true lobster, is smaller (up to 50 cm in length and 8 kilos in weight) and has no claws. The spiny lobster has two long antennae, two small antennae, and five pairs of legs. It is red-brown, pink, or green with yellow or white specks. It is found along the coasts of Sardinia and Sicilia. The female has a double row of fins under the tail and may have roe. Their dark green coral (usually in the males) and orange liver have an excellent flavour and are good in sauces and risotto.
Types:
Caribbean spiny lobster (Cuba) (Panulirus argus) is brown with large light-coloured spots and has large antennae. It lives in subtropical and tropical waters in various oceans. The meat is flavourful but inferior to the palinurus elephas.
Mediterranean lobster / European spiny lobster (Aragosta Nostrana/ Aragosta Mediterranea) (Palinurus elephas) isbrick-red coloured with two white dots on each segment of the tail and has the tastiest meat. It lives in the Mediterranean Sea. They are fished from October to June. They reproduce in the spring when they have roe.
Pink spiny lobster/ Portugal spiny lobster (Aragosta Rosa/Aragosta di Portogallo) (Palinurus mauritanicus) is lighter in colour with light-coloured flecks. Its meat has less flavour and is not as delicate.
Royal spiny lobster (Aragosta verde/Aragosta di Mauritania) (Palinurus regius) is blue-green coloured and lives in subtropical or tropical waters, particularly from Africa. It has less flavour than the Mediterranean species.
Store: It is best eaten immediately but you can keep it in the refrigerator for a day by rolling it loosely in damp newspaper inside a ventilated paper bag.
Prepare: Before cooking live lobsters, it is kind to kill them first. Either freeze it for 10 minutes or place it upside down, holding it by the curve in its tail, and rub your finger along the top of the head until the lobster calms down. Place it on a cutting board and plunge a knife into the indentation in the shell just behind the eyes (between the eyes and the tail) and draw the knife downwards between the eyes. If you need to halve the lobster then turn the knife around and draw the blade down from head to tail to cut it in half. Lobster is typically boiled or grilled. To boil a lobster add it whole to a large pot filled with boiling salted water (20 grams of salt per litre of water) until the lobster has turned brightly red (a 500 gram lobster will take 12 minutes, a 750 gram lobster will take 18 minutes, a kilo lobster will take 24 minutes; add an extra 5 minutes for each additional 500 grams). Lobster should be cooked gently and quickly as overcooked lobster meat is tough and rubbery.
The tail can be twisted off from the body and cut in half by drawing a knife down the tail or if you want to keep the meat whole, use scissors to cut down the shell covering the underside of the tail and pull the meat out. The body can be used for soups or sauces if you remove the sand sac and the intestines. The green liver, or tomalley, is excellent for sauces. To prepare the tail, draw out the vein in the back holding the waste. There may also be eggs inside and/or the coral, which are perfectly edible and can be used in sauces. The eggs are black when raw and turn orange when cooked, they can also be cooked in butter and eaten. The claws, including the knuckles can be twisted off and cracked with a mallet. If extracting and chopping the flesh, boil it for 2 minutes before cutting and keep the lobster in relatively large pieces so it retains its moisture. To grill, cut in half lengthwise and place the back on the grill (the hairs on the legs burn and make the taste bitter). If baking, bake for 25 minutes at 225 C. Serve it immediately after cooking so it does not loose its flavour.
To prepare langoustine, wash under cold, running water and brush the shell if there are algae or anything stuck to the shell. It can be kept whole (best to crack the shell) or the tail removed (as all the meat is in the tail) and the head can be used for soup. To remove the shell or just crack it, place the langoustine on a cutting board stomach down and cut along the back with scissors or place back down and cut along the stomach. Pull the shell open and remove the black line with a toothpick.
Eat: Lobster is best cooked simply by boiling in court-bouillon (aragosta alla bosana), steaming, fried, broiling, roasted (aragosta arrosto), or grilling (aragosta alla griglia). It can be served hot or cold (aragosta in insalata), plain or simply dressed with mayonnaise or olive oil and lemon juice. It is also eaten cooked with tomato (aragosta alla catalana), with pasta or rice with tomato sauce (spaghetti all’aragosta), pasta with mushrooms and butter, or soup (zuppa di aragoste).
Langoustine is normally boiled in court-bouillon for 3-4 minutes (scampi lessati), breaded and deep-fried for 3-4 minutes (scampi fritti) , steamed for 6-8 minutes, grilled for 10 minutes (scampi alla griglia), baked for 10 minutes, sautéed for 6 minutes (code di scampi, fave e piselli), or added to risotto or pasta.
Lumaca di mare – See Sea snail
Mantis prawn – See Prawn
Moscardino – See Octopus
Moscardino bianco – See Octopus
Mussel, Sea date / Date mussel / Pholas dactylus (Cozza / Mitilo / Muscolo, Dattero di mare / Folade) (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Modiolus barbatus, Lithophag lithophaga, Pholas dactylus)
Bearded horse mussel by Vito Palmi
Blue mussel by Hans Hillewaert
Date mussel by Wikimedia Commons
Regional names: Mussels: arcella niura, dattero, modiola, mosciolo, musciolo (Marche), pediocio, peocio (Venice); Pholas dactylus: lattaro ‘e mare, lattaro verace,
Equivalents: 900 grams = 2 servings
Buy: Mussels are a shellfish which filter water, so it is essential they are grown in clean waters. They should only be consumed from September to April due to toxins produced by the algae during the summer months which the mussels filter. All the shells should be firmly shut with no cracks. Only buy very fresh seafood. In Italy, they are farmed and sold in net ags with labels stating the species, place of origin and date and place of packing. Ensure that the mussels are farmed in an area of clean water free from pathogens, fecal matter or heavy metals in the water as the mussels filter the water. They should be eaten within 5 days of packing. Buy more than you need as you may need to discard some.
Types:
Mussel (Cozze / Mitilo) (Mytilus galloprovincialis, Modiolus barbatus, Mytilus edulis) have a rounded triangular shaped shell which is blackish blue with a smoky brown hue. The inside has a pearly shine to it. They can be farmed or grow wild attaching themselves to rocks or piers in clumps. The small to medium-sized mussels are the best. Avoid large ones if possible. The best mussels are from Tarantoin Puglia.
Types:
Bearded horse mussel (Cozza pelosa / Modiola) (Modiolus barbatus) is prized for its meat. The shell is easily recognizable as it is covered in fur and is not larger than 5 cm in length. It can be cooked but is usually served raw.
Blue mussel / Common mussel (Cozza edule / Cozza spagnola / Cozza Atlantico) (Mytilus edulis) is from the Atlantic Ocean. They grow up to 10 cm. It has delicate and flavourful meat.
Mediterranean mussel (Mitilo Galloprovinciale / Mitilo commune) (Mytilus galloprovincialis) grow in the Mediterranean Sea and are farmed. They grow up to 10 cm.
Sea date / Date mussel, Pholas dactylus (Dattero di mare, Folade) (Lithophag lithophaga, Pholas dactylus)resemble dates and are difficult to gather as they secrete an acid to help embed themselves in rock. Date mussels must be sold fresh.
Date mussel (Dattero di mare) (Lithophaga lithophaga)have a dark brown shell that is typically 5-8 cm in length but can grow up to 15 cm. They are relatively rare but are found in Liguriaand Puglia. They are highly prized for their delicate flavour.
Date mussel / Pholas dactylus (Folade / Dattero di mare) (Pholas dactylus) have an elongated, dull white or grey coloured shell with two openings. They can be 10-12 cm in length. The foot is flat with rasps to assist in boring.
Store: Keep the mussels alive until it is time to cook them. Place them on a damp towel in the refrigerator between 0 to 6C. They can be kept like this for 2 to 3 days. The day you are going to cook the mussels, scrub the shells under cold running water. Then mix together 100 grams of non-iodized salt per 1 litre of cold water and cover the mussels with this salted water for several hours in the refrigerator so that they filter out any sand or grit.
Prepare: Discard any shells which are open or cracked. Soak the date mussels in cold water, any shells which float to the surface should be discarded. Use a kitchen towel to grab the furry beard of the mussel and pull it off, drawing towards the hinge (not necessary for date mussels). Discard the beard and rinse the mussels again. Wash in several changes of water, agitating the water with your hands to remove any grit and scrape the shells by scraping them with a knife or stiff brush to clean then. If they are to be opened while raw, use an oyster knife and insert it in the point of the triangle and pry open. Otherwise they can be placed for a few minutes on a tray in a hot oven or over a high flame in a frying pan (reserve any liquid discharged to filter and use in the dish). Seafood is best cooked gently- by steaming, poaching, or light broiling. Discard any mussels which have not opened during cooking. Seafood needs very little flavourings if very fresh. The meat inside the mussel varies from bright orange, indicating they are female, to more beige.
Eat: Both mussels , bearded horse mussels and date mussels can be eaten raw, dressed with lemon and pepper (cozze alla leccese), but are generally served cooked. Date mussels are typically cooked in oil, garlic, and parsley (datteri di mare alla marinara, datteri di mare alla veneziana) or used in soups (zuppa di datteri giuliana, zuppa di datteri di La Spezia), or stews (datteri di mare a stufato). Due to their delicate flavour, do not pair date mussels with strong flavours.
Mussels are good boiled (cozze bollite) and used in pasta (vermicelli con le cozze in bianco) and rice (riso con le cozze) dishes, fish soups (zuppa di cozze in bianco, zuppa di cozze al pomodoro), or main dishes. They can also be stuffed (cozze ripiene al sugo), baked (cozze al gratin, cozze in tortiera, tiella di riso con le cozze), deep-fried (cozze fritte, cozze e orziadas), sautéed (cozze, cocozze e ove), or stewed (cozze alla pugliese). There are many recipes in Puglia for mussels.
Norway lobster – See Lobster
Octopus (Polpo / Piovra / Polpessa / Moscardino) (Octopus vulgaris)
Common octopus by Morten Brekkevold
Substitutes: cuttlefish and squid
Octopus is a grey to yellowish cephalopod with a rounded head resembling a sack with eight tentacles, each with two rows of suction cups. It lives along the coast throughout Italy and while it is fished year-round, it is best eaten in the winter.
Buy: Octopus should have bright skin, a pleasant smell, and have the skin, tentacles, and suction cups intact. Smaller octopus will be more tender and simpler to prepare. It is very difficult to distinguish between fresh octopus and octopus which has been frozen and thawed.
Types:
Atlantic white-spotted octopus (Polpessa / Polpetto / Fragoline di mare) (Octopus macropus) is smaller (its head grows up to 15 cm in length), has two tentacles which are longer than the rest, and is reddish in colour with white flecks.
Common octopus (Polpo / Piovra) (Octopus vulgaris) is the best tasting of the octopus but is more difficult to prepare as it needs to be tenderized. The head can grow up to 25 cm in length. It can grow up to 3 meters in total length but the best ones for eating are 50 cm in total length. They can weigh as little as 100 grams or as much as 25 kilos.
Curled octopus / Lesser octopus / Horned octopus (Moscardino / Polpo muschiàto / Polpo di Aldrovandi / Polpo di sabbia / Moscardino bianco / Sinisco) (Eledone cirrosa) only have one row of suction cups per tentacle. Its head grows up to 50 cm in length. It is normally braised and used in sauces but is less flavourful than the common octopus.
Store: Octopus is best used within a day of purchasing and can be kept sealed in the refrigerator. Octopus can be successfully frozen and will keep for three months if well sealed.
Prepare: Remove the beak and eyes. Turn the head inside out to remove the contents of the body. The ink can be reserved for use in making fresh pasta and pasta or risotto sauces but discard the rest. If the octopus weighs more than 100 grams, use a mallet or cutlet bat, to pound the tentacles and body until tender. Large octopus should also be skinned. Rub the octopus on a rough surface with circular movements to remove the sticky outer substance on the skin, rinsing from time to time (preferably with sea water) until the surface no longer feels slimy. Large octopus may need to be cooked for 2 hours or more, depending on the weight (calculate 1 hour per kilo of weight). Test if the octopus is done by piercing the octopus with the tip of a knife, if it goes in easily, then the octopus is cooked. Smaller octopus (which weigh up to 100 grams each) can be cooked in liquid for about 20 minutes. Do not overcook octopus or the meat will be bland, the skin and suction cups will detach, and it will look unappealing.
Eat: Octopus release liquid when cooked so do not need the addition of liquid when cooking (polpi cotti nella loro acqua, polpo affogato). Octopus can be baked, stewed (polpi in galera), boiled (polpo alla Luciana, polpo e patate), or pickled (polpo sott’aceto). Octopus pairs well with chillies, mint, parsley, marjoram, oregano, garlic, olive oil, lemon, onion, and tomato.
Oyster (Ostrica) (Ostrea edulis, Crassostrea angulate, Crassostrea gigas)
Belon oyster by Walwyn
Rock oyster by Wikimedia Commons
Equivalents: 6 oysters = 1 starter serving
Oysters are bivalves with irregular shaped shells which live on rocky sea beds. They have been enjoyed since Roman times. Traditional areas for oysters are in the gulf of La Spezia (Liguria), the gulf of Taranto (Puglia), the Venice lagoon (Veneto), and the central and northern Adriatic Sea.
Buy: Buy only very fresh oysters. All the shells should be firmly shut with no cracks in the shells. They can be farmed or wild. Most oysters sold in Italy are from France. Check the sell buy date on the label which should also indicate the provenance and certify depuration for 24 hours in controlled plants. Oysters vary in size and are numbered from 0 to 5 with 0 being the largest. Sizing varies by country so a British 5 will be larger than a French 5. An average sized oyster is about 10 cm in length. Wild oysters vary widely by season and are best when the ocean is coldest. Only buy wild oysters from the end of October through February. During the summer, wild oysters breed and the flesh can be undesirably milky, fat, and soft. Farmed oyster can be purchased anytime and are sold in 1 to 3 kilo wooden crates labeled with the date of packing. There are three types of oysters in Europe:
Types:
贝隆生蚝Belon / European / Round / Native / Flat (Ostrica piatta /Adriatica / Tarantina) (Ostrea edulis) has a flat, rounded shell and a delicate flavour. This type is the most prized species, although are relatively rare. The finest in Italy are found in Tarantino, Puglia. They are normally between 7 to 10 cm in length but can grow up to 15 cm (labelled “000”). Outside of the classification are the enormous “Pieds de cheval” which are reknowned for their particular hazelnut flavour, low salinity and iodine They are farmed in the northern Adriatic Sea and the Venetian lagoon in Veneto and are the most common type of oyster in Italy.
岩蚝Rock oyster / Pacific oyster / Japanese oyster / Concave /Gigas (Ostrica giapponese / Ostrica concave) (Crassostrea gigas) has an elongated, concave shell which holds more water. The texture is coarse and the flavour is of the sea. The flavour of the meat is good but still slightly inferior to the flavour of the Belon. They are often cooked rather than eaten raw. They are intensively farmed. There are some oysters which are finished in shallow clay ponds which give them a superior texture and flavour. The label Ordinaire means they have not been finished in these ponds. Claire means they were finished for less than a month, Fines de claire means they were finished for more than a month and fines de claire speciales means they were finished even longer and covered with a green algae that imparts a particular flavour.
葡萄牙生蚝Portuguese oyster (Ostrica lunga / Ostrica portughese) (Crassostrea angulata) has an elongated, convex shell. These are less fine than the Belon and the Rock oyster.
Store: Do not store oysters; eat them upon purchasing. If they must be stored, keep ithem in the fridge in their crate with the concave part down and covered so that they do not open and lose their water.
Prepare: Discard any shells which are open or cracked. Using a dishcloth or a knit, metal or garden glove. to cover your hand, hold the oyster in one hand and use an oyster knife in the other hand. Be very careful while opening the oyster as it is very easy to cut yourself. Place the tip of the oyster knife in the hinge and turn the blade to force the shell open. Discard the flattened top shell. Use the oyster knife to separate the flesh from the other half of the shell, retaining the meat in shell if they are to be served raw. Tip out the liquid with the shards of shell using the knife to help remove them and discard the liquid. Don’t worry about leaving the oyster dry, more liquid will come out. Place the raw oyster on a platter filled with shaved ice or rock salt. Discard any oysters which have not opened during cooking.
Eat: If an oyster tastes bad, spit it out. Oysters can be eaten raw or cooked. Raw oysters are served on the half shell on a bed of crushed ice and the liquid is prized for its flavour. They are normally eaten with a small fork, a sprinkling of black pepper or lemon juice, and accompanied by whole wheat or white bread and butter. Oysters are eaten with dry white sparkling wine like Champagne blanc de blanc or a dry, herbaceous white wine. They can also be gratinéed and baked (ostriche alla tarantina), boiled, fried, steamed or baked in sealed in parchment paper with vegetables.
Polpo di Aldrovandi – See Octopus
Polpo muschiàto – See Octopus
Polpo di sabbia – See Octopus
Prawn / Shrimp / Crayfish / Mantis prawn (Gambero / Gamberone / Gamberetto / Gamberello / Gamberell / Mazzancolla / Carabinero, Gambero di fiume, Canocchia / Panocchia) (Squilla mantis, Crangon crangon, Parapenaeus longirostris, Palaemon elegans, Plesiopenaeus edwardsianus, Aristeomorpha foliacea, Aristeus antennatus, Penaeus kerathurus / Melicertus kerathurus, Astacus astacus/Astacus fluviatilis / Austropotamobius pallipes /Orconectus limosus/ Palaemonetes antennarius)
Mantis prawn by Flavia Conidi
Brown shrimp by Hans Hillewaert
Red Mediterranean prawns by Nate Gray
Triple grooved prawn by Rubber Slippers in Italy
European crayfish by Mikko Koponen
Equivalents: 10-12 crayfish = 1 serving
120 grams shelled prawns = 240 grams unshelled prawns = 6 large prawns = 1 serving
There are two main types of prawns in Italy, the Mediterranean prawn (gambero) and mantis prawn (canocchia). Mediterranean prawns range in colour from pink to red and grow up to 20 cm in length. They are wild or farmed. Prawns have a long, thin body, which is divided into three parts: the cephalothorax, the abdomen, and the tail with five pairs of swimming legs. Very large normal prawns in America are called “scampi” although in Italian this refers to langoustines (See-Lobster). In America all prawns can be called “shrimp” (although sometimes very large prawns are called prawns) whereas in Britain they are normally called prawns. Mantis prawns are long prawns with a very hard shell.
Buy: Buy prawns whose head and shells are intact, are not missing legs, and are not soft, or limp and feel heavy. Smell the prawns, if they smell fishy or of ammonia, then don’t buy them. They should have a fresh sea smell, and be bright coloured with clear, shiny, springy crisp shells. Prawn shells lose colour and their joints discolour when they begin to dry out. Avoid prawns with a black or very dark coloured head. Mantis prawns have less meat during the spring and beginning of summer. Crayfish and mantis prawns.deteriorate rapidly so are best purchased alive if possible. Buy frozen prawns and crayfish, not thawed as they spoil more quickly than fresh.Prawns vary greatly in size depending on the type.
Types:
螳螂虾Mantis prawn
螳螂虾Mantis prawns (Canocchia / Panocchia) (Squilla mantis) are found in the Adriatic from the Marche to the Veneto. These are long prawns with a very hard shell that grow up to 25 cm in length. They are a pearly light yellow colour with pink or light purple tinges. They are flatter than normal prawns and they are best in winter when their meat is more consistent.
Regional names: astrea, càmbara de fangu, canocia, caraviedde, cicala di mare, pannocchia, schirifizu, sparnocchia, stracciavocc, strappabocca
虾Prawn / Shrimp
Saltwater:
小虾Gamberetti (Small prawns):
普通虾Brown shrimp / Sand shrimp / Bay shrimp / Common shrimp (Schia / Gamberetto grigio / Gamberello / Gamberell / Gambero di sabbia) (Crangon crangon) is a tiny brownish-grey coloured shrimp that has good meat. It grows up to 5 cm in length. They live in the lagoons and estuaries in Veneto. They are rinsed and boiled in salted water to be served as a starter or snack (cicheto in Veneto). They are also good deep-fried whole.
Caridean shrimp (Gamberetto boreale) (Pandalus borealis) lives in the coldest parts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. They grow up to 10 cm. They are sold in brine, fresh and frozen. They are best fried whole with their shell on.
Common prawn (Gambero commune / Gamberetto di roccia) (Palaemon serratus) lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea. It is sold frozen and fresh. It is suitable for all types of cooking.
深水玫瑰虾Deep-water rose shrimp (Gambero rosa del mediterraneo / Gambero Bianco) (Parapenaeus longirostris) is a smaller, light pink prawn. It grows between 6 to 12 cm in length and while the meat is good quality, it is inferior to the rest of the prawns listed below. It is sold fresh, cooked, or frozen. It is best boiled or fried. The small ones can be eaten whole with the shell.
草虾Grass prawn (Gambero squilla / Gambero fascina) (Palaemon elegans) is a small grey prawn that grows up to 6 cm in length. It is similar to the common prawn.
大虾Gamberoni (Large prawns):
Argentian red shrimp (Gambero argentino / Gambero atlantico) (Pleoticus muelleri) can grow up to 25 cm and has a pink to red shell. It lives along the South American coasts from Brazil to Chile. It is sold throughout the world frozen and is categorized by size (large to small) L1, L2 and L3. It is a good quality prawn which is best cooked baked in salt, grilled, deep-fried or in sauces and soups.
Giant tiger prawn / Asian tiger shrimp (Gambero black tiger) (Penaeus monodon) are dark grey with black stripes and grow to about 20 cm or more. They live in southeast Asia. .
大红虾Great red prawn / Scarlet prawn (Gambero Rosso / Carabinero) (Plesiopenaeus edwardsianus) are a bright red, large prawn that can grow up to 33 cm. They live in the Atlantic Ocean and are typically sold frozen. They have excellent meat.
Kiddi shrimp (Gambero indiano) (Parapenaeopsis stylifera) grows up to 15 cm. It is sold peeled frozen and may be pre-cooked. They are of low quality.
地中海红虾Red Mediterranean prawn (Gambero rosso mediteraneo / Gamberoni) (Aristeomorpha foliacea) is a large, intensely red prawn, which can grow up to 22 cm in length. It lives in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. It is highly prized for its pronounced flavour suitable for soups and stews. They can also be eaten raw, boiled for 2 minutes, grilled, fried or sautéed. It is good fresh or frozen.
地中海红虾Red Mediterranean prawn (Gambero rosso mediteraneo / Gamberoni) (Aristeus antennatus) is a large, intensely red prawn, which can grow up to 22 cm in length. It is distinguishable from the Artisteomorpha foliacea above because it is rosier in colour with hues of purple. It lives in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. It is highly prized for its pronounced flavour suitable for soups and stews. They can also be eaten raw, boiled for 2 minutes, grilled, fried or sautéed. It is good fresh or frozen.
三槽虾Tripe grooved prawn / Tiger prawn (Gamberone mediterraneo / Gambero imperial / Mazzancolla) (Penaeus kerathurus / Melicertus kerathurus) is a very large type of prawn which grows up to 22 cm in length. It is a light coloured grey or pink with purple hues and has a delicate flavour. It lives in muddy or sandy waters and also lagoons in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. It is often grilled with garlic, olive oil, and parsley. It can be successfully substituted with the Asian variety,Penaeus japonicas (mazzancolla giapponese). It is sold fresh, frozen and pre-cooked. They are versatile in cooking. With the shell on they can be boiled, grilled and baked in salt. Deshelled, they are best sautéed or deep-fried.
Whiteleg shrimp / Pacific white shrimp (Mazzancolla tropicale) (Penaeus vannamei) grow up to 20 cm in length and live in tropical countries. They are sold frozen whole without the head. .
淡水Freshwater (Acqua dolce):
Crayfish have ten legs of which two are claws.
欧洲小龙虾European crayfish / Broad-fingered crayfish / Noble crayfish (Gambero di fiume / Gambero in acqua dolce) (Astacus astacus / Astacus fluviatilis) only exists in Venezia Giulia. It grows up to 15 cm in length and has a delicate flavour.
白爪小龙虾European freshwater crayfish / White-clawed crayfish / Atlantic stream crayfish (Gambero delle Zampe / Gambero di fiume europeo) (Austropotamobius pallipes) are found throughout Italy although are endangered. They are brownish in colour with a pale underside. They grow up to 12 cm in length and have a delicate flavour. In Italy it is more common to find the Turkish crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus).
Eastern crayfish / Delcore crayfish (Gamberi di fiume americani) (Orconectes limosus / Procambarus clarki) are an invasive native American crayfish species which has infested northern and central Italy. They have smaller, less flavourful meat.
Red swamp crayfish / Louisiana crayfish / Louisiana crawfish / Mudbug (Gamberi di fiume americani) (Procambarus clarki) are crayfish from America which have infested the waters in Italy. They have smaller tails and claws and are of inferior quality to that of the native Italian variety.
Grass shrimp (Gamberino di fosso / Gamberino di Salterello) (Palaemonetes antennarius) are a small shrimp which grow up to 2 cm in length and are semi-transparent. They live in the Po Valley and are particularly prized in Mantova. They are usually floured and deep-fried.
Sizing:
The sizing is numbered suggesting the number of prawns to make a pound (450 gms). So U10 means 10 prawns to make a pound (the largest size). “U” and the number means “under” so U10 means less than 10 prawns to make a pound. There is also U10/20 (medium sized – it takes 10 to 20 prawns to make a pound), U20/30 (small sized – it takes 20 to 30 prawns to make a pound), and U300/500 (extra small sized- it takes 300 to 500 prawns to make a pound).
Store: Fresh mantis prawns should be cooked upon purchasing. It is best to also eat prawns as soon as they are purchased, remembering to keep them cool even on the way home. Prawns can be stored in the refrigerator, covered with ice and parchment paper in a perforated container such as a colander over a bowl which allows the liquid to drain. If the prawns are left to sit in liquid, they will begin to decompose. They can be kept this way for 1-2 days. Prawns can be successfully frozen by placing in a lidded container and covering with water, sealing, and freezing for up to 3 months.
Prepare: Defrost prawns in salted iced water or a brine. Prawns should be washed under cold water and brushed to remove any algae or mud. If the recipe requires the prawn to be shelled, twist off the head, remove the legs, and use your thumbs to open the belly of the prawn and remove the shell. The head and shells can be used in fish broth. Use a paring knife to cut along the back and remove the black line down the back. If the prawn is to be left with the head on, remove the middle part of the body leaving the head and end of the tail attached. Place a toothpick ito the back to pull out the black line running down the back.
Crayfish: To prepare crayfish, let them sit for an hour in cold water before cooking. To clean, brush it under running water. Prepare a court-bouillon to boil the crayfish until they turn red. Remove from the water and remove the head and claws. Remove the shell from the tail and break the claws to remove the meat. The heads and shells can be used in broth.
Mantis prawns: To prepare mantis prawns, they can be placed in boiling salted water for 5 minutes, drained, cooled, and then deshelled. Otherwise they can be shelled raw by using scissors to cut off the end of the tail and down the sides lengthwise along the body. Open the top of the shell to remove the tail meat.
Cooking prawns: Do not overcook prawns as they become tough and rubbery. To boil or steam, turn off the heat as soon as they are added to the salted water or steamer and let sit for for 5 to 10 minutes depending on their size. To fry, batter or bread the prawns and deep fry at 180C until golden. To grill, place the unshelled prawns on the grill and cook, turning until they have entirely changed colour. To bake prawns in salt, place unshelled prawns on top of the rock salt, cover with more rock salt and bake at 180C for 10 minutes. To sauté or use in soups or sauces, add the aromatoics ot the pan and cook, add the prawns with the head but with the body shelled, add a bit of wine, reduce the heat, cover and cook for 10 minutes.
Eat: Small prawns are fried (gamberetti rosa fritti, gamberetti grigi fritti), used in risotto (risotto con i gamberetti) or boiled (gamberetti rosa lessati, gamberetti grigi lessati) and served with tomato sauce or garlic and parsley (gamberetti grigi aglio e olio). Large prawns (longer than 20 cm) are broiled, deep-fried or added to sauces (gamberoni in umido) or soups.Mazzancolla are delicately flavoured and is best grilled. Fresh water prawns are broiled, poached (gamberi alla umbra), grilled (gamberoni alla griglia), or used in risottos (risotto coi gamberi, risotto alla certosina) or pastas. Mantis prawns are good boiled (canocchie bollite), steamed, sautéed with parsley, garlic, and lemon, breaded and deep-fried, or served in soups (cacciucco) and risotto.
Riccio di mare – See Sea urchin
Rock lobster – See Lobster
Scallop (Cappasanta / Conchiglia di San Giacomo / Conchiglia di San Jacopo / Canestrello) (Pecten jacobaeus / Aequipecten opercularis)
Scallops by Michael Horne
Regional names: ventaglio, pettine maggiore, cappa santa, conchiglia del Pellegrino, Jacopo, pellegrina, coquille Saint Jacques
Equivalents: 175 gms=3-4 large scallops =10-15 small scallops = 1 main course serving
Scallops are one of the most prized seafoods. They are rare in Italy and are only traditionally eaten in Veneto. The variety found in Italy is the great Mediterranean scallop. Its shell is reddish brown in colour with one shell more convex and the other flat. It has a delicate flavour and a soft, buttery texture.
Buy: Fresh scallops are better than frozen scallops. Fresh scallops are best in winter, and are sold cleaned (leaving just the meat and sometimes the roe) or on the shell. They are best purchased in the closed shell, although this is less common. Scallops sold on the shell are sold fresh, not frozen. The shells are nice for presentation purposes. When buying fresh scallops, look for ones with uniform pearly white to pale pink muscles, which are moist and sticky without being dripping wet. They should not be bright white as this indicates they have been treated with chemicals. The white muscle should be firm and the scallop should have a fresh ocean scent to it. Scallops in the shell should be closed or able to close if the shell is tapped or squeezed. Cleaned scallops are sold wet-packed or dry-packed. Scallops should appear unblemished and not torn or ragged as this may suggest they were improperly stored. But if you cannot buy very fresh scallops, look for scallops that have been individually quick frozen (IQF). Scallops come in a range of sizes from small to large, but in Italy it is forbidden to fish for scallops less than 10 cm in diameter. Look for scallops that are 10 to 15 cm in diameter.
Sizing:
The sizing is numbered suggesting the number of scallops to make a pound (450 gms). “U” and the number means “under” so U10 means less than 10 scallops to make a pound. The large ones range up to 5 cm in diameter.
Terminology:
Bay scallops are a smaller variety which are sweeter and more delicate. They should not be fried. Bay scallops have a different numbering system so will be labelled as 70/120 indicating between 70 to 120 scallops in one pound.
Diver scallops / Diver-collected are considered a premium product as most scallops are harvested by dragging nets along the sea floor, while the diver scallops have been hand fished. Diver scallops tend to be larger as they select the large ones but are also less environmentally damaging as the nets drag in all sizes of scallops and other shellfish as well.
Dry-packed and chemical-free are preferable because this means they have not been chemically treated, and the weight you pay for is the actual weight of the meat.
Wet-packed means the scallops have been soaked in a liquid phosphate solution that whitens them and plumps them up, so that 30% more of their weight is in fact water weight. The phosphate not only has an unpleasant flavour but when the scallops cook the liquid seeps out making it impossible to sear them.
Store: Fresh scallops are best consumed upon purchasing. Live scallops can be placed in a container, covered with a damp towel or paper and placed in the drawer of the refrigerator for up to a day. Cleaned scallops may be covered with cling film and stored in the refrigerator for up to three days. They can also be sealed and frozen for up to 3 months.
Prepare: Open the shell by inserting a knife into the hinge of the shell and cutting the muscle while holding it closed. The scallop has three parts: the round white, firm muscle (noce), the crescent-shaped orange or yellow coral (corallo), and the mantle (alveola). The muscle is the prized part of the scallop, the coral is also edible, and the mantle should be discarded or used for broth (fumetto) and filtered. Use a paring knife the cut the muscle from the shell and soak the muscle and coral in cold water for 10-15 minutes to remove any sand. There is a small, rectangular muscle attached to the larger round muscle which is tough and rubbery to eat, so pinch it and pull it to remove it from the main muscle. Wash the shell. Defrost frozen scallops overnight in the refrigerator or in a sealed plastic bag in running cold water. Scallops should be cooked carefully so as to not overcook them and render them rubbery and tough. Small scallops will take a few seconds to cook, whereas large scallops will take a minute or two.
Corals: Some people eat the corals as they are, and others lay them in a single layer on a baking pan and dry them out in a low oven overnight until they are hard and dry. They then grind them to a powder in a food processor and sprinkle the mixture over pastas, risottos, and seafood dishes.
Eat: Scallops should be accompanied by other delicate flavours. Scallops can be fried (cappesante in tecia), deep-fried (conchiglie fritte), sautéed, grilled (conchiglie alla griglia), baked (cappesante al forno), poached, steamed (conchiglie in insalata, conchiglie a vapore), grilled or used in soup. Scallops are great in seafood salads, stewed in white wine, gratinéed (capesante gratinate) and as stuffing for meat.
Scampi – See Lobster or Prawns
Sea snail (Lumaca di mare / Chiocciola di mare) (Trochocochlea turbinata)
Sea snail by Rovanto
Regional names: cargolo, bovoleti, maruzele, bombetto, bomboletto, bovoeto, bovoleto, caragol, maruzela, maruzzella, uccuna, vuccuna
There are many types of sea snails in Italy but they are less than 3 cm in length, have a spiral-shaped shell which is brown or grey and patterned. They are often found in the lagoons in Venice and most of the recipes for them are from Venice.
Buy: They should be purchased live as after they die, they immediately give off a strong smell of ammonia. Look for brightly coloured, intact shells. The muscle should retract when touched. It should have a pleasant, fresh ocean scent.
Store: Sea snails should be consumed as soon as purchased but can be kept in the refrigerator covered by a damp cloth or paper in the drawer for up to a day. The meat can also be extracted and frozen in a sealed freezer bag for up to 3 months.
Prepare: Sea snails should be soaked in cold water for 20 minutes, occasionally agitating the water to ensure that any sand or debris is removed.
Eat: Sea snails are eaten cooked as a starter, dressed with olive oil and lemon juice. They can be removed from their shell using a small fork or pin. They can be sautéed, baked (bovoleti in tecia) or boiled (caragoli lessati).
Sea urchin (Riccio di mare) (Paracentrotus lividus, Sphaerechinus granularis, Psammechinus microtuberculatus, Arbacia aequituberculata)
Sea urchin by Ametxa
Sea urchin is a prized seafood which is round and covered in spikes. It is commonly found along the Italian coast, although not all types are edible. The edible part of the sea urchin is the gonad (the part that produces the sperm in males and eggs in females), also known as the coral (it is not the eggs as many people believe). The coral is bright red, orange, or yellow in colour and has a delicate and rich flavour of the ocean. It has a soft custard-like texture which is slightly grainy. They are in season from October to April, but are most plentiful in the spring when the coral the largest, just before the sea urchin breeds. They are particularly prized in Sicilia, Puglia, and Calabria.
Buy: Live sea urchin will be the freshest. The coral should be brightly coloured, appear dry and firm, and have a fresh ocean scent. If it appears watery, seems to be melting or smells fishy, do not buy it. The coral should fill the shell and be plump and flavourful. Test the spines by pressing on them with a finger to see if they offer resistance and are springy.
Types:
Purple sea urchin (Paracentrotus lividus) is purple, green or brown in colour and lives in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic Ocean. It grows up to 7 cm in diameter and has very long, sharply pointed spines.
Purple sea urchin (Sphaerechinus granulari) has a purple shell but the spines can be purple or white in colour and are short. It lives in the Mediterranean Sea and the eastern Atlantic Ocean and grows up to 15 cm in diameter.
Green sea urchin (Psammechinus microtuberculatus) has a brown shell and either green or white, short, thin spines. It lives in the Atlantic Ocean, Adriatic Sea, and Aegean Sea and grows up to 5 cm in diameter.
Black sea urchin (Arbacia aequituberculata) is black in colour and lives in the Mediterranean Sea. It has thick, long black spines.
Store: Sea urchins should be purchased the day they are to be consumed but can be stored in the refrigerator at 3˚C for up to a day.
Prepare: Use scissors or a sharp knife to cut a 5 cm in diameter circle in the top of the sea urchin. Carefully remove the black part of the sea urchin without breaking the coral. Use a spoon to remove and discard the liquid. Gently remove the coral from the shell using a spoon ensuring it remains whole and rinse under cold water. To serve it raw for guests, fill the shell with shaved ice and top it with the coral.
Eat: The best way to eat sea urchin is raw on bread, sometimes with a squeeze of lemon. It is also used to dress pasta (spaghetti ai ricci di mare) and in omelettes (omelette ai ricci di mare).
Seafood (Frutta di Mare)- See individual types (Clam, Crab, Crayfish, Cuttlefish, Lobster, Mussel, Octopus, Oyster, Prawn, Scallop, Sea snail, Sea urchin, and Squid)
Squid / Calamari (Calamaro) (Loligo vulgaris, Todarodes sagittatus)
Common squid by Hans Hillewaert
European flying squid by Ecomare
Substitute: cuttlefish
Regional names: totano del riso, totanu, toutinus, toutineddus, calamai, calamaro todaro, totano (the Ligurian name for calamaro)
Squid is a pale pink coloured seafood with brown and red spots, and a long body with two fins, two arms and eight tentacles. It ranges in length from 3 to 50 cm, and is available year-round.
Buy: Squid can be purchased frozen or fresh. It is difficult to determine if a squid has been previously frozen. Smell the squid to determine its freshness. It should have a fresh scent of the sea without any hint of ammonia. The skin should be intact and bright, unless it has been removed. The smaller ones will be sweeter and tenderer but ultimately consult a recipe to determine what size squid to purchase (See Eat below).
Types:
Common squid (Calamaro) (Loligo vulgaris) is found near Sicilia and in the Adriatic sea.
Categories:
Baby Calamari (Calamaretto) is a younger and smaller common squid. They are between 3 to 5 cm in length and have no arms.
European flying squid (Totano) (Todarodes sagittatus) is smaller, has lateral fins, and larger tentacles. It is less prized than the common squid as they are less flavourful and have a tougher texture. It is distinguishable by the lateral fins which, when extended, are triangular in shape extending from the tip of the head. The flying squid is generally wider than it is long. On the common squid the fins are attached further down the body. The body is also less than half of the total length, whereas the common squid has a longer body.
Store: Gut and wrap the squid in plastic and keep in the refrigerator. Baby calamari should be eaten the same day they are purchased. Medium-sized squid can be kept for a day and large squid can be kept for a day and a half. Squid can be frozen if well-sealed for up to 3 months. Defrosted squid should be eaten as quickly as possible on the day it was defrosted.
Prepare: See how to prepare squid for a how to guide. Baby calamari do not need to be gutted or skinned before cooking if they will be deep-fried. When cooking larger squid whole, the quill, beak and sacks need to be removed, though the eyes can be left attached. Large squid become more tender if marinated in wine or vinegar before cooking. In order to ensure the squid is tender, either cook quickly or stew slowly. Cooking for too long or too short a period of time will produce rubbery squid. European flying squid need to be cooked for 10% longer than common squid.
Eat: Baby calamari are best boiled (insalata di mare, calamaretti in insalata, zuppa di calamaretti) or breaded or battered and deep-fried (fritto misto di pesce, calamaretti fritti). Medium-sized calamari, between 5 to 20 cm in length, are best cut and fried (calamari fritti), grilled (calamari alla griglia), stewed, stuffed (calamari imbottiti, calamari ripieni) or baked. Large squid, between 20 to 30 cm in length, should be fried, stewed or griddled. They pair well with parsley, chilli, olive oil, lemon, garlic, tomatoes and white wine.
Equivalent: 1 kilo of whole round fish = 500 grams of meat
1 to 1.1 kilo of whole flat fish = 500 grams of meat
500 grams of meat = 2 main course servings = 4 starter servings
There are more than 30,000 species of salt-water fish, freshwater fish, and brackish water fish. In Italy, the most prized fish are the sole (sogliola), seabass (spigola), and the gilt-head bream (orata). The same fish have several names so to be precise, it is best to use the scientific name which is distinct. Fish are eaten fresh, preserved, or dried. Fish is becoming more popular as it has fewer calories, and contains beneficial fats including Omega-3 which are proven to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Many people are now enjoying eating fresh fish more regularly due to an improvement in transportation and logistics. Different species of fish will range in fat from 0.5-30% with species with the highest fat content including salmon, sturgeon, and eel. Fish have calcium, potassium phosphorus, and Vitamins A, B, D,and E as well as iodine, phosphorous, zinc, and copper.
Fish anatomy by Meimanrensheng
Buy: Fish can be purchased fresh, frozen, smoked, dried, and salted. Fish can be sold whole or in pieces. The best quality fish will always be wild fish but there are now some very good farmed fish on the market.
Whole fresh fish: The best practice is to buy from the same person every time to better ensure the fish is good quality. Look for the following 5 factors:
Body: To check if a fish is fresh, hold it horizontally by grabbing the head. If it is fresh, it will remain straight, due to rigor mortis. Press the flesh with your thumb, the flesh should spring back into shape, if an indentation remains, the fish is old. The stomach should be plump not swollen or soft. This test does not apply to tuna or swordfish however which need to be matured to tenderise them and develop their flavour.
Eyes: Check that the eyes are bulging (not sunken), clear (not cloudy) with black pupils (not dilated or grey with red rims)
Gills: Should be bright red, wet, and clean (not dark red or brown, slimy, dry, or dirty).
Skin: The fish should be brightly coloured, tight, wet, gleam and be slippery with an evenly distributed, clear, viscous slime covering it. It should not be dry or wrinkled. Freshwater fish should be silvery or green and not brown as they are likely to be muddy.
Smell: The fish should smell slightly like seaweed (if it is saltwater fish) or marsh grasses (if it is freshwater fish). There should not be any fishy, acrid, ammonia, muddy, or rancid smell. However, shark and ray may have an ammonia smell and this is normal.
Cut fish: If the fish is still on the bone, check that the flesh is firmly attached to the bone and not loose or discoloured. The flesh should be elastic. If the fish has been de-boned, where the bone was removed, there should be a small hole and the flesh there slightly rosy in colour. The skin should look tight and bright.
Note: In some parts of the West, it is not advisable to buy fresh fish on a Monday as Sunday is a rest day so the fish will have been sitting for some time.
Frozen fish should have the same attributes as fresh fish. Check for any odours and the cloudiness of the eyes for signs of less than fresh fish.
Sometimes the fish’s liver is eaten, particularly that of cod (merluzzo) which is smoked and served as a starter. The livers of anchovies, sardines, hake, shad, grouper, sea bass, monkfish, and whiting are rich in Omega 3 and are edible.
The eggs, sperm sac, and the stomach of the monkfish are also eaten (see below).
Store: When you take the fish home, before you store it, the fish should be cleaned. Lift up the gills and use scissors to cut the red part out of the gills. The gills filter out impurities while the fish is alive and later decompose rapidly.
There are a couple of methods to gut a fish (some of the interiors can be eaten, see “Buy” above). For round fish, you can either cut along the stomach from the gills down to the anal fin and pull out and discard the guts, or you can first remove the gills and then use the hooked handle end of a spoon to draw down through the bottom of the head of the fish to draw out the guts and discard. For flat fish, feel which side the stomach is one (it should be softer) and make an incision starting at the head downwards to remove the guts.
Once the fish is cleaned, rinse it in cold water, especially the abdominal cavity and dry thoroughly inside and out. Mix 3 parts water to 1 part edible alcohol and sprinkle 2 paper towels with the solution. Place one of the paper towels in a plastic container which can be sealed air-tight and put the fish on top of it, stomach side opened onto the towel. Cover the fish with the other paper towel and close the container and keep in the refrigerator. Repeat the following day if not using the fish that day.
Once you have stored the fish, if an unpleasant smell (for example, ammonia) persists even after cooking, it is best to assume the fish is not edible. If the smell disappears then it is edible.
Prepare:
Special preparation for freshwater fish: Freshwater fish which smell muddy can be cleared of its muddy taste. To do this either keep fish alive in clean water alive for 2 days, or if it has already been killed, soak the fish in water and vinegar solution, repeating this process 3 to 4 times.
Cleaning: To clean a whole fish, use scissors to cut off the dorsal, pectoral, and anal fins. Be careful while doing this as some of the fish have spines. Freshwater fish should have the blood along the backbone removed as it is bitter. Check inside the mouth of the freshwater fish to ensure there are no weeds in its mouth or throat.
Scaling: If you are not going to remove the skin of the fish and it is to be used in a soup, deep-fried, or stewed, then the fish must be scaled. Place the fish on a board and hold the head firmly, use a fish scaler or the spine of a knife (if you use a knife then do this part in a sink) to run down the body starting at the head down to the tail to remove the scales. Repeat until all the scales are removed.
Cutting: Fish can be cut into tranches, fillets, decapitated, boned (using tweezers), scaled, left whole, or stuffed. See the guide here on how to cut fish.
Cooking whole: Fish may be cooked with its scales if it is to be grilled, roasted, spit-roasted, steamed, baked in salt, or baked in seaweed but it will not make pan juices. Some people prefer to score larger fish at its thickest part so that it cooks more evenly. With medium-sized firm fish, measure it at the thickest point and cook for 10 minutes per 2.5cm (1 inch). You can use the tip of a knife to pierce the thickest part of the flesh. Touch the tip gently to your lip to see if it is hot,indicating it is cooked. The flesh should flake easily and be opaque. You do not want for the fat to start running out of the fish. Flat fish and fillets will cook much more quickly than the ratio given above so you need to test using the flaking and opaqueness techniques. Small fish are best fried, grilled, or in soup.
Eat: Fish in Italy is roasted (pesce arrosto in forno), pan-roasted (pesce arrosto in padella), grilled (pesce arrosto alla griglia), spit-roasted (pesce arrosto allo spiedo), steamed in parchment paper ( pesce al cartoccio ), baked in salt (pesce cotto sotto sale), deep-fried (pesce fritto), poached, boiled (pesce lessato), stewed (pesce in umido), and cooked in soups. It is cooked quickly as the flesh begins to disintegrate if overcooked. Generally, freshwater fish are cooked on their own and not combined with other fish like saltwater fish are in Italy. Freshwater fish, aside from salmon, grayling, char, and trout are usually not cooked using water, but instead use wine and vinegar.
Other edible fish parts: Fish eggs can be eaten boiled, deep-fried, or braised. Fish livers of certain species are eaten (see “Buy” above). The sperm sack can be cooked like fish eggs. Tuna sperm sac is dried and shaved. Monkfish stomach is braised and eaten.
Amberjack, greater (Ricciola) (Seriola dumerili)
Greater amberjack by Marco Mariani
Substitution: bluefish, dentex, swordfish
Regional names: Central and Northern Italy: leccia/leccia bastarda; Marche and Puglia: ombrina boccadoro
Greater amberjack are best eaten in the winter or summer. They are saltwater fish, and can grow up to 2 meters in length. They have firm and delicate-flavoured flesh. It can be baked whole or in slices (ricciola al forno coi carciofi), broiled, poached in court-bouillon, steamed, or grilled. It pairs well with herbs, particularly basil.
Anchovy (Acciuga / Alice) (Engraulis encrasicolus)
Fresh anchovies by Tom Lee KelSo
Anchovies in Oil (Photographed by Stijn)
Salted Anchovies by Funadium
Regional names: Sicilia: aliccia / anciova / masculina, Piemonte: ancioa (if preserved), Liguria: amplova / amploa, Marche: lilla / magnana, Veneto: sardela / sardòn, Friuli Venezia Giulia: sardòn, Puglia: speronara
Anchovies are small saltwater fish, up to 20cm long. The very young anchovies are sold as whitebait (see below). Fresh anchovies are in season from March until September. Traditional varieties include Acciuga di Monterosso and Alice di menaica. Anchovies are another iconic Italian food. They add depth of flavour and a distinct salty flavour to a dish. They are used in everything…except desserts.
Buy: Anchovies come fresh, filleted and jarred or tinned in olive oil (filetti di acciuga sott’olio) or brine, or whole or filleted and salted in jars or tins (acciughe sotto sale). They are also made into a paste (see below). Salted whole anchovies in a tin are thought to be higher quality but need additional preparation. I prefer the anchovies in oil to those in brine.
Fresh anchovies can be eaten every season of the year. For fresh anchovies, buy ones which are a bright silver with a blue-green hinge. They have a slim body and a protruding jaw. When anchovies are not fresh they turn dark blue or black and should be avoided.
Store: Fresh anchovies should be eaten as soon as possible. If you must store fresh anchovies, cover with shaved or flaked ice in a perforated container on top of a solid container to catch any melted water in the refrigerator. The ice prevents contact with the air and the perforated container ensures the fish stays dry to preserve its texture and flavour. When using preserved, tinned anchovies, I transfer them to a sealed airtight jar or plastic container airtightafter I have opened the tin. I then make sure that the anchovies remain covered with whatever they came preserved in with and place them in the refrigerator.
Prepare: Salted anchovies should be washed in milk or water to remove the salt. If the anchovies are not filleted then you need to remove the bones, heads, and guts. First use your thumb to slit the fish open along the belly moving from the head to the tail. Then remove the head and guts pinch the the head just below the gills and pull downwards towards the tail. Open up the anchovy and use your thumbnail to slide the bones out.
Eat: They are rolled around vegetables in starters, top pizzas and breads, are melted into sauces for pasta (bigoli), are combined with breadcrumbs to top risotti, used in omelettes, are used to flavour meats, served fresh on their own plain, stuffed or rolled and then either grilled, baked, deep-fried, stewed, or fried, used in salads, and are mixed into stuffing to stuff vegetables. Fresh anchovies can also be marinated in olive oil and lemon juice and eaten raw.
Anchovy products:
Anchovy paste (Pasta d’acciuga)
Anchovy paste by Orimo
This is anchovy pureed with oil and is sold in a pot or a tube. It can be used as a substitute for anchovies where the anchovy is being melted into a sauce. It has the advantage of allowing one to more easily control the amount added to a dish.
Barbel (Barbo, Barbo canino) (Barbus plebejus, Barbus caninus)
Barbel by Lorenzo Andrioli
Barbel is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes and rivers which has delicate meat, but many bones. The small ones are usually fried, grilled, or broiled. The large ones are boiled or stewed (barbo al vino). The eggs are toxic.
Types:
Italian barbel (Barbo) (Barbus plebejus) is a freshwater fish that lives in rivers and sometimes lakes in Italy, Switzerland, Croatia, and Slovenia. It can grow up to 80cm in length.
Brook barbel (Barbo canino) (Barbus caninus) is a freshwater fish that lives in rivers in Italy and Switzerland. It can grow up to 40cm in length.
Bleak by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Regional names: Veneto and Trentino: àola / àgola / àvola
Bleak is an elongated flattish freshwater fish that lives in northern Italian lakes. It grows up to 20cm in length. Bleak is easily deboned and is suitable for deep-frying, grilling, or pickling (carpione). It can also be dried and preserved in brine or sun-dried (sisam).
Bluefish (Pesce serra) (Pomatomus saltatrix)
Bluefish by NCFishes
Substitution: greater amberjack, sea bass
Regional names: ballerina
Bluefish is a saltwater fish which can grow up to 1 meter in length. It has sharp triangular shaped teeth. It is sometimes incorrectly labelled as sea bass. Some people love bluefish and others find it mediocre. It can be baked whole, steamed, or grilled. It pairs well with lemon and/or capers.
Bogue by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Regional names: Liguria: buga, south-central Italy: vopa / opa
Bogue is a saltwater fish and a type of sea bream that lives in the Mediterranean Sea. It can grow up to 40cm in length but is typically not more than 15-20cm and can weigh up to 1.5 kilos. Bogue can be eaten any season of the year. It must be disembowelled quickly after dying or the flesh will take on an off-putting odour. It is versatile in cooking method and has very tasty flesh. It is good raw, deep-fried, grilled, and in soup. They are good deep-fried or fried and then marinated in vinegar and aromatics (a scapece).
Bondella- Whitefish, European
Brill (Rombo liscio / Rombo soaso) (Scophthalmus rhombus)
Brill by Arnstein Rønning
Substitutions: turbot, sole, John Dory
Regional names: From Venice to Abruzzo along the Adriatic coast: soaso/suaso
Brill is part of the turbot family and is a flat saltwater fish that can grow up to 70cm in length. It has good quality, firm meat but is inferior to turbot. Brill needs to be cooked gently over low heat. It can be stewed, poached, grilled (with its skin on), steamed, fried, or breaded, pan-fried, or cooked in soups and stews. It goes very well with butter and/or herbs and less well with olive oil.
Bubbot – See Burbot
Burbot / Bubbot / Mariah / Eelpout (Bottatrice) (Lota lota)
Burbot by NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
Substitution: eel, European (anguilla)
Burbot is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes in northern Italy. It can grow up to a meter in length but is normally 30-60cm. The delicate, white meat is tasty and best eaten in the summer. It can be broiled, stewed, stuffed, baked, roasted, or fried. The liver is also prized, eaten pan-fried in butter. Large burbot livers are sometimes salted and dried.
Carp by Lebatihem
Substitution: grass carp (amur / carpa erbivora) (ctenopharyngodon idella), tench
Carp is an omnivorous native freshwater fish in Italy. It is able to be sustainably farmed. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. Carp used to live amongst the rice fields, its manure fertilising the soil. It has soft, amber coloured flesh which is prized in the parts of northern Italy where there are rice fields and in central Italy near Lake Trasimeno. The most prized variety is the carpa a specchio. It is cleaned like other fish except that it has many bones throughout the body and the tail. If the fish smells muddy, briefly soak it in water and vinegar solution, as this will remove the unpleasant taste. Repeat this process 3 to 4 times. The small ones can be deep-fried, fried and marinated in vinegar and aromatics (carpa in carpione), or cooked into risotto. The large ones can be baked whole with the stomach cavity stuffed with lardo and aromatics (carpa regina in porchetta ) or stewed in gelatinous broth (carpa in bianco alla tremezzina). The eggs are aso eaten.
Types:
Carpa regina / Carpa comune is completely covered with scales and can weigh up to 30 kilos. It can be difficult to scale. Pour boiling water over it to scale it more easily.
Carpa a specchio is a golden green colour, has large scales, and can weigh up to 38 kilos. This is the most prized carp.
Carpa cuoio has no scales and can weigh up to 20 kilos.
Carpione (Carpione / Salmo carpa) (Salmo carpio)
Carpione by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
Carpione is a prized freshwater fish native to Lake Garda. It has delicate, high-quality flesh which is usually broiled, grilled, roasted, or boiled and dressed with olive oil. It is traditionally floured, deep-fried, and marinated in onion and sage or bay leaf, sometimes with carrot, celery, salt, water, and vinegar.
Catfish (Pesce gatto) (Siluriformes)
Black bullhead catfish by Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Wels Catfish by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Catfish, black bullhead (Pesce gatto) (Ameiurus melas)
Substitution: tench
The black bullhead catfish originates from the United States but were introduced to Italy in the 19th century. They now live in rivers, lakes, and ponds in Italy or are farmed. Catfish grow up to 25 cm in length. The quality of the meat depends on the environment in which it lives. Look for catfish which is white and sweet-smelling. It needs to be skinned before cooking. It has few bones so is easy to fillet. Small catfish can be fried in olive oil or lard (frittura di pesce del Po), roasted on the grill or oven with sage; in risottos, stewed (pesce gatto in umido) or floured, fried, and marinated in vinegar and garlic (pesce gatto in ajoon).
Catfish, Wels / Sheatfish (Siluro) (Silurus glanis)
Originating in Eastern Europe, the Wels catfish is a bottom feeding freshwater fish that can grow up to 2.5 meters. It has infested the Po River and its tributaries. The amber coloured meat is flabby so not often eaten in Italy although it is prized in Eastern Europe. The best ones weigh less than 3 kilos. It comes fresh, salted, dried, or smoked. Look for white, sweet-smelling catfish. It needs to be skinned before it can be cooked. Wels catfish can be cut in tranches and fried or stewed.
Char, arctic (Salmerino) (Salvelinus alpinus)
Arctic Char by Visit Greenland
Substitution: trout, salmon
Arctic char is a freshwater fish that lives in the lakes in Trentino Alto-Adige. Its population is currently in decline but it has been successfully farmed. It can grow up to 40-60 cm in length and usually weigh up to 2 kilos, although they can grow to 15 kilos. It’s white to red-orange coloured meat is prized for its delicate consistency and flavour but it is a rare find. It is excellent cooked in any way. The large ones are best smoked, marinated, broiled, or raw. The small ones can be boiled, fried, deep-fried, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo.
Cod / Atlantic Cod / Codling / Haberdine (Merluzzo atlantico) (Gadus morhua)
Atlantic cod by Joachim S. Müller
Substitution: pollock
Atlantic cod is the king of the codfish. It is a saltwater fish that is currently at risk so consumption needs to be reduced (substitute Pacific cod or Poor cod). It lives in the northern Atlantic Ocean and can grow up to 2 meters in length and 45 kilos in weight. Fresh cod is typically sold whole without the head or as skinned fillets, about 40 to 50 cm in length. Cod is best when very fresh. Frozen cod has less flavour than fresh cod, but it is more consistent in quality than fresh cod and does not need to be defrosted before cooking. When selecting filets, choose the middle cut which should have the tenderness of the tail and the flavour of the shoulder. The meat should be without yellow or pinkish patches. Its meat is composed of large flakes and, when fresh, will have fat between the flakes. To prepare cod, rub it with cut lemon half an hour before cooking to tenderise and whiten the flesh. It can be baked, boiled, stewed (merluzzo alla marinara), pan-fried, or deep-fried. It is also sold salted as salt cod (baccalà) or dried as stockfish/dried cod (stoccafisso) – see below. The liver of the cod fish is also eaten, smoked and served as a starter.
Other types of cod:
Pacific Cod (Macrocefalo) (Gadus macrocefalus)
Pacific cod is a saltwater fish from the Pacific Ocean usually found in Italy as salt cod (baccalà) or stockfish/dried cod (stoccafisso)
Poor Cod (Merluzzetto) (Trisopterus minutus)
Substitution: blue whiting
Poor cod is a saltwater fish that is similar to blue whiting and cooked in the same way. It can be boiled, breaded and deep-fried open flat, or the small ones can be fried in butter.
Cod products:
Salt cod (Baccalà)
Salt cod by Fiore Silvestro Barbato
Equivalent: 700 grams dried salt cod = 1 kilo rehydrated salt cod = 800 grams rehydrated and cleaned salt cod= 4 servings
Note: Baccalà in Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino means stockfish, not salt cod.
Salt cod is cod preserved by salting, a technique used since the 17th century.
Buy: The fish is sold encrusted in salt or opened up flat and re-soaked. Good quality salt cod should be soft, flavourful, and not fibrous when cooked although this is difficult to judge when purchasing. Look for pieces not less than 40 cm in length and at least 3 cm thick, which are white without any yellow tinge or staining (although it should not be too white or it may have been whitened artificially). Choose a piece with less salt as it will need to be soaked for a shorter period of time.
Prepare: Salt cod needs to be prepared before being used in a dish. It should be brushed under running cold water, soaked for 48 hours in a plastic bowl filled with cold water and the water needs to be changed frequently (every two hours, except at night). The fish should then be boned and skinned before cooking.
Eat: Salt cod can be stewed (baccalà alla potentina, baccalà alla napoletana), baked in parchment paper (baccalà a foco morto), baked (baccalà a sfincione, baccalà al forno alla calabrese), fried (baccalà alla fiorentina, baccalà in zimino), deep-fried, made into meatballs (polpette di baccalà), and stuffed (baccalà ripieno).
Stockfish / Dried cod (Stoccafisso / Baccalà)
Stockfish by Chris Zielecki
Equivalent: 400 grams dried stockfish = 700 grams rehydrated stockfish= 4 servings
Regional names: Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino: baccalà, stocche, piscistoccu, stucco
Note: Stockfish in Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino is called baccalà, not stoccafisso.
Stockfish is wind-dried cod from Norway which once was quite cheap but today is rather pricy.
Buy: The most prized stockfish is labelled ragno. The best quality should be 70-80 cm in length, white without any yellow tinge or staining, thin, and almost translucent. Medium quality stockfish is typically sold already soaked and in slices.
Prepare: When buying stockfish, check if it has been pre-soaked. If not, it will need to be beaten with a meat tenderiser, and then soaked for 4 days. If the stockfish is not very good quality, it may even need to be soaked for up to 5 to 6 days. When soaking, change the water every 2 hours (except at night). Once rehydrated, the stockfish should have doubled in weight and become more elastic. It should be boned before cooking. Some recipes require the skin and others don’t.
Eat: Stockfish is usually stewed (stoccafisso accomodato, stoccafisso all’anconetana, stoccafisso alla livornese, baccalà alla veneziana), poached (baccalà alla trevigiana, baccalà alla vicentina), boiled (baccalà in bianco), or pureed (baccalà mantecato alla veneziana).
Dentex by Christophe Quintin
Substitution: red porgy, sea bream, gilt-head bream, grouper
Dentex is a saltwater fish which are named from their large teeth (“denti” means “teeth” in Italian). It is pink coloured and can be as long as 1 meter (but is typically 40-50 cm). It lives all over the Mediterranean Sea. It is sold fresh or frozen and whole or in pieces. The flesh is lean and flavourful. The meat is versatile and can be cooked in many different ways including broiled, pan-fried (trance di dentice in padella), grilled, roasted (dentice arrosto alla ligure), baked (dentice al forno) or boiled but is often baked in salt in the oven.
Eel (Anguilla / Bisato) (Anguilla anguilla)
Eel by Valter Jacinto
Substitution: burbot
Regional names: Veneto: bisat / bisato / bisatto
The eel starts out its life in the Sargasso Sea and then makes tts way up the rivers where it lives for 9 to 15 years before returning to the sea. Eels are sold as juveniles, called elvers (ceca) which are 5-8c m in length and eaten in the spring, or as adults (l’argentina are the males and the capitone are the females) which are best eaten in the autumn. The freshwater eel is at risk of extinction so only buy the adult eel or the farmed eel. The male eel can grow up to 50 cm in length. The male eel which weighs about 130 grams is called buratello. The female eel can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The female eel which weighs 400-500 grams is called capitone. The best tasting eel is the one which is returning to the sea at the end of the summer and autumn. The most prized eel is from Lake Garda especially on the Verona side in Veneto, from Orbetello in Toscana, and from Lesina in Puglia. Eel is sold fresh, smoked (anguilla sfumata), and preserved in vinegar (anguilla marinata / anguilla scavecciata). Fresh eel should be purchased alive and must be cooked immediately as they deteriorate quickly.
Prepare: Cleaning eel is quite complicated so see the guide here. Elvers should be soaked in salted, acidulated water for hours before cooking.
Eat: Eel is eaten in a variety of ways and is a Christmas tradition in parts of Italy. It can be roasted (anguilla arrosto), grilled (anguilla alla griglia), fried (anghilla alla borghigiana), baked (anguilla alla fiorentina), spit-roasted (anguilla allo spiedo), stewed (anguilla alla bisentina, anguilla in umido alla comacchiese), broiled, cooked in soups (minestra di anguilla), or made into paté. They are also floured, fried, and marinated in water, vinegar and aromatics (anguilla in carpione). Eel is often stewed in wine. Elvers can be eaten breaded and deep-fried. Smoked eel can be served as a starter on toast with butter and lemon juice.
Eel, Conger (Grongo) (Conger conger)
Conger eel by Shoko Muraguchi
Regional names: Liguria: brongo, tiagallo, peregallo, felat; southern Italy: ruongo
Conger eel is one of the heaviest eels and is distinguishable from common eel (Anguilla anguilla) as it has a large upper jaw which hangs over the lower jaw, the pectoral fins are pointed, and the dorsal fin is further forward on the body. Conger eel is a saltwater fish which has no scales and can grow up to 3 meters in length and weigh up to 50 kilos. It requiresa special method in order to be skinned. The tail is full of bones so typically only the flesh from the head to the anal orifice is used. The flesh is very tasty but has a strong flavour and is fatty. It needs to be cooked slowly for a long time, typically in wine or tomato sauce. It is an indispensable ingredient in fish soup (cacciucco alla livornese) and pasta sauces and can be stewed (grongo in umido). It should not be grilled or fried. Raw conger eel blood is toxic.
Eel, Mediterranean sand (Cicerello) (Gymnammodytes cicerelus)
Sand eel by Lars Hammar
Regional names: Campania: aluzzetiello, Liguria: cicciarello / lusso / lussotto, Calabria: cicirello, Sicilia: cicirieddu, Sardegna: cixireddu
The Mediterranean sand eel is a saltwater fish that lives in sand banks close to shore along the coast from Liguria down to Calabria. It grows to about 18 cm in length but is normally 10 cm. It is fished in the spring. Mediterranean sand eel is floured and fried, sometimes marinated in vinegar.
Flounder, European (Passera pianuzza / Passera) (Platichthys flesus flesus)
European flounder by Hans Hillewaert
Substitution: halibut, sole, turbot
The European flounder is a saltwater flatfish found throughout the Atlantic Ocean and can grow up to 50 cm in length. There is also the Adriatic flounder (passera pianuzza) (Platichthys flesus italicus) which lives in the Adriatic Sea. It can grow to 40cm in length. The meat is good quality but has less flavour than European plaice. It should be cooked gently over low heat. It can be stewed, poached, grilled (with its skin on), steamed, floured and fried whole, or breaded and pan-fried. It goes very well with butter and/or herbs.
Garfish / Sea needle / Garpike (Aguglia) (Belone belone)
Garfish by Tom Puchner
Substitution: Atlantic saury (Costardella / Gastodella) (Scomberesox saurus), needlefish, conger eel
Garfish is a saltwater fish that lives throughout the Mediterranean and is popular in Venice. They can grow up to 70 cm but are usually about 40 cm in length. It has a long, thin, silvery body with a long pointed bill. Garfish can be eaten all year round but are best from September to January. It is normally quite cheap. Its flesh is grey when raw but firm, white and flavourful when cooked. When cooked, the bones turn a green-blue colour so they are easy to distinguish and remove. The small ones are usually fried or cooked on the griddle and the large ones sautéed or stewed. It can also be cut, rolled up and speared with a skewer or with the fish’s bill.
Gilt-head bream (Orata) (Sparus aurata)
Gilt-head bream by Michael Horne
Substitution: dentex, red porgy, saddled sea bream, pandora, grey mullet
Gilt-head bream is a saltwater fish and one of the most prized fish in Italy. It can grow up to 50 cm, but is often not longer than 30cm in length, and weighs up to 10 kilos. This fish is distinguishable by the black and gold lines it has between its eyes and its nose. Wild gilt-head bream are less fatty than the farmed version as they get more exercise. There are some very good farmed gilt-head bream however. They are best eaten in the summer. The flesh should be firm and flavourful.
Prepare: Gilt-head bream weighing more than 1.5 kilos should be allowed to rest for 24 hours before eating, although if you purchase the fish from a market or shop, it will normally have already been rested for a sufficient amount of time.
Eat: It should be cooked simply so as to not overpower the delicate flavour of the fish. It can be cooked in many different manners such as baked (orate alla pugliese), baked in parchment paper (orate al cartoccio), boiled (orate alla barese), broiled, steamed, grilled (orate alla san Nicola), or baked in salt.
Goby (Ghiozzo / Gô / Ghiozzo testone / Ghiozzo nero / Paganello) (Gobidi / Gobius cobitis / Gobius niger / Gobius paganellus)
Goby by Nicolò Bonazzi
Goby is a saltwater fish which lives in the northern Adriatic Sea and in lagoons in Venice where it is prized by Venetians. There are 2,000 species of goby. Most goby are not nice to eat but there are some varieties from the lagoons in Veneto which are good fried, broiled, in sweet and sour sauce (soar), in soups (brodetti del’alto Adriatico), and in risotto (risotto con i gô alla chioggiotta). Goby is sometimes served with polenta.
Types:
Giant goby (Ghiozzo testone) (Gobius cobitis)
Black goby (Ghiozzo nero / Ghiozzo comune) (Gobius niger)
Rock goby (Ghozzo paganello) (Gobius paganellus)
Goby, transparent (Rossetto) (Aphia minuta) is a small saltwater fish, about 5 cm long. It is deep-fried in fritters, in omelettes, or boiled and dressed in oil, lemon juice, garlic, and parsley.
Grayling by Giles San Martin
Substitute: trout
Grayling is a freshwater fish in the salmon family which lives in many of the rivers in northern Italy. Grayling can grow up to 50cm in length and weigh up to 1 kilo. In Italian, grayling is called “temolo” which refers to the herb thyme, as it is said the flesh smells of thyme. While its meat is prized, this fish is not found frequently for sale as it cannot be farmed and only lives in very clean water in the cold rivers in Piemonte. Grayling needs to be eaten as fresh as possible. It pairs well with butter, lardo, and lard. It can be boiled, fried, deep-fried, baked with hazelnuts, anchovy, and sage (temolo alle nocciole), stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo.
Grey Mullet (Cefalo / Mugella) (Mugil cephalus)
Flathead mullet by Crabby Taxonomist
Substitutions: gilt-head bream, sea bass
Regional names: Liguria: mussao, Marche: mugella
Grey mullet is a fish which lives in both saltwater and freshwater, and can be eaten all seasons of the year, although it is typically caught in spring and autumn. It is unrelated to red mullet, which is more highly prized. It ranges from 30-70 cm in length. The quality of the flesh will depend on the environment in which the fish lived. Grey mullet is sold fresh, frozen, smoked, and dried. The flesh has a good flavour and is firm but the roe of the mullet is the real delicacy, particularly in Sicilia and Sardegna where it is made into bottarga. The roe is expensive. The flesh can be grilled (cefalo alla griglia alla siciliana and cefalo alla griglia alla toscana), roasted (cefalo arrosto al’uso sardo), pan-fried, baked (cefalo in forno and cefalo all’uso delle isole veneziane), broiled, baked in parchment paper, stewed with herbs, or boiled. The small grey mullet is deep-fried or used in soups ( brodetto dell’alto adriatico and cassola sarda). It pairs well with fennel.
Types:
Flathead mullet / Striped mullet (Volpina) (Mugil cephalus)
The flathead mullet has the fine flesh and the best roe for making bottarga. It is distinguishable because its eyes are covered by a membrane. It is often farmed so the quality can be controlled and can grow to a large size, although the wild flathead mullet is often more flavourful if it lived in clean water.
Golden grey mullet (Cefalo Dorato / Lotregano) (Liza aurata)
The golden grey mullet is distinguishable for its golden mark near its gills. It is better if caught further out at sea or is small. The small golden grey mullet can be grilled, pan roasted, or baked.
Leaping mullet (Verzelata / Musino) (Liza saliens)
The leaping mullet is a mediocre fish. It is distinguishable as it has small spots on its gills.
Thick-lipped grey mullet / Bluespot grey mullet (Bosega) (Chelon labrosus)
A much-prized fish along the Adriatic Sea, although the meat is less firm and flavourful than that of the flathead mullet or the golden grey mullet. It is distinguishable by having a gap in the jugular space on the bottom of the head between the two gills.
Thin-lipped grey mullet (Calamita / Caustelo) (Liza ramada)
Less prized than the thick-lipped grey mullet along the Adriatic Sea. It is distinguishable as it has a black mark near the base of its pectoral fin.
Grouper (Cernia) (Epinephelus)
Dusky Grouper by Malcolm Browne
Substitions: dentex, red scorpionfish, shi drum, large red gurnard or piper, mahi-mahi
This large saltwater fish is part of the sea bass family and lives in many places in the world including the Mediterranean Sea. A number of fish-farming organisations are searching for ways to farm grouper. The firm, delicately flavoured meat is excellent and has no bones. Freshly fished grouper weighing more than 1 kilo should be stored in the refrigerator before cooking (12 to 36 hours for up to 5 kilos), although those bought at the market or in a shop have likely already been stored for as sufficient amount of time. Because of the large size of the fish, it is usually cooked by cutting it into pieces, although smaller grouper can be boiled whole or baked in parchment paper. Tranches can be stewed with tomato (cernia in umido), roasted (cernia arrosto alla sarda), boiled, steamed, baked in parchment paper with herbs (cerna al cartoccio), baked, or grilled. The liver is also eaten.
Types:
Atlantic wreckfish (Dotto / Cernia di fondo) (Polyprion americanus) can grow up to 2 meters in length.
Dogtooth grouper (Cernia nera) (Epinephelus caninus) can grow up to 1.5 meters in length.
Dusky grouper (Cernia bruna / Guaza / Cernia marrone) (Epinephelus marginatus) lives in the Mediterranean Sea and is a species at risk so it should be consumed less. It is the most prized and well-known. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length.
Goldblotch grouper (Cernia dorata) (Epinephelus alexandrines) can grow up to 90-100cm in length.
Gudgeon (Gobbione/Gobbo) (Gobio gobio)
Gudgeon by Giles San Martin
Gudgeon is a small freshwater fish which grows up to 15 cm in length. It is prized in Emilia. The small gudgeon is suitable for deep-frying and the large can be gratinéed.
Gurnard, tub (Capone gallinella / Gallinella / Coccio / Gurno) (Chelidonichthys lucernus)
Tub gurnard by Luc Viatour
Substitutes: grouper, red scorpionfish, stargazer
Gurnard is a saltwater fish best eaten in the spring, summer, and autumn. There are many types of fish in the Triglidi family to which gurnard belongs and it has many different names in different dialects. It has a large, bony head, a tapered red body with tiny scales and few bones. Gunard can grow up to 50 cm long. The most prized are the red gurnard and the piper. Because it has few bones, it can be filleted easily. The head is large however and accounts for 40% of its weight although the head and bones are very good for soup or broth. Gurnard is a staple in brodetto recipes (fish stew) along the Adriatic Sea.
Types:
Red gurnard / Cuckoo gurnard (Capone coccio / Capone imperial) (Triglia pini)
Regional names: Liguria: gallinella imperial / gallinetta / caussano / chèuffano / chèussano; Toscana: caviglia; Sicilia: tiega / tigieca / tirieza / tirinchiuni di fangu / cucciddu / cuccu; Puglia: capuane / capuni / cuoccio; Campania: cuoccio
Red gurnard grows to 20-40cm in length. Its flesh is very good- delicate in flavour and firm in texture. It can be boiled, baked (capone coccio al forno), or stewed.
Piper (Capone lira / Capone organo) (Triglia lyra)
Regional names: Marche: mazzolina / testolina; Toscana: gallinella lira; Liguria: gallina / tuscia; Abruzzo: testa; Puglia: teste / cuoccio / cuozzo; Friuli Venezia Giulia: turchei / turchetto; Veneto: turchetto; Lazio: coccio; Calabria: cocciu; Sicilia: cocciu/cucciu; Campania: cuoccio
Piper grow up to 25-40 cm in length and are typically fished during hot weather. Its flesh is very good- delicate in flavour and firm in texture. It can be boiled, baked, or stewed.
Streaked gurnard (Capone ubriaco / Capone lineato) (Triglia lineata)
Regional names: Toscana: pesce briaco / gallinetta / garagòlo / capone rapa / caviglia organo / corri-corri; Friuli Venezia Giulia: luserna / luzerna / testa dura / testa grossa; Sicilia: tirinchiuni di preti / turrarici; Lazio: capone di scoglio / capone turco; Puglia: capone panaricolo; Campania: curro-curro
Streaked gurnard grows to 25-40cm in length. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Tub gurnard (Capone gallinella) (Trigla lucerna)
Regional names: Marche: mazzola / testa grossa / testolina dell’occhio / capomazzo; Toscana: gallinella vera / capocchione; Liguria: galinetta / chèuffano / chèussano; Sardegna: gallinedda; Friuli Venezia Giulia: luzena; northeastern Italy: luserna / luzerna; Puglia: testa / capuane; Lazio: capone imperial / capone panaricolo; Sicilia: cocciu / cuòcceche; Calabria: cocciu verace; Campania: cuoccio fascianu / cuoccio riale / cuoccio volante
Tub gurnard grows up to 75 cm in length and is fished in the autumn. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Grey gurnard (Capone gurno / Gorno) (Eutrigla gurnardus) can grow up to 30-35cm in length. The meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Hake (Nasello / Nasello argentato / Merluzzo argentato / Pesce lupo / Pesce prete) (Merluccius merluccius)
Hake by Valter Jacinto
Substitution: blue whiting
Regional names: merluzzo
Hake is a saltwater fish that can be eaten all year round but is more intensely fished from February to May. It can grow up to 1 meter in length but is typically between 30 and 70 cm. If the hake weighs more than 700 grams, it needs to be held for 36 hours after fishing before eating; although if you buy it at a market or store it will likely have already been held for a sufficient amount of time. Hake can be purchased fresh or frozen and whole or in pieces. Do not buy frozen South American hake as it is vastly inferior. The pinkish meat is delicate, fragile, easily digestible, and has a subtle but pleasant flavour so it is often boiled or baked and fed to children. Be careful not to overcook or it will fall apart. It can be marinated and served as a starter, baked, grilled (nasello alla marchigiana) or minced for fish cakes. It can also be cooked in moist cooking methods like soup (nasello in brodetto ), boiled, and steamed. Small or filleted hake can be deep-fried (naselli fritti a filetti).
Halibut (Halibut / Ippoglosso) (Hippoglossus ippoglossus)
Halibut by Jeff Bailey
Substitution: turbot
Halibut is the largest of the flat fish and lives in the northern Atlantic Ocean. It can grow up to 3 meters in length and weigh up to 200 kilos. It is a saltwater fish prized for its delicious white meat. It is often sold in fillets rather than whole and is often frozen (although is vastly inferior to fresh as it is dry). Fresh fish should have pearly white flesh without any yellowish tinge and not a whiff of ammonia. The meat should be cooked gently over a low temperature. It can be steamed, stewed, poached, fried, or breaded and pan-fried.
Ipoglosso – See Halibut
John Dory / St. Pierre / Peter’s Fish (Pesce San Pietro / Sampietro / Pesce cetra / Pesce gallo) (Zeus faber)
John Dory by Brian Gratwicke
Substitution: turbot, sole
John Dory is a flattish saltwater fish but is not precisely a flat fish as its face covers both sides. It has dark circles on its side said to be the marks of Saint Peter’s fingers (the name “San Pietro” means “Saint Peter” in English). It lives in the Mediterreanean and and grow up to 50 cm in length. The flesh is only 33% the whole fish so the meat is quite expensive. The skin is quite tough. The quality of the firm and flavourful flesh is one of the very best and is versatile in cooking, although optimal broiled. It can also be baked (san pietro alla carlina), steamed, stewed, poached, fried, used in soups, or breaded and pan-fried.
Leerfish / Garrick (Leccia) (Lichia amia)
Leerfish by Biodiversity Heritage Library (cropped)
Leerfish is a saltwater fish found throughout the Mediterranean and in brackish lagoons. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and has a compressed body which can weigh up to 50 kilos. The firm flesh is flavourful. It can be served raw, thinly sliced and dressed with lemon juice, olive oil, salt, and pepper or can be baked or steamed. Smaller fish can be grilled.
Limanda– See Fish: Sole, yellowfin
Loach, spined (Cobite) (Cobitis taenia)
Spined loach by Sergey Yeliseev
Spined loach is a small, fleshy freshwater fish best deep-fried
Mackerel (Sgombro / Maccarello / Lacerto) (Scomber scombrus)
Mackerel by Michael Horne
Mackerel is best eaten in from November to March. Mackerel is one of the most well-known blue saltwater fish and it has no scales. It should be a minimum of 18 cm and can grow up to 50 cm long, but is more commonly up to 25 cm in length. It is very similar to Atlantic chub mackerel (Lanzard) (Scomber colias) which has less consistent streaking and a yellowish tinge. It is sold fresh, frozen, smoked, pickled, and tinned. Because mackerel is an oily fish, it needs to be eaten extremely fresh as it is highly perishable. It is not highly prized in Italy. Mackerel can be marinated, boiled, fried, deep-fried, stewed, grilled (sgombri alla griglia), baked with tomato or white wine (sgombro al forno), sautéed, pan-fried, or cooked in ragù. Pickled mackerel is best stuffed with raw tomatoes and dressed with olive oil, lemon juice, oregano, salt, and pepper.
Mackerel, Atlantic horse (Suro / Sgombro bastardo) (Trachurus trachurus)
Horse Mackerel by Frankenschulz
Substitutes: mackerel
Regional names: sauro, sauru, sorello, sugaro, sugherello
Atlantic horse mackerel is a saltwater fish in the same family as the greater amberjack. It can grow up to 40 cm and has whitish hazelnut coloured meat which is lean and delicate compared to mackerel. It has a more subtle flavour than mackerel and is more easily digestible. Atlantic horse mackerel has tiny spines near the tail which should be cut off with a knife before preparing. It is good raw, fried, grilled, baked, baked in parchment paper, and fried and marinated in vinegar and aromatics (a scapece, sauri fritti all’agliata).
Mahi-Mahi / Dolphin fish (Lampuga / Corifena cavallina) (Coryphaena hippurus)
Mahi-Mahi by Manoel Lemos
Substitutions: grouper, sea bass
Regional names: Sicilia and Puglia: capone imperial / cirfena / indoradda / lampuca / piscicapuni; Liguria: indorada; Veneto, Toscana, and Lazio: catalusso / cataluzzo; Campania: pesce pampao
Mahi-mahi is a popular saltwater fish in southern Italy and is found in northern Italy at the end of the summer (although it is best eaten in the winter and autumn). It has a hump on its head and when the fish has died, it turns a yellow grey colour. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. Mahi-mahi is cooked with tomatoes, grilled in tranches, or baked. It is best baked in parchment paper, grilled, or broiled and served with salmoriglio sauce.
Meagre, brown (Corvina) (Sciaena umbra)
Brown meagre by Arnaud Abadie
Substitution: sea bass, shi drum
Regional names: corvine di sasso, corvine di scoglio, corvine cola
The brown meagre is a saltwater fish in the same family as the croaker, which it also resembles. It has a golden brown silvery body and grows to 50 cm in length. It is versatile in cooking. Its flesh is considered one of the best and is delicate, delicious, and firm. It can be cooked in many ways such as encrusted in salt and baked, fried, steamed, or baked in parchment paper. It is best boiled, filleted and fried in butter with vegetables and white wine, braised with aromatic vegetables and white wine, or used in soup.
Monkfish / Angler / Frog fish (Rospo / Coda di rospo / Rana pescatrice) (Lophius piscatorius)
Monkfish by Simone Carletti
Regional names: Toscana: boldrò; Liguria: boldrò / budegasso / bùdego; Veneto and Sicilia: diavolo di mare; central Italy: pesce rospo; giuranna di mari / magu
Monkfish is a saltwater fish, distinct as it has a large head covered with ridges and spines and its tapered body has no scales. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and weigh over 45 kilos. It is a highly prized fish particularly in Venice. It is best eaten in the winter. The meat is not very perishable and loses little in the first 36 hours after fishing. The firm and elastic flesh is very good and similar to lobster. The fish is eaten without its skin and there is a particular method for removing the skin. See the guide on how to skin a monkfish here. The tail can be broiled, baked (coda di rospo in forno, pescatrice alla romagnola), stewed, grilled, poached in court-bouillon and served with olive oil and lemon juice. The stomach and the liver of the monkfish are also eaten pan-fried (crostini di fegato di pescatrice). The head is good for making soup. The head also has tiny fragments of meat throughout which are good for making ragù.
Mullet, Red / Mullet, Striped (Triglia di fango/Barbone) (Mullus barbatus)
Red Mullet by Abigail Powell
Substitution: striped red mullet
Red mullet is a saltwater fish and one of the two species of mullet in the Mediterranean (and is unrelated to grey mullet). The more prized species, the striped red mullet, has dark stripes on the anterior dorsal fin, which the red mullet does not. The red mullet also has two scales on its cheeks while the striped red mullet has three. Red mullet can also be very good if the environment it lives in were clean. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. They should be a minimum of 11 cm in length but grow up to 20 cm. Look for a vivid pink colour to determine its freshness. If the whole fish is bent sideways, it has been thawed from frozen. About 60% of the fish is meat. It is highly perishable and the meat extremely delicate so it needs less cooking than other fish. It is versatile in cooking methods, except for boiling. The small ones are deep-fried. The large ones, about 20 cm in length have fewer bones and can be stewed (triglie con i capperi, triglie alla livornese), baked (triglie alla genovese, triglie col proscuitto), grilled, or deep-fried. Its liver is sometimes left in while cooking to add flavour. It pairs well with fennel.
Mullet, Striped Red (Triglia di scoglio) (Mullus surmuletus)
Striped red mullet by Christophe Quintin
Substitution: red mullet
Striped red mullet is one of the most prized saltwater fish. It is a type of goatfish and one of two species in the Mediterranean (and is unrelated to grey mullet). The other, less-prized species, is the red mullet or striped mullet (triglia di fango / barbone) (Mullus barbatus). The striped red mullet has dark stripes on the anterior dorsal fin which the red mullet does not. The striped red mullet also has three scales on its cheeks while the red mullet has two. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. They should be a minimum of 11 cm in length but grow up to 40 cm in length. Look for a vivid red colour to determine its freshness. If the whole fish is bent sideways, it has been thawed from frozen. About 60% of the fish is meat. It is highly perishable and the meat extremely delicate so it needs less cooking than other fish. Striped red mullet is cooked without being eviscerated as it lends an aroma to the preparation. It has a lot of bones, particularly the smaller ones, so it is often filleted with the bones removed. The bones and the head are excellent for soups and broths. It is versatile in cooking methods, except for boiling. Mullet is good in pasta sauces, broiled, stewed (triglie con i capperi, triglie alla livornese), baked (triglie alla genovese, triglie col proscuitto), baked in parchment paper (triglie al cartoccio), baked in salt (triglie nel sale), grilled, or in soup. The small ones can be deep-fried. Its liver is sometimes left in while cooking to add flavour. It pairs well with fennel.
Needlefish, agujon (Aguglia maggiore) (Tylosurus acus)
Needlefish by Kevin Bryant
Substitution: garfish
Agujon needlefish is a long, thin, silvery saltwater fish with a long bill. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The meat is good and the central bones are coloured for easy removal. Agujon needlefish tends to be priced quite low. It needs to be cooked over low heat so that the skin does not burn before the meat is cooked. For this reason, it is normally breaded to protect the skin before being cooked. Needlefish is usually fried or cooked on the griddle but sometimes is stewed.
Pandora (Pagello fragolino) (Pagellus erythrinus)
Pandora by Nate Gray
Substitution: gilt-head bream, sea bream
Regional names: fragolino
The pandora is a saltwater fish which is best eaten in the winter and spring. It is one of the finest types of sea bream to eat and can be found throughout the Mediterranean. It grows to between 30-60 cm in length. The white flesh is delicate and is versatile in cooking method. It can be used in soups, baked (pagello fragolino al filetto di pomodoro), baked in parchment paper, baked in salt crust, used in soups, used in stews with tomato, steamed, boiled, or grilled with the scales on.
Perch / European perch / Redfin perch / English perch (Pesce Persico / Perca/ Persico reale) (Perca fluviatilis)
Perch by Jorgen Schyberg
Substitution: black bass/largemouth bass (persico trota) (Micropterus salmoides), zander
Perch is one of the most prized freshwater fish in Italy and lives in lakes in Lombardia, Veneto, Umbria, and Lazio. Perch can be up to 45cm long with a compressed olive green and dark body, a black dorsal fin, a more lightly coloured belly, and reddish orange pelvic and anal fins. It is sold fresh or frozen but is best eaten as fresh as possible. Perch is usually filleted and then floured and deep-fried, stewed, grilled (carbonaretti sui sarmenti), used to stuff crepes or pasta, breaded and pan-fried, or pan-fried with butter and sage (filetti di persico aromatizzati alla salvia). A traditional dish is perch filets with risotto (comasca dei filetti di persico col risotto).
Persico reale– See Perch
Pesce bandiera – See Scabbardfish, silver
Pesce castagna – See Pomfret
Pesce gallo – See John Dory
Pesce gatto – See Catfish
Pesce lupo – See Hake or Sea bass
Pesce persico – See Perch
Picarel (Zerro / Menola) (Centracanthus cirrus / Spicara smaris / Spicara maena)
Picarel by Alois Staudacher
Regional names: zerlo, zero
Picarel is a saltwater fish which can be eaten all year-round but is fished more intensively in the spring. It is particularly loved in Puglia and Liguria. There are three species of picarel which are in the same family: curled picarel (zerro) (centracanthus cirrus), picarel (menola) (spicara smaris), and blotched picarel (menola) (spicara maena). They grow to about 20 cm in length. The blotched picarel is the more prized of the three. Small picarel is optimal deep-fried but it can also be preserved in salt and covered with olive oil and vinegar. Large picarel is good for soup.
Pigo (Pigo) (Rutilus pigus)
Pigo by Emmanuel Lattes
Pigo is a type of roach and is a freshwater fish living in Italy and Switzerland. It can grow up to 50 cm in length and its meat is good for cooking. It is sold dried or fresh. It is grilled, made into pâté, fried, and deep-fried and marinated with aromatics and vinegar. In Lake Como, it is also salted and dried.
Pike (Luccio) (Esox lucius)
Pike by Thomas Kohler
Substitutions: zander
Pike is a freshwater fish found all over Europe in lakes and rivers. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The meat is one of the most prized of the freshwater fish, particularly because it is relatively rare. Although pike lives in many regions in Italy, Lombardia has the most recipes for pike. The best pike is considered to be from Umbria, Lazio, and Lombardia. Small whole pike is better tasting than the large pike sold in pieces because large pike is more likely to be dry and tough. It is difficult to clean because it has forked bones that are difficult to remove, particularly for fish weighing less than 3 kilos. It can also be difficult to scale so pour boiling water over it to scale more easily. Pieces of pike benefit from being marinated to soften them before being fried or grilled. The firm, flavourful meat is usually boiled (luccio alla barcaiola, luccio in consa), baked, poached (luccio in salsa), stewed, fried (luccio fritto), or made into meatballs (luccio alla gardesana). In Lombardia and Veneto, pike is often eaten with polenta. The sperm sac and eggs are slightly toxic.
Pilot fish (Pesce pilota) (Naucrates ductor)
Pilot fish by Nate Gray
Substitutions: amberjack
Regional names: fanfolo, infanfolo,’nfanfulo, pisci d’ummra
Pilot fish are carnivorous saltwater fish and often live with together with sharks, swimming in front of them as though guiding them (thus the name pilot fish). They live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 70 cm long, although are typically 30 cm long. The meat has a distinct flavour and is not very firm. It needs to be eaten within 24 hours after being caught otherwise the skin develops a strong odour. It is stewed with tomatoes and capers, made into a ragù to dress pasta, or breaded and cooked with salmoriglio sauce.
Plaice, European (Platessa) (Pleuronectes platessa)
European plaice by Joachim S. Müller
European plaice is a saltwater flatfish, which lives in the Atlantic Ocean and grows up to 90 cm in length. It is brown with red flecks. Plaice is prized for its delicate meat and is sold frozen and fresh. Small plaice can be fried skin on. Large plaice can be grilled, boiled, steamed or baked in salt with their skins on, to be removed after cooking. It is a good fish to serve to children because it is easily digestible and has a mild flavour.
Pollack, European / Pollack, Atlantic (Merluzzo giallo / Pollak) (Pollachius pollachius)
Pollack by Arturo
Pollack is actually a type of codfish, which is at risk and consumption should be reduced. It has delicate white flakey flesh with a yellowish tinge. It is sold as fillets both fresh and frozen. It is boiled, baked, stewed, or breaded and fried. It is not typically grilled or roasted.
Pomfret (Pesce castagna) (Brama brama)
Pomfret by Rogiro
Regional names: Sardinia: carraginu; Sicilia: fatula / saracu impiriali; Veneto: ociada bastarda
Pomfret is a saltwater fish with a flattened body which can grow to between 30-80 cm in length. It is a greyish silver colour when alive but turns almost black when dead. It has good quality meat, which is best cooked filleted and fried. It can also be boiled, broiled, baked, grilled, or braised with onion and parsley.
Pompano (Leccia stella) (Trachinotus ovatus)
Pompano by Pedro Tomas
Substitution: amberjack
Pompano is a pearly white coloured saltwater fish with a long forked tail and black marks on the ends and the dorsal and anal fins. It lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 70 cm in length. It is best eaten in the spring. It has excellent delicate, white, compact flesh, which is best baked, grilled, or pan-fried.
Pond perch – See Pumpkinseed sunfish
Porgy, red (Pagro / Pagro mediterraneo) (Pagrus pagrus)
Red porgy by Socellatus
Substitution: dentex, gilt-head bream
The red porgy is a saltwater fish with a rosy silver body. It can grow up to 1 meter in length, but is normally 30-60 cm. Red porgy is typically fished in the months with hot weather. It has excellent white meat, which is firm and flavourful but is slightly inferior to dentex as the meat is less firm. It can be served raw. It is versatile in cooking and can be baked, stuffed, grilled, cooked on the griddle, or baked in parchment paper.
Pumpkinseed sunfish / Pond perch (Persico sole) (Lepomis gibbosus)
Sunfish by Hugo Photography
Pumpkinseed sunfish originate from North America but are common in Italy where they are considered an infestation. This freshwater fish can grow up to 20 cm in length. The meat has a lot of bones so the small ones are best deep-fried and eaten whole. Large pumpkinseed sunfish are boned and the meat used to make meatballs.
Razorfish, pearly – See Wrasse, cleaver
Roach / Roach, south European / Rovella (Rovella, Gardon) (Rutilus rubilio, Rutilus aula, Rutilus rutilus)
Roach by Sergey Yeliseev
Roach is a freshwater fish living in rivers and lakes in Italy. It is suitable for deep-frying. Large roach can be baked or fried. The eggs are edible and turn from green to red in colour when cooked.
Types:
Roach (Gardon) (Rutilus rutilus) lives in Lake Maggiore and grows up to 40 cm in length. Its meat is not very good and it is full of bones. It is best for making into paté or meatballs.
Roach (Rovella) (Rutius aula) lives in Italy, Switzerland, Croatia and Slovenia.
South European Roach / Rovela (Rovella) (Rutilus rubilio) lives in rivers and lakes in Italy.
Rombo chiodato – See Turbot
Salmon by John Bostock
Substitution: char, arctic
Salmon is a very popular saltwater or freshwater fish (depending on the stage of their life) all over the world as its meat is economical, versatile in cooking method, and is easily prepared. For these reasons, wild salmon has been overfished. European salmon can grow to 1.5 meters in length, but more typically up to 1 meter. Wild salmon’s texture and flavour are not comparable to that of farmed salmon, although farmed salmon is sustainable (although an undesirable side effect is that farmed Atlantic salmon have escaped from fish farms and have altered the genetic pool of wild Pacific salmon). The best quality salmon is wild salmon, which has lived at sea for 1-2 years and has had enough food to develop fat which softens the meat. A salmon can be 60-80 cm in length and are fished only in the spring. Salmon fished in the winter and are 3 years old, have meat which is less delicate and soft. Salmon between 2 and 3 years old have inferior meat. Salmon meat is generally soft and delicate, rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, which are excellent in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, and is flavourful. Salmon is sold fresh, frozen, tinned, or smoked. The salmon’s head accounts for 20% of its total weight. Choose whole salmon which is short and rounded with a small head and broad shoulders. Choose pieces of salmon which have fat between the flakes and don’t buy soft, greyish, oily or watery salmon. The best salmon are from Scotland, Ireland, Norway, or the Chinook/King salmon or Sockeye varieties from North America. Salmon has not historically been part of Italian cuisine so there are not traditional recipes. It is excellent cooked anyway but is best smoked, marinated, raw, poached, baked, grilled, pan-fried, or broiled.
Sardine / European pilchard (Sarda / Sardina / Sardella / Acciuga) (Sardina pilchardus)
Sardines by José Antonio Gil Martínez
Sardine is a freshwater or saltwater fish which should be a minimum of 11 cm and can grow up to 15 to 20 cm long. The very young sardines are sold as whitebait (see below). Look for sardines that have a vivid colour on their body and eyes and have a plump abdomen, which is not soft or sunken. It is used frequently in Italian cooking and can be eaten all season of the year, although are best in the spring. It can be preserved in vinegar, salt, or oil, sometimes with the addition of lemon juice or tomato. Sardina typically refers to sardines preserved in oil whereas sarda normally indicates fresh sardines. Sardines are best broiled or barbecued and sprinkled with lemon juice. They can also be served raw, deep-fried (sarde a beccafico alla catanese), baked (sarde alla cetrarese, sarde ala napoletana), fried (sarde allinguate), in sweet and sour sauce (sarde in saor), pickled (sardine en consa, scabeccio), stuffed (sarde a beccafico, sarde farcite), in pasta (pasta con sarde), grilled (sarde alla griglia) or cooked in ragù.
Sardinella, round / Sardine, gilt / Sardine, Spanish (Alaccia) (Sardinella aurita)
Round Sardinella by NOAA Photo Library
Substitutions: sardine
Round sardinella is a saltwater fish which prefers mild temperatures so are found in more temperate areas. It is similar to, but not as good as, the sardine as it also has a higher fat content, is larger (up to 30 cm in length), and deteriorates quickly once caught. Round sardinella can be found fresh or preserved in salt or olive oil. It is deep-fried, baked, and cooked in ragù.
Scabbardfish, silver (Pesce sciabola / Pesce spatola / Pesce bandiera) (Lepidopus caudatus)
Silver Scabbardfish by Nate Gray
Regional names: pesce fiamma, pesce lama, pesce vela
Silver scabbard fish is a saltwater fish that lives in the Tyrrhenian Sea and grows up to 2 meters in length. It has a long, silvery tape-like body. It is fished in the spring, autumn, and winter. The meat is greatly prized, although economical in price, and very flavourful. All along the western coast of Italy the silver scabbardfish is cut into pieces and fried, grilled, stewed, pan-fried, or braised in tomato sauce. It can be cut in tranches or filleted. It can also be cut into fillets rolled around a stuffing made of bread, cheese, oil, and parsley, and then baked or roasted.
Scorfano – See Fish: Scorpionfish
Scorpionfish by Jean-Loup Castaigne
Substitutions: grouper, red gurnard or piper, weever
Scorpionfish is a saltwater fish and there are many species of scorpionfish in the Mediterranean. The body has many venomous ridges and spines so be careful when cleaning this fish and wear gloves. This type of fish is usually cooked using a moist cooking method and is particularly good in soups, stews, and sauces. Large scorpionfish is normally boiled or baked.
Types:
Red scorpion fish (Scorfano rosso / Scorfano maggiore) (Scorpaena scrofa)
Regional names: Liguria and Toscana: cappone, cipuddazza, pescio capon, scarpena rossa
Red scorpionfish grow to 50 cm in length. The firm and flavourful fish is of excellent quality. The large ones are good boiled or stewed with tomatoes. The small ones are used in many types of soups (cacciucco and brodetto ). Broth made from red scorpionfish is one of the best in Italy. The cheeks are particularly tasty.
Black scorpion fish (Scorfano nero / Scorfano Bruno / Scorfano rascassa) (Scorpaena porcus)
Regional names: pesce capone, scarpena negra, scrofanu niuro
Black scorpion fish grow to 30cm in length. Black scorpion fish is often used in soups. It can also be cooked with oil, garlic, tomato, parsley or basil to make a sauce for spaghetti or linguine.
Sea bass / Sea perch (Branzino / Spigola / Pesce lupo) (Dicentrarchus labrax)
Sea bass by Kurt Wagner
Substitution: brown meagre, shi drum, grey mullet, mahi-mahi
Regional names: lupu de mari, spina, spinola, ragno
Sea bass is a saltwater fish which lives in the Mediterranean Sea and can live in freshwater, often in salt marshes and river deltas. While it can grow up to 1 meter in length, it is often not longer than 50-60 cm. It can weigh up to 10 kilos but is normally between 800 grams and 3 kilos. Farmed sea bass is more common, averaging 250-350 grams in size. Some of the farmed sea bass can be as good as wild sea bass but is typically less flavourful. Wild sea bass has a grey-black back and pales silver sides, which the farmed do not. Sea bass is best eaten in the spring, summer, and autumn. Together with gilt-head bream, sea bass is the most prized fish in Italy as its delicate but firm meat is also flavourful and versatile in cooking method. Sea bass can also be preserved easily for 48 hours in the refrigerator. It has about 50% meat on a whole fish. Sea bass can be served raw (spigola al cruda). It is very good encrusted in salt and baked (branzino in sale), fried, steamed (filetto di branzino alla fonduta di pomodoro), poached (spigola alle alghe), baked (spigola al forno), griddled (spigola ai ferri), or baked in parchment paper (spigola al cartoccio). It pairs well with fennel. The liver of large sea bass is prized and can be pan-fried with butter and sage.
Sea bream (Pagello / Occhialone / Pezzogna) (Pagellus bogaraveo / Pagello centrodontus)
Sea bream by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Substitution: pandora
Sea bream is a saltwater fish distinguishable by its large eyes and for a large black mark above the pectoral fin at the beginning of the lateral line. It is found all over the Mediterranean Sea. It is best eaten in the winter and spring. Sea bream should be a minimum of 33 cm and can grow to about 70 cm in length. Suitable for baking, roasting, pan-frying, used in soups and stews. Large sea bream can be broiled.
Sea bream, axillary (Pagello bastardo) (Pagellus acarne)
Axillary sea bream by Anna Mayer
Substitution: sea bream, pandora
Axillary sea bream is a saltwater fish with a rosy silver coloured elongated body. It grows up to 30 cm in length. It is less prized than the pandora or the sea bream. Axillary sea bream is suitable for moist cooking methods. Dry cooking methods will dry out the meat so it should only be boiled, braised, or used in soups and stews.
Sea bream, black (Tanuta / Cantaro) (Spondyliosoma cantharus)
Black sea bream by Hans Hillewaert
Substitution: white sea bream, gilt-head bream,
Regional names: cantarella, cantaro, sarago, bastardo
Black sea bream is a saltwater fish, which can grow up to 50 cm in length. It is fished all year-round. The meat is good and similar to white sea bream. It can be boiled or cooked on the griddle and served with a sauce.
Sea bream, saddled (Occhiata) (Oblada melanura)
Saddled sea bream by Nate Gray
Substitution: gilt-head bream
Saddled sea bream is a saltwater fish, oval in shape with a greyish silvery blue coloured body with stripes and a black mark at the beginning of the tail. It can grow up to 25-30 cm and can be eaten year-round. The white flesh is firm and has a good flavour but needs to be eaten very fresh or else loses its aroma. It can be broiled, baked, or used in soups and stews, but is best grilled. Small saddled sea bream can be fried.
Sea bream, striped / Sand steenbras (Marmora / Mormora / Pagello mormora) (Lithognathus mormyrus)
Striped sea bream by Tor Lillqvist
Substitutions: gilt-head bream
Striped sea bream is a saltwater fish, which can be eaten every season of the year, but is more intensively fished in the summer and autumn. It is found all over the Mediterranean Sea. Striped sea bream is one of the best fish in the Mediterranean Sea and is as good as, albeit is less known than, sea bass, dentex, or gilt-head bream. It should be no smaller than 20 cm and can grow up to 50 cm in length. The meat is very good for eating. Suitable for baking (mormore al forno) and grilling.
Sea bream, white (Sarago / Sargo) (Diplodus)
White sea bream by go.fishing.at.dawn
Substitution: black sea bream
Regional names: saraco, sparo
White sea bream is a saltwater fish, which is best eaten in the winter and summer. There are many different species of this category of sea bream so they vary in length from 25 to 50 cm. The meat is good if very fresh. This fish loses a lot of its flavour even within hours of fishing. White sea bream is typically cooked on a griddle, grill, roasted, or baked and served with a sauce (samoriglio). It can also be broiled or spit-roasted. The small ones can be fried. The other types of sea bream can be used in soup (see below).
Types:
Annular sea bream (Sarago sparaglione / Sarago dell’anelo / Sparaglione / Sparlotto / Carlino) (Diplodus annularis) is small (up to 20 cm), not highly prized, and is yellow and silver in colour. It can be used in soup.
Common two-banded sea bream (Sarago fasciato / Sarago del Salviani) (Diplodus vulgaris) is small but has good meat.
Sharpsnout bream (Sarago pizzuto) (Diplodus puntazzo) has a black ring on its tail and has the most inferior meat. It can be used in soup.
White sea bream (Sarago maggiore / Sarago rigato/Sarago sparetto) (Diplodus sargus) can grow up to 40 cm in length and weigh up to 2 kilos. Its meat is the most prized amongst these sea bream.
Zebra sea bream (Sarago farone / Sarago fasciato) (Diplodus cervinus) can be used in soup.
Sea needle – See Garfish
Sea Perch- See Sea bass
Shad / Alosa agone (Agone) (Alosa fallax lacustris)
Shad by Fernando Coello Vicente
Regional names: sardena
Shad is a freshwater fish that lives in alpine lakes. It is 25-30 cm in length. The meat is rather inferior and is needs to be scaled carefully, has a lot of bones, and needs to be washed more than other fish. It is sold fresh, dried and tinned (missoltini/salacca) or dried and salted. Fresh shad are best in the spring. It is a fatty fish so is suitable for grilling. Small shad is suitable for deep-frying. It is often eaten in Veneto and Lombardia with polenta. The eggs are sold fresh, frozen, and tinned and are considered a delicacy by some.
Sgombro bastardo– See Mackerel, Atlantic horse
Shark (Squalo / Palombo / Vitello di mare, Smeriglio, Spinarolo, Squalo volpe, Verdesca) (Mustelus mustelus, Lamna nasus / Isurus oxyrinchus, Squalus acantias, Alopias vupinus, Prionace glauca)
Porbeagle shark by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Substitutes: ray, tuna
Sharks live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 4 meters in length. Shark is not commonly eaten in Italy anymore because they are an important species for keeping the environment in balance, its meat is full of heavy metals, and its flesh is neutral in flavour. Shark is typically skinned and sold in tranches. It is difficult to determine the freshness once the skin has been removed. Shark sold with the skin on will take on a strong off-putting ammonia smell when it goes off. Shark can be marinated in oil and broiled or baked or used in soups and stews. It can also be boiled and served with a marinade (burrida).
Types:
Blue shark (Verdesca) (Pionace glauca) is more prized for its fin than for its meat, which is difficult to digest. It can grow up to 3 meters so its meat is sold in tranches. It can be distinguished from smooth-hound shark by its vertebrae which radiates like a bicycle wheel whereas the former has an eight pointed cross in four “V” shapes with the points intersecting in the centre.
Porbeagle, Short-fin mako shark (Smeriglio) (Lamna nasus / Isurus oxyrinchus) are both mackerel sharks which live in the Mediterranean Sea and grow up to 4 meters in length. They are sometimes labelled as swordfish or smooth-hound shark but the spine is smaller than swordfish. It has the highest quality meat of all the sharks.
Smooth-hound shark (Palombo) (Mustelus mustelus)
The smooth-hound shark can grow up to 1.5-2 meters in length. Its flesh is light pink in colour and it is sold in tranches, sometimes erroneously marked as swordfish. The shape of the tranche is different than that of swordfish though and you can more easily pierce the spine with a knife as the shark has more cartilage. The spine has an eight pointed cross in four “V” shapes with the points intersecting in the centre. The meat is easy to prepare as it comes in tranches, is cheap, and is not highly perishable as it can be kept in the refrigerator for 24 hours. It can be roasted, grilled, fried (palombo in cotoletta all’uso Milanese and palombo coi piselli), or baked. There are two types:
Black-spotted smooth-hound shark (Palomo punteggiato) (Mustelus punctulatus)
Starry smooth-hound shark (Palombo stellate) (Mustelus asterias)
Spiny dogfish / Spurdog / Mud shark / Piked dogfish (Spinarolo) (Squalus acanthias) grow up to 1.5 meters in length and weigh up to 12 kilos. It tends to be sold in tranches. Its flesh is quite tough.
Thresher shark (Squalo volpe) (Alopias vulpinus) live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 6 meters in length. Its meat has a decent flavour.
Shi drum (Ombrina) (Umbrina cirrosa)
Shi drum by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Substitution: sea bass
Shi drum is a saltwater fish, which can grow up to 50 cm in length. There are many different species of shi drum, which live in many different places including the Mediterranean Sea. It is intensively farmed. It has a delicate white flesh, which is flavourful, compact and highly prized. Shi drum is sold fresh or dried and smoked. The most prized species has a gold coloured mouth and is called “boccadoro”. Shi drum can be used in soup (ombrina a brodetto ) or stewed.
Smelt, big-scale sand (Latterino) (Atherina boyeri)
Sand smelts by Lebatihem
Regional names: acquadella, alicetta, angela, ciciniello, muscione
This is a small fresh and marine water fish, which grows up to 10 cm in length, but the most prized is no more than 4 cm. It is deep-fried whole, baked (latterini in tortiera), or marinated (aquadelle/latterini marinati) and served as a starter.
Sole / Dover sole / Black sole (Sogliola) (Solea vulgaris)
Sole by Yellow.Cat
Substitutions: John Dory, turbot
Regional names: lengua, sfogia, sfogio, sfogliola
Sole is a saltwater flatfish, which is best eaten in the summer. There are many species in the sole family, some more prized than others. The most prized is the common sole (sogliola commune) (solea vulgaris). Sole should be a minimum of 20 cm and rarely is longer than 50 cm in length. It is prized for the refined quality of their meat, which is pinkish white, firm but soft, delicate, and flavourful. When the sole is no longer fresh, the skin on the side without the eyes tends to come off easily. It is impossible to test the freshness of filleted sole. Sole is 45% meat and is still fresh within 24 hours of fishing (and in fact taste better 24 hours after being fished). Small sole can be fried with their skin on. Large sole can be grilled, breaded and deep-fried, cooked in tomato sauce, pan-fried with butter or olive oil, cooked on the griddle with its skin on (sogliole ai ferri all’anconetana), sautéed (sogliole alle olive), poached in court-bouillon, fried, baked with butter and white wine, baked, roasted, steamed or baked in salt with their skins on, to be removed after cooking. Sometimes only the dark, more leathery skin is removed. When cooking sole using a moist cooking method, the cooking liquid is reserved, as is the spine and the head to make soup or broth.
Types:
Common sole (Sogliola comune) (Solea vulgaris) can grow up to 45 cm in length and is the most prized of the types of sole. It is distinguished by a black mark on the end of the right pectoral fin.
Sand sole (Sogliola del orro) (Solea lascaris) grows up to 35 cm in length and has a nostril on its blind side.
Adriatic sole (Sogliola adriatica) (Solea impar) grows up to 25 cm in length and has a black mark in the centre of its body and a white border.
Klein’s sole (Sogliola turca) (Solea kleini) grows up to 35 cm in length and the anal and dorsal fins are edged in black.
Senegalese sole (Sogliola Senegalese) (Solea senegalensis) grows up to 50 cm in length and has small blue dots on its top side.
Sole, yellowfin / Lemon sole (Limanda) (Limanda aspera)
Lemon sole by Hans Hillewaert
Substitutions: sole
The yellowfin sole is a saltwater flatfish, which lives in the north Pacific Ocean and grows up to 50 cm in length. It is sold in frozen fillets in Italy, which are inferior to fresh. Yellowfin sole should be eaten as fresh as possible. It is relatively inexpensive and has a neutral flavour and is considered slightly superior to plaice. It is best filleted, breaded, and fried, pan-fried with butter or olive oil, cooked on the griddle with its skin on, sautéed, poached in court-bouillon, fried, baked with butter and white wine, or steamed.
Spearfish, Mediterranean (Aguglia imperiale) (Tetrapturus belone)
Spearfish by Agriculturasp
Substitution: swordfish
This saltwater fish is similar to marlin and can grow to more than 2 meters in length. It is found in Sicilia. Spearfish is highly prized. It can be pan-fried or baked.
Sturgeon, Adriatic (Storione cobice) (Acipenser naccarii)
Adriatic sturgeon by Landahlauts
Adriatic sturgeon lives in the Adriatic and travels to the Po River to reproduce. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and has no scales. Adriatic sturgeon is less prized than White sturgeon which lives in Eastern Europe. Wild Adriatic sturgeon is at risk and should be consumed less. Wild sturgeon is best eaten in the spring. There is now farmed sturgeon, although the fish are normally less than 3 kilos in weight. Sturgeon meat is of excellent quality- light coloured, firm, and not overly fatty. It is easy to prepare as there are no bones aside from some cartilage. Sturgeon is sold fresh or smoked, normally in tranches. It is versatile in cooking and can be sliced and poached in court-bouillon, boiled, broiled, grilled, breaded and fried, pan-fried (storione alla ferrarese), stewed, baked in parchment paper, or served raw.
Types:
Beluga sturgeon (Ladano) (Husa husa) lives primarily in the Black and Caspian Seas but also, although rarely, in the Adriatic Sea and Po River. It is huge, growing up to 8 meters. This fish is prized for its large eggs to make into beluga caviar.
European sea sturgeon / Atlantic sturgeon / Baltic sturgeon / Common sturgeon (Storione Comune) (Acipenser sturio) is found on most coasts in Europe but is at risk of distinction. It has the best tasting meat of all the sturgeon. It is also fished for its eggs to be made into caviar.
Starry sturgeon (Storione stellate) (Acipenser stellatus) grows to 2 meters in length but is lighter in weight than other sturgeon. Its eggs are made into sevruga caviar, which is inferior to beluga caviar but superior to oscetra caviar.
White sturgeon (Storione bianco) (Acipenser trasmontanus) grows up to 6 meters in length, but is normally about 1.5 meters. It can be farmed for its meat and eggs to be made into caviar. White sturgeon is the most prized of the sturgeon.
Swordfish (Pesce spada) (Xiphias gladius)
Swordfish by Flavia Brandi
Substitution: Mediterranean spearfish, tuna
Swordfish is an endangered saltwater fish that should be eaten less. It is a magnificent fish with a long bill and is much celebrated in Calabria and Sicilia where it is fished from April to September. It is best eaten in the spring and early summer. It can grow up to 4 meters in length and weigh up to 200-300 kilos. Swordfish has three traditional methods of being fished. In the first method, they have a person on a 20 meter high post who spots the swordfish and use a bow with a 25 meter long harpoon (fiocina) with a forked point with which to spear the fish. The second method is to release nets kilometres long (palangari) and lined with hooks that can be fixed or loose. The third method is to tightly fix a net 800 meters long and 16 meters high to create a drifting wall (palamitara). The last method is illegal in the European Community as it traps many other species in the net, some of which are protected. Swordfish is highly prized for the delicate flavour of its meat, ease of preparation since it is sold in tranches, versatility in cooking, and its texture (which deteriorates if it has been frozen). It is typically sold in tranches, although sometimes it is sold as smaller fish of 2-3 kilos, and is distinguishable because the vertebrae is in an “X” formation and is larger than shark vertebrae. Not all parts of the swordfish are the same however. The belly (ventresca, surra) is the most highly prized part of the swordfish as it is softer, light coloured, and fattier. The back of the swordfish is dark pink, lean, and quite tough so requires marinating in wine and oil before cooking. The tranches are eaten raw (pesce spade crudo), thinly sliced, rolled and baked (braciolette di spade), grilled (pesce spade alla griglia, spiedini di pesce spada), pan-fried (pesce spade in padella), sautéed (pesce spade a ghiotta), steamed, or stewed (pesce spade alla bagnarese and pesce spade alla regina). It is traditionally served with salmoriglio sauce. The whole fish can be baked or grilled and served with salmoriglio sauce or boiled in sea water and served with olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, and parsley.
Tench by Timo D
Substitution: catfish
Tench is a native freshwater fish to Italy prized for its meat. It can grow to 60 cm and prefers tranquil and cold waters, rich with vegetation. It is also farmed but the quality depends on the water in which it lives, which if very still, the fish can taste of mud. Tench is often sold alive and if it is kept in clean water, alive, for a few days, it will lose its muddy taste. If the fish smells muddy, it can be soaked briefly in water and vinegar to remove. Repeat this process 3 to 4 times. Tench is about 50% meat. To prepare tench, be careful to remove the spines as they can be prickly but do not remove the scales, just clean well. Small tench can be dipped in flour or breaded and fried in olive oil or lard, roasted on the grill or oven with sage, stuffed and baked (tinca a cappone), baked (tinca al forno), broiled; used in soups and stews, or floured, fried, and marinated in onion and bay leaf (tinca in carpione). Tench is also stewed (tinca alla lariana, tinca in guazzetto, tinca con i piselli) or cooked in risotto (risotto con la tinca). Tench is often cooked with strong flavours such as herbs and garlic.
Brown trout by Michael Meiters
Substitution: whiting, European; char, arctic; grayling
Trout is a saltwater and freshwater fish prized for its tasty meat and for having relatively few bones. Farmed trout can be as good as wild trout, particularly if marked “al torrente” as it has been raised in an artificial cold current to obtain firm consistency of the meat. Also prized is trout marked “salmonata” which has vividly coloured flesh which looks like salmon in colour, obtained by feeding the trout ground crustacean shells. It is often sold live and is not highly perishable. Trout can be kept for up to 36 hours after being killed but is best eaten very fresh. Frozen trout is also of good quality. It is 60% meat. Trout should be scaled when preparing but wipe rather than wash the trout. It does not match well with olive oil but rather butter, lard, and lardo (unless being used to dress boiled trout). Trout is also not often paired with tomato. It can be boiled, grilled (trota alla griglia), pan-fried, baked, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle (not tomato), fried and marinated in vinegar, white wine, and aromatics (trota in carpione), or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo as filling or wrapped around the fish. The fillets, escalopes, tranches, and smaller whole fish (16-18cm called trotella) can be fried. It can also be smoked or made into paté or terrine.
Types:
Brown trout (Trota fario) (Salmo trutta fario) is a native trout to Italy that lives in running water in the Alps. Brown trout have been successfully farmed. It grows to 50cm in length and is typically less than 1 kilo. This is the most prized trout in Italy.
Brown trout (Trota lacustre) (Salmo trutta lacustris)
Marble trout (Trota marmorata) (Salmo trutta marmoratus) live in Switzerland and Veneto.
Native brown trout (Trota macrostigma/Trota sarda) (Salmo trutta macrostigma)
Rainbow trout (Trota iridea/Trota arcabaleno) (Salmo trutta gairdnerii) originated in North America but now also live in Italy. This is now the majority trout on the market in Italy as it is successfully farmed.
Tuna (Tonno) (Euthynnus alletteratus, Thunnus alalunga, Thunnus thynnus, Sarda sarda, Auxis thazard)
Albacore tuna by Roaming the Planet
Substitutes: swordfish
Tuna is most prized in south-central Italy although is less esteemed than swordfish. Atlantic bluefin tuna is the most prized tuna in Italy, followed by albacore tuna. Look for tuna steaks with even, deep colouring. Dark spots indicate bruising and pale flesh is past its prime. It can be served raw, grilled, floured or breaded and pan-fried (tonno c’a cipuddata), grilled, roasted (tonno alla genovese), baked (tonn alla marinara), sautéed (tonno umbriaco), or stewed (tonno coi piselli).
Types:
Tuna / Little tunny (Tonno / Tonnetto alletterato) (Euthynnus alletteratus)
Little tuny is a saltwater fish with markings on its back that look like writing. The colour of the flesh is similar to that of Atlantic bluefin tuna but the meat is less fatty and tougher in texture ,so is less prized. The flesh has a lot of blood in it, which is difficult to digest, has a strong flavour, and can act as a laxative. The blood can be removed and the meat thereby made more easily digestible by soaking pieces of the fish in ice water in the refrigerator overnight. The most prized parts are from the belly (ventresca and tarantello). It is versatile in cooking method but should be cooked briefly but gently. Tuna is stewed (tonno alla portoscusese, tonno ammuttunatu, tonno briaco alla livornese), broiled, or breaded and fried.
Tuna, albacore (Alalunga) (Thunnus alalunga)
Albacore tuna is a saltwater fish that lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 1 meter in length and 30 kilos in weight. Together with Atlantic bluefin tuna (which it is similar to but albacore has leaner, less prized, meat), they are the most prized tunas in Italy. It has recognisable pectoral fins and is best eaten in the autumn. The flesh is a very light pink colour and can be preserved well in oil. Albacore tuna is versatile in cooking method but is best boiled, steamed, baked, grilled, pan-fried (alalunga in agrodolce), raw, or marinated like ceviche. Be careful not to overcook or the meat will become very hard.
Tuna, Atlantic bluefin (Tonno rosso) (Thunnus thynnus)
The Atlantic bluefin tuna is an endangered saltwater fish that can grow up to 3 meters in length and up to 400 kilos in weight. It is the most prized tuna for its flavourful flesh.
Tuna, bonito (Palamita) (Sarda sarda)
Bonito tuna is a saltwater fish that lives in the Mediterranean Sea and grows to a length of 80 cm and up to 10 kilos in weight. It is best eaten in the winter and spring. It has rosy flesh with a pronounced flavor, which should be cooked gently over low heat. It is versatile in cooking method and can also be preserved in oil. Bonito tuna can be broiled, fried, stewed, or marinated.
Tuna, frigate (Tombarello comune / Tambarello) (Auxis thazard)
Regional names: biso, pisantuni, prisituni, sangusu, sgamirru, tunnacchiu
The frigate tuna is a saltwater fish, which is the smallest of the tunas and looks like a large mackerel. It is blue and lead grey in colour. The flesh has a lot of blood in it which is difficult to digest and can act as a laxative. The blood can be removed and the meat thereby made more easily digestible by soaking pieces of the fish in ice water in the refrigerator overnight. It is versatile in cooking method but pairs well with strong aromatics which can match the strong flavour of the meat such as rosemary, thyme, capers, olives, onion, and garlic. It should be cooked quickly but gently.
Tuna products:
Tuna, preserved (Tonno conservato)
Preserved tuna by John Keogh
Buy: Tinned tuna comes packed in olive oil (“sott’olio”) or brine (“al naturale”) in a jar or tin. It comes packed in pieces or in one solid piece. It can be yellow fin tuna, bonito, albacore, or another variety of tuna. The highest quality preserved tuna is packed as one whole piece in olive oil. The most prized cut is the belly (ventresca or tarantello) as it is delicate, soft, and fatty. The price varies according to the factors above but also according to the production process. Frozen or fresh tuna is either steamed or cooked in water and packed by machine or by hand into a container with hot oil, salt, and sometimes absorbic acid and MSG. It is then sterilised. Fresh tuna packed by hand will be more expensive. In Italy the best preserved tuna is sold in the delis by weight rather than packaged.
Store: Store in the cupboard at room temperature until the expiration date on the packaging.
Prepare: Open the tin and remove the tuna from the liquid. Discard the liquid. Once the container is opened, if the tuna was packed in a tin, remove it to a glass or plastic container, seal it and keep in the refrigerator.
Eat: Preserved tuna can be simply dressed with olive oil lemon, and freshly ground black pepper and served with raw vegetables such as radishes, fennel, and spring onion. It is also used in salads, with beans (fagioli col tonno), as a sauce to dress veal (vitello tonnato), to stuff half of a raw tomato, in sandwiches (tramezzini), in meatballs (polpetone di tonno), to stuff an omelette, to stuff hard-boiled eggs, or to dress pasta (ziti alla palermitana).
Turbot (Rombo chiodato) (Psetta maxima)
Turbot by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Substitution: John Dory, halibut, flounder, sole
Turbot is a saltwater flat fish, distinct in its rhomboid body shape and knobbly brown skin, not to be confused with brill which are of similar shape and in the same family. The side with the eyes has no scales but has bony tubercles. It has a speckled body and is rhombus in shape. There is a special rhombus-shaped pan (turbottiera) made for cooking turbot. Turbot is found all over the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 1 meter in length. Typically, the turbot sold is between 20-50cm in length and weighs between 300 gms to 4 kilos. There is now farmed turbot. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. The meat is highly prized in Europe and is excellent, firm in texture with a delicate flavour. Turbot is my favourite Western fish. A whole fish has 50% meat. It can be cooked whole or filleted. If filleted, look that the meat is creamy white without any tinge of blue indicating it is past its prime. If cooked whole, it is best to leave the skin on until serving. Turbot needs to be cooked gently over low heat with careful attention not to overcook it or it loses its characteristic qualities. It can be broiled, stewed, poached in court-bouillon, baked (rombo con i carciofi and rombo al forno ), grilled (with its skin on), steamed, fried, or floured or breaded and pan-fried (rombo con salsa di acciughe e capperi). It does not pair well with olive oil but goes very well with butter, potatoes, artichokes, lemon, and/or herbs such as tarragon.
Vairone (Vairone) (Telestes muticellus)
Vairone by Wikimedia
Vairone is a freshwater fish that live in rivers in central and northern Italy, France, and Switzerland. It grows up to 25cm in length. Its meat is not highly prized suitable for deep-frying.
Greater weever by Hans Hillewaert
Substitutions: red scorpionfish
Regional names: varagno, dragone, ragno pagano
Weever is a saltwater fish, which grows from 20 to 40 cm in length. There are many species in the Weever family. It has three venomous spines on the dorsal fin and the two gills so you need to use gloves when preparing. If you do prick yourself, soak your hands in hot water. Weever has solid white flesh, which is stewed or cooked in soups. The small ones can be deep-fried and the medium sized ones can be grilled if very fresh (tracina alla griglia), stewed, or broiled.
Types:
Greater weever (Tracina drago) (Trachinus draco)
Spotted weaver (Tracina ragno) (Trachinus auraneus)
Lesser weaver (Tracina vipera) (Trachinus vipera)
Whitebait (Bianchetti) (Clupea harengus, Sprattus sprattus)
Whitebait by Rubber Slippers in Italy
Whitebait is the young of anchovies, sardines, and pilchards. It is typically eaten from February to August. They should be cooked within 24 hours of being fished. They are sold fresh or boiled and dressed. Whitebait is delicious and is usually eaten whole, breaded and deep-fried or boiled in sea water and dressed with olive oil and lemon juice.
Whitefish, European (Coregone/Bondella, Lavarello) (Coregonus lavaretus, Coregonus macrophthalmus)
European whiting by Biopix
Substitution: trout, perch
Whitefish is a freshwater fish introduced into lakes in Italy in the 19th century. The firm white meat is very tasty and has few bones. It can also be served raw, but the flesh is a bit soft. It pairs well with butter, lardo, and lard. It can be cooked whole broiled, baked (coregone alla bolsenese, lavarello al forno and lavarello alla salvia), baked in parchment paper, or boiled. It can also be filleted and floured or breaded and fried or deep-fried, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo, minced to make fish cakes and stuffings, or used to dress pasta or rice.
Types:
Coregone/Bondella (Coregonus macrophthalmus) originates from Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland and lives in Lakes Como, Maggiore, and Lugano in Lombardy and Switzerland. It grows up to 30cm and can be farmed.
Lavarello (Coregonus lavaretus) is a hybrid of the fish from Lake Constance in Germany and lives in the Italian alpine lakes and lakes in Umbria and Lazio. It can grow up to 60cm in length.
Whiting, blue (Melù/Potassolo) (Micromesistius poutassou)
Blue whiting by FishBase
Substitution: hake, poor cod
Regional names: pesce morgana, potassolo
Blue whiting is a saltwater fish, which lives along the Tyrrhenian Sea and grows to about 30 cm in length. It resembles hake but has larger eyes and a smaller mouth. Blue whiting is fished in the spring and summer. There is a festival in Porto Ercole in honour of the blue whiting. The delicate flesh is easily digested and similar to hake or cod although less flavourful and too soft in texture when raw and then too hard when cooked. Blue whiting is sold fresh or salted and sun-dried (mosciame). It is easy to bone as the flesh is soft and you can just use your hands. In Liguria the small ones are opened flat, breaded and deep-fried. The large ones can also be boiled. Small blue whiting can be floured and fried in butter (alla mugnaia).
Wrasse, cleaver / Razorfish, pearly (Pesce pettine/U surici) (Xyrichtys novacula)
Cleaver wrasse by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
The cleaver wrasse is a saltwater fish about 20 cm long. It is a prized fish in Calabria where it is fried. It is good fried in butter.
Zander (Lucioperca/Sandra) (Sandra lucioperca)
Zander by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
Substitutions: pike, perch
Zander is a freshwater fish, which originates from Central-Eastern Europe and Asia but was introduced to Italy in the 19th century. It now lives in the lakes in Lombardy and in many rivers. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. It has white, firm flesh with few bones, which should be eaten as fresh as possible. Its meat is tougher than other freshwater fish so it needs to be cooked slightly longer than most fish. It can be boiled (lucioerca in salsa), braised (Sandra brasata al vino rosso), floured and deep-fried, pan-fried with butter and sage, or made into meatballs.
| PLAICE |
On which river does the city of Lisbon stand , just before it reaches the Atlantic Ocean ? | Ingredients F | Living a Life in Colour
Living a Life in Colour
a guide to Italian food, wine and culture
Ingredients F
The Italian Larder
Search by alphabet:
Fennel / Florence fennel (Finocchio / Finocchietto) (Foeniculum vulgare)
Wild fennel by Clay Irving
Equivalents: 1 cultivated bulb=120-180 grams net weight = ¾ cup chopped or sliced
Fennel is a native vegetable to the Mediterranean. Fennel is harvested from September through April but the season depends on where it is grown. The varieties are typically named after where it is grown, for example “Gigante di Napoli” is from Campania, “Mantovano” is from Mantova, “Grosso di Sicilia” is from Sicilia, “Dolce di Firenze” is from Firenze, and “Finocchio di Parma” is from Parma. The Wadenromen variety is slightly oval in shape and is very sweet. Fennel is said to sweeten the breath and calm flatulence so it was historically served at the end of a meal in Italy, as the seeds are in India today.
Buy: Fennel is white to light green in colour with a bulb with concentric layers similar to an onion except with no paper-like skin on the outside. It has a liquorice-like aroma. The bulbous root of the fennel, the feather-like leaves similar to dill, and the seeds are the parts that are typically eaten. The bulb should be firm, tender, compact, and crunchy without any cracks or signs of bolting. Fennel which has started to yellow or has elongated brown streaks is past its prime. The outer layers are unlikely to be blemish free and will be removed in any case, but evaluate whether the interior layers are pristine. The fennel fronds should be feathery and not wilted or wet.
Types:
Cultivated fennel (Finocchio) (Foeniculum vulgare)
Cultivated fennel is fatter, rounder, sweeter and larger (grows up to 12cm in diameter) than wild fennel. The female fennel bulbs are fatter and sweeter while the male fennel bulbs are flatter and more fibrous. The oval-shaped fennel are better for cooking while the more rounded are best for eating raw.
Wild fennel (Finocchiello / Finocchio selvatico / Finochetto / Finocchio asinino) (Foeniculum vulgare Mill)
Wild fennel are more elongated, slightly bitter in flavour, and smaller (grow up to 5cm in diameter) than cultivated fennel. It grows wild and is often growing next to roads. It is much more aromatic that cultivated fennel due to its essential oils and it has yellow flowers during the summer. It is a characteristic flavouring in Sicilia, Calabria, Puglia, and Sardegna.
Store: Store in a plastic bag in the refrigerator for 3 to 4 days. It cannot be frozen. Fennel fronds can be kept wrapped in a damp kitchen in a plastic bag in the refrigerator.
Prepare: Prepare the fennel just before cooking as it discolours when cut. Remove the stalks and tough outer layer layers and trim 1cm off the base of the fennel. If the fennel bulb is large, taste the core to see if it is tough or stringy, and if so, cut it out. These parts can be discarded or used to stuff fish or meat for roasting or baking, create a bed under roasting meat, in stock, or in court-bouillon. The fronds can be reserved and used in salads, stuffings, or used to stuff fish or lamb for grilling or baking. Quarter or slice the bulb and rinse well between the sections to ensure there is no soil.
Eat: It pairs very well with fish. Italians eat it raw, thinly sliced and dressed with olive oil (finocchi in insalata), whole after a meal like fruit, in crudité ( pinzimonio ) or in a salad (insalata di finocchi e olive). Fennel does not pair well with vinegar though so it is usually omitted when fennel is used in salads. It can be boiled and baked au gratin (finocchi gratinati), braised (finocchi al latte), steamed, sautéed (finocci alla giudia), stewed (finocchi al burro e formaggio, finocchi in tegame), grilled, breaded and deep-fried (finocchi dorati), in risotto (riso coi finocchi) or made into flans (sformato di finocchi). Wild fennel is used as an aromatic in grilled dishes (branzino allo spiedo con finocchio selvatico) or in griddled dishes (branzino ai ferri con finocchio selvatico) and fish soups. Wild fennel is also used to dress pastas (pasta con le sarde), flavour soups (macco), flavour breads and flatbreads, flavour boiled chestnuts (ballotta), flavour roast or barbecued meat ( porchetta , fegatelli), flavour cured meats (finocchiona), make relish (rosamarina), make preserves (caroselle sott’aceto), in stuffings (maiolino al forno), in casseroles (pollo in porchetta , coniglio in porchetta ), and are roasted and served on bread (crostini di barbe di finochio selvatico). Fennel partners well with olive oil, butter, bay leaf, parsley, fennel seeds, orange, lemon, saffron, tomatoes, potatoes, olives, garlic, Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese, and goat cheese.
Fennel seed (Semo di Finocchio) (Foeniculum vulgare)
Fennel seeds by Francesco Taturno
Fennel seeds are a spice said to aid digestion and sweeten the breath.
Buy: Fennel seeds should be fresh and smell of fennel. They should taste of sweet aniseed.
Store: Fennel seeds should be stored in a cool, dark, dry place in an airtight container
Prepare: I often toast and fennel seed before using. Some recipes call for it to be ground to a powder in a mortar or spice grinder, particularly when it is to be sprinkled over fish before grilling.
Eat: Not many spices are used in Italian cooking but fennel combines so well with fish (triglie alla genovese) and pork, particularly in salami (finocchiona/sbriciolona), innards (ciarimbolo), and sausages (‘ndoc ‘ndoc). Fennel seeds are also used in nougat (mandorlotto). They can be ground and rubbed on meat (arista) or fish or added to stocks or court-bouillon. Fennel seeds are also used to flavour chestnuts, black olives, dried figs, grappa, breads, crisp-breads (taralli), and oils.
Fig by Kathy Simon
Substitutions: apricots
There are more than 700 varieties of figs and their season depends on the variety as some varieties only produce fruit once a year while others produce several times a year. Typically mature figs are in the markets at the end of summer, although there is a variety which matures in July called fiorone which are tasteless but juicy. The white varieties tend to mature in August and September and are used in syrups, are candied or are made into preserves. The most prized varieties are Dottato / Ottato, S Vito Albo, Gentile bianco, Moscadello, Verdello, Genovese, and S. Pietro.
Buy: Figs are a fruit which are sold fresh or dried (fichi secchi), sometimes stuffed with nuts. Figs have an edible skin which can be purple, green, white, black or brown. The interior flesh can be a deep purple, red, or pink colour with many tiny seeds. Look for figs which have juice leaking from the bottom of the fig and feel heavy for their size. Because figs are extremely perishable there is a temptation to pick them while unripe but once they are picked they do not continue to ripen much. There should be no white milky liquid on the stem end- an indication the fig was picked unripe. They should be plump, and without any mould or wrinkles on the skin- a sign that they are dry or rotten inside. Very ripe figs will be soft to touch, may have small cracks in the skin, and may have a bend in the stem. The flesh should be juicy without any sign of drying seeds. They should be extremely delicate and soft so are difficult to transport. Dried figs can be sold as they are or stored in earthenware or glass jars with bay leaves.
Store: Figs are best eaten as fresh as possible but can be stored on paper at room temperature for up to two days. Be careful of any mould and discard any figs with signs of mould immediately.
Prepare: Rinse the figs with water and cut off the stem. If the skin is thick, then peel them. To dry figs, leave them for a week in a dry place in direct sun, or dry in a low oven or dehydrator for 12 hours.
Eat: Figs are good eaten on their own, with prosciutto as a starter, stuffed, or used in desserts. They can be served raw for dessert with cream, custard, or macerated with sugar and liquor. They are also baked with wine and sugar and served cold, caramelised (fiche caramellati), made into tarts ( crostata ai fichi), or with Bavarian cream (bavarese ai fichi). Figs can also be baked into bread (panficato). In Venice figs are cooked with liver (fegato coi fichi). In Roma, figs are often used in both savour and sweet dishes. Dried figs can be minced and made into cakes (pitta ‘mpigliata, frustingo,panetto di fiche, panforte) or stuffed (bratte/crucette/padruni).
Equivalent: 1 kilo of whole round fish = 500 grams of meat
1 to 1.1 kilo of whole flat fish = 500 grams of meat
500 grams of meat = 2 main course servings = 4 starter servings
There are more than 30,000 species of salt-water fish, freshwater fish, and brackish water fish. In Italy, the most prized fish are the sole (sogliola), seabass (spigola), and the gilt-head bream (orata). The same fish have several names so to be precise, it is best to use the scientific name which is distinct. Fish are eaten fresh, preserved, or dried. Fish is becoming more popular as it has fewer calories, and contains beneficial fats including Omega-3 which are proven to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. Many people are now enjoying eating fresh fish more regularly due to an improvement in transportation and logistics. Different species of fish will range in fat from 0.5-30% with species with the highest fat content including salmon, sturgeon, and eel. Fish have calcium, potassium phosphorus, and Vitamins A, B, D,and E as well as iodine, phosphorous, zinc, and copper.
Fish anatomy by Meimanrensheng
Buy: Fish can be purchased fresh, frozen, smoked, dried, and salted. Fish can be sold whole or in pieces. The best quality fish will always be wild fish but there are now some very good farmed fish on the market.
Whole fresh fish: The best practice is to buy from the same person every time to better ensure the fish is good quality. Look for the following 5 factors:
Body: To check if a fish is fresh, hold it horizontally by grabbing the head. If it is fresh, it will remain straight, due to rigor mortis. Press the flesh with your thumb, the flesh should spring back into shape, if an indentation remains, the fish is old. The stomach should be plump not swollen or soft. This test does not apply to tuna or swordfish however which need to be matured to tenderise them and develop their flavour.
Eyes: Check that the eyes are bulging (not sunken), clear (not cloudy) with black pupils (not dilated or grey with red rims)
Gills: Should be bright red, wet, and clean (not dark red or brown, slimy, dry, or dirty).
Skin: The fish should be brightly coloured, tight, wet, gleam and be slippery with an evenly distributed, clear, viscous slime covering it. It should not be dry or wrinkled. Freshwater fish should be silvery or green and not brown as they are likely to be muddy.
Smell: The fish should smell slightly like seaweed (if it is saltwater fish) or marsh grasses (if it is freshwater fish). There should not be any fishy, acrid, ammonia, muddy, or rancid smell. However, shark and ray may have an ammonia smell and this is normal.
Cut fish: If the fish is still on the bone, check that the flesh is firmly attached to the bone and not loose or discoloured. The flesh should be elastic. If the fish has been de-boned, where the bone was removed, there should be a small hole and the flesh there slightly rosy in colour. The skin should look tight and bright.
Note: In some parts of the West, it is not advisable to buy fresh fish on a Monday as Sunday is a rest day so the fish will have been sitting for some time.
Frozen fish should have the same attributes as fresh fish. Check for any odours and the cloudiness of the eyes for signs of less than fresh fish.
Sometimes the fish’s liver is eaten, particularly that of cod (merluzzo) which is smoked and served as a starter. The livers of anchovies, sardines, hake, shad, grouper, sea bass, monkfish, and whiting are rich in Omega 3 and are edible.
The eggs, sperm sac, and the stomach of the monkfish are also eaten (see below).
Store: When you take the fish home, before you store it, the fish should be cleaned. Lift up the gills and use scissors to cut the red part out of the gills. The gills filter out impurities while the fish is alive and later decompose rapidly.
There are a couple of methods to gut a fish (some of the interiors can be eaten, see “Buy” above). For round fish, you can either cut along the stomach from the gills down to the anal fin and pull out and discard the guts, or you can first remove the gills and then use the hooked handle end of a spoon to draw down through the bottom of the head of the fish to draw out the guts and discard. For flat fish, feel which side the stomach is one (it should be softer) and make an incision starting at the head downwards to remove the guts.
Once the fish is cleaned, rinse it in cold water, especially the abdominal cavity and dry thoroughly inside and out. Mix 3 parts water to 1 part edible alcohol and sprinkle 2 paper towels with the solution. Place one of the paper towels in a plastic container which can be sealed air-tight and put the fish on top of it, stomach side opened onto the towel. Cover the fish with the other paper towel and close the container and keep in the refrigerator. Repeat the following day if not using the fish that day.
Once you have stored the fish, if an unpleasant smell (for example, ammonia) persists even after cooking, it is best to assume the fish is not edible. If the smell disappears then it is edible.
Prepare:
Special preparation for freshwater fish: Freshwater fish which smell muddy can be cleared of its muddy taste. To do this either keep fish alive in clean water alive for 2 days, or if it has already been killed, soak the fish in water and vinegar solution, repeating this process 3 to 4 times.
Cleaning: To clean a whole fish, use scissors to cut off the dorsal, pectoral, and anal fins. Be careful while doing this as some of the fish have spines. Freshwater fish should have the blood along the backbone removed as it is bitter. Check inside the mouth of the freshwater fish to ensure there are no weeds in its mouth or throat.
Scaling: If you are not going to remove the skin of the fish and it is to be used in a soup, deep-fried, or stewed, then the fish must be scaled. Place the fish on a board and hold the head firmly, use a fish scaler or the spine of a knife (if you use a knife then do this part in a sink) to run down the body starting at the head down to the tail to remove the scales. Repeat until all the scales are removed.
Cutting: Fish can be cut into tranches, fillets, decapitated, boned (using tweezers), scaled, left whole, or stuffed. See the guide here on how to cut fish.
Cooking whole: Fish may be cooked with its scales if it is to be grilled, roasted, spit-roasted, steamed, baked in salt, or baked in seaweed but it will not make pan juices. Some people prefer to score larger fish at its thickest part so that it cooks more evenly. With medium-sized firm fish, measure it at the thickest point and cook for 10 minutes per 2.5cm (1 inch). You can use the tip of a knife to pierce the thickest part of the flesh. Touch the tip gently to your lip to see if it is hot,indicating it is cooked. The flesh should flake easily and be opaque. You do not want for the fat to start running out of the fish. Flat fish and fillets will cook much more quickly than the ratio given above so you need to test using the flaking and opaqueness techniques. Small fish are best fried, grilled, or in soup.
Eat: Fish in Italy is roasted (pesce arrosto in forno), pan-roasted (pesce arrosto in padella), grilled (pesce arrosto alla griglia), spit-roasted (pesce arrosto allo spiedo), steamed in parchment paper ( pesce al cartoccio ), baked in salt (pesce cotto sotto sale), deep-fried (pesce fritto), poached, boiled (pesce lessato), stewed (pesce in umido), and cooked in soups. It is cooked quickly as the flesh begins to disintegrate if overcooked. Generally, freshwater fish are cooked on their own and not combined with other fish like saltwater fish are in Italy. Freshwater fish, aside from salmon, grayling, char, and trout are usually not cooked using water, but instead use wine and vinegar.
Other edible fish parts: Fish eggs can be eaten boiled, deep-fried, or braised. Fish livers of certain species are eaten (see “Buy” above). The sperm sack can be cooked like fish eggs. Tuna sperm sac is dried and shaved. Monkfish stomach is braised and eaten.
Amberjack, greater (Ricciola) (Seriola dumerili)
Greater amberjack by Marco Mariani
Substitution: bluefish, dentex, swordfish
Regional names: Central and Northern Italy: leccia/leccia bastarda; Marche and Puglia: ombrina boccadoro
Greater amberjack are best eaten in the winter or summer. They are saltwater fish, and can grow up to 2 meters in length. They have firm and delicate-flavoured flesh. It can be baked whole or in slices (ricciola al forno coi carciofi), broiled, poached in court-bouillon, steamed, or grilled. It pairs well with herbs, particularly basil.
Anchovy (Acciuga / Alice) (Engraulis encrasicolus)
Fresh anchovies by Tom Lee KelSo
Anchovies in Oil (Photographed by Stijn)
Salted Anchovies by Funadium
Regional names: Sicilia: aliccia / anciova / masculina, Piemonte: ancioa (if preserved), Liguria: amplova / amploa, Marche: lilla / magnana, Veneto: sardela / sardòn, Friuli Venezia Giulia: sardòn, Puglia: speronara
Anchovies are small saltwater fish, up to 20cm long. The very young anchovies are sold as whitebait (see below). Fresh anchovies are in season from March until September. Traditional varieties include Acciuga di Monterosso and Alice di menaica. Anchovies are another iconic Italian food. They add depth of flavour and a distinct salty flavour to a dish. They are used in everything…except desserts.
Buy: Anchovies come fresh, filleted and jarred or tinned in olive oil (filetti di acciuga sott’olio) or brine, or whole or filleted and salted in jars or tins (acciughe sotto sale). They are also made into a paste (see below). Salted whole anchovies in a tin are thought to be higher quality but need additional preparation. I prefer the anchovies in oil to those in brine.
Fresh anchovies can be eaten every season of the year. For fresh anchovies, buy ones which are a bright silver with a blue-green hinge. They have a slim body and a protruding jaw. When anchovies are not fresh they turn dark blue or black and should be avoided.
Store: Fresh anchovies should be eaten as soon as possible. If you must store fresh anchovies, cover with shaved or flaked ice in a perforated container on top of a solid container to catch any melted water in the refrigerator. The ice prevents contact with the air and the perforated container ensures the fish stays dry to preserve its texture and flavour. When using preserved, tinned anchovies, I transfer them to a sealed airtight jar or plastic container airtightafter I have opened the tin. I then make sure that the anchovies remain covered with whatever they came preserved in with and place them in the refrigerator.
Prepare: Salted anchovies should be washed in milk or water to remove the salt. If the anchovies are not filleted then you need to remove the bones, heads, and guts. First use your thumb to slit the fish open along the belly moving from the head to the tail. Then remove the head and guts pinch the the head just below the gills and pull downwards towards the tail. Open up the anchovy and use your thumbnail to slide the bones out.
Eat: They are rolled around vegetables in starters, top pizzas and breads, are melted into sauces for pasta (bigoli), are combined with breadcrumbs to top risotti, used in omelettes, are used to flavour meats, served fresh on their own plain, stuffed or rolled and then either grilled, baked, deep-fried, stewed, or fried, used in salads, and are mixed into stuffing to stuff vegetables. Fresh anchovies can also be marinated in olive oil and lemon juice and eaten raw.
Anchovy products:
Anchovy paste (Pasta d’acciuga)
Anchovy paste by Orimo
This is anchovy pureed with oil and is sold in a pot or a tube. It can be used as a substitute for anchovies where the anchovy is being melted into a sauce. It has the advantage of allowing one to more easily control the amount added to a dish.
Barbel (Barbo, Barbo canino) (Barbus plebejus, Barbus caninus)
Barbel by Lorenzo Andrioli
Barbel is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes and rivers which has delicate meat, but many bones. The small ones are usually fried, grilled, or broiled. The large ones are boiled or stewed (barbo al vino). The eggs are toxic.
Types:
Italian barbel (Barbo) (Barbus plebejus) is a freshwater fish that lives in rivers and sometimes lakes in Italy, Switzerland, Croatia, and Slovenia. It can grow up to 80cm in length.
Brook barbel (Barbo canino) (Barbus caninus) is a freshwater fish that lives in rivers in Italy and Switzerland. It can grow up to 40cm in length.
Bleak by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Regional names: Veneto and Trentino: àola / àgola / àvola
Bleak is an elongated flattish freshwater fish that lives in northern Italian lakes. It grows up to 20cm in length. Bleak is easily deboned and is suitable for deep-frying, grilling, or pickling (carpione). It can also be dried and preserved in brine or sun-dried (sisam).
Bluefish (Pesce serra) (Pomatomus saltatrix)
Bluefish by NCFishes
Substitution: greater amberjack, sea bass
Regional names: ballerina
Bluefish is a saltwater fish which can grow up to 1 meter in length. It has sharp triangular shaped teeth. It is sometimes incorrectly labelled as sea bass. Some people love bluefish and others find it mediocre. It can be baked whole, steamed, or grilled. It pairs well with lemon and/or capers.
Bogue by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Regional names: Liguria: buga, south-central Italy: vopa / opa
Bogue is a saltwater fish and a type of sea bream that lives in the Mediterranean Sea. It can grow up to 40cm in length but is typically not more than 15-20cm and can weigh up to 1.5 kilos. Bogue can be eaten any season of the year. It must be disembowelled quickly after dying or the flesh will take on an off-putting odour. It is versatile in cooking method and has very tasty flesh. It is good raw, deep-fried, grilled, and in soup. They are good deep-fried or fried and then marinated in vinegar and aromatics (a scapece).
Bondella- Whitefish, European
Brill (Rombo liscio / Rombo soaso) (Scophthalmus rhombus)
Brill by Arnstein Rønning
Substitutions: turbot, sole, John Dory
Regional names: From Venice to Abruzzo along the Adriatic coast: soaso/suaso
Brill is part of the turbot family and is a flat saltwater fish that can grow up to 70cm in length. It has good quality, firm meat but is inferior to turbot. Brill needs to be cooked gently over low heat. It can be stewed, poached, grilled (with its skin on), steamed, fried, or breaded, pan-fried, or cooked in soups and stews. It goes very well with butter and/or herbs and less well with olive oil.
Burbot / Bubbot / Mariah / Eelpout (Bottatrice) (Lota lota)
Burbot by NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
Substitution: eel, European (anguilla)
Burbot is a freshwater fish that lives in lakes in northern Italy. It can grow up to a meter in length but is normally 30-60cm. The delicate, white meat is tasty and best eaten in the summer. It can be broiled, stewed, stuffed, baked, roasted, or fried. The liver is also prized, eaten pan-fried in butter. Large burbot livers are sometimes salted and dried.
Carp by Lebatihem
Substitution: grass carp (amur / carpa erbivora) (ctenopharyngodon idella), tench
Carp is an omnivorous native freshwater fish in Italy. It is able to be sustainably farmed. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. Carp used to live amongst the rice fields, its manure fertilising the soil. It has soft, amber coloured flesh which is prized in the parts of northern Italy where there are rice fields and in central Italy near Lake Trasimeno. The most prized variety is the carpa a specchio. It is cleaned like other fish except that it has many bones throughout the body and the tail. If the fish smells muddy, briefly soak it in water and vinegar solution, as this will remove the unpleasant taste. Repeat this process 3 to 4 times. The small ones can be deep-fried, fried and marinated in vinegar and aromatics (carpa in carpione), or cooked into risotto. The large ones can be baked whole with the stomach cavity stuffed with lardo and aromatics (carpa regina in porchetta ) or stewed in gelatinous broth (carpa in bianco alla tremezzina). The eggs are aso eaten.
Types:
Carpa regina / Carpa comune is completely covered with scales and can weigh up to 30 kilos. It can be difficult to scale. Pour boiling water over it to scale it more easily.
Carpa a specchio is a golden green colour, has large scales, and can weigh up to 38 kilos. This is the most prized carp.
Carpa cuoio has no scales and can weigh up to 20 kilos.
Carpione (Carpione / Salmo carpa) (Salmo carpio)
Carpione by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
Carpione is a prized freshwater fish native to Lake Garda. It has delicate, high-quality flesh which is usually broiled, grilled, roasted, or boiled and dressed with olive oil. It is traditionally floured, deep-fried, and marinated in onion and sage or bay leaf, sometimes with carrot, celery, salt, water, and vinegar.
Catfish (Pesce gatto) (Siluriformes)
Black bullhead catfish by Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources
Wels Catfish by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Catfish, black bullhead (Pesce gatto) (Ameiurus melas)
Substitution: tench
The black bullhead catfish originates from the United States but were introduced to Italy in the 19th century. They now live in rivers, lakes, and ponds in Italy or are farmed. Catfish grow up to 25 cm in length. The quality of the meat depends on the environment in which it lives. Look for catfish which is white and sweet-smelling. It needs to be skinned before cooking. It has few bones so is easy to fillet. Small catfish can be fried in olive oil or lard (frittura di pesce del Po), roasted on the grill or oven with sage; in risottos, stewed (pesce gatto in umido) or floured, fried, and marinated in vinegar and garlic (pesce gatto in ajoon).
Catfish, Wels / Sheatfish (Siluro) (Silurus glanis)
Originating in Eastern Europe, the Wels catfish is a bottom feeding freshwater fish that can grow up to 2.5 meters. It has infested the Po River and its tributaries. The amber coloured meat is flabby so not often eaten in Italy although it is prized in Eastern Europe. The best ones weigh less than 3 kilos. It comes fresh, salted, dried, or smoked. Look for white, sweet-smelling catfish. It needs to be skinned before it can be cooked. Wels catfish can be cut in tranches and fried or stewed.
Char, arctic (Salmerino) (Salvelinus alpinus)
Arctic Char by Visit Greenland
Substitution: trout, salmon
Arctic char is a freshwater fish that lives in the lakes in Trentino Alto-Adige. Its population is currently in decline but it has been successfully farmed. It can grow up to 40-60 cm in length and usually weigh up to 2 kilos, although they can grow to 15 kilos. It’s white to red-orange coloured meat is prized for its delicate consistency and flavour but it is a rare find. It is excellent cooked in any way. The large ones are best smoked, marinated, broiled, or raw. The small ones can be boiled, fried, deep-fried, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo.
Cod / Atlantic Cod / Codling / Haberdine (Merluzzo atlantico) (Gadus morhua)
Atlantic cod by Joachim S. Müller
Substitution: pollock
Atlantic cod is the king of the codfish. It is a saltwater fish that is currently at risk so consumption needs to be reduced (substitute Pacific cod or Poor cod). It lives in the northern Atlantic Ocean and can grow up to 2 meters in length and 45 kilos in weight. Fresh cod is typically sold whole without the head or as skinned fillets, about 40 to 50 cm in length. Cod is best when very fresh. Frozen cod has less flavour than fresh cod, but it is more consistent in quality than fresh cod and does not need to be defrosted before cooking. When selecting filets, choose the middle cut which should have the tenderness of the tail and the flavour of the shoulder. The meat should be without yellow or pinkish patches. Its meat is composed of large flakes and, when fresh, will have fat between the flakes. To prepare cod, rub it with cut lemon half an hour before cooking to tenderise and whiten the flesh. It can be baked, boiled, stewed (merluzzo alla marinara), pan-fried, or deep-fried. It is also sold salted as salt cod (baccalà) or dried as stockfish/dried cod (stoccafisso) – see below. The liver of the cod fish is also eaten, smoked and served as a starter.
Other types of cod:
Pacific Cod (Macrocefalo) (Gadus macrocefalus)
Pacific cod is a saltwater fish from the Pacific Ocean usually found in Italy as salt cod (baccalà) or stockfish/dried cod (stoccafisso)
Poor Cod (Merluzzetto) (Trisopterus minutus)
Substitution: blue whiting
Poor cod is a saltwater fish that is similar to blue whiting and cooked in the same way. It can be boiled, breaded and deep-fried open flat, or the small ones can be fried in butter.
Cod products:
Salt cod (Baccalà)
Salt cod by Fiore Silvestro Barbato
Equivalent: 700 grams dried salt cod = 1 kilo rehydrated salt cod = 800 grams rehydrated and cleaned salt cod= 4 servings
Note: Baccalà in Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino means stockfish, not salt cod.
Salt cod is cod preserved by salting, a technique used since the 17th century.
Buy: The fish is sold encrusted in salt or opened up flat and re-soaked. Good quality salt cod should be soft, flavourful, and not fibrous when cooked although this is difficult to judge when purchasing. Look for pieces not less than 40 cm in length and at least 3 cm thick, which are white without any yellow tinge or staining (although it should not be too white or it may have been whitened artificially). Choose a piece with less salt as it will need to be soaked for a shorter period of time.
Prepare: Salt cod needs to be prepared before being used in a dish. It should be brushed under running cold water, soaked for 48 hours in a plastic bowl filled with cold water and the water needs to be changed frequently (every two hours, except at night). The fish should then be boned and skinned before cooking.
Eat: Salt cod can be stewed (baccalà alla potentina, baccalà alla napoletana), baked in parchment paper (baccalà a foco morto), baked (baccalà a sfincione, baccalà al forno alla calabrese), fried (baccalà alla fiorentina, baccalà in zimino), deep-fried, made into meatballs (polpette di baccalà), and stuffed (baccalà ripieno).
Stockfish / Dried cod (Stoccafisso / Baccalà)
Stockfish by Chris Zielecki
Equivalent: 400 grams dried stockfish = 700 grams rehydrated stockfish= 4 servings
Regional names: Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Trentino: baccalà, stocche, piscistoccu, stucco
Note: Stockfish in Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, and Trentino is called baccalà, not stoccafisso.
Stockfish is wind-dried cod from Norway which once was quite cheap but today is rather pricy.
Buy: The most prized stockfish is labelled ragno. The best quality should be 70-80 cm in length, white without any yellow tinge or staining, thin, and almost translucent. Medium quality stockfish is typically sold already soaked and in slices.
Prepare: When buying stockfish, check if it has been pre-soaked. If not, it will need to be beaten with a meat tenderiser, and then soaked for 4 days. If the stockfish is not very good quality, it may even need to be soaked for up to 5 to 6 days. When soaking, change the water every 2 hours (except at night). Once rehydrated, the stockfish should have doubled in weight and become more elastic. It should be boned before cooking. Some recipes require the skin and others don’t.
Eat: Stockfish is usually stewed (stoccafisso accomodato, stoccafisso all’anconetana, stoccafisso alla livornese, baccalà alla veneziana), poached (baccalà alla trevigiana, baccalà alla vicentina), boiled (baccalà in bianco), or pureed (baccalà mantecato alla veneziana).
Dentex by Christophe Quintin
Substitution: red porgy, sea bream, gilt-head bream, grouper
Dentex is a saltwater fish which are named from their large teeth (“denti” means “teeth” in Italian). It is pink coloured and can be as long as 1 meter (but is typically 40-50 cm). It lives all over the Mediterranean Sea. It is sold fresh or frozen and whole or in pieces. The flesh is lean and flavourful. The meat is versatile and can be cooked in many different ways including broiled, pan-fried (trance di dentice in padella), grilled, roasted (dentice arrosto alla ligure), baked (dentice al forno) or boiled but is often baked in salt in the oven.
Eel (Anguilla / Bisato) (Anguilla anguilla)
Eel by Valter Jacinto
Substitution: burbot
Regional names: Veneto: bisat / bisato / bisatto
The eel starts out its life in the Sargasso Sea and then makes tts way up the rivers where it lives for 9 to 15 years before returning to the sea. Eels are sold as juveniles, called elvers (ceca) which are 5-8c m in length and eaten in the spring, or as adults (l’argentina are the males and the capitone are the females) which are best eaten in the autumn. The freshwater eel is at risk of extinction so only buy the adult eel or the farmed eel. The male eel can grow up to 50 cm in length. The male eel which weighs about 130 grams is called buratello. The female eel can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The female eel which weighs 400-500 grams is called capitone. The best tasting eel is the one which is returning to the sea at the end of the summer and autumn. The most prized eel is from Lake Garda especially on the Verona side in Veneto, from Orbetello in Toscana, and from Lesina in Puglia. Eel is sold fresh, smoked (anguilla sfumata), and preserved in vinegar (anguilla marinata / anguilla scavecciata). Fresh eel should be purchased alive and must be cooked immediately as they deteriorate quickly.
Prepare: Cleaning eel is quite complicated so see the guide here. Elvers should be soaked in salted, acidulated water for hours before cooking.
Eat: Eel is eaten in a variety of ways and is a Christmas tradition in parts of Italy. It can be roasted (anguilla arrosto), grilled (anguilla alla griglia), fried (anghilla alla borghigiana), baked (anguilla alla fiorentina), spit-roasted (anguilla allo spiedo), stewed (anguilla alla bisentina, anguilla in umido alla comacchiese), broiled, cooked in soups (minestra di anguilla), or made into paté. They are also floured, fried, and marinated in water, vinegar and aromatics (anguilla in carpione). Eel is often stewed in wine. Elvers can be eaten breaded and deep-fried. Smoked eel can be served as a starter on toast with butter and lemon juice.
Eel, Conger (Grongo) (Conger conger)
Conger eel by Shoko Muraguchi
Regional names: Liguria: brongo, tiagallo, peregallo, felat; southern Italy: ruongo
Conger eel is one of the heaviest eels and is distinguishable from common eel (Anguilla anguilla) as it has a large upper jaw which hangs over the lower jaw, the pectoral fins are pointed, and the dorsal fin is further forward on the body. Conger eel is a saltwater fish which has no scales and can grow up to 3 meters in length and weigh up to 50 kilos. It requiresa special method in order to be skinned. The tail is full of bones so typically only the flesh from the head to the anal orifice is used. The flesh is very tasty but has a strong flavour and is fatty. It needs to be cooked slowly for a long time, typically in wine or tomato sauce. It is an indispensable ingredient in fish soup (cacciucco alla livornese) and pasta sauces and can be stewed (grongo in umido). It should not be grilled or fried. Raw conger eel blood is toxic.
Eel, Mediterranean sand (Cicerello) (Gymnammodytes cicerelus)
Sand eel by Lars Hammar
Regional names: Campania: aluzzetiello, Liguria: cicciarello / lusso / lussotto, Calabria: cicirello, Sicilia: cicirieddu, Sardegna: cixireddu
The Mediterranean sand eel is a saltwater fish that lives in sand banks close to shore along the coast from Liguria down to Calabria. It grows to about 18 cm in length but is normally 10 cm. It is fished in the spring. Mediterranean sand eel is floured and fried, sometimes marinated in vinegar.
Flounder, European (Passera pianuzza / Passera) (Platichthys flesus flesus)
European flounder by Hans Hillewaert
Substitution: halibut, sole, turbot
The European flounder is a saltwater flatfish found throughout the Atlantic Ocean and can grow up to 50 cm in length. There is also the Adriatic flounder (passera pianuzza) (Platichthys flesus italicus) which lives in the Adriatic Sea. It can grow to 40cm in length. The meat is good quality but has less flavour than European plaice. It should be cooked gently over low heat. It can be stewed, poached, grilled (with its skin on), steamed, floured and fried whole, or breaded and pan-fried. It goes very well with butter and/or herbs.
Garfish / Sea needle / Garpike (Aguglia) (Belone belone)
Garfish by Tom Puchner
Substitution: Atlantic saury (Costardella / Gastodella) (Scomberesox saurus), needlefish, conger eel
Garfish is a saltwater fish that lives throughout the Mediterranean and is popular in Venice. They can grow up to 70 cm but are usually about 40 cm in length. It has a long, thin, silvery body with a long pointed bill. Garfish can be eaten all year round but are best from September to January. It is normally quite cheap. Its flesh is grey when raw but firm, white and flavourful when cooked. When cooked, the bones turn a green-blue colour so they are easy to distinguish and remove. The small ones are usually fried or cooked on the griddle and the large ones sautéed or stewed. It can also be cut, rolled up and speared with a skewer or with the fish’s bill.
Gilt-head bream (Orata) (Sparus aurata)
Gilt-head bream by Michael Horne
Substitution: dentex, red porgy, saddled sea bream, pandora, grey mullet
Gilt-head bream is a saltwater fish and one of the most prized fish in Italy. It can grow up to 50 cm, but is often not longer than 30cm in length, and weighs up to 10 kilos. This fish is distinguishable by the black and gold lines it has between its eyes and its nose. Wild gilt-head bream are less fatty than the farmed version as they get more exercise. There are some very good farmed gilt-head bream however. They are best eaten in the summer. The flesh should be firm and flavourful.
Prepare: Gilt-head bream weighing more than 1.5 kilos should be allowed to rest for 24 hours before eating, although if you purchase the fish from a market or shop, it will normally have already been rested for a sufficient amount of time.
Eat: It should be cooked simply so as to not overpower the delicate flavour of the fish. It can be cooked in many different manners such as baked (orate alla pugliese), baked in parchment paper (orate al cartoccio), boiled (orate alla barese), broiled, steamed, grilled (orate alla san Nicola), or baked in salt.
Goby (Ghiozzo / Gô / Ghiozzo testone / Ghiozzo nero / Paganello) (Gobidi / Gobius cobitis / Gobius niger / Gobius paganellus)
Goby by Nicolò Bonazzi
Goby is a saltwater fish which lives in the northern Adriatic Sea and in lagoons in Venice where it is prized by Venetians. There are 2,000 species of goby. Most goby are not nice to eat but there are some varieties from the lagoons in Veneto which are good fried, broiled, in sweet and sour sauce (soar), in soups (brodetti del’alto Adriatico), and in risotto (risotto con i gô alla chioggiotta). Goby is sometimes served with polenta.
Types:
Giant goby (Ghiozzo testone) (Gobius cobitis)
Black goby (Ghiozzo nero / Ghiozzo comune) (Gobius niger)
Rock goby (Ghozzo paganello) (Gobius paganellus)
Goby, transparent (Rossetto) (Aphia minuta) is a small saltwater fish, about 5 cm long. It is deep-fried in fritters, in omelettes, or boiled and dressed in oil, lemon juice, garlic, and parsley.
Grayling by Giles San Martin
Substitute: trout
Grayling is a freshwater fish in the salmon family which lives in many of the rivers in northern Italy. Grayling can grow up to 50cm in length and weigh up to 1 kilo. In Italian, grayling is called “temolo” which refers to the herb thyme, as it is said the flesh smells of thyme. While its meat is prized, this fish is not found frequently for sale as it cannot be farmed and only lives in very clean water in the cold rivers in Piemonte. Grayling needs to be eaten as fresh as possible. It pairs well with butter, lardo, and lard. It can be boiled, fried, deep-fried, baked with hazelnuts, anchovy, and sage (temolo alle nocciole), stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo.
Grey Mullet (Cefalo / Mugella) (Mugil cephalus)
Flathead mullet by Crabby Taxonomist
Substitutions: gilt-head bream, sea bass
Regional names: Liguria: mussao, Marche: mugella
Grey mullet is a fish which lives in both saltwater and freshwater, and can be eaten all seasons of the year, although it is typically caught in spring and autumn. It is unrelated to red mullet, which is more highly prized. It ranges from 30-70 cm in length. The quality of the flesh will depend on the environment in which the fish lived. Grey mullet is sold fresh, frozen, smoked, and dried. The flesh has a good flavour and is firm but the roe of the mullet is the real delicacy, particularly in Sicilia and Sardegna where it is made into bottarga. The roe is expensive. The flesh can be grilled (cefalo alla griglia alla siciliana and cefalo alla griglia alla toscana), roasted (cefalo arrosto al’uso sardo), pan-fried, baked (cefalo in forno and cefalo all’uso delle isole veneziane), broiled, baked in parchment paper, stewed with herbs, or boiled. The small grey mullet is deep-fried or used in soups ( brodetto dell’alto adriatico and cassola sarda). It pairs well with fennel.
Types:
Flathead mullet / Striped mullet (Volpina) (Mugil cephalus)
The flathead mullet has the fine flesh and the best roe for making bottarga. It is distinguishable because its eyes are covered by a membrane. It is often farmed so the quality can be controlled and can grow to a large size, although the wild flathead mullet is often more flavourful if it lived in clean water.
Golden grey mullet (Cefalo Dorato / Lotregano) (Liza aurata)
The golden grey mullet is distinguishable for its golden mark near its gills. It is better if caught further out at sea or is small. The small golden grey mullet can be grilled, pan roasted, or baked.
Leaping mullet (Verzelata / Musino) (Liza saliens)
The leaping mullet is a mediocre fish. It is distinguishable as it has small spots on its gills.
Thick-lipped grey mullet / Bluespot grey mullet (Bosega) (Chelon labrosus)
A much-prized fish along the Adriatic Sea, although the meat is less firm and flavourful than that of the flathead mullet or the golden grey mullet. It is distinguishable by having a gap in the jugular space on the bottom of the head between the two gills.
Thin-lipped grey mullet (Calamita / Caustelo) (Liza ramada)
Less prized than the thick-lipped grey mullet along the Adriatic Sea. It is distinguishable as it has a black mark near the base of its pectoral fin.
Grouper (Cernia) (Epinephelus)
Dusky Grouper by Malcolm Browne
Substitions: dentex, red scorpionfish, shi drum, large red gurnard or piper, mahi-mahi
This large saltwater fish is part of the sea bass family and lives in many places in the world including the Mediterranean Sea. A number of fish-farming organisations are searching for ways to farm grouper. The firm, delicately flavoured meat is excellent and has no bones. Freshly fished grouper weighing more than 1 kilo should be stored in the refrigerator before cooking (12 to 36 hours for up to 5 kilos), although those bought at the market or in a shop have likely already been stored for as sufficient amount of time. Because of the large size of the fish, it is usually cooked by cutting it into pieces, although smaller grouper can be boiled whole or baked in parchment paper. Tranches can be stewed with tomato (cernia in umido), roasted (cernia arrosto alla sarda), boiled, steamed, baked in parchment paper with herbs (cerna al cartoccio), baked, or grilled. The liver is also eaten.
Types:
Atlantic wreckfish (Dotto / Cernia di fondo) (Polyprion americanus) can grow up to 2 meters in length.
Dogtooth grouper (Cernia nera) (Epinephelus caninus) can grow up to 1.5 meters in length.
Dusky grouper (Cernia bruna / Guaza / Cernia marrone) (Epinephelus marginatus) lives in the Mediterranean Sea and is a species at risk so it should be consumed less. It is the most prized and well-known. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length.
Goldblotch grouper (Cernia dorata) (Epinephelus alexandrines) can grow up to 90-100cm in length.
Gudgeon (Gobbione/Gobbo) (Gobio gobio)
Gudgeon by Giles San Martin
Gudgeon is a small freshwater fish which grows up to 15 cm in length. It is prized in Emilia. The small gudgeon is suitable for deep-frying and the large can be gratinéed.
Gurnard, tub (Capone gallinella / Gallinella / Coccio / Gurno) (Chelidonichthys lucernus)
Tub gurnard by Luc Viatour
Substitutes: grouper, red scorpionfish, stargazer
Gurnard is a saltwater fish best eaten in the spring, summer, and autumn. There are many types of fish in the Triglidi family to which gurnard belongs and it has many different names in different dialects. It has a large, bony head, a tapered red body with tiny scales and few bones. Gunard can grow up to 50 cm long. The most prized are the red gurnard and the piper. Because it has few bones, it can be filleted easily. The head is large however and accounts for 40% of its weight although the head and bones are very good for soup or broth. Gurnard is a staple in brodetto recipes (fish stew) along the Adriatic Sea.
Types:
Red gurnard / Cuckoo gurnard (Capone coccio / Capone imperial) (Triglia pini)
Regional names: Liguria: gallinella imperial / gallinetta / caussano / chèuffano / chèussano; Toscana: caviglia; Sicilia: tiega / tigieca / tirieza / tirinchiuni di fangu / cucciddu / cuccu; Puglia: capuane / capuni / cuoccio; Campania: cuoccio
Red gurnard grows to 20-40cm in length. Its flesh is very good- delicate in flavour and firm in texture. It can be boiled, baked (capone coccio al forno), or stewed.
Piper (Capone lira / Capone organo) (Triglia lyra)
Regional names: Marche: mazzolina / testolina; Toscana: gallinella lira; Liguria: gallina / tuscia; Abruzzo: testa; Puglia: teste / cuoccio / cuozzo; Friuli Venezia Giulia: turchei / turchetto; Veneto: turchetto; Lazio: coccio; Calabria: cocciu; Sicilia: cocciu/cucciu; Campania: cuoccio
Piper grow up to 25-40 cm in length and are typically fished during hot weather. Its flesh is very good- delicate in flavour and firm in texture. It can be boiled, baked, or stewed.
Streaked gurnard (Capone ubriaco / Capone lineato) (Triglia lineata)
Regional names: Toscana: pesce briaco / gallinetta / garagòlo / capone rapa / caviglia organo / corri-corri; Friuli Venezia Giulia: luserna / luzerna / testa dura / testa grossa; Sicilia: tirinchiuni di preti / turrarici; Lazio: capone di scoglio / capone turco; Puglia: capone panaricolo; Campania: curro-curro
Streaked gurnard grows to 25-40cm in length. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Tub gurnard (Capone gallinella) (Trigla lucerna)
Regional names: Marche: mazzola / testa grossa / testolina dell’occhio / capomazzo; Toscana: gallinella vera / capocchione; Liguria: galinetta / chèuffano / chèussano; Sardegna: gallinedda; Friuli Venezia Giulia: luzena; northeastern Italy: luserna / luzerna; Puglia: testa / capuane; Lazio: capone imperial / capone panaricolo; Sicilia: cocciu / cuòcceche; Calabria: cocciu verace; Campania: cuoccio fascianu / cuoccio riale / cuoccio volante
Tub gurnard grows up to 75 cm in length and is fished in the autumn. Its meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Grey gurnard (Capone gurno / Gorno) (Eutrigla gurnardus) can grow up to 30-35cm in length. The meat is good, best stewed or in soups.
Hake (Nasello / Nasello argentato / Merluzzo argentato / Pesce lupo / Pesce prete) (Merluccius merluccius)
Hake by Valter Jacinto
Substitution: blue whiting
Regional names: merluzzo
Hake is a saltwater fish that can be eaten all year round but is more intensely fished from February to May. It can grow up to 1 meter in length but is typically between 30 and 70 cm. If the hake weighs more than 700 grams, it needs to be held for 36 hours after fishing before eating; although if you buy it at a market or store it will likely have already been held for a sufficient amount of time. Hake can be purchased fresh or frozen and whole or in pieces. Do not buy frozen South American hake as it is vastly inferior. The pinkish meat is delicate, fragile, easily digestible, and has a subtle but pleasant flavour so it is often boiled or baked and fed to children. Be careful not to overcook or it will fall apart. It can be marinated and served as a starter, baked, grilled (nasello alla marchigiana) or minced for fish cakes. It can also be cooked in moist cooking methods like soup (nasello in brodetto ), boiled, and steamed. Small or filleted hake can be deep-fried (naselli fritti a filetti).
Halibut (Halibut / Ippoglosso) (Hippoglossus ippoglossus)
Halibut by Jeff Bailey
Substitution: turbot
Halibut is the largest of the flat fish and lives in the northern Atlantic Ocean. It can grow up to 3 meters in length and weigh up to 200 kilos. It is a saltwater fish prized for its delicious white meat. It is often sold in fillets rather than whole and is often frozen (although is vastly inferior to fresh as it is dry). Fresh fish should have pearly white flesh without any yellowish tinge and not a whiff of ammonia. The meat should be cooked gently over a low temperature. It can be steamed, stewed, poached, fried, or breaded and pan-fried.
Ipoglosso – See Halibut
John Dory / St. Pierre / Peter’s Fish (Pesce San Pietro / Sampietro / Pesce cetra / Pesce gallo) (Zeus faber)
John Dory by Brian Gratwicke
Substitution: turbot, sole
John Dory is a flattish saltwater fish but is not precisely a flat fish as its face covers both sides. It has dark circles on its side said to be the marks of Saint Peter’s fingers (the name “San Pietro” means “Saint Peter” in English). It lives in the Mediterreanean and and grow up to 50 cm in length. The flesh is only 33% the whole fish so the meat is quite expensive. The skin is quite tough. The quality of the firm and flavourful flesh is one of the very best and is versatile in cooking, although optimal broiled. It can also be baked (san pietro alla carlina), steamed, stewed, poached, fried, used in soups, or breaded and pan-fried.
Leerfish / Garrick (Leccia) (Lichia amia)
Leerfish by Biodiversity Heritage Library (cropped)
Leerfish is a saltwater fish found throughout the Mediterranean and in brackish lagoons. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and has a compressed body which can weigh up to 50 kilos. The firm flesh is flavourful. It can be served raw, thinly sliced and dressed with lemon juice, olive oil, salt, and pepper or can be baked or steamed. Smaller fish can be grilled.
Limanda– See Fish: Sole, yellowfin
Loach, spined (Cobite) (Cobitis taenia)
Spined loach by Sergey Yeliseev
Spined loach is a small, fleshy freshwater fish best deep-fried
Mackerel (Sgombro / Maccarello / Lacerto) (Scomber scombrus)
Mackerel by Michael Horne
Mackerel is best eaten in from November to March. Mackerel is one of the most well-known blue saltwater fish and it has no scales. It should be a minimum of 18 cm and can grow up to 50 cm long, but is more commonly up to 25 cm in length. It is very similar to Atlantic chub mackerel (Lanzard) (Scomber colias) which has less consistent streaking and a yellowish tinge. It is sold fresh, frozen, smoked, pickled, and tinned. Because mackerel is an oily fish, it needs to be eaten extremely fresh as it is highly perishable. It is not highly prized in Italy. Mackerel can be marinated, boiled, fried, deep-fried, stewed, grilled (sgombri alla griglia), baked with tomato or white wine (sgombro al forno), sautéed, pan-fried, or cooked in ragù. Pickled mackerel is best stuffed with raw tomatoes and dressed with olive oil, lemon juice, oregano, salt, and pepper.
Mackerel, Atlantic horse (Suro / Sgombro bastardo) (Trachurus trachurus)
Horse Mackerel by Frankenschulz
Substitutes: mackerel
Regional names: sauro, sauru, sorello, sugaro, sugherello
Atlantic horse mackerel is a saltwater fish in the same family as the greater amberjack. It can grow up to 40 cm and has whitish hazelnut coloured meat which is lean and delicate compared to mackerel. It has a more subtle flavour than mackerel and is more easily digestible. Atlantic horse mackerel has tiny spines near the tail which should be cut off with a knife before preparing. It is good raw, fried, grilled, baked, baked in parchment paper, and fried and marinated in vinegar and aromatics (a scapece, sauri fritti all’agliata).
Mahi-Mahi / Dolphin fish (Lampuga / Corifena cavallina) (Coryphaena hippurus)
Mahi-Mahi by Manoel Lemos
Substitutions: grouper, sea bass
Regional names: Sicilia and Puglia: capone imperial / cirfena / indoradda / lampuca / piscicapuni; Liguria: indorada; Veneto, Toscana, and Lazio: catalusso / cataluzzo; Campania: pesce pampao
Mahi-mahi is a popular saltwater fish in southern Italy and is found in northern Italy at the end of the summer (although it is best eaten in the winter and autumn). It has a hump on its head and when the fish has died, it turns a yellow grey colour. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. Mahi-mahi is cooked with tomatoes, grilled in tranches, or baked. It is best baked in parchment paper, grilled, or broiled and served with salmoriglio sauce.
Meagre, brown (Corvina) (Sciaena umbra)
Brown meagre by Arnaud Abadie
Substitution: sea bass, shi drum
Regional names: corvine di sasso, corvine di scoglio, corvine cola
The brown meagre is a saltwater fish in the same family as the croaker, which it also resembles. It has a golden brown silvery body and grows to 50 cm in length. It is versatile in cooking. Its flesh is considered one of the best and is delicate, delicious, and firm. It can be cooked in many ways such as encrusted in salt and baked, fried, steamed, or baked in parchment paper. It is best boiled, filleted and fried in butter with vegetables and white wine, braised with aromatic vegetables and white wine, or used in soup.
Monkfish / Angler / Frog fish (Rospo / Coda di rospo / Rana pescatrice) (Lophius piscatorius)
Monkfish by Simone Carletti
Regional names: Toscana: boldrò; Liguria: boldrò / budegasso / bùdego; Veneto and Sicilia: diavolo di mare; central Italy: pesce rospo; giuranna di mari / magu
Monkfish is a saltwater fish, distinct as it has a large head covered with ridges and spines and its tapered body has no scales. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and weigh over 45 kilos. It is a highly prized fish particularly in Venice. It is best eaten in the winter. The meat is not very perishable and loses little in the first 36 hours after fishing. The firm and elastic flesh is very good and similar to lobster. The fish is eaten without its skin and there is a particular method for removing the skin. See the guide on how to skin a monkfish here. The tail can be broiled, baked (coda di rospo in forno, pescatrice alla romagnola), stewed, grilled, poached in court-bouillon and served with olive oil and lemon juice. The stomach and the liver of the monkfish are also eaten pan-fried (crostini di fegato di pescatrice). The head is good for making soup. The head also has tiny fragments of meat throughout which are good for making ragù.
Mullet, Red / Mullet, Striped (Triglia di fango/Barbone) (Mullus barbatus)
Red Mullet by Abigail Powell
Substitution: striped red mullet
Red mullet is a saltwater fish and one of the two species of mullet in the Mediterranean (and is unrelated to grey mullet). The more prized species, the striped red mullet, has dark stripes on the anterior dorsal fin, which the red mullet does not. The red mullet also has two scales on its cheeks while the striped red mullet has three. Red mullet can also be very good if the environment it lives in were clean. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. They should be a minimum of 11 cm in length but grow up to 20 cm. Look for a vivid pink colour to determine its freshness. If the whole fish is bent sideways, it has been thawed from frozen. About 60% of the fish is meat. It is highly perishable and the meat extremely delicate so it needs less cooking than other fish. It is versatile in cooking methods, except for boiling. The small ones are deep-fried. The large ones, about 20 cm in length have fewer bones and can be stewed (triglie con i capperi, triglie alla livornese), baked (triglie alla genovese, triglie col proscuitto), grilled, or deep-fried. Its liver is sometimes left in while cooking to add flavour. It pairs well with fennel.
Mullet, Striped Red (Triglia di scoglio) (Mullus surmuletus)
Striped red mullet by Christophe Quintin
Substitution: red mullet
Striped red mullet is one of the most prized saltwater fish. It is a type of goatfish and one of two species in the Mediterranean (and is unrelated to grey mullet). The other, less-prized species, is the red mullet or striped mullet (triglia di fango / barbone) (Mullus barbatus). The striped red mullet has dark stripes on the anterior dorsal fin which the red mullet does not. The striped red mullet also has three scales on its cheeks while the red mullet has two. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. They should be a minimum of 11 cm in length but grow up to 40 cm in length. Look for a vivid red colour to determine its freshness. If the whole fish is bent sideways, it has been thawed from frozen. About 60% of the fish is meat. It is highly perishable and the meat extremely delicate so it needs less cooking than other fish. Striped red mullet is cooked without being eviscerated as it lends an aroma to the preparation. It has a lot of bones, particularly the smaller ones, so it is often filleted with the bones removed. The bones and the head are excellent for soups and broths. It is versatile in cooking methods, except for boiling. Mullet is good in pasta sauces, broiled, stewed (triglie con i capperi, triglie alla livornese), baked (triglie alla genovese, triglie col proscuitto), baked in parchment paper (triglie al cartoccio), baked in salt (triglie nel sale), grilled, or in soup. The small ones can be deep-fried. Its liver is sometimes left in while cooking to add flavour. It pairs well with fennel.
Needlefish, agujon (Aguglia maggiore) (Tylosurus acus)
Needlefish by Kevin Bryant
Substitution: garfish
Agujon needlefish is a long, thin, silvery saltwater fish with a long bill. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The meat is good and the central bones are coloured for easy removal. Agujon needlefish tends to be priced quite low. It needs to be cooked over low heat so that the skin does not burn before the meat is cooked. For this reason, it is normally breaded to protect the skin before being cooked. Needlefish is usually fried or cooked on the griddle but sometimes is stewed.
Pandora (Pagello fragolino) (Pagellus erythrinus)
Pandora by Nate Gray
Substitution: gilt-head bream, sea bream
Regional names: fragolino
The pandora is a saltwater fish which is best eaten in the winter and spring. It is one of the finest types of sea bream to eat and can be found throughout the Mediterranean. It grows to between 30-60 cm in length. The white flesh is delicate and is versatile in cooking method. It can be used in soups, baked (pagello fragolino al filetto di pomodoro), baked in parchment paper, baked in salt crust, used in soups, used in stews with tomato, steamed, boiled, or grilled with the scales on.
Perch / European perch / Redfin perch / English perch (Pesce Persico / Perca/ Persico reale) (Perca fluviatilis)
Perch by Jorgen Schyberg
Substitution: black bass/largemouth bass (persico trota) (Micropterus salmoides), zander
Perch is one of the most prized freshwater fish in Italy and lives in lakes in Lombardia, Veneto, Umbria, and Lazio. Perch can be up to 45cm long with a compressed olive green and dark body, a black dorsal fin, a more lightly coloured belly, and reddish orange pelvic and anal fins. It is sold fresh or frozen but is best eaten as fresh as possible. Perch is usually filleted and then floured and deep-fried, stewed, grilled (carbonaretti sui sarmenti), used to stuff crepes or pasta, breaded and pan-fried, or pan-fried with butter and sage (filetti di persico aromatizzati alla salvia). A traditional dish is perch filets with risotto (comasca dei filetti di persico col risotto).
Persico reale– See Perch
Pesce bandiera – See Scabbardfish, silver
Pesce castagna – See Pomfret
Pesce gallo – See John Dory
Pesce gatto – See Catfish
Pesce lupo – See Hake or Sea bass
Pesce persico – See Perch
Picarel (Zerro / Menola) (Centracanthus cirrus / Spicara smaris / Spicara maena)
Picarel by Alois Staudacher
Regional names: zerlo, zero
Picarel is a saltwater fish which can be eaten all year-round but is fished more intensively in the spring. It is particularly loved in Puglia and Liguria. There are three species of picarel which are in the same family: curled picarel (zerro) (centracanthus cirrus), picarel (menola) (spicara smaris), and blotched picarel (menola) (spicara maena). They grow to about 20 cm in length. The blotched picarel is the more prized of the three. Small picarel is optimal deep-fried but it can also be preserved in salt and covered with olive oil and vinegar. Large picarel is good for soup.
Pigo (Pigo) (Rutilus pigus)
Pigo by Emmanuel Lattes
Pigo is a type of roach and is a freshwater fish living in Italy and Switzerland. It can grow up to 50 cm in length and its meat is good for cooking. It is sold dried or fresh. It is grilled, made into pâté, fried, and deep-fried and marinated with aromatics and vinegar. In Lake Como, it is also salted and dried.
Pike (Luccio) (Esox lucius)
Pike by Thomas Kohler
Substitutions: zander
Pike is a freshwater fish found all over Europe in lakes and rivers. It can grow up to 1.5 meters in length. The meat is one of the most prized of the freshwater fish, particularly because it is relatively rare. Although pike lives in many regions in Italy, Lombardia has the most recipes for pike. The best pike is considered to be from Umbria, Lazio, and Lombardia. Small whole pike is better tasting than the large pike sold in pieces because large pike is more likely to be dry and tough. It is difficult to clean because it has forked bones that are difficult to remove, particularly for fish weighing less than 3 kilos. It can also be difficult to scale so pour boiling water over it to scale more easily. Pieces of pike benefit from being marinated to soften them before being fried or grilled. The firm, flavourful meat is usually boiled (luccio alla barcaiola, luccio in consa), baked, poached (luccio in salsa), stewed, fried (luccio fritto), or made into meatballs (luccio alla gardesana). In Lombardia and Veneto, pike is often eaten with polenta. The sperm sac and eggs are slightly toxic.
Pilot fish (Pesce pilota) (Naucrates ductor)
Pilot fish by Nate Gray
Substitutions: amberjack
Regional names: fanfolo, infanfolo,’nfanfulo, pisci d’ummra
Pilot fish are carnivorous saltwater fish and often live with together with sharks, swimming in front of them as though guiding them (thus the name pilot fish). They live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 70 cm long, although are typically 30 cm long. The meat has a distinct flavour and is not very firm. It needs to be eaten within 24 hours after being caught otherwise the skin develops a strong odour. It is stewed with tomatoes and capers, made into a ragù to dress pasta, or breaded and cooked with salmoriglio sauce.
Plaice, European (Platessa) (Pleuronectes platessa)
European plaice by Joachim S. Müller
European plaice is a saltwater flatfish, which lives in the Atlantic Ocean and grows up to 90 cm in length. It is brown with red flecks. Plaice is prized for its delicate meat and is sold frozen and fresh. Small plaice can be fried skin on. Large plaice can be grilled, boiled, steamed or baked in salt with their skins on, to be removed after cooking. It is a good fish to serve to children because it is easily digestible and has a mild flavour.
Pollack, European / Pollack, Atlantic (Merluzzo giallo / Pollak) (Pollachius pollachius)
Pollack by Arturo
Pollack is actually a type of codfish, which is at risk and consumption should be reduced. It has delicate white flakey flesh with a yellowish tinge. It is sold as fillets both fresh and frozen. It is boiled, baked, stewed, or breaded and fried. It is not typically grilled or roasted.
Pomfret (Pesce castagna) (Brama brama)
Pomfret by Rogiro
Regional names: Sardinia: carraginu; Sicilia: fatula / saracu impiriali; Veneto: ociada bastarda
Pomfret is a saltwater fish with a flattened body which can grow to between 30-80 cm in length. It is a greyish silver colour when alive but turns almost black when dead. It has good quality meat, which is best cooked filleted and fried. It can also be boiled, broiled, baked, grilled, or braised with onion and parsley.
Pompano (Leccia stella) (Trachinotus ovatus)
Pompano by Pedro Tomas
Substitution: amberjack
Pompano is a pearly white coloured saltwater fish with a long forked tail and black marks on the ends and the dorsal and anal fins. It lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 70 cm in length. It is best eaten in the spring. It has excellent delicate, white, compact flesh, which is best baked, grilled, or pan-fried.
Pond perch – See Pumpkinseed sunfish
Porgy, red (Pagro / Pagro mediterraneo) (Pagrus pagrus)
Red porgy by Socellatus
Substitution: dentex, gilt-head bream
The red porgy is a saltwater fish with a rosy silver body. It can grow up to 1 meter in length, but is normally 30-60 cm. Red porgy is typically fished in the months with hot weather. It has excellent white meat, which is firm and flavourful but is slightly inferior to dentex as the meat is less firm. It can be served raw. It is versatile in cooking and can be baked, stuffed, grilled, cooked on the griddle, or baked in parchment paper.
Pumpkinseed sunfish / Pond perch (Persico sole) (Lepomis gibbosus)
Sunfish by Hugo Photography
Pumpkinseed sunfish originate from North America but are common in Italy where they are considered an infestation. This freshwater fish can grow up to 20 cm in length. The meat has a lot of bones so the small ones are best deep-fried and eaten whole. Large pumpkinseed sunfish are boned and the meat used to make meatballs.
Razorfish, pearly – See Wrasse, cleaver
Roach / Roach, south European / Rovella (Rovella, Gardon) (Rutilus rubilio, Rutilus aula, Rutilus rutilus)
Roach by Sergey Yeliseev
Roach is a freshwater fish living in rivers and lakes in Italy. It is suitable for deep-frying. Large roach can be baked or fried. The eggs are edible and turn from green to red in colour when cooked.
Types:
Roach (Gardon) (Rutilus rutilus) lives in Lake Maggiore and grows up to 40 cm in length. Its meat is not very good and it is full of bones. It is best for making into paté or meatballs.
Roach (Rovella) (Rutius aula) lives in Italy, Switzerland, Croatia and Slovenia.
South European Roach / Rovela (Rovella) (Rutilus rubilio) lives in rivers and lakes in Italy.
Rombo chiodato – See Turbot
Salmon by John Bostock
Substitution: char, arctic
Salmon is a very popular saltwater or freshwater fish (depending on the stage of their life) all over the world as its meat is economical, versatile in cooking method, and is easily prepared. For these reasons, wild salmon has been overfished. European salmon can grow to 1.5 meters in length, but more typically up to 1 meter. Wild salmon’s texture and flavour are not comparable to that of farmed salmon, although farmed salmon is sustainable (although an undesirable side effect is that farmed Atlantic salmon have escaped from fish farms and have altered the genetic pool of wild Pacific salmon). The best quality salmon is wild salmon, which has lived at sea for 1-2 years and has had enough food to develop fat which softens the meat. A salmon can be 60-80 cm in length and are fished only in the spring. Salmon fished in the winter and are 3 years old, have meat which is less delicate and soft. Salmon between 2 and 3 years old have inferior meat. Salmon meat is generally soft and delicate, rich in Omega-3 fatty acids, which are excellent in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease, and is flavourful. Salmon is sold fresh, frozen, tinned, or smoked. The salmon’s head accounts for 20% of its total weight. Choose whole salmon which is short and rounded with a small head and broad shoulders. Choose pieces of salmon which have fat between the flakes and don’t buy soft, greyish, oily or watery salmon. The best salmon are from Scotland, Ireland, Norway, or the Chinook/King salmon or Sockeye varieties from North America. Salmon has not historically been part of Italian cuisine so there are not traditional recipes. It is excellent cooked anyway but is best smoked, marinated, raw, poached, baked, grilled, pan-fried, or broiled.
Sardine / European pilchard (Sarda / Sardina / Sardella / Acciuga) (Sardina pilchardus)
Sardines by José Antonio Gil Martínez
Sardine is a freshwater or saltwater fish which should be a minimum of 11 cm and can grow up to 15 to 20 cm long. The very young sardines are sold as whitebait (see below). Look for sardines that have a vivid colour on their body and eyes and have a plump abdomen, which is not soft or sunken. It is used frequently in Italian cooking and can be eaten all season of the year, although are best in the spring. It can be preserved in vinegar, salt, or oil, sometimes with the addition of lemon juice or tomato. Sardina typically refers to sardines preserved in oil whereas sarda normally indicates fresh sardines. Sardines are best broiled or barbecued and sprinkled with lemon juice. They can also be served raw, deep-fried (sarde a beccafico alla catanese), baked (sarde alla cetrarese, sarde ala napoletana), fried (sarde allinguate), in sweet and sour sauce (sarde in saor), pickled (sardine en consa, scabeccio), stuffed (sarde a beccafico, sarde farcite), in pasta (pasta con sarde), grilled (sarde alla griglia) or cooked in ragù.
Sardinella, round / Sardine, gilt / Sardine, Spanish (Alaccia) (Sardinella aurita)
Round Sardinella by NOAA Photo Library
Substitutions: sardine
Round sardinella is a saltwater fish which prefers mild temperatures so are found in more temperate areas. It is similar to, but not as good as, the sardine as it also has a higher fat content, is larger (up to 30 cm in length), and deteriorates quickly once caught. Round sardinella can be found fresh or preserved in salt or olive oil. It is deep-fried, baked, and cooked in ragù.
Scabbardfish, silver (Pesce sciabola / Pesce spatola / Pesce bandiera) (Lepidopus caudatus)
Silver Scabbardfish by Nate Gray
Regional names: pesce fiamma, pesce lama, pesce vela
Silver scabbard fish is a saltwater fish that lives in the Tyrrhenian Sea and grows up to 2 meters in length. It has a long, silvery tape-like body. It is fished in the spring, autumn, and winter. The meat is greatly prized, although economical in price, and very flavourful. All along the western coast of Italy the silver scabbardfish is cut into pieces and fried, grilled, stewed, pan-fried, or braised in tomato sauce. It can be cut in tranches or filleted. It can also be cut into fillets rolled around a stuffing made of bread, cheese, oil, and parsley, and then baked or roasted.
Scorpionfish by Jean-Loup Castaigne
Substitutions: grouper, red gurnard or piper, weever
Scorpionfish is a saltwater fish and there are many species of scorpionfish in the Mediterranean. The body has many venomous ridges and spines so be careful when cleaning this fish and wear gloves. This type of fish is usually cooked using a moist cooking method and is particularly good in soups, stews, and sauces. Large scorpionfish is normally boiled or baked.
Types:
Red scorpion fish (Scorfano rosso / Scorfano maggiore) (Scorpaena scrofa)
Regional names: Liguria and Toscana: cappone, cipuddazza, pescio capon, scarpena rossa
Red scorpionfish grow to 50 cm in length. The firm and flavourful fish is of excellent quality. The large ones are good boiled or stewed with tomatoes. The small ones are used in many types of soups (cacciucco and brodetto ). Broth made from red scorpionfish is one of the best in Italy. The cheeks are particularly tasty.
Black scorpion fish (Scorfano nero / Scorfano Bruno / Scorfano rascassa) (Scorpaena porcus)
Regional names: pesce capone, scarpena negra, scrofanu niuro
Black scorpion fish grow to 30cm in length. Black scorpion fish is often used in soups. It can also be cooked with oil, garlic, tomato, parsley or basil to make a sauce for spaghetti or linguine.
Sea bass / Sea perch (Branzino / Spigola / Pesce lupo) (Dicentrarchus labrax)
Sea bass by Kurt Wagner
Substitution: brown meagre, shi drum, grey mullet, mahi-mahi
Regional names: lupu de mari, spina, spinola, ragno
Sea bass is a saltwater fish which lives in the Mediterranean Sea and can live in freshwater, often in salt marshes and river deltas. While it can grow up to 1 meter in length, it is often not longer than 50-60 cm. It can weigh up to 10 kilos but is normally between 800 grams and 3 kilos. Farmed sea bass is more common, averaging 250-350 grams in size. Some of the farmed sea bass can be as good as wild sea bass but is typically less flavourful. Wild sea bass has a grey-black back and pales silver sides, which the farmed do not. Sea bass is best eaten in the spring, summer, and autumn. Together with gilt-head bream, sea bass is the most prized fish in Italy as its delicate but firm meat is also flavourful and versatile in cooking method. Sea bass can also be preserved easily for 48 hours in the refrigerator. It has about 50% meat on a whole fish. Sea bass can be served raw (spigola al cruda). It is very good encrusted in salt and baked (branzino in sale), fried, steamed (filetto di branzino alla fonduta di pomodoro), poached (spigola alle alghe), baked (spigola al forno), griddled (spigola ai ferri), or baked in parchment paper (spigola al cartoccio). It pairs well with fennel. The liver of large sea bass is prized and can be pan-fried with butter and sage.
Sea bream (Pagello / Occhialone / Pezzogna) (Pagellus bogaraveo / Pagello centrodontus)
Sea bream by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Substitution: pandora
Sea bream is a saltwater fish distinguishable by its large eyes and for a large black mark above the pectoral fin at the beginning of the lateral line. It is found all over the Mediterranean Sea. It is best eaten in the winter and spring. Sea bream should be a minimum of 33 cm and can grow to about 70 cm in length. Suitable for baking, roasting, pan-frying, used in soups and stews. Large sea bream can be broiled.
Sea bream, axillary (Pagello bastardo) (Pagellus acarne)
Axillary sea bream by Anna Mayer
Substitution: sea bream, pandora
Axillary sea bream is a saltwater fish with a rosy silver coloured elongated body. It grows up to 30 cm in length. It is less prized than the pandora or the sea bream. Axillary sea bream is suitable for moist cooking methods. Dry cooking methods will dry out the meat so it should only be boiled, braised, or used in soups and stews.
Sea bream, black (Tanuta / Cantaro) (Spondyliosoma cantharus)
Black sea bream by Hans Hillewaert
Substitution: white sea bream, gilt-head bream,
Regional names: cantarella, cantaro, sarago, bastardo
Black sea bream is a saltwater fish, which can grow up to 50 cm in length. It is fished all year-round. The meat is good and similar to white sea bream. It can be boiled or cooked on the griddle and served with a sauce.
Sea bream, saddled (Occhiata) (Oblada melanura)
Saddled sea bream by Nate Gray
Substitution: gilt-head bream
Saddled sea bream is a saltwater fish, oval in shape with a greyish silvery blue coloured body with stripes and a black mark at the beginning of the tail. It can grow up to 25-30 cm and can be eaten year-round. The white flesh is firm and has a good flavour but needs to be eaten very fresh or else loses its aroma. It can be broiled, baked, or used in soups and stews, but is best grilled. Small saddled sea bream can be fried.
Sea bream, striped / Sand steenbras (Marmora / Mormora / Pagello mormora) (Lithognathus mormyrus)
Striped sea bream by Tor Lillqvist
Substitutions: gilt-head bream
Striped sea bream is a saltwater fish, which can be eaten every season of the year, but is more intensively fished in the summer and autumn. It is found all over the Mediterranean Sea. Striped sea bream is one of the best fish in the Mediterranean Sea and is as good as, albeit is less known than, sea bass, dentex, or gilt-head bream. It should be no smaller than 20 cm and can grow up to 50 cm in length. The meat is very good for eating. Suitable for baking (mormore al forno) and grilling.
Sea bream, white (Sarago / Sargo) (Diplodus)
White sea bream by go.fishing.at.dawn
Substitution: black sea bream
Regional names: saraco, sparo
White sea bream is a saltwater fish, which is best eaten in the winter and summer. There are many different species of this category of sea bream so they vary in length from 25 to 50 cm. The meat is good if very fresh. This fish loses a lot of its flavour even within hours of fishing. White sea bream is typically cooked on a griddle, grill, roasted, or baked and served with a sauce (samoriglio). It can also be broiled or spit-roasted. The small ones can be fried. The other types of sea bream can be used in soup (see below).
Types:
Annular sea bream (Sarago sparaglione / Sarago dell’anelo / Sparaglione / Sparlotto / Carlino) (Diplodus annularis) is small (up to 20 cm), not highly prized, and is yellow and silver in colour. It can be used in soup.
Common two-banded sea bream (Sarago fasciato / Sarago del Salviani) (Diplodus vulgaris) is small but has good meat.
Sharpsnout bream (Sarago pizzuto) (Diplodus puntazzo) has a black ring on its tail and has the most inferior meat. It can be used in soup.
White sea bream (Sarago maggiore / Sarago rigato/Sarago sparetto) (Diplodus sargus) can grow up to 40 cm in length and weigh up to 2 kilos. Its meat is the most prized amongst these sea bream.
Zebra sea bream (Sarago farone / Sarago fasciato) (Diplodus cervinus) can be used in soup.
Sea needle – See Garfish
Sea Perch- See Sea bass
Shad / Alosa agone (Agone) (Alosa fallax lacustris)
Shad by Fernando Coello Vicente
Regional names: sardena
Shad is a freshwater fish that lives in alpine lakes. It is 25-30 cm in length. The meat is rather inferior and is needs to be scaled carefully, has a lot of bones, and needs to be washed more than other fish. It is sold fresh, dried and tinned (missoltini/salacca) or dried and salted. Fresh shad are best in the spring. It is a fatty fish so is suitable for grilling. Small shad is suitable for deep-frying. It is often eaten in Veneto and Lombardia with polenta. The eggs are sold fresh, frozen, and tinned and are considered a delicacy by some.
Sgombro bastardo– See Mackerel, Atlantic horse
Shark (Squalo / Palombo / Vitello di mare, Smeriglio, Spinarolo, Squalo volpe, Verdesca) (Mustelus mustelus, Lamna nasus / Isurus oxyrinchus, Squalus acantias, Alopias vupinus, Prionace glauca)
Porbeagle shark by Biodiversity Heritage Library
Substitutes: ray, tuna
Sharks live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 4 meters in length. Shark is not commonly eaten in Italy anymore because they are an important species for keeping the environment in balance, its meat is full of heavy metals, and its flesh is neutral in flavour. Shark is typically skinned and sold in tranches. It is difficult to determine the freshness once the skin has been removed. Shark sold with the skin on will take on a strong off-putting ammonia smell when it goes off. Shark can be marinated in oil and broiled or baked or used in soups and stews. It can also be boiled and served with a marinade (burrida).
Types:
Blue shark (Verdesca) (Pionace glauca) is more prized for its fin than for its meat, which is difficult to digest. It can grow up to 3 meters so its meat is sold in tranches. It can be distinguished from smooth-hound shark by its vertebrae which radiates like a bicycle wheel whereas the former has an eight pointed cross in four “V” shapes with the points intersecting in the centre.
Porbeagle, Short-fin mako shark (Smeriglio) (Lamna nasus / Isurus oxyrinchus) are both mackerel sharks which live in the Mediterranean Sea and grow up to 4 meters in length. They are sometimes labelled as swordfish or smooth-hound shark but the spine is smaller than swordfish. It has the highest quality meat of all the sharks.
Smooth-hound shark (Palombo) (Mustelus mustelus)
The smooth-hound shark can grow up to 1.5-2 meters in length. Its flesh is light pink in colour and it is sold in tranches, sometimes erroneously marked as swordfish. The shape of the tranche is different than that of swordfish though and you can more easily pierce the spine with a knife as the shark has more cartilage. The spine has an eight pointed cross in four “V” shapes with the points intersecting in the centre. The meat is easy to prepare as it comes in tranches, is cheap, and is not highly perishable as it can be kept in the refrigerator for 24 hours. It can be roasted, grilled, fried (palombo in cotoletta all’uso Milanese and palombo coi piselli), or baked. There are two types:
Black-spotted smooth-hound shark (Palomo punteggiato) (Mustelus punctulatus)
Starry smooth-hound shark (Palombo stellate) (Mustelus asterias)
Spiny dogfish / Spurdog / Mud shark / Piked dogfish (Spinarolo) (Squalus acanthias) grow up to 1.5 meters in length and weigh up to 12 kilos. It tends to be sold in tranches. Its flesh is quite tough.
Thresher shark (Squalo volpe) (Alopias vulpinus) live in the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 6 meters in length. Its meat has a decent flavour.
Shi drum (Ombrina) (Umbrina cirrosa)
Shi drum by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Substitution: sea bass
Shi drum is a saltwater fish, which can grow up to 50 cm in length. There are many different species of shi drum, which live in many different places including the Mediterranean Sea. It is intensively farmed. It has a delicate white flesh, which is flavourful, compact and highly prized. Shi drum is sold fresh or dried and smoked. The most prized species has a gold coloured mouth and is called “boccadoro”. Shi drum can be used in soup (ombrina a brodetto ) or stewed.
Smelt, big-scale sand (Latterino) (Atherina boyeri)
Sand smelts by Lebatihem
Regional names: acquadella, alicetta, angela, ciciniello, muscione
This is a small fresh and marine water fish, which grows up to 10 cm in length, but the most prized is no more than 4 cm. It is deep-fried whole, baked (latterini in tortiera), or marinated (aquadelle/latterini marinati) and served as a starter.
Sole / Dover sole / Black sole (Sogliola) (Solea vulgaris)
Sole by Yellow.Cat
Substitutions: John Dory, turbot
Regional names: lengua, sfogia, sfogio, sfogliola
Sole is a saltwater flatfish, which is best eaten in the summer. There are many species in the sole family, some more prized than others. The most prized is the common sole (sogliola commune) (solea vulgaris). Sole should be a minimum of 20 cm and rarely is longer than 50 cm in length. It is prized for the refined quality of their meat, which is pinkish white, firm but soft, delicate, and flavourful. When the sole is no longer fresh, the skin on the side without the eyes tends to come off easily. It is impossible to test the freshness of filleted sole. Sole is 45% meat and is still fresh within 24 hours of fishing (and in fact taste better 24 hours after being fished). Small sole can be fried with their skin on. Large sole can be grilled, breaded and deep-fried, cooked in tomato sauce, pan-fried with butter or olive oil, cooked on the griddle with its skin on (sogliole ai ferri all’anconetana), sautéed (sogliole alle olive), poached in court-bouillon, fried, baked with butter and white wine, baked, roasted, steamed or baked in salt with their skins on, to be removed after cooking. Sometimes only the dark, more leathery skin is removed. When cooking sole using a moist cooking method, the cooking liquid is reserved, as is the spine and the head to make soup or broth.
Types:
Common sole (Sogliola comune) (Solea vulgaris) can grow up to 45 cm in length and is the most prized of the types of sole. It is distinguished by a black mark on the end of the right pectoral fin.
Sand sole (Sogliola del orro) (Solea lascaris) grows up to 35 cm in length and has a nostril on its blind side.
Adriatic sole (Sogliola adriatica) (Solea impar) grows up to 25 cm in length and has a black mark in the centre of its body and a white border.
Klein’s sole (Sogliola turca) (Solea kleini) grows up to 35 cm in length and the anal and dorsal fins are edged in black.
Senegalese sole (Sogliola Senegalese) (Solea senegalensis) grows up to 50 cm in length and has small blue dots on its top side.
Sole, yellowfin/Lemon sole (Limanda) (Limanda aspera)
Lemon sole by Hans Hillewaert
Substitutions: sole
The yellowfin sole is a saltwater flatfish, which lives in the north Pacific Ocean and grows up to 50 cm in length. It is sold in frozen fillets in Italy, which are inferior to fresh. Yellowfin sole should be eaten as fresh as possible. It is relatively inexpensive and has a neutral flavour and is considered slightly superior to plaice. It is best filleted, breaded, and fried, pan-fried with butter or olive oil, cooked on the griddle with its skin on, sautéed, poached in court-bouillon, fried, baked with butter and white wine, or steamed.
Spearfish, Mediterranean (Aguglia imperiale) (Tetrapturus belone)
Spearfish by Agriculturasp
Substitution: swordfish
This saltwater fish is similar to marlin and can grow to more than 2 meters in length. It is found in Sicilia. Spearfish is highly prized. It can be pan-fried or baked.
Sturgeon, Adriatic (Storione cobice) (Acipenser naccarii)
Adriatic sturgeon by Landahlauts
Adriatic sturgeon lives in the Adriatic and travels to the Po River to reproduce. It can grow up to 2 meters in length and has no scales. Adriatic sturgeon is less prized than White sturgeon which lives in Eastern Europe. Wild Adriatic sturgeon is at risk and should be consumed less. Wild sturgeon is best eaten in the spring. There is now farmed sturgeon, although the fish are normally less than 3 kilos in weight. Sturgeon meat is of excellent quality- light coloured, firm, and not overly fatty. It is easy to prepare as there are no bones aside from some cartilage. Sturgeon is sold fresh or smoked, normally in tranches. It is versatile in cooking and can be sliced and poached in court-bouillon, boiled, broiled, grilled, breaded and fried, pan-fried (storione alla ferrarese), stewed, baked in parchment paper, or served raw.
Types:
Beluga sturgeon (Ladano) (Husa husa) lives primarily in the Black and Caspian Seas but also, although rarely, in the Adriatic Sea and Po River. It is huge, growing up to 8 meters. This fish is prized for its large eggs to make into beluga caviar.
European sea sturgeon / Atlantic sturgeon / Baltic sturgeon / Common sturgeon (Storione Comune) (Acipenser sturio) is found on most coasts in Europe but is at risk of distinction. It has the best tasting meat of all the sturgeon. It is also fished for its eggs to be made into caviar.
Starry sturgeon (Storione stellate) (Acipenser stellatus) grows to 2 meters in length but is lighter in weight than other sturgeon. Its eggs are made into sevruga caviar, which is inferior to beluga caviar but superior to oscetra caviar.
White sturgeon (Storione bianco) (Acipenser trasmontanus) grows up to 6 meters in length, but is normally about 1.5 meters. It can be farmed for its meat and eggs to be made into caviar. White sturgeon is the most prized of the sturgeon.
Swordfish (Pesce spada) (Xiphias gladius)
Swordfish by Flavia Brandi
Substitution: Mediterranean spearfish, tuna
Swordfish is an endangered saltwater fish that should be eaten less. It is a magnificent fish with a long bill and is much celebrated in Calabria and Sicilia where it is fished from April to September. It is best eaten in the spring and early summer. It can grow up to 4 meters in length and weigh up to 200-300 kilos. Swordfish has three traditional methods of being fished. In the first method, they have a person on a 20 meter high post who spots the swordfish and use a bow with a 25 meter long harpoon (fiocina) with a forked point with which to spear the fish. The second method is to release nets kilometres long (palangari) and lined with hooks that can be fixed or loose. The third method is to tightly fix a net 800 meters long and 16 meters high to create a drifting wall (palamitara). The last method is illegal in the European Community as it traps many other species in the net, some of which are protected. Swordfish is highly prized for the delicate flavour of its meat, ease of preparation since it is sold in tranches, versatility in cooking, and its texture (which deteriorates if it has been frozen). It is typically sold in tranches, although sometimes it is sold as smaller fish of 2-3 kilos, and is distinguishable because the vertebrae is in an “X” formation and is larger than shark vertebrae. Not all parts of the swordfish are the same however. The belly (ventresca, surra) is the most highly prized part of the swordfish as it is softer, light coloured, and fattier. The back of the swordfish is dark pink, lean, and quite tough so requires marinating in wine and oil before cooking. The tranches are eaten raw (pesce spade crudo), thinly sliced, rolled and baked (braciolette di spade), grilled (pesce spade alla griglia, spiedini di pesce spada), pan-fried (pesce spade in padella), sautéed (pesce spade a ghiotta), steamed, or stewed (pesce spade alla bagnarese and pesce spade alla regina). It is traditionally served with salmoriglio sauce. The whole fish can be baked or grilled and served with salmoriglio sauce or boiled in sea water and served with olive oil, lemon juice, garlic, and parsley.
Tench by Timo D
Substitution: catfish
Tench is a native freshwater fish to Italy prized for its meat. It can grow to 60 cm and prefers tranquil and cold waters, rich with vegetation. It is also farmed but the quality depends on the water in which it lives, which if very still, the fish can taste of mud. Tench is often sold alive and if it is kept in clean water, alive, for a few days, it will lose its muddy taste. If the fish smells muddy, it can be soaked briefly in water and vinegar to remove. Repeat this process 3 to 4 times. Tench is about 50% meat. To prepare tench, be careful to remove the spines as they can be prickly but do not remove the scales, just clean well. Small tench can be dipped in flour or breaded and fried in olive oil or lard, roasted on the grill or oven with sage, stuffed and baked (tinca a cappone), baked (tinca al forno), broiled; used in soups and stews, or floured, fried, and marinated in onion and bay leaf (tinca in carpione). Tench is also stewed (tinca alla lariana, tinca in guazzetto, tinca con i piselli) or cooked in risotto (risotto con la tinca). Tench is often cooked with strong flavours such as herbs and garlic.
Brown trout by Michael Meiters
Substitution: whiting, European; char, arctic; grayling
Trout is a saltwater and freshwater fish prized for its tasty meat and for having relatively few bones. Farmed trout can be as good as wild trout, particularly if marked “al torrente” as it has been raised in an artificial cold current to obtain firm consistency of the meat. Also prized is trout marked “salmonata” which has vividly coloured flesh which looks like salmon in colour, obtained by feeding the trout ground crustacean shells. It is often sold live and is not highly perishable. Trout can be kept for up to 36 hours after being killed but is best eaten very fresh. Frozen trout is also of good quality. It is 60% meat. Trout should be scaled when preparing but wipe rather than wash the trout. It does not match well with olive oil but rather butter, lard, and lardo (unless being used to dress boiled trout). Trout is also not often paired with tomato. It can be boiled, grilled (trota alla griglia), pan-fried, baked, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle (not tomato), fried and marinated in vinegar, white wine, and aromatics (trota in carpione), or roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo as filling or wrapped around the fish. The fillets, escalopes, tranches, and smaller whole fish (16-18cm called trotella) can be fried. It can also be smoked or made into paté or terrine.
Types:
Brown trout (Trota fario) (Salmo trutta fario) is a native trout to Italy that lives in running water in the Alps. Brown trout have been successfully farmed. It grows to 50cm in length and is typically less than 1 kilo. This is the most prized trout in Italy.
Brown trout (Trota lacustre) (Salmo trutta lacustris)
Marble trout (Trota marmorata) (Salmo trutta marmoratus) live in Switzerland and Veneto.
Native brown trout (Trota macrostigma/Trota sarda) (Salmo trutta macrostigma)
Rainbow trout (Trota iridea/Trota arcabaleno) (Salmo trutta gairdnerii) originated in North America but now also live in Italy. This is now the majority trout on the market in Italy as it is successfully farmed.
Tuna (Tonno) (Euthynnus alletteratus, Thunnus alalunga, Thunnus thynnus, Sarda sarda, Auxis thazard)
Albacore tuna by Roaming the Planet
Substitutes: swordfish
Tuna is most prized in south-central Italy although is less esteemed than swordfish. Atlantic bluefin tuna is the most prized tuna in Italy, followed by albacore tuna. Look for tuna steaks with even, deep colouring. Dark spots indicate bruising and pale flesh is past its prime. It can be served raw, grilled, floured or breaded and pan-fried (tonno c’a cipuddata), grilled, roasted (tonno alla genovese), baked (tonn alla marinara), sautéed (tonno umbriaco), or stewed (tonno coi piselli).
Types:
Tuna / Little tunny (Tonno / Tonnetto alletterato) (Euthynnus alletteratus)
Little tuny is a saltwater fish with markings on its back that look like writing. The colour of the flesh is similar to that of Atlantic bluefin tuna but the meat is less fatty and tougher in texture ,so is less prized. The flesh has a lot of blood in it, which is difficult to digest, has a strong flavour, and can act as a laxative. The blood can be removed and the meat thereby made more easily digestible by soaking pieces of the fish in ice water in the refrigerator overnight. The most prized parts are from the belly (ventresca and tarantello). It is versatile in cooking method but should be cooked briefly but gently. Tuna is stewed (tonno alla portoscusese, tonno ammuttunatu, tonno briaco alla livornese), broiled, or breaded and fried.
Tuna, albacore (Alalunga) (Thunnus alalunga)
Albacore tuna is a saltwater fish that lives throughout the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 1 meter in length and 30 kilos in weight. Together with Atlantic bluefin tuna (which it is similar to but albacore has leaner, less prized, meat), they are the most prized tunas in Italy. It has recognisable pectoral fins and is best eaten in the autumn. The flesh is a very light pink colour and can be preserved well in oil. Albacore tuna is versatile in cooking method but is best boiled, steamed, baked, grilled, pan-fried (alalunga in agrodolce), raw, or marinated like ceviche. Be careful not to overcook or the meat will become very hard.
Tuna, Atlantic bluefin (Tonno rosso) (Thunnus thynnus)
The Atlantic bluefin tuna is an endangered saltwater fish that can grow up to 3 meters in length and up to 400 kilos in weight. It is the most prized tuna for its flavourful flesh.
Tuna, bonito (Palamita) (Sarda sarda)
Bonito tuna is a saltwater fish that lives in the Mediterranean Sea and grows to a length of 80 cm and up to 10 kilos in weight. It is best eaten in the winter and spring. It has rosy flesh with a pronounced flavor, which should be cooked gently over low heat. It is versatile in cooking method and can also be preserved in oil. Bonito tuna can be broiled, fried, stewed, or marinated.
Tuna, frigate (Tombarello comune / Tambarello) (Auxis thazard)
Regional names: biso, pisantuni, prisituni, sangusu, sgamirru, tunnacchiu
The frigate tuna is a saltwater fish, which is the smallest of the tunas and looks like a large mackerel. It is blue and lead grey in colour. The flesh has a lot of blood in it which is difficult to digest and can act as a laxative. The blood can be removed and the meat thereby made more easily digestible by soaking pieces of the fish in ice water in the refrigerator overnight. It is versatile in cooking method but pairs well with strong aromatics which can match the strong flavour of the meat such as rosemary, thyme, capers, olives, onion, and garlic. It should be cooked quickly but gently.
Tuna products:
Tuna, preserved (Tonno conservato)
Preserved tuna by John Keogh
Buy: Tinned tuna comes packed in olive oil (“sott’olio”) or brine (“al naturale”) in a jar or tin. It comes packed in pieces or in one solid piece. It can be yellow fin tuna, bonito, albacore, or another variety of tuna. The highest quality preserved tuna is packed as one whole piece in olive oil. The most prized cut is the belly (ventresca or tarantello) as it is delicate, soft, and fatty. The price varies according to the factors above but also according to the production process. Frozen or fresh tuna is either steamed or cooked in water and packed by machine or by hand into a container with hot oil, salt, and sometimes absorbic acid and MSG. It is then sterilised. Fresh tuna packed by hand will be more expensive. In Italy the best preserved tuna is sold in the delis by weight rather than packaged.
Store: Store in the cupboard at room temperature until the expiration date on the packaging.
Prepare: Open the tin and remove the tuna from the liquid. Discard the liquid. Once the container is opened, if the tuna was packed in a tin, remove it to a glass or plastic container, seal it and keep in the refrigerator.
Eat: Preserved tuna can be simply dressed with olive oil lemon, and freshly ground black pepper and served with raw vegetables such as radishes, fennel, and spring onion. It is also used in salads, with beans (fagioli col tonno), as a sauce to dress veal (vitello tonnato), to stuff half of a raw tomato, in sandwiches (tramezzini), in meatballs (polpetone di tonno), to stuff an omelette, to stuff hard-boiled eggs, or to dress pasta (ziti alla palermitana).
Turbot (Rombo chiodato) (Psetta maxima)
Turbot by UNDP in Europe and Central Asia
Substitution: John Dory, halibut, flounder, sole
Turbot is a saltwater flat fish, distinct in its rhomboid body shape and knobbly brown skin, not to be confused with brill which are of similar shape and in the same family. The side with the eyes has no scales but has bony tubercles. It has a speckled body and is rhombus in shape. There is a special rhombus-shaped pan (turbottiera) made for cooking turbot. Turbot is found all over the Mediterranean Sea and can grow up to 1 meter in length. Typically, the turbot sold is between 20-50cm in length and weighs between 300 gms to 4 kilos. There is now farmed turbot. It is best eaten in the winter and autumn. The meat is highly prized in Europe and is excellent, firm in texture with a delicate flavour. Turbot is my favourite Western fish. A whole fish has 50% meat. It can be cooked whole or filleted. If filleted, look that the meat is creamy white without any tinge of blue indicating it is past its prime. If cooked whole, it is best to leave the skin on until serving. Turbot needs to be cooked gently over low heat with careful attention not to overcook it or it loses its characteristic qualities. It can be broiled, stewed, poached in court-bouillon, baked (rombo con i carciofi and rombo al forno ), grilled (with its skin on), steamed, fried, or floured or breaded and pan-fried (rombo con salsa di acciughe e capperi). It does not pair well with olive oil but goes very well with butter, potatoes, artichokes, lemon, and/or herbs such as tarragon.
Vairone (Vairone) (Telestes muticellus)
Vairone by Wikimedia
Vairone is a freshwater fish that live in rivers in central and northern Italy, France, and Switzerland. It grows up to 25cm in length. Its meat is not highly prized suitable for deep-frying.
Greater weever by Hans Hillewaert
Substitutions: red scorpionfish
Regional names: varagno, dragone, ragno pagano
Weever is a saltwater fish, which grows from 20 to 40 cm in length. There are many species in the Weever family. It has three venomous spines on the dorsal fin and the two gills so you need to use gloves when preparing. If you do prick yourself, soak your hands in hot water. Weever has solid white flesh, which is stewed or cooked in soups. The small ones can be deep-fried and the medium sized ones can be grilled if very fresh (tracina alla griglia), stewed, or broiled.
Types:
Greater weever (Tracina drago) (Trachinus draco)
Spotted weaver (Tracina ragno) (Trachinus auraneus)
Lesser weaver (Tracina vipera) (Trachinus vipera)
Whitebait (Bianchetti) (Clupea harengus, Sprattus sprattus)
Whitebait by Rubber Slippers in Italy
Whitebait is the young of anchovies, sardines, and pilchards. It is typically eaten from February to August. They should be cooked within 24 hours of being fished. They are sold fresh or boiled and dressed. Whitebait is delicious and is usually eaten whole, breaded and deep-fried or boiled in sea water and dressed with olive oil and lemon juice.
Whitefish, European (Coregone/Bondella, Lavarello) (Coregonus lavaretus, Coregonus macrophthalmus)
European whiting by Biopix
Substitution: trout, perch
Whitefish is a freshwater fish introduced into lakes in Italy in the 19th century. The firm white meat is very tasty and has few bones. It can also be served raw, but the flesh is a bit soft. It pairs well with butter, lardo, and lard. It can be cooked whole broiled, baked (coregone alla bolsenese, lavarello al forno and lavarello alla salvia), baked in parchment paper, or boiled. It can also be filleted and floured or breaded and fried or deep-fried, stewed with wine, mushrooms, or black truffle, roasted with pancetta, lardo, or prosciutto crudo, minced to make fish cakes and stuffings, or used to dress pasta or rice.
Types:
Coregone/Bondella (Coregonus macrophthalmus) originates from Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland and lives in Lakes Como, Maggiore, and Lugano in Lombardy and Switzerland. It grows up to 30cm and can be farmed.
Lavarello (Coregonus lavaretus) is a hybrid of the fish from Lake Constance in Germany and lives in the Italian alpine lakes and lakes in Umbria and Lazio. It can grow up to 60cm in length.
Whiting, blue (Melù/Potassolo) (Micromesistius poutassou)
Blue whiting by FishBase
Substitution: hake, poor cod
Regional names: pesce morgana, potassolo
Blue whiting is a saltwater fish, which lives along the Tyrrhenian Sea and grows to about 30 cm in length. It resembles hake but has larger eyes and a smaller mouth. Blue whiting is fished in the spring and summer. There is a festival in Porto Ercole in honour of the blue whiting. The delicate flesh is easily digested and similar to hake or cod although less flavourful and too soft in texture when raw and then too hard when cooked. Blue whiting is sold fresh or salted and sun-dried (mosciame). It is easy to bone as the flesh is soft and you can just use your hands. In Liguria the small ones are opened flat, breaded and deep-fried. The large ones can also be boiled. Small blue whiting can be floured and fried in butter (alla mugnaia).
Wrasse, cleaver / Razorfish, pearly (Pesce pettine/U surici) (Xyrichtys novacula)
Cleaver wrasse by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
The cleaver wrasse is a saltwater fish about 20 cm long. It is a prized fish in Calabria where it is fried. It is good fried in butter.
Zander (Lucioperca/Sandra) (Sandra lucioperca)
Zander by Freshwater and Marine Image Bank
Substitutions: pike, perch
Zander is a freshwater fish, which originates from Central-Eastern Europe and Asia but was introduced to Italy in the 19th century. It now lives in the lakes in Lombardy and in many rivers. It can grow up to 1 meter in length. It has white, firm flesh with few bones, which should be eaten as fresh as possible. Its meat is tougher than other freshwater fish so it needs to be cooked slightly longer than most fish. It can be boiled (lucioerca in salsa), braised (Sandra brasata al vino rosso), floured and deep-fried, pan-fried with butter and sage, or made into meatballs.
Zerro – See Picarel
Florentine fennel – See Fennel
Flour, Durum wheat / Semolina, Kamut (Farina, Semola / Semolino, Kamut) (Triticum aestivum, Triticum turgidum durum, Triticum turanicum turgidum)
00 flour by Katherine
Equivalents: 1 cup of flour = 115 grams (will vary 10-20% depending on humidity)
1 tablespoon flour = 15 grams
Substitutions: These are approximations as each type of flour is different so there is no perfect substitution.
150
While flour literally means the grinding of any grain, cereal, or pulse, when the word flour is used alone, it typically refers to soft wheat flour. There are many types of flour and each country’s flour is different. There are strong flours for making breads and rustic desserts and soft flour for making pastry, cakes, fresh pasta, and pizza. There is also hard semolina flour used to make pasta, breads, dumplings, and cakes. The most-used flour for home use in Italy is 00 flour (see below). Flour is rich in carbohydrates and has a protein content between 7 to 18%.
Buy: Check the expiration date on the packaging and look to ensure there are no holes in the bag or signs of pests or moisture. White flour should be uniformly white without any specks. In Italy there are 5 grades of flour depending on the ratio of husk to whole grain the flour contains. 00 is the whitest and silkiest and is the most used for cakes, fresh egg pasta, sauces, and some bread.
Types of Italian flour:
Soft wheat flour (Grano tenero / Farina bianca / Farina di frumento) (Triticum aestivum)
Soft wheat flour is more typically used in northern Italy. There are five categories of soft wheat flour further classified into soft flour and strong flour. The categories are derived from siftings with the softest flours being the finest. The more coarse the flour, the higher the number until integrale which is the coarsest meaning it is almost entirely bran (so also contains the most protein). About 80% of Italian breads are made with soft flour.
Soft flour has lower levels of fibre, gluten, minerals, and vitamins and is used for light breads, cakes, pasta, and sauces. This flour is more delicate in flavour and texture and is very white in colour as almost all the bran has been removed.
Types of soft flour:
00 Flour is used in delicate desserts, biscuits, and pastry. There are many types of 00 flour ranging from 40 to 80% gluten resulting in a different degree of liquid absorbtion. 40% is used to obtain a crispier dough. 80% is used to obtain a softer, fluffier dough.
0 Flour is used for less fine pastry, grissini, crackers, pizza, bread, and fresh egg pasta.
Strong flour (integrale) has a higher nutritional content and dietary fibre and has greater flavour. It is used for yeasted breads and is rich in gluten so forms an elastic dough. It is more perishable than soft flour so should be freshly milled.
Types of strong flour:
1 Flour is used for more rustic breads and desserts.
2 Flour is used for more rustic breads and desserts.
Integrale flour absorbs a greater quantity of water and so does not rise well and does not become elastic and smooth. It is dark in colour due to the high amount of bran or germ.
Flour type
12%
Hard durum wheat / Semolina (Grano duro / Semolo / Semolino) (Triticum turgidum durum)
Hard flour is made from durum wheat, and is more typical of central and southern Italian cooking. It is more granular and yellow in colour than soft wheat flour. The more coarse grain is labelled as “semolina” while the finer grain is labelled “semolina rimacinata”. It is primarily used for making pasta with water (without the addition of egg) and dried pasta. It is also used in breads, dumplings, and desserts. In Puglia and Sicilia they use hard flour for breads. Hard durum wheat can be more finely ground (semola rimacinata) and called semolina (semolino). Semolina can be made into dumplings (gnocchi alla romana), used in soups, desserts, biscuits and made into couscous.
Kamut (Kamut) (Triticum turanicum turgidum) and other ancient Sicilian grains (such as Tumminia, Russello, Biancolilla, Perciasacchi and Bidi) were rediscovered recently. They have become popular as it is high in protein, low in gluten, low on the GI (glucose index), easily digestible, and has a high content of selenium, a mineral that reduces free radicals that can cause cardiovascular disease. It is often made into dried pasta. When I can find kamut or tumminia pasta, I buy it.
Other types of flour:
Note: American flours are harder and higher in gluten and protein than Italian flour. American flours usually have azodicarbonamide added to the flour to mature it and help strengthen the gluten, elasticity, and rising of the dough. It is activated when the flour is mixed into a dough. If you cannot find Italian flour, it is better to use British or French flour which are weaker and have a higher starch content.
All-purpose flour is an American flour made from a blend of soft, medium, and strong wheats which have been milled and refined. It can be used for breads, cakes, and sauces.
Bread flour is a high-gluten flour milled from hard wheat and has a high protein content. It is often blended with low-gluten flours to create dough with more strength and elasticity. It is used to make American style breads and pizza but is not good for making Italian breads. Bread flour is slightly coarse and cannot be squeezed into a lump.
Cake flour is an American flour made from soft wheat with very little gluten so it is perfect for light, delicate baked goods such as high-ratio cakes, jelly rolls, and biscuits. It has a higher gluten content than Italian flour so it is good for making pasta. It has a diminished starch content so will react differently to moisture.
Pastry flour is an American flour made from soft wheat with a low gluten content, slightly more than cake flour, and is used to make tart and pastry doughs, cakes, pastries, and cookies. Pastry flour is smooth and fine and can be squeezed into a lump.
Plain flour is a British flour made of refined and bleached soft wheat. It has only a small amount of gluten so produces a light texture which is perfect for cakes, biscuits, and shortcrust pastry.
Self-raising flour is an American flour with wheat flour that has been mixed with baking powder and salt. As baking powder loses its potency over time, self-rising flour should be used within 2 to 3 months of production. It is used for making cakes and breads.
Strong flour / Strong plain white flour is a British flour made of soft and hard wheats. It has almost no bran or germ and so are fortified with the nutrients later in the process. It is suitable for yeasted breads, pizza, puff pastry, and flakey pastry as it has a high gluten content, which gives a stronger crumb structure.
Flour terminology:
Stone ground (macinatura a pietra) is a traditional technique of slowly grinding. The reduction in velocity reduces the temperature and so the risk of cooking the grain, improving the flavour. The essential oils also blend with the starch so the flour has the best flavour, aroma, and nutritional qualities such as an elevated level of enzymes and vitamins. It makes a very dense bread so is often mixed with more refined flours. It is more perishable than normal flour, lasting only 5 to 6 months after production.
Unbleached flour has been matured and whitened naturally so has better flavour than the artificially whitened “bleached” variety.
Store: Store in a sealed container in a cool, dry place for 8 to 14 months after production. Stone ground flours will only last 5-6 months after production. Semolina goes stale quickly even if well sealed so purchase it when you need to use it.
Prepare: Most flour needs no preparation. In some desserts, the recipe may call for the flour to be sifted to aerate it.
Eat: Flour is not only used to make breads, pastries, crispbreads, flatbreads, biscuits, pastry, and cakes but is also used to thicken sauces ( besciamella ), batter meat, vegetables, and fruit for deep-frying, make soup (zuppa di cipolle e farina tostata), and to flour meat for frying to add colour and flavour before braising or stewing. Semolina is used to make desserts, soups (minestra viterbese, zuppa Bolognese and minestra di semolino), couscous, pasta (orecchiette, lagane and maccheroni), and dumplings (gnocchi alla romana).
| i don't know |
What word is given to the thin leather straps used in falconry to tether the bird ? | JESSES CAFE AMERICAIN | JESSES CAFE AMERICAIN
JESSES CAFE AMERICAIN
Jesses Cafe Americain
cafe americain
Cafe Americain is an American sitcom starring Valerie Bertinelli which aired on NBC during the 1993-1994 television season. It was filmed at Warner Brothers Studios in Burbank, California.
jesses
Jesses (singular “jess”) are thin straps, traditionally made from leather, used to tether a hawk or falcon in falconry. They allow a falconer to keep control of a bird while it is on the glove or in training, and allow a bird to be secured on a perch outside of its aviary.
(Jess®) Jess® is a rule engine for the Java platform – it is a superset of CLIPS programming language, developed by Ernest Friedman-Hill of Sandia National Labs. It was first written in late 1995.
A short leather strap that is fastened around each leg of a hawk, usually also having a ring or swivel to which a leash may be attached
(Jess (fictional cat)) Postman Pat is a British stop-motion animated children’s television series first produced by Woodland Animations.
jesses cafe americain – Bobby Flay's
Bobby Flay's Bar Americain Cookbook: Celebrate America's Great Flavors
When Bobby Flay looks at a map of the United States, he doesn’t see states—he sees ingredients: wild Alaskan king salmon, tiny Maine blueberries, fiery southwestern chiles. The Food Network celebrity and renowned chef-restaurateur created his Bar Americain restaurants as our country’s answer to French bistros—to celebrate America’s regional flavors and dishes, interpreted as only Bobby Flay can.
Now you can rediscover American cuisine at home with the recipes in Bobby Flay’s Bar Americain Cookbook. Start with a Kentucky 95—a riff on a classic French cocktail but made with bourbon—and Barbecued Oysters with Black Pepper–Tarragon Butter. Choose from sumptuous soups and salads, including a creamy clam chowder built on a sweet potato base, and Kentucky ham and ripe figs over a bed of arugula dressed with molasses-mustard dressing. Entrees will fill your family family-style, from red snapper with a crisp skin of plantains accompanied by avocado, mango, and black beans to a host of beef steaks, spice-rubbed and accompanied by side dishes such as Brooklyn hash browns and cauliflower and goat cheese gratin. Bar Americain’s famed brunch dishes and irresistible desserts round out this collection of America’s favorite flavors.
Bobby also shares his tips for stocking your pantry with key ingredients for everyday cooking, as well as expert advice on essential kitchen equipment and indispensable techniques. With more than 110 recipes and 110 full-color photographs, Bobby Flay’s Bar Americain Cookbook shares Bobby’s passion for fantastic American food and will change the way any cook looks at our country’s bounty.
Featured Recipe: Sweet Potato Gratin
Definitely decadent, this sweet potato gratin is destined to become a do-or-die part of your family’s holiday spread. Cinnamon, clove, and nutmeg perfume the cream with their warm flavors and seep their rich taste of fall into each layer. A mandoline makes quick work of slicing the potatoes and is worth the investment for the time it will save you in prep work. Don’t forget to remove the cover for the last portion of baking time–the browned and bubbling crust is not to be missed.
Yield 8 servings
4 medium sweet potatoes, peeled and sliced 1?8 inch thick on a mandoline
Kosher salt and freshly ground black pepper
Preheat the oven to 375°F.
Whisk together the cream, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg until smooth.
In a 10-inch square baking dish, arrange an even layer of sweet potatoes. Drizzle with a few tablespoons of the cream mixture and season with salt and pepper. Repeat with the remaining potatoes and cream, seasoning with salt and pepper, to form 8 to 10 layers. Press down on the layers to totally submerge the sweet potatoes in the cream mixture.
Cover and bake for 30 minutes. Remove the cover and continue baking until the cream has been absorbed, the potatoes are cooked through, and the top is browned, 30 to 45 minutes. Remove from the oven and let rest for 15 minutes before serving.
~ Beans and Nothingness (Mack Racks His Brains)
god and the buddhas
are all sitting at the bar
inside Mack’s Cafe Americain,
an upscale nightclub and gambling den,
in casamackblanca,
| Jess |
In 1960 , Alberto Korda took an iconic photograph of which revolutionary leader ? | Hawk
Hawk
(1) Different parts of a hawk:
Arms.
The legs from the thigh to the foot. Beak. The upper and crooked part of the bill. Beams. The long feathers of the wings. Clap. The nether part of the bill.
Feathers summed.
Feathers full grown and complete. Feathers unsummed. Feathers not yet full grown. Flags. The next to the longest feathers or principals. Glut. The slimy substance in the pannel.
Gorge.
The crow or crop. Haglurs. The spots on the feathers. Mails. The breast feathers.
Nares.
The two little holes on the top of the beak. Pannel. The pipe next to the fundament. Pendent feathers. Those behind the toes.
Petty singles.
The claws. Principal feathers. The two longest.
Sails.
or sere. The yellow part under the eyes. Train. The tail.
(2) Different sorts of hawk:
Gerfalcon.
A Tercell of a Gerfalcon is for a king Falcon gentle and a Tercel gentle. For a prince. Falcon of the rock. For a duke.
Fulcon peregrine.
For an earl. Bastard hawk. For a baron. Sacre and a Sacrit. For a knight. Lanare and Lanrell. For a squire. Merlyn. For a lady.
Hoby.
For a young man. Goshawk. For a yeoman. Tercel. For a poor man. Sparehawk. For a priest. Murkyte. For a holy-water clerk. Kesterel. For a knave or servant. Dame Juliana Barnes.
The “Sore-hawk” is a hawk of the first year, so called from the French, sor or saure, brownish-yellow. The “Spar” or “Sparrow” hawk is a small, ignoble hawk (Saxon, speara; Goth, sparwa; cur spare, spur, spur, spear, spire, sparing, sparse, etc; Latin, sparsus; all referring to mindteness).
(3) The dress of a hawk:
Bewits.
The leathers with bells, buttoned to a hawk's legs. The bell itself is called a hawk-bell. Creanse. A packthread or thin twine fastened to the leash in disciplining a hawk.
Hood.
A cover for the head, to keep the hawk in the dark. A rufter hood is a wide one, open behind. To hood is to put on the hood. To unhood is to take it off. To unstrike the hood is to draw the strings so that the hood may be in readiness to be dulled off.
Jesses.
The little straps by which the leash is fastened to the legs. There is the singular jess. Leash. The leather thong for holding the hawk.
(4) Terms used in falconry:
Casting.
| i don't know |
Name the Year: The musical My Fair Lady has its first performance on Broadway ; Elvis Presley has his first U.K. hit. | My Fair Lady (1964) - IMDb
IMDb
There was an error trying to load your rating for this title.
Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later.
X Beta I'm Watching This!
Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends.
Error
A misogynistic and snobbish phonetics professor agrees to a wager that he can take a flower girl and make her presentable in high society.
Director:
Alan Jay Lerner (book), George Bernard Shaw (from a play by) (as Bernard Shaw) | 1 more credit »
Stars:
a list of 44 titles
created 10 Dec 2011
a list of 35 titles
created 21 Dec 2011
a list of 40 titles
created 25 Apr 2012
a list of 30 titles
created 03 Feb 2013
a list of 24 titles
created 5 months ago
Title: My Fair Lady (1964)
7.9/10
Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below.
You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin.
Won 8 Oscars. Another 15 wins & 13 nominations. See more awards »
Videos
A woman leaves an Austrian convent to become a governess to the children of a Naval officer widower.
Director: Robert Wise
Young Oliver Twist runs away from an orphanage and meets a group of boys trained to be pickpockets by an elderly mentor.
Director: Carol Reed
A magical nanny helps bring the two children she's in charge of closer to their father through songs and magical adventures.
Director: Robert Stevenson
A Victorian Englishman bets that with the new steamships and railways he can circumnavigate the globe in eighty days.
Directors: Michael Anderson, John Farrow
Stars: David Niven, Cantinflas, Finlay Currie
Edit
Storyline
Pompous phonetics professor Henry Higgins is so sure of his abilities that he takes it upon himself to transform a Cockney working-class girl into someone who can pass for a cultured member of high society. His subject turns out to be the lovely Eliza Doolittle, who agrees to speech lessons to improve her job prospects. Higgins and Eliza clash, then form an unlikely bond -- one that is threatened by an aristocratic suitor. Written by Jwelch5742
The loverliest motion picture of them all! See more »
Genres:
25 December 1964 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Mi bella dama See more »
Filming Locations:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Of the main cast only Stanley Holloway actually sang. The others were either dubbed or just talked their way through the songs. See more »
Goofs
In the Royal Ascot scene, the horses race in the wrong direction.
Ascot is a right-handed track where the horses race clockwise and the grandstand is on the outside of the track. The camera is facing the crowd, so the horses should race from left to right, but they're shown racing the other way. See more »
Quotes
[first lines]
[sounds from crowd, occasionally a word or phrase, indistinct and mostly not associated with a character]
Mrs. Eynsford-Hill : Don't just stand there, Freddy, go and find a cab.
Freddy Eynsford-Hill : All right, I'll get it, I'll get it.
See more »
Crazy Credits
In the posters, playbills and the original cast album for the stage version of "My Fair Lady", the credits always read "based on Bernard Shaw's 'Pygmalion' ", letting the audience know what play "My Fair Lady" was actually adapted from. The movie credits simply read "from a play by Bernard Shaw". See more »
Connections
I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face
(1956) (uncredited)
A musical with a brain as well as a heart
28 August 2003 | by eliza-doolittle
(Cambridge) – See all my reviews
There's a lot of negative things been said about Audrey Hepburn's interpretation of the role of Eliza. Perhaps she's not ideal in the earliest scenes of the movie - her "dirtiness" is never quite believable - but it has to be said that despite this smallish drawback she still glows, and makes an amazing Eliza overall.
The reason for this is simple; Audrey Hepburn brings her "own spark of divine fire", (to quote Higgins) to the role and her vulnerability, mixed with her sweet, naive charm and even her wonderfully juvenile pettishness shown in "Just You Wait" all prove what a talented actress she really is. For an example of this, just watch Eliza's facial expression at Ascot, when she realises her opportunity to demonstrate her new-found mastery of the English tongue - sweetly hilarious.
MFL has been criticized as being too romanticized, too overblown. I disagree; musicals are suposed to be lavish affairs, and none pull it off quite so well as "My Fair Lady" does. It's a momentous film but it has its subtle points: watch the way in which Eliza's eyes are centred on Higgins when she enters at the ball, and the way in which the two of them stare at each other for a few seconds at the top of the stairs a few moments later.
It musn't be overlooked that, thanks to its being based on a Bernard Shaw play, "My Fair Lady" has what the great majority of musicals lack: a deeper meaning and something really quite profound to say.
The actor in the role of Colonel Pickering is a little weak, but it must be said that Rex Harrison IS Henry Higgins. In a lot of ways (in fact, in most ways) Higgins has an objectionable personality: rude, snobbish, impatient and even misogynistic, but somehow Rex Harrison pulls it all off and makes us like Higgins without betraying the character. As to romance, his song "I've Grown Accustomed to Her Face" is an ode to the kind of love which sneaks up on you. Overall, this movie is romantic, but not too sentimental. It has just enough romance to be dramatically fulfilling, but it never becomes soppy or mawkish. The word "love" is never mentioned at all and the two leads never even kiss. The famous end sequence is perfect and does the movie justice; after all, a big happy bow tied around a perfect romance at the end would simply not fit with everything we have learned about the two protagonists.
91 of 152 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
Yes
| one thousand nine hundred and fifty six |
Which German composer wrote the music of the overture Rienzi, often heard in the concert hall ? | Brian Santalone, Author at Broadway: The American Musical
by Laurence Maslon
Sheet music cover for "Give My Regards to Broadway"
No one person created the musical. It evolved over time and incorporates a variety of influences and elements. First of all, of course, there is the music. Minstrel songs and the cakewalk; Irish ballads and patriotic jingles; ragtime marches and stirring blues; poignant torch songs and jazz ditties; totemic anthems and rock opera — the musical has captured every idiom of American expression. There is definitely a “Broadway” sound, often referred to as “Tin Pan Alley,” a musical structure pioneered by songwriters like Irving Berlin and Richard Rodgers. However, this is by no means the only kind of music to appear on Broadway.
Then, there are the lyrics, the words that go with the music. They can be rhapsodic, witty, risqué, or patriotic. Broadway lyrics have become another form of native poetry — words, catchphrases, sentiments, and stanzas that have entered the American lexicon. The lyrics of Cole Porter, Ira Gershwin, and Irving Berlin — to name but three — are routinely quoted in poetry anthologies around the world.
A score by Cole Porter
In the early days of the musical, what mattered most were the songs, and it was essential that they were catchy enough to amuse the audience or provide material for dancers or comedians. But, beginning in the 1930s, the situation, the book or libretto, of the musical started to achieve primary importance. A story or narrative became more frequently the spine of the musical, and in the 1940s, mostly due to the narrative sophistication of the shows of Rodgers and Hammerstein, the songs followed the plot and the characters, rather than the other way around. This narrative spine has made the musical quite influential as a cultural and artistic force; from the epic Kern-Hammerstein “Show Boat” and its view of race relations (1927) to “Oklahoma!” (1943) through “West Side Story” (1957), “Hair” and its antiwar sentiments (1967), “Company” (1970), and “Rent” (1996), the themes of prominent Broadway musicals reflected the controversial, revolutionary, and nostalgic issues of an evolving American culture.
George Balanchine leaning against a ballet bar during rehearsal.
As the musical got more complex, it required a director to shape the production and its design and concept. Strong musical directors like George S. Kaufman and George Abbott emerged in the ’30s; currently major artists like Harold Prince, Jerry Zaks, and Julie Taymor are key to shaping a musical’s success. Choreographers were next to emerge as major artists; in the teens and ’20s, they were simply “dance directors,” but influential choreographers like George Balanchine and Agnes de Mille brought visionary ideas to the stage. With gifted choreographers like Jerome Robbins and Bob Fosse broadening their range in the ’50s, it was only matter of time before they took on the job of director in addition to their dance duties. The director/choreographer became a major visionary force on the stage, guiding every visual and physical moment of a musical. Robbins and Fosse were joined by such talents as Gower Champion, Michael Bennett, and Tommy Tune.
Performers have also been the cornerstone of the musical. They could be comedians like Bert Lahr or Bert Williams; singers like Ethel Merman or Ethel Waters; dancers like Ray Bolger or Marilyn Miller. With the stronger demands of the narrative musical, performers had to become actors as well; indeed, after the success of nonsinging actor Rex Harrison in “My Fair Lady,” actors with minimal singing ability — Richard Burton, Lauren Bacall — became major musical stars. Of course, what Broadway values most these days is the “triple threat” — performers who can sing, dance, and act. In fact, in the past, there were separate dancing and singing choruses; now everyone is expected to do it all. Star performers like Bernadette Peters, Brian Stokes Mitchell, and Nathan Lane appear to have limitless talents.
Marilyn Miller on the cover of a Ziegfeld Theatre program
None of these elements would come together without the producer. The idea for a new musical can come from a writer, composer, or performer, but it can only be realized by a producer. He or she must raise the money for the production; the amount required is called the capitalization. This amount must not only cover getting the show to opening night but also create a financial cushion for several weeks or months until the show catches on with audiences. The producer will rarely spend his own money; he raises it from investors — usually called backers or “angels,” for obvious reasons — and pays himself a salary. If the show is a success and makes back its initial expenditure (recoupment), investors get whatever percentage of their contributed amount back in profits. For example, if you invested $1,000 in “Oklahoma!” in 1943 and it cost $100,000 to produce, you would get 1 percent of the profits after recoupment (distributed weekly). If “Oklahoma!” had flopped, you would have lost all your money; luckily, the show was a big hit: anyone who did invest $1,000 received $2.5 million!
A Broadway musical is both a risky and an exciting proposition. It is the most costly business venture in the theater. Typically, a musical will now cost at least $10 million to produce; to put this in context, 30 years ago, a musical cost one tenth that amount. (Tickets also cost about one eighth as much in 1974.) As hard as it is to raise that money, the rewards can be enormous. Cameron Mackintosh’s four shows (“Cats,” “Les Misérables,” “The Phantom of the Opera,” and “Miss Saigon”) have run on Broadway for more than 62 years total and, internationally, have made more money than these four movies — STAR WARS, RAIDERS OF THE LOST ARK, JURASSIC PARK, and TITANIC — put together. But the rising costs of originating a show have driven away more independent individual producers and opened the field for corporations like the Walt Disney Co. For example, “The Lion King” may well be the most expensive show ever — rumored at above $20 million — and took about four years to turn a profit, but a big company can afford to wait that long for a return on their investment. That’s why there’s no business like show business!
"Miss Saigon" poster
As if these weren’t enough, the story of the musical is also the story of its creators and performers, men and women from every aspect of American — and foreign — society, who came together, often under the most invidious circumstances, to create something that transcended their differences. Refugees came together with native sons and daughters; task masters worked with dissipated alcoholics; white producers championed black performers — and black performers turned right around and made fortunes for those producers; artists fled financial failure for the blandishments of the lucrative worlds of film and television — then fled right back to the stage; gay artists created enduring models of heterosexual romance and heterosexual artists became icons within the gay world; songwriters lost fortunes in the Depression, only to regain them by writing about the Depression itself — the list of ironies and strong compelling biography is endless, each story replete with illuminations about our culture.
Yet, still, the elements that constitute the musical don’t end there. The production of the musical is an art form itself. Complicated and often inflammatory, the craft of producing a Broadway show involves knowing the public’s tastes (and usually challenging it), raising capital, battling societal trends — all on the most expensive real estate in the most fractious city in the world. And, finally, there is the dissemination of the musical, which encompasses a vast narrative of communications and the media. Through sheet music, over the radio, in movies, on television, on gramophones, hi-fis, and CDs, through word-of-mouth, through visiting tourists, servicemen, grandmothers and their grandchildren, the world of the Broadway musical has been brought to every corner of this country and, by extension, the world. The musical is as powerful an image-maker of America as Hollywood has been and the shaping and shifting of that image is another cultural marker.
Photo credits: Photofest; Historic American Sheet Music, “Keep Moving Cake Walk,” Music B-791, Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library; Cole Porter Trust; and the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization; and the New York Public Library
by Laurence Maslon
Operetta was tailor-made for the tastes and habits of the turn-of-the-20th century consumer of refined amusement. For middle-class audiences hankring for an evening’s lyrical entertainment, the boisterous attractions of the Bowery were too rough-and-ready (and perhaps unfortunate reminders of whence they came), and the opera boxes of the Metropolitan Opera House (between 39th and 40th streets) or the Brooklyn Academy of Music were available only to the select Four Hundred of Mrs. Astor’s circle. Operetta provided a fanciful in-between world of romance and escape; it was the most popular brand of musical theater for the first two decades of the 20th century.
The original Metropolitan Opera House
Americans in the 19th century usually took their cue from Europe and England when it came to musical entertainment, and the comic operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan, as well as those by the French composer Offenbach, enjoyed an enthusiastic vogue in the 1870s and 1880s. Soon there were many American versions or imitations of these shows, and operetta — original or, even better, imported — developed into its own successful genre. Operetta didn’t ask much of its audience in terms of both scale and score; “opera lite” always promised a happy ending. There were big romantic shows, where the score was accessible and soaring, the tenor and the soprano took center stage, and a supporting cast included incongruous comedians and a large male chorus. The setting was usually some exotic European country, a mythic utopia, or a combination of the two. In operetta, it wasn’t simply a question of boy meets girl, but rather prince meets gypsy girl or duke meets countess.
New York’s infatuation with operetta would reach a kind of fever pitch in 1907, when Franz Léhar’s “The Merry Widow” — already the toast of Vienna, Paris, and London — arrived on these shores and swept the Broadway public off its feet by creating a mania not only for its music but also for various fashions inspired by the operetta’s eponymous heroine. But 13 years earlier, a composer of protean proportions had already made the reputation of the home-grown American operetta. Victor Herbert, like most of the successful operetta composers of the era, was an immigrant; born in Ireland and classically trained in Germany, he got his education playing the cello in some of the most highly regarded orchestras in Austria and Germany.
Sheet music cover page of Victor Herbert's "Ah! Sweet Mystery of Life."
Upon his arrival in New York in 1886, Herbert began playing, conducting, and composing at a furious pace. By 1894, he had his first operetta staged on Broadway; over the next 22 years, he would compose more than 40 others. His 1903 hit, “Babes in Toyland,” brought a childlike innocence to the usually ardent operetta and also gave the world, as his shows usually did, a hit song or two: the lullaby “Toyland” and “March of the Toys” are still played by battalions of high school marching bands who have never even heard the term “operetta.”
Unfortunately, Herbert’s tunes were more memorable than the work of some of his lyricists: “Ah! sweet mystery of life, at last I’ve found thee” doesn’t seem particularly moving now, but the song proved integral to its show, “Naughty Marietta” (1910), where it actually figured into resolving the plot — a rare occurrence in operetta. The show itself is generally regarded as the first operetta set in America.
Operetta is an easy target for mockery, but Herbert gave his musical scores an integrity and rhapsodic fervor that would long outlive the productions of his shows. The romantic appeal of the operetta made it, along with the revue and the musical comedy, an integral part of the American theatrical scene at the beginning of the 20th century. But then it came to a crashing halt. Operetta was doomed to temporary obscurity on June 28, 1914, the moment two shots rang out halfway across the world in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. With the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, war broke out in Europe, and no one was interested any longer in the romantic escapades of fictitious mittel-European aristocrats when real ones were being killed.
Sheet music cover page for Rudolf Friml's "You're in Love"
But, as patriotic passions cooled in the 1920s, there was a resurgence of the operetta, and several new players entered the game. Rudolf Friml was a piano virtuoso from Prague who immigrated to New York in 1906, and Sigmund Romberg, a disaffected architectural engineer, arrived from Bucharest in 1909. Despite their nobler callings, both men were quickly swept along in the currents of musical theater, crafting sweeping melodies for various interpolations and operettas for producers like the Shuberts and Arthur Hammerstein. As the 1920s began, both men had already had several hits under their belt, but their luck came through when they started working with lyricist Oscar Hammerstein II, the grandson of the man who created the theater district, who was given a job by his Uncle Arthur stage managing one of his operettas. As Oscar worked his way through the Hammerstein organization, he learned about craft, lyric writing, construction, and the general architecture that goes into creating a piece for the stage.
Hammerstein began his collaboration with Friml in 1924 (Uncle Arthur had given Friml his big break with “The Firefly” in 1912) on “Rose-Marie,” an elaborate operetta set in the Canadian Rockies. In all of his collaborations with Friml and Romberg, Hammerstein brought something new to the party, some aspect of construction, plot, or setting that gently nudged the operetta form into being more poignant or more pertinent. “Rose-Marie” (1924), better known to audiences through the oft-parodied Jeanette MacDonald/Nelson Eddy movie of the same name (where he’s “calling yoo-oo-oo-oo, oo-oo-oooo”), had a uniquely North American setting and managed to weave murder and revenge into its plot.
Hammerstein crafted even more sophisticated successes with Romberg later in the decade. “The Desert Song” (1926) parlayed the contemporary fascination with Rudolph Valentino’s sheik and Lawrence of Arabia into a Moroccan romance featuring a masked marauder and his emotionally ravished fair lady. They followed that up with 1928’s “The New Moon,” an 18th-century swashbuckler set in New Orleans that interjected a subplot about class warfare and utopian social experiments into a good deal of requisite bosom-heaving. This last show contained some of operetta’s most sweeping melodies: “Stouthearted Men,” “Softly, as in a Morning Sunrise,” and “Lover, Come Back to Me.”
Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews in "My Fair Lady"
Romberg and Friml had their share of other hits (“The Student Prince,” “The Vagabond King”) with other lyricists, but the shows with Hammerstein can be seen, apart from their pure rhapsodic pleasure, as early experiments in expanding the conceits of the romantic musical — as opposed to the musical comedy — form. The librettos themselves do not quite stand the test of time; they tend to overdose on injections of testosterone, and modern audiences prefer their heroism less on the nose and their romantic episodes with more psychological complexity.
Although the Great Depression effectively killed any further interest in the operetta, the form was immensely influential. Although it is, ironically, less sexy to talk about the influence of romance than the influence of comedy or dance on the musical, love stories have clearly been at the center of the vast majority of musical theater shows for the last century. Hammerstein and Kern’s “Show Boat” (1927) displays a strong operetta structure, and later musicals like “Kismet” (1953) and even “My Fair Lady” (1956) have embraced the operetta’s romantic and exotic appeal. In fact, perhaps the most romantic musical of all time — still packing them in at the Majestic Theatre — is “The Phantom of the Opera.” It might be better retitled “The Phantom of the Operetta.”
Photo credits: Photofest; the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Detroit Publishing Company Collection (LC-D4-18310 DLC); the New York Public Library; and Historic American Sheet Music, “Ah! Sweet Mystery of Life,” Music A-2291, Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library; Historic American Sheet Music, “He Will Understand,” Music A-5969, Duke University Rare Book, Manuscript, and Special Collections Library; the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization; and the New York Public Library
by Laurence Maslon
Ziegfeld girl Drucilla Strain
In the years between the world wars, nothing on Broadway catered to Manhattan nightlife like the revue. During the Roaring Twenties, nearly 150 revues opened on Broadway. Pioneered by Florenz Ziegfeld and his elegant “Follies,” revues allowed for an ever-shifting variety of songs, dances, skits, and production numbers. Idiosyncratic comics, specialty dancers, emotive singers, and chorus girls all found a happy home for their particular talents — and costume and scenic designers had a field day, too. Their flash, color, topicality, and brazenness caught the spirit of the age, but revues had their conveniences, too; unlike with later musical comedies, you could easily miss the first act and it wouldn’t make any difference. Revues could be assembled easily, and there was always room for an additional investor, whether it was a newly minted Wall Street broker with a crush on a showgirl or a bootlegging gangster who wanted to see his girlfriend installed at the end of a chorus line.
What revues also provided in spades was opportunity. There were so many chances for a songwriter to get his number placed in a show that the revue became the greatest conservatory for popular music the country has ever seen. Composer Arthur Schwartz and lyricist Howard Dietz gave America some of its most memorable songs during this period: “Dancing in the Dark,” “Alone Together,” “Something to Remember You By.” All were from revues, a form they mastered, and yet they failed to have any successful shows in the musical comedy format. Without the revue as a springboard for their talents, the Gershwins, Rodgers and Hart, and DeSylva, Brown, and Henderson might have found their road to fame infinitely more arduous or downright impossible.
Here, then, is a scorecard for the more important revues of the period, excepting the “Ziegfeld Follies,” which are in a category of their own:
“George White’s Scandals.” Hoofer White irked his former employer Florenz Ziegfeld no end when he broke away from the “Follies” franchise in 1919 to start his own revue. White’s sharp eye for sleek design and emerging hot talent made his “Scandals” the only real rival to the master’s productions. He had the novel idea of using only one composer for each of his 13 editions, and his particular passion for the latest dance craze allowed his leading dancer, Ann Pennington, to introduce several popular new steps to Broadway, such as the “Black Bottom.” Such future stars as Helen Morgan, Ethel Merman, and Ray Bolger got their first big breaks with White.
“Music Box Revues.” Irving Berlin got into the producing game in 1921 by building the jewel-like Music Box Theater as a showcase for his newest tunes. Before he tired of mounting an annual edition every season until 1924, Berlin placed such timeless songs as “Say It with Music,” “What’ll I Do?,” and “All Alone” in his revues.
The Earl Carroll Theater
“Earl Carroll’s Vanities.” Anyone who wondered where Earl Carroll’s passions lay had only to glimpse one of the innumerable voluptuous tableaux, where dozens of sexy women were draped all over the set wearing as little as possible, that were part of his revues. Carroll tweaked Ziegfeld by placing a sign over his stage door that read “Through These Portals Pass the Most Gorgeous Girls in the World.” His shows prioritized raciness over sophistication, and his comedians included Sophie Tucker, Jack Benny, and Milton Berle. Throughout his nine editions, the most interesting thing Carroll ever did was to get arrested in 1926 when, in one number, a girl was bathing nude in a tub filled with champagne. It wasn’t the nudity that annoyed authorities; Carroll was indicted for perjury when he falsely claimed the tub was filled with ginger ale.
“The Garrick Gaieties.” “The Gaieties” were the “hey-let’s-put-on-a-show” of the revue world. Produced by the Theater Guild in 1925 as a way of raising money, the three editions of the “Gaieties” emphasized youth and wit, and parodied contemporary shows. Famously, the initial edition gave Rodgers and Hart their start with the song “Manhattan,” but other songwriters who got their break here included Vernon Duke and Johnny Mercer.
Chorus girls from the revue "Hot Chocolates."
Schwartz and Dietz. Composer Arthur Schwartz was trained as a lawyer, and lyricist Howard Dietz had a day job as MGM’s advertising manager (he created the famous lion), but when they began collaborating at the end of the 1920s, they made beautiful music together. They rode in on the coattails of the “Little Shows,” intimate, sophisticated revues that gave audiences some relief from the bombast of Ziegfeld and White. The team found its true voice in four revues from 1930 to 1935 — “Three’s a Crowd,” “The Band Wagon,” “Flying Colors,” and “At Home Abroad.” Dietz also contributed sketches and direction to many of their shows.
African-American Revues: Lew Leslie was a white producer who brought some of Harlem’s best black talent to Broadway and London’s West End. His “Blackbirds of 1928” introduced the incomparable machine-gun tap technique of Bill “Bojangles” Robinson to audiences, as well as the singer Adelaide Hall. The songwriting team of Jimmy McHugh and Dorothy Fields contributed a break-out score that included “Doin’ the New Low Down” and “I Can’t Give You Anything But Love, Baby.” Another black revue of the period was 1930’s “Hot Chocolates,” which transferred from Harlem directly and featured Louis Armstrong in the pit band and onstage performing Fats Waller’s “Ain’t Misbehavin’.”
The revue continued successfully into the Great Depression, but those that survived had a greater discipline or a stronger theme to unite all the various acts. Typical of this change was Irving Berlin and Moss Hart’s “As Thousands Cheer,” which took topical headlines from the daily newspaper as its “unifying principle.” After the advent of the narrative musical, so beautifully rendered by “Oklahoma!” in 1943, it was harder to engage audience interest in a disconnected show. Television put the final nail in the coffin of the revue in 1948 by offering topical material, comedy, and dancing with a speed and economy that the Broadway stage could no longer match.
Photo credits: Photofest, Culver Pictures, the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, and the New York Public Library
Reply
Piano player
The 1920s saw the advent of three major advances in technology that would not only influence the quality of American domestic life but also reconstruct the entire edifice of show business: broadcast radio, electronic sound reproduction, and talking pictures. By the time the decade was over, the sound of America had completely changed. In 1920, two radio stations sprang up, carrying snippets of the news, and by 1926, the National Broadcast Company, operating out of New York City, started the first national broadcast — a variety show that was carried over two dozen affiliate stations across the country. By the end of the decade, 40 percent of all Americans had radio consoles in their homes; not surprisingly, the number reached 58 percent for households in New York City.
Tin Pan Alley
What Americans listened to most was music. Almost three quarters of radio programming was devoted to music, much of it classical, but popular music began making tremendous inroads over the airwaves. As the decade wore on and jazz became more popular, band performances were broadcast from Harlem’s Cotton Club and other metropolitan hot spots. Large sections of America were listening to black performers — to the extent that they were unaware of the musicians’ race — for the very first time. Of course, jazz and show tunes proved to be the lodestone of popular broadcast music.
Radio initially provided the young century’s second uppercut to the music publishing business of Tin Pan Alley. Gramophone recordings had severely undermined the sales of sheet music in the late 1910s, as the gramophone slowly replaced the upright piano in parlors across the country. By 1920, artists like Al Jolson and Eddie Cantor had achieved million-plus sales with their recordings of Broadway hit songs, far outpacing sheet music sales. Now, Tin Pan Alley considered itself lucky if a song sold 100,000 copies of sheet music. By 1925, advances in electronic sound recording allowed studios to get better range and fidelity in reproducing the work of their recording artists. Recording companies like Victor realized that the radio could be more friend than foe. Rather than squeezing out the popularity of a recording, if artfully promoted, radio could enhance the exposure of an artist or a song. So began the recording industry’s long and complicated affair with the broadcast media. “The music you want when you want it,” the industry trumpeted.
Rudy Vallee, Irving Berlin, and George Gershwin
The music that people wanted to hear was largely music from Broadway. That is not to say that other songs directly from Tin Pan Alley weren’t popular — novelty items like “Yes, We Have No Bananas” or “The Music Goes ‘Round and ‘Round,” which seem to have been invented solely to entice customers into buying them, filled the airwaves. But, for example, in 1927, out of the top 10 songs played on the radio, half were from Broadway shows: “Blue Skies” (“Betsy”), “Hallelujah” (“Hit the Deck!”), “Ol’ Man River” (“Show Boat”), “‘S Wonderful” (“Funny Face”), and “The Varsity Drag” (“Good News!”). Two others, “Me and My Shadow” and “Russian Lullaby,” were by Broadway composers. Back then, these songs were usually performed, or covered, by popular bands or crooners, rather than by original cast members, and many Broadway songs were rescued from obscurity by radio performers. Irving Berlin’s “Say It Isn’t So” languished until collegiate idol Rudy Vallee sang it repeatedly on his TV show; Walter Donaldson’s “My Blue Heaven” was such a big radio hit that Eddie Cantor interpolated it into the “Ziegfeld Follies of 1927.” When their songs weren’t filling the airwaves, the songwriters were themselves: Rodgers and Hart, Sigmund Romberg, and most successfully George Gershwin (incongruously promoting Feen-a-Mint Laxatives) hosted their own radio programs.
Detail of the sheet music cover page for Rodgers and Hart's "Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered" from "Pal Joey."
But the voice that meant Broadway for Mr. and Mrs. North America was Walter Winchell’s. Show business ran so thickly in his blood, it’s a wonder there was any room left for hemoglobin. His Broadway column (originally in the tabloid GRAPHIC) doled out gossip, predictions, homilies, picks, and pans in staccato bursts, often with items separated by ellipses, or three dots. As a reviewer, he was a mediocre writer, but as a chronicler of his age, he was peerless. He brought his gift for hokum to the radio and became the most famous broadcaster of the lives and legends of Broadway. Eventually, he made the cardinal error of believing his own press, and his ego got him into some unseemly scrapes, but from the late ’20s through the World War II, he was the voice of the “Main Stem.”
In 1935, a radio show (and later television program) called “Your Hit Parade” enshrined the current popular song hits for a national audience. Many Broadway songs still found their way onto the Hit Parade, but there was now strong competition from Hollywood. Songs from the movies dominated the charts in the ’30s and ’40s, but there were occasional breakout hits from Broadway, such as Rodgers and Hammerstein’s “Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin’,” “If I Loved You,” “Some Enchanted Evening,” and “No Other Love.” Songs were usually covered by more than one artist; in a surprise to everyone in the business — including Richard Rodgers — “Bewitched,” from his 1940 hit with Lorenz Hart from “Pal Joey,” was recorded by nine different artists in 1950, turning it into a popular standard 10 years after the fact. Singer Rosemary Clooney had a huge hit with “Hey There” from “The Pajama Game” in 1954. Ironically, it was released two days before another hit single — Elvis Presley in his debut, singing “That’s All Right.” Presley, of course, signaled that rock ‘n’ roll was here to stay and, indeed, cut such a profound swath through the music industry that Broadway rarely had a Top Ten hit for the rest of the 20th century.
Photo credits: Photofest and the Library of Congress, Digital Imagery© copyright 2001 PhotoDisc, Inc.; and the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization
by Laurence Maslon
Breadline in New York during the Great Depression
By the early 1930s, the theater capital and the film capital of America were separated by an entire continent. In the early days of the Great Depression, artists had to make a choice: stay in New York, with its harsh winters and gray, shuffling breadlines, working for a business staggering from layoffs and cutbacks, or move to Hollywood, where it was sunny all year round and smelled of eucalyptus, and money was thrown at you in fistfuls by studio executives. Which would you choose? It is, of course, a trick question. Although the motion picture studios jumped at the chance to add musicals to their rosters after the introduction of sound with THE JAZZ SINGER in 1927, it was several years before they mastered the technology of filming a successful musical. The actual sound reproduction was tinny and false, and camera movement was severely limited.
Poster for the 1929 film THE BROADWAY MELODY.
None of this kept the Hollywood studios from exploiting the novelty of sound musicals, and they acquired and filmed an enormous amount of material from 1927 to 1932. Film musicals were either portmanteau revues like KING OF JAZZ, HOLLYWOOD REVUE OF 1929, or PARAMOUNT ON PARADE; awkwardly filmed stage adaptations like THE COCOANUTS, SALLY, or SHOW BOAT (1929); or newly crafted stories, often with a backstage theme that glamorized that cosmopolitan city on the East Coast: THE BROADWAY MELODY, BROADWAY BABES, FOOTLIGHTS AND FOOLS. Unfortunately, Hollywood glutted the market with an inferior product and by the early ’30s, audiences were turned off by the technical limitations of the film musical.
It was up to a former marine drill instructor and Broadway dance director named Busby Berkeley to turn all this around. In 1933, he conceived the dances to the quintessential backstage film musical, 42ND STREET, and his visual skill at manipulating both chorus girls and the camera finally made a string of backstage yarns for Warner Bros. competitive with their stage counterparts. Soon, the other studios were churning out their own musical styles (Paramount, elegant and sophisticated; MGM, glossy and overblown; RKO, Astaire and Rogers), and the Hollywood musical was glorying in its heyday, with a barrage of original musicals that would enrapture depression-era America.
Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers
Every major songwriter from Broadway was under some kind of film contract by the early 1930s. Their responses to the temptations of the West Coast were no more uniform than their personal styles of songwriting. Irving Berlin was initially distrustful of film technology and studio interference, but he was lured back to write TOP HAT for Astaire and Rogers and began a healthy relationship with various studios. (The greatest hit he — anyone — ever wrote, “White Christmas,” came out of the 1942 film HOLIDAY INN.) The Gershwins loved the lifestyle of Hollywood but frequently commuted back and forth to the East Coast, until George’s experience with “Porgy and Bess” sent him back into the arms of RKO. Jerome Kern, never one to suffer fools gladly, surprisingly liked Hollywood and was given the chance to team up with various studio-contracted lyricists like Dorothy Fields, Johnny Mercer, even Ira Gershwin, and produced some of his most extraordinary songs like “The Way You Look Tonight,” “I’m Old-Fashioned,” and “Long Ago and Far Away.” Cole Porter was easily amenable to the assembly-line method of creating songs in Hollywood; he was always content to toss out one song and start over again on another.
But Hollywood never had the one thing Broadway reveled in: creative freedom. In addition to the interference of studio chiefs and tone-deaf line producers, Hollywood has its own form of self-censorship. The Production Code, better known as the Hays Code, was introduced in 1934. Even if film producers wanted sophisticated Broadway material reproduced intact on its sound stages, the Hays Code made that impossible. The most benign lyrics were tweaked with idiotic regularity by inane sensibilities.
Lorenz Hart and Richard Rodgers in a scene from the film MAKERS OF MELODY.
Rodgers and Hart suffered in Hollywood. For example, they were shunted around from studio to studio, doctoring pictures, writing songs for films that were either cut or rewritten by other hands. Control was always important for Rodgers, so he convinced Hart to escape back to Broadway in 1935. Ironically, the only other Broadway songwriter who had a similar experience in Hollywood was Oscar Hammerstein II, who went about his dreary studio assignments without much enthusiasm. (He did, however, win an Oscar in 1941 for “The Last Time I Saw Paris,” with music by Jerome Kern.)
Hollywood soon relied on its own stable of songwriters, many of whom wrote some of this country’s most immortal songs. Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer had some early Broadway notoriety, but it was on the West Coast that their talents really blossomed; songs like “Blues in the Night,” “One for My Baby,” and “That Old Black Magic” came from some utterly forgettable movies. Sadly, their one great ambition was to write a hit Broadway musical back east in the 1940s and 1950s; it never happened. The most spectacular songwriting team in Hollywood was Harry Warren and Al Dubin, who created the scores for the Busby Berkeley movies with such legendary numbers as “I Only Have Eyes for You” and “Lullaby of Broadway.” Other writers like Dorothy Fields, Frank Loesser, and Jule Styne were nurtured by the studio system and able to extend their successes to Broadway in the late 1940s and 1950s when Hollywood musical production was slowing down.
Cole Porter in Hollywood during the making of the film of his musical KISS ME KATE.
When Hollywood did buy the rights to a Broadway property, it rarely, if ever, made its way to celluloid intact. In general, even the most faithful versions were shorn of several songs for length, but wholesale revisionism was typical of Hollywood, especially with shows from the 1930s. Even small changes in the book musicals of the 1940s and 1950s can change their tone: the 1950 version of ON THE TOWN throws away the World War II setting so crucial to its meaning and KISS ME, KATE in 1953 keeps most of the score, but idiotically has someone pretending to be Cole Porter sort of introducing the movie.
Broadway producers, songwriters, and librettists learned to cry all the way to the bank as film options on their material became more and more frequent in the 1950s, with record sums going for the rights to shows like “My Fair Lady,” which topped out at $5 million. Well into the 20th century, it was Hollywood that would have the last laugh on its East Coast detractors by flooding Broadway in the 1980s and 1990s with stage versions of original Hollywood musicals — a complete inverse of the situation decades earlier — such as GIGI, 42ND STREET, SINGIN’ IN THE RAIN, MEET ME IN ST. LOUIS, and FOOTLOOSE, as well as the Disney animated films like THE LION KING.
Photo credits: Photofest, National Archives and Records Administration,the Library of Congress, Lorenz Hart, Jr., and the Cole Porter Trust
by Laurence Maslon
Irving Berlin with Moss Hart
Irving Berlin’s patriotic belief in his adopted country would seem to be an affectionate constant in his career, but as the crisis of the depression deepened, even Berlin could see the box office appeal in some good old-fashioned social satire. In 1932, he teamed up with the bright young playwright Moss Hart, who had become a rising star on Broadway when he co-authored the Hollywood satire “Once in a Lifetime” with George S. Kaufman two years earlier. Kaufman’s own satirical musical, “Of Thee I Sing,” was playing to big business at the Music Box Theater, which Berlin owned, and the composer thought there might be room for another sharp show in town.
As concocted by Hart and Berlin, the plot of “Face the Music” is really a triptych of three slight social satires on the depression, the Seabury investigations — started in 1930 by then New York governor FDR to examine corruption in the mayoral administration of James J. Walker, who was eventually forced to resign — and the “Ziegfeld Follies,” tentatively stitched together. “Face the Music” opens at the Automat, where the recently humbled rich are being forced to share their modest repasts among the hoi polloi. This gave birth to the show’s biggest hit, “Let’s Have Another Cup of Coffee,” which became one of the gentler anthems of the depression.
The show’s lack of conceptual clarity is obvious from its subtitle, “A Musical Comedy Revue,” and it was not the smash return to Broadway that Berlin had anticipated. In the end, Berlin was more comfortable with the revue format — short, sharp, and quick — as he himself would be the first to admit.
Marilyn Miller, Clifton Webb, and Ethel Waters were some of the stars featured in "As Thousands Cheer."
The next season, Hart and Berlin tried again for a topical revue, and this time they kept their target well within sight and hit the bull’s-eye. “As Thousands Cheer” was typical of the general trend in the 1930s of giving the revue form some kind of structural or thematic unity. In this, the team achieved a kind of brilliance; “As Thousands Cheer” took as its “concept” the form of a daily newspaper, with each number and skit taken from (or performed in ironic contrast to) a particular headline or column — which was projected across the proscenium. (This was several years before the Federal Theatre Project created a unit called “The Living Newspaper” that dramatized political stories in documentary form.) This allowed Hart to parody such wet-ink-fresh subjects as the building of Rockefeller Center (“World’s Wealthiest Man Celebrates 94th Birthday”) and the outgoing Hoover administration, where the ex-president and his wife run up a huge last-minute long-distance phone bill (“Franklin D. Roosevelt Inaugurated Tomorrow”). Berlin took a gentler swipe at society — with the extraordinary exception of “Supper Time” for Ethel Waters — by kidding Josephine Baker (“Harlem on My Mind”), Woolworth heiress Barbara Hutton (“How’s Chances?”), and even the hoary conventions of the revue format itself (“Supreme Court Hands Down Important Decision”) that forbid revues from reprising their most memorable songs in the finale.
The creators of "Of Thee I Sing"
A month after “As Thousands Cheer” opened on Broadway, in September 1933, Kaufman, Morrie Ryskind, and the Gershwins returned with “Let ‘Em Eat Cake,” a rare musical sequel to “Of Thee I Sing,” with the same cast of characters. The score was even more sophisticated than the original show’s, but the book’s often depressing take on fascism — President Wintergreen overthrows the government after losing reelection — ground audiences down rather than inspiring them. And it’s likely the show was simply a formalistic copy of the original. It was a costly failure, opening and closing after 90 performances at the Imperial Theater, while Berlin was clocking 400 performances of “As Thousands Cheer” at his very own Music Box Theater.
But all this was probably more a matter of craft than sentiment; as the 1930s wore on, political satire on Broadway became more, rather than less, popular. Times were getting more complex, and the Broadway musical was never more topical than it became in the latter part of the decade. In late 1937, four intensely political musicals opened on Broadway: “The Cradle Will Rock,” “Pins and Needles,” “I’d Rather Be Right,” and an antiwar satire starring Ed Wynn called “Hooray for What.” The style of the shows ranged from the sublime to the ridiculous — but they each caught a different facet of the American consciousness. By the fall of 1937, it looked as if the depression would be forever clouding the skies. A whopping budget deficit, a series of explosive struggles between management and labor, the progressive unionization of America — these events filled the headlines and made their appearance, one way or another, on the Broadway musical stage.
David Dubinsky was the powerful head of the International Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union in the 1930s. He was devoted to the betterment of his union members, who had trebled in number since the New Deal was instituted. One of Dubinsky’s ideas was a Cultural Division, which made “good union members aware of the truth that man does not live by bread alone.” In the mid-1930s, the division took the unconventional step of hiring songwriter Harold Rome to write a musical revue for the ILGWU, called “Pins and Needles.” Actors and singers were recruited from among union members, and they rehearsed after work three hours a night, three nights a week; it took a year to rehearse the show. “Pins and Needles” was a lighthearted look at young workers in a changing society in the middle of America’s most politically engaged city. The opening number let the audience know where the hearts of these young people lay:
Sing me of wars and sing me of breadlines, Tell me of front-page news. Sing me of strikes and last minute headlines. Dress your observation in syncopation. Sing me a song with social significance. There’s nothing else that will do. It must get hot with what is what, Or I won’t love you.
Singers in the pro-union musical "Pins and Needles."
The show had an extraordinarily long run for the period — 1,108 performances — but that was largely because its theater, the Labor Stage, had only 300 seats. The success of the show even surprised Harold Rome: “I didn’t realize that the big attraction was that the garment workers themselves were doing the show and singing to the audience, creating a rapport which is very rare in the theater.”
Opening three weeks before “Pins and Needles,” “I’d Rather Be Right” went straight to the top for its satirical target: President Roosevelt himself. In our current era, saturated with SATURDAY NIGHT LIVE parodies and talk-show monologues, it’s hard to see how revolutionary it was for Kaufman and Hart and Rodgers and Hart to put a sitting president on stage for two-and-a-half hours of comic ribbing. To be fair, all four creators were good New York liberals, so the arrows sent FDR’s way were not exactly tipped with venom, but the president was summarily chided for his attempt to pack the Supreme Court (all nine pop out of the bushes to shout down FDR every time he proposes a new law), his failure to balance the budget, his ambition for a third term, even his frequent browbeating at the hands of his overbearing mother. The high profiles of the creative staff, plus the electric performance of George M. Cohan, made the show the hit of the season, even with — or perhaps because of — its sentimental closing speech, which had FDR rallying America with a fireside chat.
President Roosevelt was the subject of "I'd Rather Be Right"
A year later, Kaufman and Hart teamed up to produce (and rewrite) “Sing out the News,” the first commercial Broadway revue for Harold Rome. It had a strong, but less pungent, liberal agenda than “Pins and Needles”; if that show played like a musical version of THE NATION magazine, “Sing out the News” played more like the TIMES Op-Ed page. Sketches included the difficulties within the Republican Party in finding a candidate to run against FDR (an angel who loses his wings accepts the job) and a song set at a Harlem block party where a new black baby is christened “Franklin D. Roosevelt Jones,” which, according to the joyous celebrants, augurs well for his future.
The freewheeling satire of the 1930s would soon be curtailed by the overwhelming patriotism accompanying the onset of World War II. Even as war became imminent in Europe, it was clear that the Broadway stage’s freedom to poke fun at whomever it chose was a gift that theatergoers — and Americans — could no longer take for granted. Critic John Mason Brown articulated this in his review of “I’d Rather Be Right”:
It should swell our pride in the freedom we enjoy and the gift for laughter which must be counted among our national assets. The more good humored liberties Mr. Kaufman and Mr. Hart’s satire takes, the more liberty its mere performance bespeaks.
Photo credits: Photofest and National Archives and Records Administration
by Laurence Maslon
Muriel Smith, who played the lead in Hammerstein's "Carmen Jones."
After his triumph with “Oklahoma!,” Oscar Hammerstein II turned to an even more improbable project, something that had preoccupied him for years: a new version of Bizet’s opera “Carmen,” reset in the American South, using the original music with his own lyrics, and a cast composed entirely of black actors. Producer Billy Rose enthusiastically took up the show, hired a first-rate director and designer, and made plans to book the Broadway Theater for the end of 1943.
What Hammerstein and Rose didn’t have was a cast. The vocal and acting demands of the show, “Carmen Jones,” required performers equally adept at opera and musical comedy, but the opportunities for black actors to learn their craft in these venues were woefully inadequate. For years, there hadn’t been enough roles for black talent, so the talent dried up; when roles did become available, there wasn’t enough talent to fill them. Rose engaged a music promoter named John Hammond to round up whatever singers he could find; he discovered his leads in a camera store, on the police force, and working in a navy yard.
Worker during World War II.
“Carmen Jones” was a spectacular hit, opening half a year after “Oklahoma!” It also was the advance guard for a brief but impressive vogue for Broadway musicals that gave new prominence to black performers, sometimes in all-black shows, sometimes integrated with a white company. Broadway had not played host to so many black actors since the early 1920s; the important difference now was that these new shows were written, composed, and produced almost entirely by white artists. Still, the number of black performers in plays and musicals on Broadway in 1946 was more than five times the number before World War II began. In some ways, the increased professional opportunities for African Americans mirrored some slight social changes during the war. Although black army units were still segregated, there was a rise in social consciousness within white America. Some war production jobs, formerly closed to blacks, were opened up; black women also had an opportunity to move out of jobs as domestics into production work; the membership of the NAACP quadrupled; and such polar opposites as Eleanor Roosevelt and Hollywood worked to promote racial tolerance and inclusion between blacks and whites.
On Broadway, the results of this inclusion were mixed, in both style and quality. The trend had a brief prologue in 1940 with Vernon Duke’s simplistically drawn allegory, “Cabin in the Sky,” but it was Hammerstein’s adaptation, with its steamy seductress, obsessed army officer, and macho prizefighter, that really packed a punch. In a kind of bookend to “This Is the Army,” Harold Rome wrote a 1946 tribute to returning veterans, the revue “Call Me Mister.” It contained a musical number called “Red Ball Express,” where a returning black serviceman who ran a successful supply line during the war is denied a job back home, due to prejudice.
Lyricist Yip Harburg
That same season, Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer explored the turn-of-the-19th century racetrack scene in “St. Louis Woman.” After World War II, Arlen had contributed to two successful all-black Hollywood musicals, “Cabin in the Sky” and “Stormy Weather,” and there seemed to be a market for popular dramatic entertainment with African-American characters. A producer named Edward Gross optioned a play by two shining lights of the Harlem Renaissance, Arna Bontemps and Countee Cullen, and hired them to write the libretto, then asked Harold Arlen and Johnny Mercer to compose the score. It was the first time in Broadway history that black and white writers would collaborate on the text of a musical. However, the felicitous beginning for “St. Louis Woman” quickly went from good to bad to worse. Lena Horne was signed to play the title character, but she soon objected to the depiction of her character as a “painted woman” and quit; indeed, the NAACP complained about the show’s milieu of low-life gamblers and kept women. Horne’s replacement was fired, then reinstated after the cast objected. Worst of all, in a show about bad luck and omens, Cullen died two weeks before rehearsal began. It limped into New York after several out-of-town engagements on March 30, 1946.
Other shows have surmounted worse odds, but “St. Louis Woman” was mostly undone by its attempts to force a complex and unwieldy story into the conventions of the post-Rodgers and Hammerstein musical form. The famed acrobatic dancing Nicholas Brothers were hired to headline, but only the pint-sized Harold had a real part. His brother Fayard had a contrived comic role, and they were given a dancing duel that had no narrative point. The lusty louche atmosphere of East St. Louis was turned into a happy-go-lucky world of musical comedy. What transcended the 113-performance train wreck was the score. Arlen and Mercer gave their romantic leads one of the finest of American standards: “Come Rain or Come Shine,” the most successful song of the least successful show.
Fayard Nicholas and Pearl Bailey in "St. Louis Woman."
In 1949, Kurt Weill and Maxwell Anderson ventured to South Africa for “Lost in the Stars,” the journey of a preacher and his son, which featured the haunting title tune. Weill also wrote the score to 1947’s “Street Scene,” an adaptation of Elmer Rice’s urban panorama. This time, his lyricist was the renowned African-American poet Langston Hughes, who added several black characters. Although Hughes felt his contributions were gradually whittled down, it was the first interracial collaboration on music and lyrics between artists of such magnitude.
The most provocative look at race relations came from the pen of Yip Harburg, who, in 1947’s “Finian’s Rainbow,” turned racism on its head, or more accurately, inside out. The show, which featured lilting words and music by Harburg and Burton Lane, was set in the mythical Deep Southern state of Missitucky. One of the subplots concerns a local racist senator (the papers at the time were filled with the real thing) who is turned into a black man, through a bit of misplaced Celtic magic. The senator’s journey to enlightenment — he is forced to sing along with two black men in a traveling gospel troupe — makes for a wickedly satirical second act, but, sadly, the blackface requirements of the role, whatever the critical intentions, have kept a wonderful score off the boards for nearly four decades.
While the increased employment possibilities for African-American performers were definitely appreciated, the roles themselves — often menials or exotics — were less so, especially since they were written by whites. Facing criticism from black performers and political organizations, writers almost completely stopped creating black roles by the early 1950s. Although they would do so separately, Rodgers and Hammerstein — two men with impeccable liberal credentials — never wrote a part for a black actor during their entire collaboration; that is not a criticism but an observation. The civil rights movement that would so consume the country by the late 1950s was, with a few exceptions in the early 1960s, completely ignored by the Broadway musical. The explosion of shows that brought blacks back to Broadway — on stage — during the late 1940s dissipated as quickly as it had begun. Such a concentration of talent wouldn’t be seen again for nearly 30 years.
Photo credits: Photofest, the Rodgers & Hammerstein Organization, National Archives & Records Administration, and the Library of Congress, and Harburg, and Culver Pictures
by Laurence Maslon
Richard Rodgers with Diahann Carroll, the star of his musical "No Strings."
Throughout the country in the early 1960s, the issues of civil rights — voter’s rights and voter registration for blacks, integration, and fairness and equality in the workplace — were in the news and on television nearly every day, but mostly absent on Broadway. In 1962, Richard Rodgers produced the first musical he had attempted since the death of Oscar Hammerstein II, in 1960, an original piece called “No Strings,” for which he would write both the lyrics and the music. Set in contemporary Paris, “No Strings” was about a love affair between an expatriate writer and a fashion model. The model, an American, was played by Diahann Carroll, an exquisite and talented black actress and singer, who had made her Broadway debut in 1954. Although the interracial aspect of the romance was apparent to anyone who was watching, it was never mentioned specifically; Rodgers had Carroll’s character refer to her growing up “north of Central Park.” Well, so had Richard Rodgers, but clearly he meant something else. A show that looked to be socially progressive appeared, upon reflection, to be finicky at best, cowardly at worst.
Producer Hillard Elkins had an obsession with signing Sammy Davis, Jr. to a Broadway contract. It wasn’t the craziest idea in the world; Davis, one of the biggest nightclub and concert attractions of the 1960s, had starred in a 1956 Broadway musical called “Mr. Wonderful,” a semirevue about — imagine that — a talented, young, black nightclub singer, dancer, and impressionist. Elkins caught up with Davis in London and dangled the prospect of adapting Clifford Odets’ 1937 play “Golden Boy” into a musical. The original play was one of the depression era’s great dramas, about a boxer who in his quest for ambition loses his soul — and his life. It would be a serious musical and, in signing Davis, Elkins determined that it would not only be updated but also reflect the struggles of an ambitious young black man in America. The songwriting team of Charles Strouse and Lee Adams were signed, and Odets himself came out of semiretirement to adapt the book.
Sammy Davis, Jr. in "Golden Boy."
As “Golden Boy” moved toward its 1964 opening, the project began to accommodate its star and, more compellingly, its times. Davis’ character was originally called Joe Bonaparte, a poor Italian American, the son of immigrants with a disapproving brother who works as a labor organizer. Here, in one of the show’s rare bits of whimsy, he’s renamed Joe Wellington, a Harlem resident, whose brother now works for CORE (the Congress of Racial Equality). Strouse and Adams provided a score that banked heavily and effectively on urban jazz. One of Davis’ nine numbers (nine numbers, plus a prize fight at the show’s climax, is an unfathomably large load for a performer — even Davis) has him returning as a success to his old neighborhood. In a funky gospel number, Davis and his cohorts mock both white attitudes and George M. Cohan:
Don’t forget One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street —
Don’t forget your happy Harlem home!
Don’t forget One Hundred and Twenty-seventh Street —
No, siree! There’s no slum like your own!
Don’t forget the cultural life on this here street —
Richer than the outside world suspects!
Hark! The cheerful patter of all the junkies’ feet —
And the soothing tones of Malcolm X!
It was undoubtedly the first time a Broadway audience had heard Malcolm X mentioned in a show. Even better, it was the first time an audience had been confronted with anger, real anger, in a musical for a long time. The social and political frustration in “Golden Boy” — its hero asks, “Who do you fight/When you want to break out/But your skin is your cage?” — brought the anger of the musicals of the 1930s to the issue of civil rights.
In the original, Joe has a doomed love affair with the mistress of his manager, Lorna. In 1964, the woman was still the mistress of the manager, but now she was white. The kiss between Joe and Lorna in Act Two sent off shock waves during the show’s tryouts.
Sammy Davis, Jr. as prize-fighter Joe Wellington with Paula Wayne, playing Lorna Moon.
Although its tryouts were troubled by other creative issues, “Golden Boy” eventually opened as a slick, stark, well-intentioned piece of Broadway craftsmanship, with a dynamite, once-in-a-lifetime performance by Davis at its center. Despite its ethical message, the show still wowed audiences for its sheer performance quality, and Elkins insulated Davis and the company from the various death threats and other hostilities leveled against the musical. Soon after the opening, Martin Luther King Jr. came to see it. He admired its message, particularly a number called “No More”:
Well, you had your way! No more! Well, it ain’t your day No more! Well, I’m standing up, I ain’t on the floor. I ain’t bowin’ down No more!
The early ’70s saw the emergence of several shows where the creative staff and the cast were predominately African American. There were nonlinear musicals that put the urban black experience front and center, like Melvin van Peebles’ “Ain’t Supposed to Die a Natural Death” (1971), with its undercurrent of social protest, and Vinette Carroll’s more celebratory “Don’t Bother Me, I Can’t Cope” (1972), both nurtured by the Black Arts movement. There were more traditional adaptations of earlier black plays, such as “Purlie” (1970), which launched the careers of Cleavon Little and Melba Moore, and “Raisin” (1973), a version of Lorraine Hansberry’s groundbreaking “A Raisin in the Sun.” “Purlie” and “Raisin” achieved a measure of commercial and critical success, but the show’s writers were a mixture of whites and blacks.
André De Shields as The Wiz.
The first completely black mainstream musical of the 1970s came from a time-honored source, THE WIZARD OF OZ. A black producer in New York, Ken Harper, saw the possibilities of reinventing the story in a manner that would access the popularity of Motown, SOUL TRAIN, Afrocentric fashion, and the black urban movies that were developing a greater crossover audience across the country in the early part of the decade. He hired a black composer/lyricist named Charlie Smalls (who, tragically, died soon after the show opened) and got the film company 20th Century Fox to put up the $650,000 investment. “Ease on Down the Road” became the show’s infectious theme, as Dorothy and her three friends ventured forth to see “The Wiz,” but the musical’s tryouts on the real-life road were anything but easy. When it arrived on Broadway at the very beginning of 1975, it met with apathy from the largely white critical community and was on the verge of closing.
Producer Harper bypassed the traditional press campaign to advertise the show and turned directly to the television audience, with a joyous, bubbly commercial aimed — rather unsubtly — at getting black seven-year-olds to ask their parents to “ease on down the road” called Broadway. Coupled with word of mouth and the black community’s skill at organizing theater parties and group sales, the television commercial turned “The Wiz” into a “wow.” It ran 1,672 performances, followed by an immensely successful national tour. There was now a black audience for Broadway shows, an audience that, THE NEW YORK TIMES wrote in 1975, “the white theater establishment has for years been saying did not exist.”
It seemed possible now for black and white audiences to revel in the glories of African-American culture from earlier in the century, and a plethora of revues brought the black music of the 1920s and ’30s to the Broadway stage for the first time since the music first appeared. “Bubbling Brown Sugar” relived the experience of the Harlem Renaissance in 1976, followed by “Ain’t Misbehavin'” in 1978, which was so expert at bringing Fats Waller’s music to the public through an amusing, talented cast of five that it won the Tony Award® for Best Musical. Eubie Blake had his moment in the spotlight — literally, on stage at the age of 94, in “Eubie!” (1979), and Duke Ellington’s song catalogue was elegantly staged as “Sophisticated Ladies” in 1981.
Photo credits: Photofest
by Laurence Maslon
Gerome Ragni and James Rado.
For the first 50 years of its existence, the music of Broadway was the music of America, but beginning in 1954, a schism grew between Broadway and commercially popular music. That year, Bill Haley and the Comets released a single for Decca called “Rock Around the Clock,” with a heavy backbeat and an electric guitar solo. When it was used to represent disaffected youth in the soundtrack for THE BLACKBOARD JUNGLE, the song became the anthem for an era, selling two million copies by the end of 1955. Rock ‘n’ roll so dominated the times that, by 1957, every entry in BILLBOARD’s Top Ten was a rock song. Rock spoke to youth, it was about youth, and served as the seminal wedge in popular culture to create a divide between parents and children. After the Beatles landed in America in early 1964, the dominance of youth became complete — their singles soon occupied the top five places on the BILLBOARD charts. (They were temporarily unseated by Louis Armstrong’s rendition of “Hello, Dolly!,” which, in a brief paroxysm of revolt from the old folks, reclaimed the number-one spot.) What it came down to, by 1967, was that Broadway was “your parents’ music,” which gave young audiences yet another excuse for ignoring it. The show that brought rock music to Broadway was born downtown at the eastern fringes of Greenwich Village, at the Public Theatre, which was run by the brazen and mercurial Joseph Papp. A couple of unemployed actors, Gerome Ragni and James Rado, cobbled together a musical script about life among the flower children in New York’s East Village. They found a Canadian composer named Galt MacDermot, who had worked in Africa but had never seen a Broadway show. Papp was enthusiastic when MacDermot’s eclectic score of hard rock, Motown, hymns, Indian ragas, and ballads was presented to him. Papp had to pick something provocative with which to open his theater in October of 1967; “Hair” seemed a reasonably unreasonable choice.
“Hair” didn’t have much of a plot; a young man named Claude, set loose among the “tribe” of young hippies in Washington Square, faces being drafted in the Vietnam War. What was far more compelling was the phantasmagoria that exploded around him. “Hair” was, in many ways, simply a revue, showing practically every aspect of the counterculture in a variety of musical styles, dance, and stage effects. In April 1968, “Hair” took the IRT to Broadway, ensconcing itself at the Biltmore Theater on West 47th Street. The show’s nudity was a first for a Broadway musical, as was its full rock score. Both intrigued potential customers, and “The American Tribal Love Rock Musical” — a subtitle coined as a gag — settled in for a run of 1,742 performances.
"Promises, Promises" poster.
The show’s rock score pleased critics of the Broadway sound, and soon some of its more accessible songs — “Aquarius,” “Hair,” and “Let the Sunshine In” — made it onto the pop charts (where they were most emphatically not covered by Perry Como and Rosemary Clooney). Eventually, a younger audience started coming to the show, intrigued by the music they found so compelling on the radio or the cast album. Would “Hair” be the musical savior of Broadway, dragging other scores kicking and screaming into the Age of Aquarius?
At the end of 1968, “Hair” found itself competing with a show that might have had an even more profound effect in renovating the sound of Broadway. When Burt Bacharach and Hal David were approached by David Merrick to score the musical version of Billy Wilder’s movie THE APARTMENT — “Promises, Promises” — they were, next to Lennon and McCartney, the most successful songwriters in pop music. With songs like “Walk on By,” “What the World Needs Now Is Love,” “The Look of Love,” and “This Guy’s in Love With You,” they had, in many ways, defined the American sound of romance in the 1960s; they were also excellent storytellers. Bacharach loved developing songs out of author Neil Simon’s narrative scheme, and he and David were challenged by writing for consistent characters and their emotions. The score itself was biting, tender, and impulsive, and practically shrieked with the sounds of contemporary Manhattan. Bacharach used a completely modern pop sound in the service of a narrative musical comedy.
Marvin Hamlisch with Michael Bennett during rehearsals for "A Chorus Line."
What he didn’t love was the lack of control that was part and parcel of the Broadway musical. “It used to drive me crazy,” he recalled. “There would be eight [substitute orchestra players], including the drummer. The impermanence of Broadway gets to you because everything shifts from night to night. If you’ve got a great take on a record, it’s there, it’s embedded forever.” The recording studios provided more comfort — artistically and financially — and Bacharach moved back to Palm Springs; to this date, he has not written another Broadway score. In his wake, the “contemporary” rock sound could be found instead in such shows as “Dude,” “Via Galactica,” “Sgt. Pepper,” and “Rockaby Hamlet” –all unsuccessful attempts in the early 1970s to put rock music at the service of a Broadway narrative.
More successful were the hybrid scores that used the backbeat of rock music or some of its electronic instrumentation to juice up a more conventional score. Marvin Hamlisch’s score for “A Chorus Line” (1975) used some of these effects, and Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice provided rock-tinged music for their British transfers of “Jesus Christ Superstar” (1971) and “Evita” (1979). In the form of the massively successful “pop operas” of the 1980s (several written by Lloyd Webber), accessible pop/rock rhythms supplanted pure rock and, for a while, the more familiar electric guitar riffs appearing on Broadway entranced a younger generation of theatergoers. But when these megahit scores began tapering off in the 1990s, Broadway producers desperately sought out new ways of capturing the Generation X audience.
Michael Cavanaugh in "Movin' Out."
For the first time, several big-name pop composers contributed scores to Broadway. Elton John made his Broadway debut, working with lyricist Tim Rice on the transfer of his film score for the stage version of “The Lion King” in 1997. When Disney offered John and Rice a chance to write a new version of Verdi’s opera “Aida” for Broadway, John applied his ebullient eclecticism to a score that he wrote at the amazingly fast rate of about one song per day: “It’s truly a pop musical, with spoken dialogue. There are black songs, very urban-based, rhythm and blues, gospel-inspired songs, and kind of ‘Crocodile Rock’ songs, and ballads, of course.”
The same season that John made his debut with “The Lion King,” another major figure in the pop world, from the 1970s, brought his first score to Broadway: Paul Simon. Critics had always invoked Simon’s name as a natural for Broadway, for his sense of narrative was extraordinary and his songs had already provided strong emotional backgrounds for several films. Simon’s Broadway project could not have been less conventional; it was based on the true story of a 16-year-old Puerto Rican gang member, dubbed “The Capeman,” who had stabbed two white kids in 1959. Simon’s look at urban history was both uncompromising and sympathetic, and he provided a breathtakingly wide-ranging score of gospel, doo-wop, Afro-Cuban bop, and Latin salsa tunes. But “The Capeman” lasted only two months, costing $11 million, and when it folded, it took with it one of the most thrilling scores written for a Broadway show in the last 20 years.
Desmond Richardson and Nancy Lemenager from "Movin' Out."
In 2000, choreographer Twyla Tharp wanted to create a large-scale theater piece, and she knew that the swinging narrative songs of Billy Joel held the answer. “He was clearly the best choice because he’s such a good storyteller,” Ms. Tharp said. ”There is rage in his music and guts in his songs. I’ve always known that his music dances.” Tharp created “Movin’ Out,” which tells the story of three Long Island friends and the girls they leave behind during and after the Vietnam War. “Movin’ Out” is performed unconventionally — the show’s large corps of dancers move through the narrative to the live accompaniment of 30 Billy Joel songs performed by a single singer and a back-up band. Although the show hit some shoals on its way in from Chicago, it opened in New York in the fall of 2002 to ecstatic reviews.
But, as became immediately apparent to musicians like Bacharach, John, and Simon, a Broadway collaboration is a very different prospect from a date in the recording studio. Not only do rock and pop composers have to stretch their narrative range to cover songs that work together over the course of an evening, they have to surrender to the grueling politics and unpredictability that go into creating a Broadway show. Broadway babies are born, not made.
Jonathan Larson, however, was a Broadway baby. He grew up in suburban Westchester and was taken by his parents to see “Fiddler on the Roof” and “1776,” yet avidly followed the concerts and recordings of Billy Joel and Elton John. In the late 1980s, he began writing the book, music, and lyrics to a musical update of Puccini’s “La Bohème,” relocated to Alphabet City in the East Village, an area he knew well; it was, indeed, the cutting-edge epicenter of bohemianism. The ambitious score to “Rent,” as the project was now called, required Larson to orchestrate gospel numbers, hymns, tangos, patter songs, and character songs, all to a rock beat.
The late composer and lyricist of "Rent," Jonathan Larson.
All signs pointed to “Rent” as the logical successor to the ambitions of “Hair” in the days before it opened downtown at the New York Theatre Workshop Off Broadway. Larson died suddenly after the final dress rehearsal, at the age of 35, due to an untreated aortic aneurysm. His death created the biggest Off-Broadway sensation since “A Chorus Line” opened at the Public Theater more than 20 years earlier. But all the publicity would have meant nothing if audiences and critics hadn’t liked “Rent.” They loved it and, within months, the show transferred to Broadway and won the Tony for Best Musical and Best Score, and ultimately, the Pulitzer Prize.
Since its transfer in 1996, it has run more than 3,500 performances and, even better, attracted a new, younger audience to Broadway, just the way Larson wanted. It’s surprising, absent Larson’s consultation, that the Broadway producers of “Rent” decided to grab a youthful audience by promoting the show as something anarchic, hard-edged, and raw — the very antithesis of “Pippin” (one of Larson’s favorite shows). “Don’t you hate the word ‘Musical’?” read the ad campaign. Larson’s death only complicated the debate about rock scores on Broadway — someone else came along and brought the two together again. Composer Marvin Hamlisch puts the dilemma in the right context:
I have my own thoughts about Broadway and “the Broadway sound” — there’s been a lot of discussion about “Rent” and shows like that with the “rock sound.” … I think rock ‘n’ roll is wonderful and is here to stay, and we’ll have those kinds of shows, but they’re rock shows. Sometimes a good coat that’s been there a long time is better than the brand new one that you have to break in, so I don’t know how far Broadway can take it, how far we can move the envelope.
Photo credits: Photofest, the New York Public Library, Martha Swope, Triton Gallery (© Disney), Joan Marcus, and the Larson family
by Laurence Maslon
There’s something about New York City mayors and Broadway musicals that makes them go together. Irving Berlin spoofed City Hall in his 1932 “Face the Music” and Peter Stuyvesant, Jimmy Walker, Fiorello La Guardia, and Edward Koch each became lead characters in Broadway musicals (technically, Koch was Off Broadway).
An aerial view of Times Square.
But it took until March 23, 1973 for an actual New York mayor to appear on the boards. For one evening, John V. Lindsay, nearing the end of his tenure, sang “My City” — a backhanded paean to the charms of New York — in a performance of Cy Coleman’s “Seesaw,” because of his ostensible resemblance to the show’s star, Ken Howard. Broadway seemed to like Lindsay, and he considered himself a patron of the arts. But Lindsay’s interest in reclaiming Times Square had far more to do with increasing tax revenue than with artistic patronage of the theater. His desire to encourage development in the theater district would spin out, over the next 30 years, into a strange and tangled confluence of politics, economics, public relations, greed, and ego, where alliances shifted constantly and decisions made in City Hall conference rooms could affect the scenic design of a Broadway show.
Times Square at night.
Lindsay’s most complicated artistic legacy came under the guise of “tax abatements”: financial incentives to encourage investment and development in the Times Square area. The abatements allowed developers to build new office buildings in exchange for huge tax breaks from the city. One provision forced the developer to add a theater on the ground floor of a new building as part of the deal, and in the 1970s, the Minskoff, the Uris (later renamed the Gershwin), and the renovated Circle in the Square were added to the Broadway landscape, the first new theaters built since the beginning of the depression. Unfortunately, they were cheerless and charmless, and Times Square got seedier and sleazier; when dire financial straits hit the city in the late 1970s, they brought an end to this brief period of redevelopment. By 1977, even the famous “zipper” sign that spun out headlines along the Times Tower for 50 years had turned out its lights.
When Atlanta hotel magnate John Portman had contacted City Hall in the late ’70s about building a multistory hotel on Broadway, between 45th and 46th streets, Mayor Ed Koch put the project on a fast track.
Now, this area in the ’70s was a sewer. This was the den of pornography, prostitution, felony crime, drug dealing — you name it. And along came Marriott in about 1973 and they wanted to build a new hotel here. Well, that hotel was advocated by everybody in this business, including us. We thought it represented a major signal that the area was alive and well, and so did everybody else.
— Gerald Schoenfeld, the Shubert Organization
The peep shows and porn theaters that lined the streets of Times Square.
But the construction of the Marriott necessitated the razing of five theaters (including two beloved by the theater community — the Morosco and the Helen Hayes) on that block, a decision that would obsess and polarize the community for years. Despite many protests and several court stays, the demolition began on March 22, 1982, and the Marriott Marquis, as it came to be called, is today the most successful hotel in America.
None of these maneuvers helped 42nd Street itself. By 1990, however, under the new administration of David Dinkins, an organization called the New 42 was constituted to try to resurrect the street one more time. The New 42 put its energy into remaking the area into a center for legitimate theater, something it hadn’t been since before the depression. The Victory Theater, now an abandoned wreck, had begun life in 1900 as the Theatre Republic, eventually turning into both a burlesque house and, later, a porn theater. The New 42 wanted to transform it into — of all things — a theater for young audiences. As plans for that began in 1992, focus turned to the New Amsterdam at the corner of 42nd Street and Seventh Avenue, Ziegfeld’s grand aerie. Defunct as a legitimate theater since 1937, the New Amsterdam too had suffered the depredations of decay, neglect, and specious tenants.
The New Amsterdam had been dangled in front of developers and producers for years by the city, but no one had the courage to seal the deal. But after the success of the stage version of “Beauty and the Beast” in 1992, the CEO of the Walt Disney Company, Michael Eisner, was intrigued at the possibility of finding a theatrical venue that Disney could own, rather than relying on renting from other theater owners. A chance meeting on an airplane with New 42 chairperson Marian Heiskell convinced Eisner to take a look at the ruins of Ziegfeld’s temple for himself.
The New Amsterdam Theater.
In April 1993, Eisner began a series of cautious and elaborate negotiations with the city to restore and rent the New Amsterdam. The cost would be an extensive $32 million, with $24 million covered by the city in the form of loans that were extremely advantageous to Disney; the company itself committed $8 million, with a carefully monitored schedule of overages. The terms of the lease would extend for 49 years. For reporters, critics, and mavens, the idea of Mickey Mouse on 42nd Street was a hilarious irony. For Eisner, it was a business decision fraught with catastrophic risk: what would it mean for a brand name of such wholesome family values to set up shop on the most decadent city block in the western world? He spoke with the new mayor, Rudolph Giuliani, who had made his career as a federal prosecutor crusading against the mob.
I had a little concern about the adjacent nightlife, and he [Giuliani] looked me in the eye and he said, “It’ll be gone,” and I said, “Mr. Mayor, you know there is the American Civil Liberties Union, and I mean, they’re just not gone.” He said, “Look me in the eye.” And I said, “What?” He said, “Look me in the eye.” I said, “Okay.” He said, “They will be gone.” Scared me. I guess[ed] they were going to be gone. So that was that, and we said yes.
— Michael Eisner
Disney’s announcement that it would go ahead with the renovation of the New Amsterdam in the winter of 1994 opened the floodgates of redevelopment, just the way New 42 intended. By the end of 1995, the New Victory Theater for young audiences, beautifully restored, had opened. Even more remarkably, there was a cappuccino bar next door. Retail outlets began to sign leases in the Times Square area, new bright and elaborate electronic signage began appearing in the theater district for the first time since the beginning of World War II, and several business and communications firms announced plans to build new offices on or adjacent to West 42nd Street. Even the “zipper” was back, courtesy of NEW YORK NEWSDAY.
In the fall of 1997, Disney opened “The Lion King” at the New Amsterdam, the first new musical there since Sigmund Romberg’s “Forbidden Melody” in 1936. The show got wildly enthusiastic reviews, as did the theater itself, the result of a loving four-year restoration masterminded by architect Hugh Hardy. Later that year, the Ford Motor Co., as a corporate sponsor, paid for the massive renovation of the Lyric and Apollo theaters, which merged the two defunct spaces into one enormous musical house. In 1998, the Ford Center for the Performing Arts debuted with the musical version of “Ragtime.” That same year, the Empire Theatre on 42nd Street, which had housed musicals and burlesque shows, was physically rolled by engineers 168 feet farther west to begin life again as the 25-theater AMC multiplex. The renovation of the Selwyn Theater as the American Airlines Theatre (a home for the Roundabout Theater Company) and the addition of a multistudio rehearsal space next door burnished the transformation of the new 42nd Street.
There are moments in its history when the theater district is rudely awakened to the fact that it sits on some of the most desirable real estate in the free world. In 2004, you can exit the revival of “42nd Street” at the Ford Center and walk right onto the real 42nd Street. The show sings of “naughty, bawdy, gaudy, sporty 42nd Street,” but the real thing is one of the most artfully developed urban centers in America.
Photo credits: Photofest; Nils Hanson; Peter Tierney (© Disney); the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Historic American Buildings Survey or Historic American Engineering Record (HABS, NY,31-NEYO,91-1); the Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, Gottscho-Schleisner Collection (LC-USZC4-4736 DLC); and Corel.
| i don't know |
Julia Gillard is the current Prime Minister of which country ? | Julia Gillard | World news | The Guardian
browse all sections close
Julia Gillard
Julia Gillard is a former Australian politician who was country's 27th prime minister and the leader of the Australian Labor party. She was the first woman to hold either position
December 2016
Academic review of 2016 federal election warns trend of dissatisfaction with politicians should be seen as ‘wake up call’
Published: 20 Dec 2016
Jeff Sparrow
Published: 17 Nov 2016
Unlike Julia Gillard, Hillary Clinton will inherit an electorate incredibly alive to sexism
Kristina Keneally
Australia didn’t stand up for our first female leader when sexism reared its ugly head. Thanks to Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton might avoid the same fate
Published: 25 Oct 2016
Former PM says female politicians will face sexism and misogyny but must ‘face it and ultimately eradicate it’
Published: 12 Oct 2016
Commonwealth v states: Gonski schoolyard fight is just getting started
Gabrielle Chan
Education minister Simon Birmingham has to convince Senate crossbench to change the Education Act, while also appeasing the Coalition backbench
Published: 23 Sep 2016
Former prime minister hits out at broadcaster during an interview in the Atlantic about the ‘age of public misogyny’
Published: 19 Aug 2016
Former prime minister writes in New York Times that ‘every person who believes women and men are equal should call out any sexism’
Published: 27 Jul 2016
With polls suggesting a very close election result, the personal vote of Coalition MPs could give Malcolm Turnbull’s government the edge over Labor
Published: 1 Jul 2016
Despite passing 92.8% of its bills, the government complains the Senate is obstructionist. But analysis shows the Coalition’s problems have been of its own making – and things aren’t about to improve
Published: 27 Jun 2016
The more the Liberals flounder, the more credible an Abbott comeback seems
Jeff Sparrow
A Tony Abbott return to Liberal leadership seems far-fetched until you consider the political landscape that enabled the Rudd-Gillard-Rudd melodrama
Published: 30 May 2016
For 15 years activist Van T Rudd, nephew of the former PM, has been collecting used forks from the world’s most powerful
Published: 26 Apr 2016
The former prime minister of Australia has recently taken on another girls’ education role. She says the battle for equality fuels her work
Published: 10 Mar 2016
How much can you remember about politicians on supermarket-related business?
Published: 13 Jan 2016
Commission recommends a new body to stamp out corruption and refers former HSU national secretary Kathy Jackson and Victorian AWU secretary Cesar Melhem for possible prosecution
Published: 29 Dec 2015
Former prime minister backs the Democrat candidate and warns against her rivals’ ‘cheap and easy statements’ about complex foreign policy
Published: 16 Dec 2015
Malcolm Turnbull's big test in an age of coup culture and disenchantment
Katharine Murphy
As the drumbeat of discontent grows louder, politics is increasingly becoming a complicated and messy affair – just ask Julia Gillard and Tony Abbott
Published: 11 Dec 2015
| Australia |
In the British and American armies, what rank is between a General and a Major-General ? | Muslims Out of Australia! : snopes.com
Muslims Out of Australia!
Claim: Article compiles statements from Australian government officials about Sharia law and Muslim extremists.
MIXTURE
[Collected via e-mail, 2005]
Muslims Out of Australia!
CANBERRA AUSTRALIA: Muslims who want to live under Islamic Sharia law were told on Wednesday to get out of Australia, as the government targeted radicals in a bid to head off potential terror attacks. A day after a group of mainstream Muslim leaders pledged loyalty to Australia at a special meeting with Prime Minister John Howard, he and his ministers made it clear that extremists would face a crackdown.
Treasurer Peter Costello, seen as heir apparent to Howard, hinted that some radical clerics could be asked to leave the country if they did not accept that australia was a secular state and its laws were made by parliament. "If those are not your values, if you want a country which has Sharia law or a theocratic state, then Australia is not for you," he said on national television. "I'd be saying to clerics who are teaching that there are two laws governing people in Australia, one the Australian law and another the Islamic law, that is false.
If you can't agree with parliamentary law, independent courts, democracy, and would prefer Sharia law and have the opportunity to go to other country which practices it, perhaps, then, that's a better option," Costello said. Asked whether he meant radical clerics would be forced to leave, he said those with dual citizenship could possibly be asked to move to the other country.
Education Minister Brendan Nelson later told reporters that Muslims who did not want to accept local values should "clear off". "Basically, people who don't want to be Australians, and they don't want to live by Australian values and understand them, well then they can basically clear off," he said. Separately, Howard angered some Australian Muslims on Wednesday by saying he supported spy agencies monitoring the nation's mosques.
Variations: A January 2008 variant combined elements of this piece with a 2001 editorial about immigrants written by a
U.S. Air
Force veteran, creating the misleading impression that the hybrid version reflected a speech given by Australian prime minister John Howard. A February 2009 variant attributed the entire combined version to Kevin Rudd, who succeeded John Howard as Australia's prime minister in 2007, and a 2010 variant attributed elements of both to Julia Gillard, who succeeded Kevin Rudd in June 2010.
Origins: The July 2005 London Tube bombings raised domestic terrorism concerns in countries with large immigrant Muslim populations, such as Australia. The following month, Australian prime minister John Howard held a
two-hour
summit with moderate Muslim leaders in Canberra to work on a national strategy for addressing intolerance and the promotion of violence, during which issues such as the curriculum of Islamic schools and suggested measures for vetting imams were discussed. The Christian Science Monitor noted of the event:
As other governments have found, however, deciding who represents the Muslim community can be a delicate matter. Large sections of the youth, as well as conservative and more critical clerics, have been left out of Howard's
summit — meaning
some of the government's more aggressive proposals may meet resistance.
But the groups who attended the meeting hailed it as a successful first step in an ongoing dialogue.
"We determined along with the prime minister that there must be more communication between the government and Islamic schools where it comes to teaching common values like democracy, fairness, tolerance and so on, and radicals will be reacted to, whenever they make inflammatory
remarks," says Ali Roude, the acting president of the New South Wales Islamic Council.
"It's much worse for us now, because 7/7 showed the world that the enemy is to be found within" instead of 9/11 when the terrorists were all foreigners [said the spokesperson for Lebanese Muslims in Australia]. "Now they are suspicious of all of us, and it's very serious, but the prime minister is only playing politics."
But some Muslims here have a growing sense that they are being defined within the media by the voices of the extremists, and that an intervention by the government and moderate Muslims to counter such elements would be useful.
"So far it was OK to do your own thing. But if the media is focusing on the extreme elements, we need to do something about it," says Chabaan Omran, a senior member of the Federation of Australian Students and Youth, an organization that gives religious advice and teaching to young people. "Muslims need to interact more with mainstream Australia."
This might sit well with recent calls from ordinary Australians asking Muslims to assimilate. But
Mr. Omran
is worried about the connotations of the word "assimilate," and talks more of "positive integration without undermining our religion."
Prime Minister Howard also publicly announced his intent to have Australian intelligence agencies target mosques and Islamic schools in an effort to "stamp out homegrown terrorism and extremists":
Prime Minister John Howard said on top of trying to promote Australian values in Islamic schools, the Government would monitor what was said in certain schools and mosques to ensure they did not foster terrorism.
Asked whether he was prepared to "get inside" mosques and schools to ensure there was no support for terrorism,
Mr Howard
was blunt.
"Yes, to the extent necessary," Mr Howard told Southern Cross radio.
"I have no desire and nor is it the Government's intention to interfere in any way with the freedom or practice of religion.
"We have a right to know whether there is, within any section of the Islamic community, a preaching of the virtues of terrorism, whether any comfort or harbour is given to terrorism within that community."
The issue of the integration of Muslims into Australian society prompted controversial remarks by some Australian cabinet ministers, such as this exchange between Treasurer Peter Costello and host Tony Jones on the Lateline television news program on
23 August
2005:
TONY JONES: Now, over the past 24 hours you've been repeating the notion that migrants, evidently Islamic migrants, who don't like Australia, or Australian values, should think of packing up and moving to another country. Is that a fair assessment?
PETER COSTELLO: What I've said is that this is a country, which is founded on a democracy. According to our Constitution, we have a secular state. Our laws are made by the Australian Parliament. If those are not your values, if you want a country which has Sharia law or a theocratic state, then Australia is not for you. This is not the kind of country where you would feel comfortable if you were opposed to democracy, parliamentary law, independent courts and so I would say to people who don't feel comfortable with those values there might be other countries where they'd feel more comfortable with their own values or beliefs.
TONY JONES: It sounds like you're inviting Muslims who don't want to integrate to go to another country. Is it as simple as that?
PETER COSTELLO: No. I'm saying if you are thinking of coming to Australia, you ought to know what Australian values are.
TONY JONES: But what about if you're already here and you don't want to integrate?
PETER COSTELLO: Well, I'll come to that in a moment. But there are some clerics who have been quoted as saying they recognise two laws. They recognise Australian law and Sharia law. There's only one law in Australia, it's the Australian law. For those coming to Australia, I think we ought to be very clear about that. We expect them to recognise only one law and to observe it.
Now, for those who are born in Australia, I'd make the same point. This is a country which has a Constitution. Under its Constitution, the state is secular. Under its constitution, the law is made by the parliament. Under its Constitution, it's enforced by the judiciary. These are Australian values and they're not going to change and we would expect people, when they come to Australia or if they are born in Australia, to respect those values.
TONY JONES: I take it that if you're a dual citizen and you have the opportunity to leave and you don't like Australian values, you're encouraging them to go away; is that right?
PETER COSTELLO: Well, if you can't agree with parliamentary law, independent courts, democracy and would prefer Sharia law and have the opportunity to go to another country which practises it, perhaps then that's a better option.
TONY JONES: But isn't this the sort of thing you hear in pubs, the meaningless populism you hear on talkback radio? Essentially, the argument is if you don't like it here, you should go back home.
PETER COSTELLO: No. Essentially, the argument is Australia expects its citizens to abide by core
beliefs — democracy,
the rule of law, the independent judiciary, independent liberty. You see, Tony, when you come to Australia and you go to take out Australian citizenship you either swear on oath or make an affirmation that you respect Australia's democracy and its values. That's what we ask of people that come to Australia and if they don't, then it's very clear that this is not the
country — if
they can't live with
them — whose
values they can't share. Well, there might be another country where their values can be shared.
TONY JONES: Who exactly are you aiming this at? Are you aiming it at young Muslims who don't want to integrate or are you aiming it at clerics like Sheikh Omran or Abu Bakr both from Melbourne?
PETER COSTELLO: I'd be saying to clerics who are teaching that there are two laws governing people in Australia, one the Australian law and another the Islamic law, that that is false. It's not the situation in Australia. It's not the situation under our Constitution. There's only one law in Australia. It's the law that's made by the Parliament of Australia and enforced by our courts. There's no second law. There's only one law that applies in Australia and Australia expects its citizens to observe it.
Likewise, Education minister
Dr. Brendan
Nelson offered his opinion that those who do not accept and teach Australian values should leave the country:
Dr Nelson says those who do not accept and teach Australian values should "clear off".
One of the recommendations at Prime Minister John Howard's terrorism summit was for Islamic schools to be encouraged to denounce extremism and teach about Australian traditions and culture.
The Minister says it is important for all groups to be integrated into the Australian community, whatever their religion.
"If you want to be an Australian, if you want to raise your children in Australia, we fully expect those children to be taught and to accept Australian values and beliefs," he said.
"We want them to understand our history and our culture, the extent to which we believe in mateship and giving another person a fair go, and basically if people don't want to support and accept and adopt and teach Australian values then, they should clear off."
The individual statements attributed to Australian government officials included in the
e-mail
reproduced at the head of this page are thus essentially accurate, but the selectively-quoted excerpts of controversial material from different news stories create the misleading overall impression that Australia enacted a formal policy to force some Muslim groups out of the country. The statements quoted were part of the public debate over an issue that flared briefly in the immediate aftermath of the London Tube bombings, then quietly subsided.
Subsequent versions of this item have been altered to replace the names of out-of-office politicians with their modern counterparts (e.g., Kevin Rudd for John Howard, Julia Gillard for Kevin Rudd), thereby attributing words and thoughts to people who did not express them.
Last updated: 4 January 2013
Sources:
| i don't know |
Which Monty Python film features the exploding Mr Creosote ? | The Meaning of Life (10/11) Movie CLIP - Mr. Creosote Blows (1983) HD - YouTube
The Meaning of Life (10/11) Movie CLIP - Mr. Creosote Blows (1983) HD
Want to watch this again later?
Sign in to add this video to a playlist.
Need to report the video?
Sign in to report inappropriate content.
The interactive transcript could not be loaded.
Loading...
Rating is available when the video has been rented.
This feature is not available right now. Please try again later.
Published on Jun 16, 2011
The Meaning of Life movie clips: http://j.mp/15vNO1x
BUY THE MOVIE: http://amzn.to/ru1ruR
Don't miss the HOTTEST NEW TRAILERS: http://bit.ly/1u2y6pr
CLIP DESCRIPTION:
Monsieur Creosote (Terry Jones) underestimates his stomach when his waiter (John Cleese) offers him a parting mint.
FILM DESCRIPTION:
The Meaning of Life is without a doubt the most tasteless of the Monty Python feature films; it also happens to be one of the funniest. Life's questions are "answered" in a series of outrageous vignettes, beginning with a pre-credits sequence at a staid London insurance company which transforms before our eyes into a pirate ship. One of our favorite bits involve the National Health doctors who try to claim a healthy liver from a still-living donor, pointing out that there's nothing in his contract preventing this. And of course, there's the scene with the world's most voracious glutton, who brings the art of vomiting to new heights before his spectacular demise. Be warned: though hilarious, this may be the grossest bit of comedy filmmaking ever conceived (there aren't enough words in the world to describe it in detail!). Loyal Pythonites Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones and Michael Palin star in The Meaning of Life and share writing responsibilities, while Jones is in the director's chair this time out.
CREDITS:
Cast: John Cleese, Terry Jones
Directors: Terry Gilliam, Terry Jones
Producer: John Goldstone
Screenwriters: Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Terry Gilliam, Eric Idle, Terry Jones, Michael Palin
WHO ARE WE?
The MOVIECLIPS channel is the largest collection of licensed movie clips on the web. Here you will find unforgettable moments, scenes and lines from all your favorite films. Made by movie fans, for movie fans.
SUBSCRIBE TO OUR MOVIE CHANNELS:
| Meaning of life (disambiguation) |
Clara Petacci was the mistress of which dictator ? | Amazon.com: Monty Python's The Meaning of Life: Graham Chapman, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam, Michael Palin, Terry Jones, John Goldstone: Movies & TV
Monty Python's The Meaning of Life
DVD
Graham Chapman (Actor, Writer), John Cleese (Actor, Writer) Rated:
R
Unlimited Streaming with Amazon Prime Start your 30-day free trial to stream thousands of movies & TV shows included with Prime. Start your free trial
See all buying options
$7.99 Free Shipping for Prime Members | Fast, FREE Shipping with Amazon Prime In Stock. Ships from and sold by Amazon.com. Gift-wrap available.
Frequently Bought Together
Add all three to Cart
Add all three to List
Buy the selected items together
This item:Monty Python's The Meaning of Life by Graham Chapman DVD $7.99
In Stock.
Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
FREE Shipping on orders over $49. Details
Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
FREE Shipping on orders over $49. Details
Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
FREE Shipping on orders over $49. Details
Customers Who Bought This Item Also Bought
Page 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1
This shopping feature will continue to load items. In order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading.
Page 1 of 1 Start over
Sponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.
To learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .
Ad feedback
Special Offers and Product Promotions
Your cost could be $0.00 instead of $7.99! Get a $50 Amazon.com Gift Card instantly upon approval for the Amazon Rewards Visa Card Apply now
Editorial Reviews
Those six pandemonium-mad Pythons are back with their craziest adventure ever! John Cleese, Graham Chapman, Terry Jones, Eric Idle, Terry Gilliam and Michael Palin have returned to explain The Meaning of Life. These naughty Brits offer the usual tasteful sketches involving favorite body parts and bodily functions, the wonders of war, the miracle of birth and a special preview of what's waiting for us in Heaven. Nothing is too sacred for the probing Python crew. You'll never look at life in quite the same way again. Time pronounces it "an exhilarating experience!" Newsweek agrees, calling it, "the best movie from England's satirical sextet." Winner of the 1983 Cannes Film Festival's Special Jury Award.
Special Features
Feature Commentary with Terry Jones and Terry Gilliam
Soundtrack for the Lonely
Format: Multiple Formats, AC-3, Color, Dolby, DTS Surround Sound, Dubbed, NTSC, Subtitled, Widescreen
Language: English (Dolby Digital 5.1), English (DTS 5.1), French (Dolby Digital 2.0 Stereo)
Subtitles: Spanish, French
Region: Region 1 (U.S. and Canada only. Read more about DVD formats. )
Aspect Ratio: 1.85:1
Studio: Universal Studios Home Entertainment
DVD Release Date: August 23, 2005
Run Time: 108 minutes
Page 1 of 1 Start over
Sponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.
To learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .
By A Customer on August 15, 1999
Format: VHS Tape
Seeing this movie for the first time when it came out back in 1982, I remember telling my friend, "This is the coolest movie ever!" Coming back to it, I can proudly say my feelings for it have not diminished one iota.Its detractors say, "It's disgusting!" Yes, it is. An impossibly fat man explodes in a miasma of viscera and puke. But if you take note of the personality of the character in question, you could look at it as the Pythonian equivalent of Karma.It's oppnents scream, "It's filthy". Bingo. A stuffy schoolmaster and his wife demonstrate coitus for a bored classroom of schoolboys during sex-education class. During the lesson, the teacher admonishes a student to pay attention. "After all, this is for your benefit," he chides. A man so cut off from his own emotions, that not even sex interests him on a personal level.Its nay-sayers chant, "It's blasphemous!" You betcha. In a production reminiscent of the ones in 'Oliver', a Catholic family, apparently numbering in the hundreds, sings "Every Sperm Is Sacred". Maybe so, but why is papa so anxious to sell them all off for medical experiments?Fans say, "It's clever". I defy anyone to find a more clever song in a movie than "The Universe Song", a hummable Cole-Porterish ditty containing a pocketful of useful factoids about this wonderful material plane which we call home.Python disciples say, "It rings true". It does for me. That's why I laugh so hard.The usual Python targets are all here, all to illustrate a very valuable point. I think it's something like: Life is really short, the world is a confusing mess, hypocrites and scoundrels are plentiful, stupidity is more plentiful than any other substance in the universe. Read more ›
| i don't know |
Which is the only London borough on both sides of the Thames ? | London Borough of Richmond upon Thames | London Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
London Borough of Richmond upon Thames
9,649pages on
57.41 km² (22.2 sq. mi.)
Population
The London Borough of Richmond upon Thames is a London borough in South West London, England, which forms part of Outer London.
Contents
Edit
It can been seen from a map that the borough is not entirely urbanised. There are some large areas of open space within the borough boundaries. The main suburban developments are Hampton and Teddington in the south, Twickenham , St Margarets and Whitton in the central area west of the River Thames and the Richmond- Kew - Mortlake - Barnes corridor across the loop of the river. It is the only London borough to straddle the Thames with districts on both sides of the river.
List of districts
Edit
Parks take up a great deal of the borough and include Richmond Park , Bushy Park , Kew Gardens , and Hampton Court Park . There are over 100 parks and open spaces within its boundary and 21mi of river frontage - five times more green and open space than any other London borough.
The borough is also home to the National Physical Laboratory and the attractions of Hampton Court Palace , Twickenham Stadium and the WWT London Wetlands Centre draw both domestic and international tourism.
In December 2006, Sport England published a survey which revealed that residents of the Richmond upon Thames were the 2nd most active in England in sports and other fitness activities. 29.8% of the population participate at least 3 times a week for 30 minutes. [2]
History
Edit
The borough was formed in 1965 by the merger of the Municipal Borough of Twickenham from Middlesex with the Municipal Borough of Richmond and the Municipal Borough of Barnes from Surrey; council offices were centred at York House in Twickenham. The name 'Richmond upon Thames' was coined at that time; it is now commonly but inaccurately used to refer to Richmond only.
| London Borough of Richmond upon Thames |
Which composer , when just 17, wrote the Overture A Midsummer Night's Dream ? | Richmond-upon-Thames - Credo Reference
Embedding articles is subject to our Terms of use .
[{"style":"mla","pubnonperiodical":{"title":"Topic Pages","city":"Boston","publisher":"Credo Reference Publisher Contributors","year":2017,"state":"MA"},"pubtype":{"main":"pubnonperiodical","suffix":"pubdatabase"},"pubdatabase":{"year":"2017","month":"January","day":"18","yearaccessed":"2017","monthaccessed":"January","dayaccessed":"18","service":"Credo Reference","db":"Credo Reference","searchtext":"http://search.credoreference.com/content/topic/richmond_upon_thames"},"source":"chapter","chapter":{"title":"Richmond-upon-Thames","type":"essay"}}]
Topic Page: Richmond-upon-Thames
Summary Article: Richmond-upon-Thames from The Hutchinson Unabridged Encyclopedia with Atlas and Weather Guide
Outer borough of southwest Greater London, the only London borough with land on both sides of the River Thames, including the districts of Kew, Teddington, Twickenham, and Hampton; population (2001) 172,300. Industries in the borough include brewing, printing, and electrical engineering.
Features of the borough include the Royal Botanic gardens at Kew; the Maids of Honour Row, Richmond (1724), a terrace of four houses for maids of honour attending the Princess of Wales; the gatehouse of the former Richmond Palace; and Richmond Theatre (1899). There are early 18th-century houses around Richmond Green. Richmond Park, 1,000 hectares/2,470 acres with 11 gates, is the largest urban park in Britain, enclosed by Charles I for hunting, with ancient oaks, deer, and contains White Lodge, the home of the Royal Ballet School. Other noteworthy buildings include Garrick's Villa, Hampton, acquired by David Garrick in 1754 and altered by Robert Adam; Old Court House, Hampton, the last home of Christopher Wren; Faraday House, Hampton, the home of Michael Faraday; Ham House, Petersham (1610), with a 17th-century garden; and Hampton Court Palace, begun by Thomas Wolsey in 1514. Bushy Park (acquired by Wolsey in 1514) contains Bushy House, built in 1665 and remodelled c. 1720, which houses the National Physical Laboratory. The highest tidal point of the River Thames can be found at Teddington. Twickenham Rugby football ground, headquarters of the Rugby Football Union, is found in the borough. Barnes Common; 18th- and 19th-century Barnes terrace, facing River Thames; Kneller Hall, Twickenham, home of the Royal Military School of Music, are also features of the area.
Famous people Virginia and Leonard Woolf set up the Hogarth Press here. Thomas Traherne and R D Blackmore lived in Teddington; Henry Fielding in Barnes.
Places of historical interest Richmond is a royal borough and Edward I built a palace here in the 13th century. It was rebuilt and enlarged by Henry VII, who held a tournament in Richmond in 1492. An archway, Wardrobe Court, and the Gatehouse are the only remains of the palace of Sheen, in which Edward III and Elizabeth I both died. Near these remains, forming one side of Richmond Green, is Maids of Honour Row, built to house the ladies of the court during George I's reign. Richmond Hill, on which Joshua Reynolds once lived, commands a famous view of the meadows, uplands, woods, and of the islands of the winding Thames, on whose bank the town stands. Reynolds and Joseph Turner are among the many artists to have painted this view. Richmond Park was enclosed as a hunting and pleasure ground by Charles I, and still shelters herds of wild deer. Edmund Kean, who leased Richmond Theatre (first established in 1719), is buried in the parish churchyard, as is the author of ‘The Seasons’, James Thomson. Ham House, built in 1610 by Sir Thomas Vavasour, stands on the banks of the Thames in the nearby village of Petersham. The house was greatly extended in the 18th century by the Countess of Dysart and her husband, the Duke of Lauderdale. It is now open to the public, under the Victoria and Albert Museum, and has fine furniture and works by the Dutch painter Peter Lely. The church of St Mary the Virgin at Mortlake, which was founded in 1348, rebuilt in 1543, and often enlarged, contains memorials to Sir Philip Francis, the bitter opponent of Warren Hastings, and Sir John Temple, besides many tombs of celebrities, notably of John Dee, the 16th-century philosopher and astrologer. Mortlake was famous for its tapestry works in the 17th century and Charles I was a patron of the factory. Mortlake is the finishing point of the annual boat race between Oxford and Cambridge Universities.
Twickenham Twickenham is mentioned in the second oldest Middlesex charter (704), when the land was granted to the Bishop of London. It became fashionable in the 17th century and maintained and strengthened its attractions in the 18th. Among its residents have been the philosopher and writer Sir Francis Bacon, the dramatist John Gay, the novelist Henry Fielding, the society hostess Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, the actor Kitty Clive, Charles Dickens, J M W Turner, Charles Tennyson (poet and elder brother of Alfred Tennyson), and Walter de la Mare. York House, built in the late-17th century and now municipal offices, was once owned by James, Duke of York; Queen Anne lived there as a child. Kneller Hall, built between 1709 and 1711 and since altered, was the house of the painter Godfrey Kneller, and is now the headquarters of the Royal Military School of Music. Marble Hill, an example of the English Palladian style, standing in beautiful grounds on the banks of the Thames, was restored in 1966. The house was built by the Duchess of Suffolk, the mistress of George II, and was at one time occupied by Mrs Fitzherbert, George IV's morganatic wife.
Twickenham is chiefly noted for its associations with the poet Alexander Pope and the politician Horace Walpole. Pope's Villa, where he lived from 1719 until his death in 1744, and where many celebrities of his day met, was pulled down in 1807. All that now remains of the once-famous Grotto is a passage under the road, now used to connect the two halves of a school that has been built on the site. Walpole settled in a cottage close by in 1747, and in 1750 began to reconstruct it in a Gothic style, progressively enlarging it with the help of several architects, until the fantastic mixture of mansion and castle was completed in 1776. Strawberry Hill, as the castle was named, had a considerable influence on architectural taste in the 19th century. It is now St Mary's Training College, a Roman Catholic teacher-training establishment. The oldest surviving building in Twickenham is the 15th-century tower of the parish church, which was retained when the church was rebuilt in 1714–15. Pope is buried in the church.
Hampton In the early 13th century the manor of Hampton passed to the order of St John of Jerusalem, from whom Cardinal Wolsey obtained a 99-year lease in 1514 in order to build his palace. In the 18th-century Hampton became a fashionable residential area. The actor David Garrick lived there from 1754 until his death in 1779. His house near the river, now called Garrick Villa, was enlarged by Robert Adam. Facing Hampton Court Green, which is just by Hampton Court Palace, are some very good examples of domestic architecture, including the Old Court House, where the architect Christopher Wren lived from 1706 until he died in 1723, and Faraday House, where the scientist Michael Faraday lived between 1858 and 1867. The parish church at Hampton-on-Thames, built in 1830 on the site of an older church, contains monuments of notable people, including residents of Hampton Court Palace. The bridge over the Thames at Hampton Court was designed in 1933 by Sir Edwin Lutyens.
Teddington Teddington belonged to the abbey of Westminster until the Dissolution. It is the highest tidal point on the Thames, and its lock (built in 1811) is the largest (198 m/650 ft by 7.6 m/25 ft) on the river. Teddington is the point where the discharge is gauged, and is the limit of the jurisdiction of the Port of London Authority. The National Physical Laboratory is at Teddington.
Bushy Park (445 ha/1,112 acres), which lies between Teddington and Hampton Court, was laid out in its present form by William III.
© RM, 2016. All rights reserved.
| i don't know |
The drug digitalis comes from which plant ? | Digitalis Uses, Benefits & Dosage - Drugs.com Herbal Database
Adverse reactions are generally related to toxicity.
Toxicology
All parts of the plant are toxic. The incidence of digitalis toxicity in therapeutic use has been estimated to range from 5% to 25%. Ingestion of extremely small amounts of the plant may be fatal to humans, especially children, and to animals. Toxicity is cumulative.
Botany
Digitalis is typically a biennial plant but may be annual or perennial depending on the species. It is characterized by a thick, cylindrical, downy stem that reaches a height of up to 2 m. Leaves form a thick rosette during the first year of growth. The leaves, which are woolly, veined, and covered with white hairs on the underside, have a very bitter taste. Flowers grow in the first or second year, depending on the species, and are tubular and bell-shaped, growing to 8 cm in length. Many colors of flowers have been bred from digitalis, and they are rarely white. Digitalis is native to the British Isles, western Europe, and parts of Africa, but is found today as an ornamental plant throughout the world. Related species that have found some use in traditional medicine include Digitalis lutea (straw foxglove), Digitalis grandiflora and Digitalis ambigua (yellow foxglove), and Digitalis ferriginea (rusty foxglove). 1 , 2 , 3
History
Digitalis was one of the many herbal remedies used by the ancient Romans. Although its use for the treatment of heart failure has been traced back to 10th century Europe, digitalis was not widely used for this indication until its scientific investigation by British physician William Withering in the late 1700s. For most of the 1800s, digitalis was used to treat a wide variety of diseases and disorders. In 1875, German chemist Oswald Schmiedeberg first isolated pure digitoxin from digitalis, leading others to extract and identify other glycosides from various species of digitalis. In 1957, digoxin was isolated from D. lanata and is now a major cardiac glycoside marketed in tablet form. Digitalis was admitted into the first edition of the Pharmacopeia of the United States (1820) and is currently recognized by all major pharmacopeias. In South America, preparations of the powdered leaves are used to relieve asthma, as sedatives, and as diuretic/cardiotonics. In India, an ointment containing digitalis glycosides is used to treat wounds and burns. 2 , 4 , 5
Chemistry
Ornamental strains of D. purpurea typically have low concentrations of active compounds. Leaves of wild varieties that have been used for medicinal purposes contain at least 30 different glycosides in total quantities ranging from 0.1% to 0.6%; these consist primarily of purpurea glycoside A (yielding digitoxin) and glycoside B, the precursor of gitoxin. Upon hydrolysis, digitoxin and gitoxin lose sugar moieties, producing their respective aglycones, digitoxigenin and gitoxigenin. Biosynthetic pathways in the production of cardenolides are reliant on the enzymes of malonyltransferase and progesterone 5 beta-reductase.
The main glycosides of D. lanata are the lanatosides, designated A through E. Removal of acetate groups and sugars results in formation of digitoxin, gitoxin, digoxin, digitalin, and gitaloxin. D. lanata is not typically used in powder form in the United States, but serves as a major source of lanatoside C and digoxin (300 times more potent than the powder prepared from D. purpurea ). Isolated digitoxin is 1,000 times more potent than whole powdered leaves and is completely and rapidly absorbed from the GI tract.
The seeds also contain digitalis glycosides, while steroidal saponins, flavones, the flavonoid chrysoeriol, anthraquinones, and organic acids have been identified in the leaves. High performance liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy have been used to identify and quantify glycoside composition. 2 , 3 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11
Uses and Pharmacology
Cardiovascular effects
Cardiac glycosides possess positive inotropic effects due to inhibition of sodium-potassium adenosine triphosphatase, which allows calcium to accumulate in myocytes leading to enhanced cardiac contractility. These drugs also possess some antiarrhythmic activity, but will induce arrhythmias at higher dose levels. 7 , 12 , 13
Animal data
Studies in animals center largely on evaluations of individual chemical compounds on isolated cardiac and other tissues. 12 , 13 , 14
Clinical data
Digitalis glycosides have been used clinically for the treatment of heart failure for more than 200 years and remain the source of commercial digoxin preparations; however, a defined place in therapy remains under debate. Reviews of the large, multicenter Digitalis Investigation Group trial and other clinical trials have found no clear effect of digitalis on mortality in heart failure. Some effect has been demonstrated for secondary outcomes of decreased hospitalizations and clinical (symptomatic) deterioration. 5 , 15 For further information, consult standard pharmacology references.
Other effects
Cancer
In vitro experiments and screening studies have shown cytotoxic properties of glycosides and flavonoids from D. purpurea and D. lantana . Activity against human cancer cell lines, including solid tumor lines, has been demonstrated. Mechanisms include direct cytotoxicity resulting in apoptosis, inhibition of aflatoxin-induced cytotoxicity, inhibition of induction of nitric oxide synthase, and increases in glutathione S-tranferase. 11 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19
Diabetes
A study in hyperglycemic and dyslipidemic rats demonstrated enhanced glucose tolerance 2 hours after the rats were given a single dose of the saponin digitonin. Positive effects on the lipid profile were also observed. 20
Dosage
Digitalis leaf has a narrow therapeutic index, requiring close medical supervision for safe use. Traditional dosage starts at 1.5 g of leaf divided into 2 daily doses. Purified digoxin is typically used at daily doses of 0.125 to 0.25 mg. 15 , 21
Pregnancy/Lactation
Adverse reactions are generally related to toxicity.
Toxicology
All parts of the plant are toxic. Animal toxicity occurs during grazing. Children have become ill by sucking the flowers or ingesting seeds or parts of the leaves. Deaths have been reported among people who drank tea made from digitalis mistakenly identified as comfrey, although the bitter taste often deters ingestion, and its emetic properties can induce vomiting, thereby limiting systemic absorption. Digitalis poisoning is also associated with intentional ingestion with suicidal intent. 24 , 25 , 26
Digitalis glycosides accumulate and are excreted slowly; therefore, intoxications during therapy are common. The incidence of digitalis toxicity has been estimated to range from 5% to 23%. More stringent dosing guidelines and monitoring techniques have dramatically reduced the incidence of therapeutic overdose.
Signs of plant or purified drug poisoning include blurred vision, contracted pupils, dizziness, excessive urination, fatigue, muscle weakness, nausea, strong but slowed pulse, tremors, and vomiting; in severe cases, stupor, confusion, convulsions, and death can occur. Cardiac signs include atrial arrhythmias and atrioventricular block. Chronic digitalis intoxication is characterized by visual halos, yellow-green vision, and GI upset. 2 , 13 , 24 , 27
In mild cases of toxicity (atrial fibrillation with a slow ventricular response or occasional ectopic beats), temporary withdrawal of the drug and electrocardiogram monitoring is sufficient. 6 Gastric lavage or emesis together with supportive measures, such as electrolyte replacements, antiarrhythmics (eg, lidocaine, phenytoin), and atropine, have been used to manage acute poisonings. Digoxin-specific Fab antibody fragments may be used in managing acute intoxications caused by digitalis and related cardioactive glycosides; however, their efficacy remains unproven by controlled clinical trials. 13 , 25 , 28 , 29
Bibliography
1. Digitalis purpurea L. USDA, NRCS. 2010. The PLANTS Database ( http://plants.usda.gov, March 2010 ). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.
2. Morton JF. Major Medicinal Plants . Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas; 1977.
3. Warren B. Digitalis purpurea. Am J Cardiol . 2005;95(4):544.
4. Belcastro PF. Digitalis: from folklore remedy to valuable drug. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash) . 2002;42(6):857.
5. Feussner JR, Feussner DJ. Reassessing the efficacy of digitalis: from routine treatment to evidence-based medicine. Am J Med Sci . 2010;339(5):482-484.
6. Trease GE. Trease and Evans' Pharmacognosy . 13th ed. London, UK: Balliere Tindall; 1989.
7. Kuate SP, Pádua RM, Eisenbeiss WF, Kreis W. Purification and characterization of malonyl-coenzyme A: 21-hydroxypregnane 21-O-malonyltransferase (Dp21MaT) from leaves of Digitalis purpurea L. Phytochemistry . 2008;69(3):619-626.
8. Usai M, Atzei AD, Marchetti M. Cardenolides content in wild Sardinian Digitalis purpurea L. populations. Nat Prod Res . 2007;21(9):798-804.
9. Gavidia I, Tarrío R, Rodríguez-Trelles F, Pérez-Bermúdez P, Seitz HU. Plant progesterone 5beta-reductase is not homologous to the animal enzyme. Molecular evolutionary characterization of P5betaR from Digitalis purpurea . Phytochemistry . 2007;68(6):853-864.
10. Kite GC, Porter EA, Simmonds MS. Chromatographic behaviour of steroidal saponins studied by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A . 2007;1148(2):177-183.
11. Choi DY, Lee JY, Kim MR, Woo ER, Kim YG, Kang KW. Chrysoeriol potently inhibits the induction of nitric oxide synthase by blocking AP-1 activation. J Biomed Sci . 2005;12(6):949-959.
12. Keenan SM, DeLisle RK, Welsh WJ, Paula S, Ball WJ Jr. Elucidation of the Na+, K+-ATPase digitalis binding site. J Mol Graph Model . 2005;23(6):465-475.
13. Hauptman PJ, Kelly RA. Digitalis. Circulation . 1999;99(9):1265-1270.
14. Navarro E, Alonso PJ, Alonso SJ, et al. Cardiovascular activity of a methanolic extract of Digitalis purpurea spp. heywoodii . J Ethnopharmacol . 2000;71(3):437-442.
15. Hood, Jr. WB, Dans AL, Guyatt GH, Jaeschke R, McMurray JJ. Digitalis for treatment of congestive heart failure in patients in sinus rhythm. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2004;(2):CD002901. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD002901.pub2 .
16. López-Lázaro M, Palma De La Peña N, Pastor N, et al. Anti-tumour activity of Digitalis purpurea L. subsp. heywoodii . Planta Med . 2003;69(8):701-704.
17. Lindholm P, Gullbo J, Claeson P, et al. Selective cytotoxicity evaluation in anticancer drug screening of fractionated plant extracts. J Biomol Screen . 2002;7(4):333-340.
18. Johansson S, Lindholm P, Gullbo J, Larsson R, Bohlin L, Cleason P. Cytotoxicity of digitoxin and related cardiac glycosides in human tumor cells. Anticancer Drugs . 2001;12(5):475-483.
19. Lee JY, Woo E, Kang KW. Screening of new chemopreventive compounds from Digitalis purpurea . Pharmazie . 2006;61(4):356-358.
20. Ebaid GM, Faine LA, Diniz YS, et al. Effects of digitonin on hyperglycaemia and dyslipidemia induced by high-sucrose intake. Food Chem Toxicol . 2006;44(2):293-299.
21. Dec GW. Digoxin remains useful in the management of chronic heart failure. Med Clin North Am . 2003;87(2):317-337.
22. McGuffin M, Hobbs C, Upton R, Goldberg A, eds. American Herbal Products Association's Botanical Safety Handbook . Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 1997.
23. Tatro DS, ed. Drug Interaction Facts . St. Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer Health Inc; 2004.
24. Jowett N. Foxglove poisoning. Hosp Med . 2002;63(12):758-759.
25. Lacassie E, Marquet P, Martin-Dupont S, Gaulier JM, Lachâtre G. A non-fatal case of intoxication with foxglove, documented by means of liquid chromatography-electrospray-mass spectrometry. J Forensic Sci . 2000;45(5):1154-1158.
26. Lin CC, Yang CC, Phua DH, Deng JF, Lu LH. An outbreak of foxglove leaf poisoning. J Chin Med Assoc . 2010;73(2):97-100.
27. Dick M, Curwin J, Tepper D. Digitalis intoxication recognition and management. J Clin Pharmacol . 1991;31(5):444-447.
28. Wickersham RM, Novak K, managing eds. Drug Facts and Comparisons . St. Louis, MO: Facts and Comparisons; 2004.
29. Roberts DM, Buckley NA. Antidotes for acute cardenolide (cardiac glycoside) poisoning. Cochrane Database Syst Rev . 2006;(4):CD005490. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005490.pub2 .
Copyright © 2009 Wolters Kluwer Health
| Digitalis |
The novel Notre Dame de Paris, by Victor Hugo, is better known by what title in the English-speaking world ? | Digitalis - definition of digitalis by The Free Dictionary
Digitalis - definition of digitalis by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/digitalis
1. See foxglove .
2. A drug prepared from the dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea, used as a cardiac stimulant.
[New Latin Digitālis, genus name of foxglove, from Latin digitālis, of a finger (from the finger-shaped corollas of foxglove), from digitus, finger; see digit.]
digitalis
(ˌdɪdʒɪˈteɪlɪs)
n
1. (Plants) any Eurasian scrophulariaceous plant of the genus Digitalis, such as the foxglove, having bell-shaped flowers and a basal rosette of leaves
2. (Pharmacology) a drug prepared from the dried leaves or seeds of the foxglove: a mixture of glycosides used medicinally to treat heart failure and some abnormal heart rhythms
3. (Pharmacology) any cardiac glycoside, whatever its origin
[C17: from New Latin, from Latin: relating to a finger (referring to the corollas of the flower); based on German Fingerhut foxglove, literally: finger-hat or thimble]
dig•i•tal•is
(ˌdɪdʒ ɪˈtæl ɪs, -ˈteɪ lɪs)
n.
1. any plant of the genus Digitalis, of the figwort family, esp. the foxglove, D. purpurea.
2. the dried leaves of the foxglove used as a heart stimulant.
[1655–65; < New Latin digitālis, a name appar. suggested by the German name for the foxglove, Fingerhut literally, thimble; see digital ]
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
| i don't know |
Which famous U.S. highway originally ran from Chicago to Los Angeles, covering 2,448 miles ? | WhatWasThere | Route 66 in Ash Fork, Arizona - 1930s
1930s
Route 66
Description
U.S. Route 66 (also known as the Will Rogers Highway after the humorist, and colloquially known as the "Main Street of America" or the "Mother Road") was a highway within the U.S. Highway System. One of the original U.S. highways, Route 66 was established on November 11, 1926 -- with road signs erected the following year. The highway, which became one of the most famous roads in America, originally ran from Chicago, Illinois, through Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, before ending at Los Angeles, covering a total of 2,448 miles (3,940 km). Route 66 served as a major path for those who migrated west, especially during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s. U.S. 66 was officially removed from the United States Highway System on June 27, 1985 after it was decided the route was no longer relevant and had been replaced by the Interstate Highway System. More at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_66
User
| Route 66 |
Who, for a time, was the wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta ? | Route 66 | T-Shirt | SKREENED
Route 66
0 0
Skreened
U.S. Route 66 (also known as the Will Rogers Highway after the humorist, and colloquially known as the "Main Street of America" or the "Mother Road") was a highway in the U.S. Highway System. One of the original U.S. highways, Route 66 was established on November 11, 1926. However, road signs did not go up until the following year. The famous highway originally ran from Chicago, Illinois, through Missouri, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California, before ending at Los Angeles, covering a total of 2,448 miles (3,940 km). It was recognized in popular culture by both a hit song (written by Bobby Troup, originally recorded by the Nat King Cole Trio in 1946, and later performed by such artists as Chuck Berry, The Rolling Stones, The Manhattan Transfer and Depeche Mode) and the Route 66 television show in the 1960s.
Tagged
| i don't know |
Who is the hero of George Orwell's novel 1984 ? | 1984: By George Orwell’s definition, is Winston Smith a hero? English help please? | Essay Title Generator - getthingsonline.com
1984: By George Orwell’s definition, is Winston Smith a hero? English help please?
August 17th, 2013
Timerse
George Orwell once offered this definition of heroism: ordinary people doing whatever they can to change social systems that do not respect human decency, even with the knowledge that they can’t possibly succeed.In Winston Smith, the protagonist of 1984, Orwell creates an ordinary person, an "everyman" who stands for all the oppressed citizens of Oceania. Yet, as the novel closes, Winston cries as his love for Big Brother overwhelms him. Is Winston the novel’s hero, by Orwell’s definition? Is he a hero that readers can admire and emulate? Explain your position by tracing Winston’s actions throughout the novel and considering the results of those actions.Cite specific examples from the novel in your response.I can't decide which side to take.He is a hero because:-he bought his diary and wrote in it-he continuously wrote "down with big brother"-he went about his love affair with Julia-it took him a long time to become brainwashed--> all of this even though he would be tortured and/or killed if he got caught.He's not a hero because:-he broke at the end of the novel, told them to set the rats on Julia-at the end of the novel, he loves Big Brother-he doesn't openly revolt, he sneaks around instead-his rebellion can be interpreted as purely for his own desires, rather than a need to rebel against the governmentWhat do you think? Please don't answer if you haven't at least thoroughly read the sparknotes on the book. Also, please don't tell me to do my own homework, because I have obviously read the book, I just can't decide which side to take for my essay. Both sides seem to be sort of equal. I need three specific examples in the essay, and I have those four in mind for each, but I don't know which side is stronger or which examples are the best to use. So if anyone has any opinion or any thoughts on this, please help me out. I'm not asking for someone to write my essay, I just need a little guidance and maybe some ideas. Thanks!Of course, 10 points to best answer. Thanks again.
Similar Asks:
Whats a good essay topic on the novel 1984 by George Orwell? - 1. Describe Winston’s character as it relates to his attitude toward the Party. In what ways might his fatalistic streak contribute to his ultimate downfall?2. How does technology affect the Party’s ability to control its citizens? In what ways does the Party employ technology throughout the book?3. Discuss the idea of Room 101, the place
Bush Administration?/George Orwell? - I just read a book called 1984 written by George Orwell.I need to write an essay abouthow the policies of the Bush Administration parallel those of Big Brother and the effect it has upon civil liberties in the United States.Any ideas?THanks! User tags:1984 george orwell was winston a hero1984 hero anti hero quotes1984- winston showing heroismgeorge
Shakepeare’s twelfth night and sonnet 130…please help? - I am writting and essay to analyze how both cover the similair theme to not judge a book by its cover. In twelfth night I know that Olivia is pretending to be her brother and the queen falls in love with her, olivia is also in love with the man teaching her to mature into
Verbal irony? Please help… I have an English essay.? - I’ve looked in my text book at the definition but that hasn’t helped. I need like some really good examples. I have to write an essay explaining the use of verbal and dramatic irony in a specific passage of a book that my English class has read, The Crucible(A play about the Salem Witch Trials).
How would i go about writing an Expository Essay on the definition of a “tragic hero”? - I am writing an essay on the definition of a tragic hero for my college Eng. 70 class. I have the definition down, I’m just unsure of how to start out the essay.. Should I use the definition as my topic sentence in my intro? What should my body paragraphs consist of? (Examples, Comparing of
Install microsoft software to linux system? - i want to askmy brother use vistai use good one ubuntumy brother want give me some essaymy brother send as microsoft wordcan i use abi word. k word and open office to open itif cantcan i install microsoft word in linux User tags:1984 george orwell was winston a hero1984 hero anti hero quotes1984- winston showing heroismgeorge
Can some one please do me a HUGE favor by proof reading this? - A Tale of Two Cities EssayWhat truly makes a hero indeed so renowned and so memorable? Many heroes can be people like Superman, Batman, or Spiderman mainly because they have superhuman strength and super powers. But what makes a hero a hero is what they do for others and the sacrifices that they make. Heroes
1984 george orwell was winston a hero
1984 hero anti hero quotes
1984- winston showing heroism
Both comments and pings are currently closed.
5 Responses to “1984: By George Orwell’s definition, is Winston Smith a hero? English help please?”
monomineral
He is an antihero (not in the batman villain sense) for the simple reasons that there are no heroes in a dystopia.
borotungstate
August 17, 2013 at 8:30 am
First of all we must realize that “1984″ is an example of modernism. in Modernism, there are no clear heroes or villains. instead there are anti-heroes. an antihero is a character who doesn’t show clear cut qualities of a hero or villain. O’Brien is an Antihero. he meets up with Winston and seems he’s looking to start of rebellion. but in the end he tortures Winston. so to answer your question, i would say no. even though he had numerous love affairs w/ Julia, intimacy is taboo in the Political Party. i would also agree with your reasons to why he isn’t a hero as well.also look up my question about “1984″. it would be greatly appreciated if you helped
reintercede
August 17, 2013 at 10:06 am
Hey! I’m impressed with you!I’m a former English teacher, and I’m a writer now. You’ve done exactly what you needed to do to prepare to write a very good essay!.You have your intro paragraph where you explain what you’re going to tell, .that’s your intro paragraph2nd paragraph (or part), take a stand and say he is not a hero, and use your examples you cited already.3rd paragraph (or part) take a stand and say “ON THE OTHER HAND,” Wiston had many heroic qualities and took heroic actions. Give your examples.THEN, the 4th paragraph (or part) You weigh the positives and negatives you stated, and make your own decision. That “extra-odd numbered” example would be a good one to use in your final paragraph of conclusion.YOU decide if he’s a hero or not. It’s your paper. You will be backing up your opinion with a quote–so it’s not argue material, ya know. But do it this way, and whoever grades the paper won’t argue with you. You make a statement and back it up with a quote or book reference. I bet this is exactly what your instructor wanted. Drop me an email listed on my account if I can be of more help.GREAT THINKER AWARD!
gospel
August 17, 2013 at 11:16 am
I’d say he is hero, the examples you have of why he isn’t are perfectly valid, and definitely include them in the essay, but I don’t think they dismiss his heroism.He broke at the end and loved Big Brother but this was due to O’Brien’s torture and mind control, he always knew this would be the outcome from his diary entries, conversations with Julia and his observations of Jones, Aaronsen and Rutherford at the Chestnut Tree Cafe. Breaking his only promise to Julia, not to betray her, was unavoidable, see his rantings after his visit to room 101, and the brief encounter with Julia when he is released, she betrayed him too, everyone betrays, this is the purpose of room 101, to remove anything you love more than the party and replace it/them with Big Brother.He sneaks around instead of engaging in open revolt because this is the only way any dissent and subversion can take place, the reactions of people during the ten minutes hate, telescreens, hidden microphones, a militarised society and scared/brainwashed spying neighbours giving you up at the first opportunity to save themselves make open revolt instantly futile rather than eventually futile, he took this approach not out of cowardice because it had the potential to subvert the cause of the party more effectively and because it was the only way.His rebellion does further his own desires, but his primary goal is to undermine the goverment, at first he is revolted by Julia, his initial act of sleeping with her was done not out of sexual desire, but out of a desire to rebel against and weaken the government, in his and Julia’s opinion doing something for yourself and only yourself WAS the act of rebellion, it was central in their purpose to revolt as it went against the only reason for the party’s existance, control and power (see Winston and Julia’s conversations in the flat, and O’Brien’s explanation of INGSOC in the tortue room).Hope this helps, good luck with your essay.
melodeon
August 17, 2013 at 12:26 pm
i would say, by the definition of hero you gave, that winston is no hero. “doing whatever they can to change” is the definition, and the examples you give of his heroism are not actions that would result in any changes of the social system. they are his personal rebellion and somewhat courageous in that he knew if and when he got caught it would be the end of him; however, he did a lot of hiding and cowering, and if i remember correctly, when push came to shove he leaned toward going along to get along rather than trying to make a change.
| Winston Smith |
In which century was the mausoleum known as the Taj Mahal built ? | 1984 (by George Orwell) (UNABRIDGED AUDIOBOOK) on the App Store
Open iTunes to buy and download apps.
Description
Blackstone Audio presents a new recording of this immensely popular book.
George Orwell depicts a gray, totalitarian world dominated by Big Brother and its vast network of agents, including the Thought Police, a world in which news is manufactured according to the authorities’ will and people live tepid lives by rote.
Winston Smith, the hero with no heroic qualities, longs only for truth and decency. But living in a social system in which privacy does not exist and where those with unorthodox ideas are brainwashed or put to death, he knows there is no hope for him. He knows even as he continues to pursue his forbidden love affair that eventually he will come to destruction.
The year 1984 has come and gone, yet George Orwell’s nightmare vision in 1949 of the world we were becoming is still the great modern classic of negative Utopia. It is a prophetic and haunting tale that exposes the worst crimes imaginable: the destruction of freedom and truth.
▰▰▰
Download your book directly over Wi-Fi or cellular network and begin listening as soon as the first track downloads. The Downpour.com powered app features an attractive interface with traditional audio controls in addition to sleep timer, bookmarking, and variable track scrubbing.
App Features
| i don't know |
In what academic discipline does Queen guitarist Brian May hold a PhD from Imperial College , London ? | Doctors of Rock: 10 Musicians with PhDs - The Best Colleges
Doctors of Rock: 10 Musicians with PhDs
Share
“We don’t need no education” sang Pink Floyd, famously. Regardless of where you live – New Hampshire , New Jersey , Ohio , South Carolina , Wyoming – you’ve probably heard that famous line. Apparently though, not all their fellow musicians agreed. Defying the stereotypes of the stupid rocker, brainless pop star and dumb punk, these ten musicians took their formal education as far as it would go.
1. Greg Graffin
Lead singer and songwriter of the influential punk band Bad Religion, Graffin got his PhD in zoology from Cornell and regularly teaches courses in geology at UCLA. Graffin has co-authored two books on science and religion, Is Belief in God Good, Bad or Irrelevant: A Professor and a Punk Rocker Discuss Science, Religion, Naturalism and Christianity (2006) and more recently Anarchy Evolution: Faith, Science and Bad Religion in a World Without God (2010). Maybe God is dead, but not punk!
2. Brian May
The legendary Queen guitarist and composer earned a PhD in astrophysics from Imperial College London. May began working on his PhD over 30 years prior to completing it in 2007, but got sidetracked when Queen hit the big-time. Apparently its never too late to finish what you started.
3. Brian Briggs
Singer and co-founder of the British folk-pop band Stornoway, Briggs has a PhD in zoology from the University of Oxford, writing his dissertation on duck behavior. Briggs found time to craft songs in his head while driving back and forth between Oxford and the various ponds where he did his research. Who knew what ornithologists did with their down time?
4. Brian Cox
While finishing up his PhD in physics at the University of Manchester, Cox was the keyboardist for the popular 90’s Irish pop rock/synthpop and dance band D:Ream. Now a professor at the University of Manchester, Cox made it into People Magazine’s Sexiest Men Alive issue in 2009. D:Reamy.
5. Sterling Morrison
Co-founder and guitarist for the seminal experimental rock band Velvet Underground, Morrison completed a PhD in medieval studies at the University of Texas at Austin after the band split up in 1971. Morrison worked his way through graduate school piloting tugboats, eventually earning his captain’s license. That’s Dr. Captain Morrison to you.
6. Milo Aukerman
Lead singer of the popular Los Angeles area punk band the Descendents, Aukerman earned his PhD in biochemistry from the University of Wisconsin-Madison . Unashamed of his academic bent and general nerdiness, Aukerman and the Descendents titled their first full-length album Milo Goes to College(1982). Aukerman has yet to figure out how to juggle touring and science, but has contemplated building a research lab in the back of his tour bus.
7. Mira Aroyo
The Bulgarian born Aroyo is a keyboardist, singer and songwriter for the electropop/New Wave band Ladytron, and also a research scientist with a PhD in molecular genetics from Oxford University. Besides speaking several languages, it is rumored Aroyo can play a mean accordion. Sorry guys, she’s married.
8. Dan Snaith
Snaith, who goes under the stage names Caribou and Manitoba, is a Canadian born electronica/psychedelic pop composer and musician with a PhD in mathematics from Imperial College London. Snaith’s father is a mathematics professor at the University of Sheffield and his sister is studying mathematics at the University of Bristol. Insert nerdy math joke here.
9. David Grubbs
Probably best known for his work with the experimental rock group Gastr del Sol, Grubbs was also a founding member of Squirrel Bait and Bastro, and a contributing member of the The Red Krayola and The Wingdale Community Singers. Somewhere in the midst of all that Grubbs found the time to complete a PhD in English at the University of Chicago. The hands-down winner of “the guy who played in the most bands with the wierdest names” contest, Grubbs is also an assistant professor of Radio and Sound Art at Brooklyn College, CUNY.
10. Karl Precoda
Legendary guitar player for the original alternative rock band The Dream Syndicate, Precoda earned a PhD in English from the University of Virginia. Now an award winning professor of Theater and Cinema at Virginia Tech, Precoda continues to play guitar and recently helped produce the “multimedia musical extrav-o-rama†Persephone. Rad.
11. Robert Leonard
Leonard was the founding member of the 50’s nostalgia band Sha Na Na, responsible for spawning the 50’s music and culture revival that gave us Grease and Happy Days. Leonard went on to earn a PhD in linguistics from Columbia and currently teaches linguistics at Hofstra University. So, professor, what does Sha Na Na mean, anyway?
| Astrophysics |
In Alexandre Dumas's novel The Man In the Iron Mask , the man is the twin brother of which king ? | Brian May Net Worth | Celebrity Net Worth
Brian May Net Worth
Brian May net worth:
$175 Million
Brian May Net Worth: Brian May is an English musician, singer, songwriter and astrophysicist who has a net worth of $175 million dollars. Born Brian Harold May on July 19, 1947, in Hampton, London, England, he rose to international fame as the guitarist of Queen. In addition to being a founding member of Queen, May is also a Doctor of Astrophysics, 3D stereoscopic photographic authority and a passionate advocate and campaigner for animal rights. A diligent Astronomy student working towards a PhD, Brian decided to put his academic studies at hold as Queen's popularity first exploded. Ever since the groups' formation in 1970, the band enjoyed worldwide success with a number of hit singles including the most recognizable rock anthems, "We Will Rock You" and "We Are the Champions". Using a home-built guitar named "Red Special", he gave his contribution to many compositions "Tie Your Mother Down", "I Want It All", "We Will Rock You", "Fat Bottomed Girls" and "Who Wants to Live Forever". Just like other band members, May's fortune has constantly swelled even after the death of lead singer Freddie Mercury in 1991. Thanks to his contributions to the music industry and charity work, he was appointed a Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2005. Two years later, he finally earned a Ph.D in astrophysics from Imperial College in 2007 and served as Chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University from 2008 to 2013. He currently resides in Windlesham, Surrey.
| i don't know |
Which of his sons succeeded King Alfred the Great ? | King Alfred the Great of England (849-901)
lfred, b. 849, d. Oct. 26, 899, succeeded his brother �thelred as king of Wessex in April 871. Both he and his brother were sons of King �thelwulf. The only English king called "the Great," Alfred is renowned both for his ability as a war leader and for his love of learning. He can be counted, with Charlemagne, as one of the two most outstanding rulers of the 9th century. Alfred was the first English monarch to plan systematically for the defense of his realm against the Danes, with whom he was almost constantly at war from 876 until the end of his life. He was also the first monarch of an English kingdom to become a symbol and focus of national unity. Although effective ruler only of Wessex and English Mercia, he was regarded as the protector of all the English living under Danish rule. His capture of London in 886, which marked the farthest extent of his essentially defensive territorial expansion, led to general English recognition of his leadership. After his death, however, Wessex and Mercia were still unable to expel the Danes from England. A learned layman, Alfred tried to ensure that his countrymen had the opportunity to become literate. To that end, he relied upon the bishops of the Anglo-Saxon church both to teach and to seek out students. Alfred himself translated into Anglo-Saxon the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory I, Orosiuss Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, Boethiuss Consolation of Philosophy, (possibly) the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede, and part of Saint Augustine of Hippos Soliloquies. To each of these except the fourth he added his own commentary. Alfreds military victories saved English culture and national identity from destruction, and his intellectual activities began the education of his people in the Latin heritage. James W. Alexander
Bibliography: Duckett, Eleanor S., Alfred the Great (1956); Dumville, David, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar (1992); Frantzen, Allen, King Alfred (1986); Mapp, Alf Johnson, The Golden Dragon (1974; repr. 1991); Smyth, Alfred P., King Alfred the Great (1996); Stevenson, W. H., ed., Assers Life of King Alfred (1904; repr. 1959); Sturdy, David, Alfred the Great (1995); Woodruff, Douglas, The Life and Times of Alfred the Great (1974). [Groliers Online Encyclopedia]
Alfred, the Great (c. 849-c. 901)
King of Wessex from 871. He defended England against Danish invasion, founded the first English navy, and put into operation a legal code. He encouraged the translation of works from Latin (some he translated himself), and promoted the development of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . Alfred was born at Wantage, Oxfordshire, the youngest son of Ethelwulf (died 858), king of the West Saxons. In 870 Alfred and his brother Ethelred fought many battles against the Danes. He gained a victory over the Danes at Ashdown 871, and succeeded Ethelred as king April 871 after a series of defeats. Five years of uneasy peace followed while the Danes were occupied in other parts of England. In 876 the Danes attacked again, and in 878 Alfred was forced to retire to the stronghold of *Athelney, from where he finally emerged to win the victory of Edington, Wiltshire. By the Peace of Wedmore 878 the Danish leader Guthrum (died 890) agreed to withdraw from Wessex and from Mercia west of Watling Street. A new landing in Kent encouraged a revolt of the East Anglian Danes, which was suppressed 884-86, and after the final foreign invasion was defeated 892-96, Alfred strengthened the navy to prevent fresh incursions. � Copyright Helicon Publishing Ltd 1996 [The Hutchinson Encyclopedia]
Alfred [Old Eng. �lfred], 849-899, king of Wessex (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the Great, b. Wantage, Berkshire. Youngest of the four sons of King �thelwulf, he was sent in 853 and again in 855 to Rome, where the pope invested him with the honorary dignity of a Roman consul. He lacked adequate instruction and learned to read English only after he was 12. His adolescence was marked by ill-health and deep religious devotion, both of which persisted for the rest of his life. Little is known of him during the end of his fathers reign and the reigns of his older brothers, �thelbald and �thelbert, but when �thelred took the throne (865), Alfred became his secundarius (viceroy?) and aided his brother in subsequent battles against the Danes, who now threatened to overrun all England. When the Danes turned from the east and north regions late in 870 to Wessex, �thelred and Alfred resisted with varying fortunes in a victory at Ashdown, Berkshire, a defeat at Basing, and several indecisive engagements. Upon his brothers death after Easter in 871, Alfred became king of the West Saxons and overlord of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Essex. Faced by an enemy too powerful to defeat decisively, Alfred cleared the Danes from Wessex by a heavy payment of tribute (see Danegeld) in 871. In 876 and 877 the Danes returned to ravage for several months and finally, halted by Alfreds army, swore to leave Wessex forever. However, in a surprise invasion early in 878 the Danes crushed Alfreds forces, and he fled to Athelney in the fens of Somerset, from which he continued to wage guerrilla war. The famous legend of Alfred and the cakes, in which he appears as an unrecognized king, exposed to the scolding of a peasant woman, probably reflects this period of his life. Alfred rallied his army to win a complete victory at Edington. He then dictated the Peace of Chippenham (or Wedmore) by which Guthrum, the Danish leader, accepted baptism and probably agreed to seperate England into English and Danish "spheres of influence." The Danes moved into East Anglia and E Mercia, and Alfred established his overlordship in W Mercia. In later campaigns, scantily recorded, Alfred captured London and again defeated the Danes. Another treaty with Guthrum in 886 marked off the Danelaw E and N of the Thames, the Lea, the Ouse, and Watling Street, leaving the south and west of England to Alfred; established the relative indemnities of Englishmen and Danes in law; and attempted to prevent border raids.
Alfreds Achievements. Security gave Alfred his chance. He instituted reforms. Against further probable attacks by the Danes, he reorganized the militia or fyrd about numerous garrisoned forts throughout Wessex and commanded the construction of a fleet. Drawing from the old codes of �thelbert of Kent, Ine of Wessex, and Offa of Mercia, he issued his own code of laws, marked at once by Christian doctrine and measures for a stronger centralized monarchy. He reformed the administrations of justice and energetically participated in it. He came eventually to be considered the overlord of all England, although this title was not realized in concrete political administration. His greatest achievements were the revival of learning and the establishment of Old English literary prose. Alfred gathered together a group of eminent scholars, including the Welshman Asser. They strengthened the Church by reviving learning among the clergy and organized a court school like that of Charlemagne, in which not only youths and clerics but also mature nobles were taught. Alfred himself between 887 and 892 learned Latin and translated several Latin works into English -- Gregory the Greats Pastoral Care, Bedes Ecclesiastical History, Orosiuss universal history, Boethiuss Consolation of Philosophy, and St. Augustines Soliloquies. The adaptation of Boethius is most remarkable for the liberal interpolation of his own thoughts. The Orosius is interesting for the addition of accounts of voyages made by the Norse explorers, Ohthere and Wulfstan. Although he did not write it, Alfred greatly influenced the extant form of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . All these pursuits were interrupted, but not ended, by new Danish invasions between 892 and 896. The struggle was severe because Alfreds military reforms had not been completed and because the invading forces were joined by settlers from the Danelaw. He received strong support from his son Edward the Elder, his daughter �thelfl�d, and her husband, �thelred of Mercia, and in the critical year of 893 the great Danish fort at Benfleet was successfully stormed. One Danish expedition attempting conquest by way of the Thames and Severn was defeated at Buttington; another occupying Chester was besieged and forced back to Essex. In 896 the Danes slowly dispersed to the Danelaw or overseas, and Alfreds new long ships fought with varying success against pirate raids on the south coast. Alfreds career was later embroidered by many heroic legends, but history alone justifies the inscription on the statue at his birthplace: "Alfred found learning dead, and he restored it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church debased, and he raised it; the land ravaged by a fearful enemy, from which he delivered it. Alfreds name shall live as long as mankind shall respect the past." Our knowledge of Alfreds life depends upon the biography by Asser, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , the royal charters, and Alfreds own writings. See the various editions of Alfreds works; R. H. Hodgkin, A History of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II (1935); biography by E. S. Duckett (1956). [The Illustrated Columbia Encyclopedia, Third ed., 1969]
Alfred the Great (849-901), king of the West Saxons in England, was born at Wantage in Berkshire. He was the youngest son of King Ethelwulf; but when his brother Ethelred died, in 871, Alfred was declared king by universal consent in the midst of a Danish invasion. He practically founded the British navy; reorganized the national defences; raised public buildings and reclaimed waste lands; and revised all existing laws, combining those which he found good into a single code. He established schools, encouraged literature in the native tongue, and improved the services of the church.
Alfreds principal writings are as follows: A translation of the Universal History of Orosius; a translation of Bedes Ecclesiastical History; a translation of the De Consolatione Philosophioe of Bo�tius; and a close translation of Gregorys Cura Pastoralis and Dialogues. There are Lives of Alfred by Asser, Reinhold Pauli, Thomas Hughes, Plummer, and Draper. Consult also Turks Legal Code of Alfred the Great; Snells Age of Alfred (1912). [World Wide Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1935]
Notes on King Alfred the Great Alfred was born in Wantage (now in Oxfordshire) and in 853 was taken to Rome, where he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV. Alfred assumed the crown in 871. He was the staunchest defender of his countrys soil against the Danish invaders who had begun to harass England during his Fathers and brothers reigns. He was at first driven into obscure quarters in the Isle of Athelney in the Somerset levels, where legend has it that he burnt the cakes of the housewife who was providing him with shelter. In 878, however, Alfred overthrew the Danes at Ethandune or Edington in Wiltshire and compelled them to accept the Treaty of Wedmore. Alfred then ruled England South of the Thames and most of Mercia. In 866 he captured and fortified London. At about that time Northumbria made submission to Alfred making him overlord of all-England. Alfred is surnamed the Great and is renowned for his martial abilities, as Founder of the Navy and for his efforts to further the causes of law, education and culture. He died on 26 or 28 Oct 899 (or 900, or 901) and was succeeded by his second son, Edward. {Burkes Peerage and Chambers Biographical Dictionary} [GADD.GED]
King of All England 871-899. Also has death date of 26 Oct 899. [ROWLEYHR.GED]
Alfred, called The Great (849-99), king of the West Saxons (871-99), and one of the outstanding figures of English history. Born in Wantage in southern England, Alfred was the youngest of five sons of King Ethelwulf. On the death of his brother Ethelred Alfred became king, coming to the throne during a Danish invasion. Although he succeeded in making peace with the Danes, they resumed their marauding expeditions five years later, and by early 878 they were successful almost everywhere. About Easter of 878, however, Alfred established himself at Athelney and began assembling an army. In the middle of that year he defeated the Danes and captured their stronghold, probably at present-day Edington. During the following 14 years Alfred was able to devote himself to the internal affairs of his kingdom. By 886 he had captured the city of London, and soon afterward he was recognized as the king of all England.
In 893 the Danes invaded England again, and the following four years were marked by warfare; eventually, the Danes were forced to withdraw from Alfred's domain. The only ruler to resist Danish invasions successfully, Alfred made his kingdom the rallying point for all Saxons, thus laying the foundation for the unification of England.
Alfred was a patron of learning and did much for the education of his people. He began a court school and invited British and foreign scholars, notably the Welsh monk Asser and the Irish-born philosopher and theologian John Scotus Erigena, to come there. Alfred translated such works as The Consolation of Philosophy by the Roman statesman and philosopher Boethius, The History of the World by the Spanish priest Paulus Orosius, and Pastoral Care by Pope Gregory I. Alfred's laws, the first promulgated in more than a century, were the first that made no distinction between the English and the Welsh peoples. [Mircosoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia]
| Edward the Elder |
BBC TV science presenter Brian Cox played keyboards with which nineties band ? | King Alfred the Great of England (849-901)
lfred, b. 849, d. Oct. 26, 899, succeeded his brother �thelred as king of Wessex in April 871. Both he and his brother were sons of King �thelwulf. The only English king called "the Great," Alfred is renowned both for his ability as a war leader and for his love of learning. He can be counted, with Charlemagne, as one of the two most outstanding rulers of the 9th century. Alfred was the first English monarch to plan systematically for the defense of his realm against the Danes, with whom he was almost constantly at war from 876 until the end of his life. He was also the first monarch of an English kingdom to become a symbol and focus of national unity. Although effective ruler only of Wessex and English Mercia, he was regarded as the protector of all the English living under Danish rule. His capture of London in 886, which marked the farthest extent of his essentially defensive territorial expansion, led to general English recognition of his leadership. After his death, however, Wessex and Mercia were still unable to expel the Danes from England. A learned layman, Alfred tried to ensure that his countrymen had the opportunity to become literate. To that end, he relied upon the bishops of the Anglo-Saxon church both to teach and to seek out students. Alfred himself translated into Anglo-Saxon the Pastoral Care of Pope Gregory I, Orosiuss Seven Books of History Against the Pagans, Boethiuss Consolation of Philosophy, (possibly) the Ecclesiastical History of the Venerable Bede, and part of Saint Augustine of Hippos Soliloquies. To each of these except the fourth he added his own commentary. Alfreds military victories saved English culture and national identity from destruction, and his intellectual activities began the education of his people in the Latin heritage. James W. Alexander
Bibliography: Duckett, Eleanor S., Alfred the Great (1956); Dumville, David, Wessex and England from Alfred to Edgar (1992); Frantzen, Allen, King Alfred (1986); Mapp, Alf Johnson, The Golden Dragon (1974; repr. 1991); Smyth, Alfred P., King Alfred the Great (1996); Stevenson, W. H., ed., Assers Life of King Alfred (1904; repr. 1959); Sturdy, David, Alfred the Great (1995); Woodruff, Douglas, The Life and Times of Alfred the Great (1974). [Groliers Online Encyclopedia]
Alfred, the Great (c. 849-c. 901)
King of Wessex from 871. He defended England against Danish invasion, founded the first English navy, and put into operation a legal code. He encouraged the translation of works from Latin (some he translated himself), and promoted the development of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . Alfred was born at Wantage, Oxfordshire, the youngest son of Ethelwulf (died 858), king of the West Saxons. In 870 Alfred and his brother Ethelred fought many battles against the Danes. He gained a victory over the Danes at Ashdown 871, and succeeded Ethelred as king April 871 after a series of defeats. Five years of uneasy peace followed while the Danes were occupied in other parts of England. In 876 the Danes attacked again, and in 878 Alfred was forced to retire to the stronghold of *Athelney, from where he finally emerged to win the victory of Edington, Wiltshire. By the Peace of Wedmore 878 the Danish leader Guthrum (died 890) agreed to withdraw from Wessex and from Mercia west of Watling Street. A new landing in Kent encouraged a revolt of the East Anglian Danes, which was suppressed 884-86, and after the final foreign invasion was defeated 892-96, Alfred strengthened the navy to prevent fresh incursions. � Copyright Helicon Publishing Ltd 1996 [The Hutchinson Encyclopedia]
Alfred [Old Eng. �lfred], 849-899, king of Wessex (871-99), sometimes called Alfred the Great, b. Wantage, Berkshire. Youngest of the four sons of King �thelwulf, he was sent in 853 and again in 855 to Rome, where the pope invested him with the honorary dignity of a Roman consul. He lacked adequate instruction and learned to read English only after he was 12. His adolescence was marked by ill-health and deep religious devotion, both of which persisted for the rest of his life. Little is known of him during the end of his fathers reign and the reigns of his older brothers, �thelbald and �thelbert, but when �thelred took the throne (865), Alfred became his secundarius (viceroy?) and aided his brother in subsequent battles against the Danes, who now threatened to overrun all England. When the Danes turned from the east and north regions late in 870 to Wessex, �thelred and Alfred resisted with varying fortunes in a victory at Ashdown, Berkshire, a defeat at Basing, and several indecisive engagements. Upon his brothers death after Easter in 871, Alfred became king of the West Saxons and overlord of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, and Essex. Faced by an enemy too powerful to defeat decisively, Alfred cleared the Danes from Wessex by a heavy payment of tribute (see Danegeld) in 871. In 876 and 877 the Danes returned to ravage for several months and finally, halted by Alfreds army, swore to leave Wessex forever. However, in a surprise invasion early in 878 the Danes crushed Alfreds forces, and he fled to Athelney in the fens of Somerset, from which he continued to wage guerrilla war. The famous legend of Alfred and the cakes, in which he appears as an unrecognized king, exposed to the scolding of a peasant woman, probably reflects this period of his life. Alfred rallied his army to win a complete victory at Edington. He then dictated the Peace of Chippenham (or Wedmore) by which Guthrum, the Danish leader, accepted baptism and probably agreed to seperate England into English and Danish "spheres of influence." The Danes moved into East Anglia and E Mercia, and Alfred established his overlordship in W Mercia. In later campaigns, scantily recorded, Alfred captured London and again defeated the Danes. Another treaty with Guthrum in 886 marked off the Danelaw E and N of the Thames, the Lea, the Ouse, and Watling Street, leaving the south and west of England to Alfred; established the relative indemnities of Englishmen and Danes in law; and attempted to prevent border raids.
Alfreds Achievements. Security gave Alfred his chance. He instituted reforms. Against further probable attacks by the Danes, he reorganized the militia or fyrd about numerous garrisoned forts throughout Wessex and commanded the construction of a fleet. Drawing from the old codes of �thelbert of Kent, Ine of Wessex, and Offa of Mercia, he issued his own code of laws, marked at once by Christian doctrine and measures for a stronger centralized monarchy. He reformed the administrations of justice and energetically participated in it. He came eventually to be considered the overlord of all England, although this title was not realized in concrete political administration. His greatest achievements were the revival of learning and the establishment of Old English literary prose. Alfred gathered together a group of eminent scholars, including the Welshman Asser. They strengthened the Church by reviving learning among the clergy and organized a court school like that of Charlemagne, in which not only youths and clerics but also mature nobles were taught. Alfred himself between 887 and 892 learned Latin and translated several Latin works into English -- Gregory the Greats Pastoral Care, Bedes Ecclesiastical History, Orosiuss universal history, Boethiuss Consolation of Philosophy, and St. Augustines Soliloquies. The adaptation of Boethius is most remarkable for the liberal interpolation of his own thoughts. The Orosius is interesting for the addition of accounts of voyages made by the Norse explorers, Ohthere and Wulfstan. Although he did not write it, Alfred greatly influenced the extant form of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle . All these pursuits were interrupted, but not ended, by new Danish invasions between 892 and 896. The struggle was severe because Alfreds military reforms had not been completed and because the invading forces were joined by settlers from the Danelaw. He received strong support from his son Edward the Elder, his daughter �thelfl�d, and her husband, �thelred of Mercia, and in the critical year of 893 the great Danish fort at Benfleet was successfully stormed. One Danish expedition attempting conquest by way of the Thames and Severn was defeated at Buttington; another occupying Chester was besieged and forced back to Essex. In 896 the Danes slowly dispersed to the Danelaw or overseas, and Alfreds new long ships fought with varying success against pirate raids on the south coast. Alfreds career was later embroidered by many heroic legends, but history alone justifies the inscription on the statue at his birthplace: "Alfred found learning dead, and he restored it; the laws powerless, and he gave them force; the Church debased, and he raised it; the land ravaged by a fearful enemy, from which he delivered it. Alfreds name shall live as long as mankind shall respect the past." Our knowledge of Alfreds life depends upon the biography by Asser, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , the royal charters, and Alfreds own writings. See the various editions of Alfreds works; R. H. Hodgkin, A History of the Anglo-Saxons, Vol. II (1935); biography by E. S. Duckett (1956). [The Illustrated Columbia Encyclopedia, Third ed., 1969]
Alfred the Great (849-901), king of the West Saxons in England, was born at Wantage in Berkshire. He was the youngest son of King Ethelwulf; but when his brother Ethelred died, in 871, Alfred was declared king by universal consent in the midst of a Danish invasion. He practically founded the British navy; reorganized the national defences; raised public buildings and reclaimed waste lands; and revised all existing laws, combining those which he found good into a single code. He established schools, encouraged literature in the native tongue, and improved the services of the church.
Alfreds principal writings are as follows: A translation of the Universal History of Orosius; a translation of Bedes Ecclesiastical History; a translation of the De Consolatione Philosophioe of Bo�tius; and a close translation of Gregorys Cura Pastoralis and Dialogues. There are Lives of Alfred by Asser, Reinhold Pauli, Thomas Hughes, Plummer, and Draper. Consult also Turks Legal Code of Alfred the Great; Snells Age of Alfred (1912). [World Wide Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1935]
Notes on King Alfred the Great Alfred was born in Wantage (now in Oxfordshire) and in 853 was taken to Rome, where he was confirmed by Pope Leo IV. Alfred assumed the crown in 871. He was the staunchest defender of his countrys soil against the Danish invaders who had begun to harass England during his Fathers and brothers reigns. He was at first driven into obscure quarters in the Isle of Athelney in the Somerset levels, where legend has it that he burnt the cakes of the housewife who was providing him with shelter. In 878, however, Alfred overthrew the Danes at Ethandune or Edington in Wiltshire and compelled them to accept the Treaty of Wedmore. Alfred then ruled England South of the Thames and most of Mercia. In 866 he captured and fortified London. At about that time Northumbria made submission to Alfred making him overlord of all-England. Alfred is surnamed the Great and is renowned for his martial abilities, as Founder of the Navy and for his efforts to further the causes of law, education and culture. He died on 26 or 28 Oct 899 (or 900, or 901) and was succeeded by his second son, Edward. {Burkes Peerage and Chambers Biographical Dictionary} [GADD.GED]
King of All England 871-899. Also has death date of 26 Oct 899. [ROWLEYHR.GED]
Alfred, called The Great (849-99), king of the West Saxons (871-99), and one of the outstanding figures of English history. Born in Wantage in southern England, Alfred was the youngest of five sons of King Ethelwulf. On the death of his brother Ethelred Alfred became king, coming to the throne during a Danish invasion. Although he succeeded in making peace with the Danes, they resumed their marauding expeditions five years later, and by early 878 they were successful almost everywhere. About Easter of 878, however, Alfred established himself at Athelney and began assembling an army. In the middle of that year he defeated the Danes and captured their stronghold, probably at present-day Edington. During the following 14 years Alfred was able to devote himself to the internal affairs of his kingdom. By 886 he had captured the city of London, and soon afterward he was recognized as the king of all England.
In 893 the Danes invaded England again, and the following four years were marked by warfare; eventually, the Danes were forced to withdraw from Alfred's domain. The only ruler to resist Danish invasions successfully, Alfred made his kingdom the rallying point for all Saxons, thus laying the foundation for the unification of England.
Alfred was a patron of learning and did much for the education of his people. He began a court school and invited British and foreign scholars, notably the Welsh monk Asser and the Irish-born philosopher and theologian John Scotus Erigena, to come there. Alfred translated such works as The Consolation of Philosophy by the Roman statesman and philosopher Boethius, The History of the World by the Spanish priest Paulus Orosius, and Pastoral Care by Pope Gregory I. Alfred's laws, the first promulgated in more than a century, were the first that made no distinction between the English and the Welsh peoples. [Mircosoft Encarta 98 Encyclopedia]
| i don't know |
What rank in the British Army was abolished in 1904 ? | Army Council (1904) | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
Edit
The disastrous campaigns of the Crimean War led to the consolidation of all administrative duties in 1855 under the Secretary of State for War, a Cabinet post. That office was not, however, solely responsible for the Army; the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) held a virtually equal level of responsibility. This was reduced in theory by the 1870 reforms introduced by Edward Cardwell , which subordinated the C-in-C to the Secretary for War. In practice, however, a huge amount of influence was retained by the exceedingly conservative C-in-C Field Marshal Prince George, 2nd Duke of Cambridge , who held the post between 1856-1895. His resistance to reform caused military efficiency to lag well behind Britain's rivals, a problem which became painfully obvious during the Second Boer War .
The situation was only remedied in 1904 when the post of Commander-in-Chief was abolished and replaced with that of the Chief of the General Staff . An Army Council was created along similar lines to the Board of Admiralty , chaired by the Secretary of State for War, and an Imperial General Staff was established to coordinate Army administration. [1] All branches of the Army were directed to be subordinated to the Army Council, which was designated as the "supreme administering body" of the Army. [2]
In 1964 the Army Council was reconstituted as the Army Board. [3]
See also
| Commander-in-chief |
In which country was snooker invented ? | The Royal Navy in 1905
the Royal Navy in 1905
'knots an hour'
[July 22nd 2009]
On introducing A Fleet in Being we looked briefly at the state of the Navy in 1897-98, when Kipling was the guest of Captain Bayly in HMS Pelorus in the Channel Squadron, and we mentioned some of the changes which lay immediately ahead (section headed �Some General Comments in the first page, �INTRODUCTION�). These were largely due to two admirals who quickened the tempo of naval competition, Alfred von Tirpitz in Germany, and John Arbuthnot Fisher in Britain.
The year 1905, which is approximately the mid-point of the appearance of the Pyecroft stories, and the year following Fisher�s appointment as First Sea Lord, when many of his innovations were in full blast, seems a convenient intermediate stage to consider how these were affecting the fleet. It may have been gathered that Fisher in his lifetime was always, and has remained, a controversial figure. The �Reader�s Guide� is not the place to discuss him in detail, and even a tentative assessment of his work is best left to our notes on Sea Warfare (1916) when they can be judged by the test of war. [In the event, Admiral Brock seems not to have commented on Fisher�s legacy in the Sea Warfare notes. This Editor would merely observe that, although it is held in some quarters that Fisher�s rivalry with von Tirpitz was a major contributory cause of the tension which ultimately led to World War I, a reading of the reports from the four Naval Attach�s in Berlin, 1906-1914 (Navy Records Society Naval Intelligence from Germany, Scolar Press, 2007) shows that some sections of German society were bent on war � see the ORG remarks below. If that point of view is accepted, then Fisher was, indeed, responsible for Britain�s ultimate victory at sea.] Here we merely refer to some of his changes which were reflected, directly or indirectly, in the Pyecroft stories.
The international situation
Admiral Tirpitz, with the enthusiastic backing of his Emperor, the mercurial Wilhelm II, was the driving and directing force behind the German Navy Acts of 1898 and 1900 designed to raise the efficient but modest German Navy to first-class status. With other factors, including violent anti-British feeling during the Boer War (1899-1902), a good deal of ominous Pan-Germanic literature and the German government�s refusal to consider an alliance except on terms that guaranteed Germany a free hand and the hegemony of Europe, this convinced Fisher that Germany was now the most probable enemy.
In 1898, we had nearly gone to war with France over Fashoda: now, the entente cordiale had made her a friend, if not quite an ally, and an uproarious visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth in 1905 supplied some of the background for �The Horse Marines�.
The material state of the Navy
Tirpitz, a brilliant naval administrator, was later described by Churchill as a �sincere, wrong-headed, purblind old Prussian�, because he completely misjudged British reaction to his navy-building. Britain had not too much objection to the grabbing of colonies in Africa and elsewhere, but the new German navy went beyond what was needed for their protection. Instead of being cowed, or at the least acquiescent, they took up the challenge, with Fisher well to the fore. Soon after he became the First Sea Lord on 21 October 1904, he set about concentrating naval strength at home. A first step was the paying off of a number of smaller ships (like Judson�s gunboat) on foreign stations, which were mainly employed in showing the flag and what was sometimes called �consular duty�, a comfort to merchants and missionaries, but of slender fighting value in war. Our defensive treaty with Japan in 1902, followed by her decisive defeat of the Russian fleet in 1905, enabled Fisher to recall a number of ships from the China station � in particular the two battleships which had been the two �ships of force� on the China station: thereafter, until HMS Prince of Wales and HMS Repulse were sent to Singapore in 1941, the China squadron consisted of cruisers. This was only the beginning of Fisher�s strategical answer to Tirpitz.
It has been said that the dominant feature of Fisher�s professional character was a love of innovation for its own sake; he was certainly responsible for many changes in ships and weapons. The most famous was HMS Dreadnought, the world�s first all-big-gun battleship, laid down in Portsmouth dockyard in 1905 amid what Lord Sydenham called �spectacular secrecy�, and completed in record time, at the expense of some other ships (turrets of 12-inch guns intended for the last two pre-dreadnought battleships which were still being built were �borrowed�).
Her main battery of ten 12-inch guns in five turrets offered the prospect of effective gunnery at ranges much greater than those possible with the mixed armaments of existing battleships whose different rates of fire and time of flight made fire control increasingly difficult as ranges went up. Gunnery practices on a competitive basis were now very much the thing, and were well publicised.
The Dreadnought was also the first man-of-war bigger than a light cruiser to be engined with turbines, which, although making for higher speeds, converted ships� engine-rooms from their state described on �Their Lawful Occasions� (cf., page 129 � �the floor ankle-deep in a creamy batter of oil and water�) into dry, comparatively silent, shining compartments.
The 1905 Programme included, too, the first battle cruisers which, with guns and armour only slightly less than the Dreadnought�s, could do 25 knots or more. �Speed is armour�, said Fisher, in one of his less accurate obiter dicta. However, he was well in advance of most of his contemporaries in foreseeing the possibilities of aircraft and submarines - our first small Holland boat was launched in 1901 � but continued to build bigger battleships while prophesying their extinction. He was right in all regards, of course, but not simultaneously.
The first trials of oil fuel, initially in conjunction with coal, had begun in 1903; and in the same year most British warships turned grey. In home waters, ships were painted that dark shade commonly called �battleship grey�. On some hotter stations, lighter shades were permitted, as being cooler. Torpedo boats and torpedo boat destroyers remained black until after the battle of Jutland in 1916.
Naval officers and ratings
Throughout the 19th century, officers remained firmly divided into the Military and Civil branches, the Military Branch consisting of Executive Officers (�Seaman Specialists� since 1956) and the Civil Branch, which comprised the surgeons, paymasters, instructors, engineers, etc. The first inroad on the privileged position of the former came from the newest Civil officers, the Engineers who, starting as civilians acquired with the very early steam engines, became warrant officers in 1837 and achieved commissions for their higher ranks some ten years later, and had since continued to rise, though not in proportion to their increased responsibilities, as machines multiplied. They had rather more friends in Parliament and Fleet Street than their medical or paymaster colleagues and Fisher, always anxious to forestall grievances, had as Second Sea Lord in 1903 introduced changes to meet some of their claims. (Table II below shows that they received military-style titles at this date.)
Table I shows the titles of their ranks in 1905, together with those of the Military Branch, Medical Officers and Paymasters, and their Army equivalents.
TABLE I - Relative ranks in the Royal Navy and the British Army
NAVY >>>
Sub Lieutenant
Assistant Engineer
Assistant Engineer (i.e., the rank of Staff Engineer was abolished and the rank of Chief Engineer was given more relative seniority)
Engineer Sub Lieutenant
Sub Lieutenant (E)
At the same time, Fisher introduced a new scheme of entry for officers, by which seamen and engineers would enter together as boys of 12 to 13 years, and be trained together for some years, both receiving some initial training in engineering. The engineers would then be separated for more advanced technical training, becoming virtually a specialisation like gunnery, torpedo and navigation specialists. The future, current and past titles of Engineer Officers are shown in Table II. It should be noted that since the new type of engineer officer would not be ready to serve afloat till 1910, the old system had to continue for some years to bridge the gap. (The last of the old-type engineer officers to reach flag rank retired in about 1947.)
Fisher had hoped to include Royal Marine officers in his common entry, but this did not come off, nor did his hope that entry at 12-13 would obviate the need for Instructor Officers at sea.
Naval officers had received their initial training in an old hulk since 1857: first at Portsmouth in HMS Illustrious, then in the Britannia, successively at Portsmouth, then Portland, and finally in the river Dart. (Doctor Johnson might have been interested by the fact that subordinate naval officers were accommodated in hulks some fifty years after they were abolished for convicts, but it may be doubted if this had any special significance except economy.) By the late 1890s, it had been decided, for reasons which included health, to replace the old ship with a purpose-built college ashore, and the foundation stone was laid by King Edward VII in 1902. (Kipling had visited the old Britannia during the short time he lived at Torquay in 1896.) The building was designed to hold two years-worth of cadets, but Fisher�s new scheme of officer training required a four year course, so somewhere else had to be found in short order to hold the first two years� entries. King Edward came to the rescue, offering space at Osborne, his mother�s house: and the Royal Naval College Osborne was hastily constructed around the former stable block.
The 1905 Navy List shows a few Staff Captains and one or two Staff Commanders, survivors of the old �Navigating Branch� � see the note on �Judson and the Empire�, page 332, line 16. It will be recalled that in the same tale (see note to page 333, line 7) Kipling confused one of these with the Admiral�s Secretary.
A Supplementary List included the names of some 150 Lieutenants who had been transferred from the Royal Naval Reserve to meet the needs of the expanding fleet. The two batches were unkindly known as �the Hungry Hundred� and �the Famished Fifty�, a jibe direct mainly at the terms of service offered them which, it was implied were so meagre that only the destitute would accept them. Among these was one Lieutenant G.B. Powell, whom Kipling had known in the Pelorus (see A Fleet in Being, note on Chapter I, Page 1, lines 12-14) and whom Captain Bayly took with him in the Aurora to the China station in 1899. Service ashore with the Naval Brigade in the Boxer Rebellion qualified him for promotion to Commander, and he retired as a rear-admiral after a career in which merit and good fortune were happily combined.
Warrant Officers
King�s Regulations and Admiralty Instructions specifically stated that �officers� included �commissioned officers, warrant officers and subordinate officers�, but as Kipling remarked "Herman Melville has it all in White Jacket" (The Fringes of the Fleet, page 52), and what Melville wrote there about warrant officers in the United States Navy was that:
Though these worthies sport long coats and wear the anchor button, yet, in the estimation of the wardroom officers, they are not, technically speaking, rated gentlemen. The first lieutenant, chaplain or surgeon for example would never dream of inviting them to dinner.
Marryatt�s Mr Chucks and others since had sadly noted this.
Some idea of the remarkable status of naval Warrant Officers is given by Table I, above, which shows that the senior grade (Chief Gunner, Chief Boatswain, etc.) ranked with a Second Lieutenant in the Army though the latter would normally be many years younger, with a different social background and very different prospects, while the newly-made Gunner or Boatswain ranked with but before Master Gunners and Conductors of Stores or Supplies.
They were indubitably officers and Kipling should not have brigaded them with Petty Officers, as he did on many occasions. In extenuation, it may be pointed out that they then messed by themselves and not in the wardroom, and that on promotion to warrant rank they were not given a stripe on their sleeve, but only the three buttons now worn by Chief Petty Officers. After ten years� service, they were awarded one thin stripe, and on becoming Chief, which normally took nearly another ten years, this was exchanged for a thick stripe, in both cases in addition to the three buttons, which commissioned officers had once worn but discarded in 1891.
In other respects, too, the Admiralty were not always helpful in maintaining their prestige. For example, when warrant rank was opened to engine-room artificers in 1897, the title �Artificer Engineer� was adopted, which to most laymen sounded akin to but less grand than Chief Engine-Room Artificer who, in fact, as a Chief Petty Officer, was still a rating, and so junior to the Artificer Engineer.
Warrant rank was not attained in the ordinary course through length of service, but required a qualifying examination, including both professional and educational tests, to be passed before the candidate was 35. A seaman also needed seven years� service at sea, technical and executive ability, and a high standard of seamanship and continuous good conduct. He was usually but not invariably a petty officer when he qualified.
Promotion to the senior rank of �Chief Gunner/Boatswain/Carpenter�, etc. was by selection, based largely on seniority plus an adequate standard of efficiency and conduct. Paradoxically, the rank carried a commission, but one issued by the Admiralty and not the Monarch, and the Chiefs were always understood to be included under the heading of �warrant officers�.
The regulations provided for promotion to Lieutenant for gallantry or exceptionally good service, but very few indeed were so favoured. Kipling met one of them during the South African War when, during a period of Boer interference with railway services, the Naval Commander-in-Chief, Sir Arthur Moore allowed him to take passage up the coast in Torpedo Boat No. 60, commanded by T.J.S. Lyne, a Gunner who had formerly been Sir Arthur�s Coxwain, when he was captain of the old Dreadnought, some ten years earlier. Not long after this, in early 1902, T.B. 60�s propeller dropped off and she would most certainly have been wrecked on a most inhospitable coast if Lyne had not contrived to sail her to Saldhana Bay under jury rig � �bonnets in a needlecase�, perhaps (see �The Bonds of Discipline�, page 63, line 20). He was rewarded by promotion to Lieutenant and eventually, after a notable career, retired as a Captain, the first former Boy Seaman to reach that rank in the 20th century, and became in due course Rear-Admiral (retired) Sir Thomas Lyne, K.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O..
He was, of course, an exceptional case, and warrant officers in general could reasonably complain that whereas the boatswain, gunner and carpenter had been among the first few permanent officers in the Navy, they had long been outstripped by �parvenus� like the purser, surgeon and others, and now by the engineer officers who in 1837 had been ranked with, but after, the carpenter. They could further claim that with a number of warrant officers capable of passing for lieutenant, and in some cases appointed in lieu of one, it was unfair to transfer officers from the R.N.R. over their heads.
Fisher, who had some democratic ideas (to which he would no doubt have given a freer rein had he not had to ask Government for money for shipbuilding) took an early opportunity of promoting a number of warrant officers to lieutenant. It was at least the beginning of an overdue evolutionary process. In 2009, the process is complete: all officers in the Royal Navy, however they have entered (after university, after school, from the lower deck by early selection, or from the lower deck as a senior rating (the old warrant officer, in effect)) are on a common list, and are in all respects equal as regards their opportunity for further promotion. However, lest any reader should say �But surely there are Warrant Officers in the Navy today�, the reply is �Yes, there are; their title was reintroduced in 1970: but they are today the equivalent of their counterparts in the Army and RAF�: they remain ratings, and it will be remembered that we remarked above that an old-fashioned warrant officer was an officer.
A German officer who made a Teutonically thorough study of the Royal navy at the turn of the 19th/20th century wrote of its warrant officers:
They exercise great influence on the smooth and rapid working of the service, on the cleanliness and trimness of the ship, on the efficiency of the guns, on the orderliness of life on board, etc. The careful management of the inventories and stores in their charge requires constant vigilance � They nay well be called The BACKBONE OF THE INNER SERVICE ON BOARD SHIP.
The capitals are Captain Stensel�s and are not undeserved.
Ratings
After more than a century spent in discussing better ways of manning the fleet in wartime, impressment of seamen in its old form was abandoned about ten years before the Crimean War. There was difficulty in finding enough men even for that limited contest, and some trial and error followed before the Navy settled down to a scheme based mainly upon early entry for �continuous service�, plus arrangement for reserves in emergency.
Seamen Boys entered between 15 and 16� for 12 years� service starting at the age of 18. Re-engagement for a further ten years was needed to qualify for a pension. A certain number of adults were entered on shorter engagements, but with a liability to be called up during a subsequent period in the Fleet Reserve.
The ORG continued:
The system of advancement, including both substantive and non-substantive ratings, has been discussed in our notes of "Their Lawful Occasions� (Page 116, line 1).
We felt that the notes provided by the ORG were a bit esoteric, and so simplified them. But in this more general piece, it is not inappropriate to give a bit more detail, particularly since Pyecroft, in "Their Lawful Occasions�, on that page, rattles off a series of incomprehensible names and initials.
A sailor entered as a Boy 2nd class at the age of 15�; at the age of 16� he became a Boy 1st class. Boy Niven ("Mrs. Bathurst") was a Boy Seaman. At the age of 17� he was rated Ordinary Seaman - in naval shorthand OD, or Ord. At the age of 18, he became eligible to be rated Able Seaman (AB): the sole criteria were his age, and his Captain�s assessment of his ability, based on what he was told by the man�s divisional officer, who in turn would have consulted his divisional petty officer (still known by his old title of, e.g., Captain of the Foretop). He was now an Able Seaman, Trained Man; cf. ��Op�, Yeoman of Signals, HMS Archimandrite ("The Bonds of Discipline" in Traffics and Discoveries) who had, it appears, been a �trained man in a stinkin� gunboat up the Saigon river�.
An Able Seaman wore no badge of rank on his left sleeve, but if his conduct remained Very Good (an assessment made annually, based on any naval �crimes� he may have committed) he would be awarded Good Conduct Badges at four-yearly intervals, and a Long Service and Good Conduct Medal after a total of fifteen years. His badges were indicated by chevrons, like a sergeant�s, on his left sleeve. If he had no ambition, he could remain an AB for the rest of his service (becoming a man of enormous experience in the eyes of the teenage Boys and Ords.). His pension, if he had his LS&GC Medal, would be 8s.2d. (41p) per week. When it is considered that a rural cottage or a small terraced house in a town could be rented for less than 5s a week, he was comparatively well-off � certainly in old age, before the coming of the Lloyd George pension in 1909.
Having become an AB, if he had ambition, and the necessary qualities of leadership, he could take an exam in his ship, and pass for Leading Hand, probably at about the age of 21-22. His name would be placed on a roster in the drafting office of his home division (Chatham, Portsmouth or Devonport) and he would be advanced to the higher rating when a vacancy occurred, conditional, as always, on his captain�s approval. A similar process occurred in due course for advancement to Petty Officer. In the years before World War I, with an expanding navy, advancement was comparatively rapid, so a man could be a Leading Seaman at 22 and a Petty Officer at 25-26. Promotion to Chief Petty Officer was achieved on a basis of seniority (and, as always, Captain�s recommendation). So a man might complete his career at the age of 40, as a Chief Petty Officer, and his pension then would be, assuming that he had spent ten years as a petty officer, and five years as a chief petty officer, 12s 6d. per week.
A leading seaman was still dressed in �square-rig� (the traditional sailor�s uniform, introduced in 1857, whose bell-bottomed trousers were creased, in reverse, at the side) and wore a badge on his left sleeve, above any good conduct badges, of a single foul anchor: he was consequently known, informally, as a �killick� (a �killick� was an anchor). One of his major duties was to act as the Leading Hand in charge of an individual mess: as such he would exercise a great deal of influence on the younger sailors � he and the �badgemen�, or �stripeys�, provided a steadying influence on the teen-age lads who formed the majority of the ship�s company. (The average age of a ship�s company has barely changed in 500 years � it is about 21.) There is a sailor�s song, to be sung to the tune of �The Girl I Left Behind Me�:
Oh, I couldn�t care less for the kellick of the mess,
Or the buffer and his working party,
I�m off ashore at half-past four:
I�m Jack-my-bleedin�-hearty.
Petty Officers wore �fore-and-aft� rig (trousers creased front and back, normally, with a jacket and peaked cap), and a badge of two crossed anchors: they messed separately. Chief Petty Officers were a similar uniform, but in place of the two crossed anchors, they wore three gilt buttons on the cuff of each sleeve. They, too, messed separately. And whereas ordinary sailors performed all the chores in their mess (as directed by the leading hand), Petty Officers and Chief Petty officers had a messman to do them.
While he was advancing up the ladder of military command, he was, at a different pace, advancing in his specialist qualification. In Pyecroft�s case, he was a Torpedoman. The Torpedo branch had been initiated by Jackie Fisher in 1872, and was responsible not only for torpedoes, but for all things electrical � initially only lighting and searchlights, but by 1905 including ventilation fans, etc. � and mines. In 1905, there were only two seaman sub-specialisations, Gunnery and Torpedo, and there were three degrees in each: the basic qualification was Seaman Gunner, or Seaman Torpedoman: the next step up was Leading Torpedo Operator (LTO), or, in the Gunnery branch, a further subdivision into Gunlayer 2nd class, or Quarter�s Armourer 2nd class: at the top of the tree was the Torpedo Instructor (TI) or Captain of the Gun 1st class. In �Their Lawful Occasions�, Pyecroft suggests he is both LTO and TI (to use another Gilbertian analogy, he was like Poo-ba in �The Mikado�, Lord High Everything Else).
He wore the badge of his sub-specialist qualification on his right arm, or, when he became a chief petty officer, on both lapels of his jacket.
The ORG remarked that, in �Their Lawful Occasions� � the most truly naval of all Kipling�s navy-based tales � Kipling tells how �Pyecroft and Morgan, standing easy, talked together of the King�s Service as reformers and revolutionists� (Page 129, lines 2-4). In our notes on that sentence we remarked:
The era 1900-1910, was indeed one of reform in the Royal Navy, with Admiral Sir John Fisher leading. When this tale was written, he had scarcely got into his stride. He had, as we have seen remarked elsewhere, given the Mediterranean Fleet a good shake-up, and now, as Second Sea Lord, he was about to start on officers� training and an improvement of the sailor�s lot, but the dust did not really start to fly until he became First Sea Lord in 1904.
It is unlikely that Pyecroft and Morgan, as ratings, would have discussed what �Jackie� might do in strategic, material and operational terms. And they might have been dubious about his lower deck reforms � the British sailor, then particularly, but still to a degree, is a conservative (small �c�) person. But Fisher was prescient: forty years earlier, life on the lower deck, though uncomfortable to our 21st century eyes, was as good as, and better than, much comparable employment. The sailor got paid and fed regularly: the diet, though monotonous, was nourishing and plentiful (it has been calculated that the ration-scale gave 3000 calories per day): his job was secure: and at the end of 20 years service, he received a non-contributory pension: all this in the 1860s.
But by the end of the century, as trade unions began to make their mark, and labour unrest became a major feature of the British industrial scene, the Services had to ensure that the �taint� did not spread to Britain�s �sure shield�. So Fisher�s reforms were timely, and Kipling may have been reflecting the first stirrings which he might have heard in 1897 and 1898.�
It must be acknowledged that the Navy was somewhat slow in keeping pace with both the standard of comfort and the increasingly liberal spirit of the time. As regards the former, this was certainly true by the standards of middle-class Edwardians, but it reflected pretty accurately the standard of living (though probably not the aspirations) of the class from which sailors were drawn: and it was certainly better than life in a slum tenement. However, the Navy was emphatically not democratic: for very good reasons when at sea, instant obedience was demanded of every man, from the Captain downwards: this rubbed off, for less good reasons, when in harbour. So there was no difference between the alacrity with which you obeyed an order to �let go that lashing � now!� and �Right, I want you to scrub out that corner of the mess, it hasn�t been done for weeks�. One primary difficulty in making improvements was, as ever, financial, accentuated by the need to meet the German challenge. (�Twas ever thus! Samuel Pepys, two and a quarter centuries earlier, said words to the effect that, in peace-time, the life of a virtuous sea-officer was one continuous battle against the Lords of the Treasury.)
A second difficulty, so far as advancement to commissioned rank was concerned, was that until the general standard of education in the country advanced, few candidates from the lower deck could hope to compete with youths of their own age who had been privately educated, in meeting the dual demands of the Navy for both adequate learning and power of leadership (the former was particularly necessary in the new, highly technical, navy of the era).
What the country was prepared to grant towards general welfare is shown by the fact that although in 1890, after trial of a pilot scheme in Devonport, it was agreed that the increasingly uncomfortable and insanitary accommodation in the Home ports should be replaced by barracks ashore, allocation of funds for bricks and mortar was so limited that not until 1903 could men from the old hulk Duke of Wellington, one of the last screw first-rates, march into the Royal Naval Barracks at Portsmouth: the barracks at Chatham were not completed until 1909.
The tempo of Fisher�s reforms thus was limited by competing factors and circumstances generally, but by 1905 he had made an advance on a broad front that extended to comfort, diet, pay and allowances and greater equality of opportunity. Progress was sometimes uneven, and was occasionally shadowed by the stokers� �mutiny� in Portsmouth Barracks incidentally alluded to in �The Horse Marines� (it was something of a storm in a teacup, rather than a deep-seated, deeply-felt, serious grievance). But the Service was geared to absorb a few setbacks and they were soon lost in the general advance. It was not British discipline that cracked under the strain in 1914-18.
[A.W./P.W.B.]
| i don't know |
"An ""event horizon"" is the defining feature of which astronomical phenonmenon ?" | event - definition - What is ?
What is ?
definition : event
Event may refer to:
==Gatherings of people== * Ceremony, an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion * Convention (meeting), a gathering of individuals engaged in some common interest * Event management, the organization of events * Festival, an event that celebrates some unique aspect of a community * Happening, a type of artistic performance * Media event, an event created for publicity * Party, a large social or recreational gathering * Sporting event, at which athletic competition takes place
==In science, technology, and mathematics== * Event (computing), a software message indicating that something has happened, such as a keystroke or mouse click * Event (philosophy), an object in time, or an instantiation of a property in an object * Event (probability theory), a set of outcomes to which a probability is assigned * Event (relativity), a point in space at an instant in time, i.e. a location in spacetime * Event (synchronization primitive), a type of synchronization mechanism * Event (UML), in Unified Modeling Language, a notable occurrence at a particular point in time * Event (particle physics), refers to the results just after a fundamental interaction took place between subatomic particles * Event horizon, a boundary in spacetime, typically surrounding a black hole, beyond which events cannot affect an exterior observer * Celestial event, an astronomical phenomenon of interest * Extinction event, a sharp decrease in the number of extant species in a short period of time * Impact event, in which an extraterrestrial object impacts planet * Mental event, something that happens in the mind, such as a thought
==In arts and entertainment== * The Event, an American conspiracy thriller television series for NBC * The Event (2003 film), a 2003 film directed by Thom Fitzgerald * Derren Brown: The Events, a Channel 4 television series featuring the illusionist Derren Brown * Event, a literary magazine published by Douglas College
==See also== * Competition, a contest between organisms, animals, individuals, groups, etc. * Disaster, an event causing significant damage or destruction, loss of life, or change to the environment * Event chain methodology, in project management * Eventing, an equestrian event comprising dressage, cross-country and show-jumping * Eventive (disambiguation) * Grouped Events, in philosophy, the experience of two or more events that occur in sequence or concurrently that can be subsequently categorized * News, new information or information on current events * Phenomenon, any observable occurrence * Portal:Current events (Wikipedia portal) * Sequence of events * Sustainable event management or Event Greening * The Event (disambiguation)
| Black hole |
Who was the mother of King Henry VI of England ? | BLACK HOLES by Ted Bunn
How big is a black hole?
------------------------
There are at least two different ways to describe how big something is. We can say how much mass it has, or we can say how much space it takes up. Let's talk first about the masses of black holes.
There is no limit in principle to how much or how little mass a black hole can have. Any amount of mass at all can in principle be made to form a black hole if you compress it to a high enough density. We suspect that most of the black holes that are actually out there were produced in the deaths of massive stars, and so we expect those black holes to weigh about as much as a massive star. A typical mass for such a stellar black hole would be about 10 times the mass of the Sun, or about 10^{31} kilograms. (Here I'm using scientific notation: 10^{31} means a 1 with 31 zeroes after it, or 10,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.) Astronomers also suspect that many galaxies harbor extremely massive black holes at their centers. These are thought to weigh about a million times as much as the Sun, or 10^{36} kilograms.
The more massive a black hole is, the more space it takes up. In fact, the Schwarzschild radius (which means the radius of the horizon) and the mass are directly proportional to one another: if one black hole weighs ten times as much as another, its radius is ten times as large. A black hole with a mass equal to that of the Sun would have a radius of 3 kilometers. So a typical 10-solar-mass black hole would have a radius of 30 kilometers, and a million-solar-mass black hole at the center of a galaxy would have a radius of 3 million kilometers. Three million kilometers may sound like a lot, but it's actually not so big by astronomical standards. The Sun, for example, has a radius of about 700,000 kilometers, and so that supermassive black hole has a radius only about four times bigger than the Sun.
What would happen to me if I fell into a black hole?
----------------------------------------------------
Let's suppose that you get into your spaceship and point it straight towards the million-solar-mass black hole in the center of our galaxy. (Actually, there's some debate about whether our galaxy contains a central black hole, but let's assume it does for the moment.) Starting from a long way away from the black hole, you just turn off your rockets and coast in. What happens?
At first, you don't feel any gravitational forces at all. Since you're in free fall, every part of your body and your spaceship is being pulled in the same way, and so you feel weightless. (This is exactly the same thing that happens to astronauts in Earth orbit: even though both astronauts and space shuttle are being pulled by the Earth's gravity, they don't feel any gravitational force because everything is being pulled in exactly the same way.) As you get closer and closer to the center of the hole, though, you start to feel "tidal" gravitational forces. Imagine that your feet are closer to the center than your head. The gravitational pull gets stronger as you get closer to the center of the hole, so your feet feel a stronger pull than your head does. As a result you feel "stretched." (This force is called a tidal force because it is exactly like the forces that cause tides on earth.) These tidal forces get more and more intense as you get closer to the center, and eventually they will rip you apart.
For a very large black hole like the one you're falling into, the tidal forces are not really noticeable until you get within about 600,000 kilometers of the center. Note that this is after you've crossed the horizon. If you were falling into a smaller black hole, say one that weighed as much as the Sun, tidal forces would start to make you quite uncomfortable when you were about 6000 kilometers away from the center, and you would have been torn apart by them long before you crossed the horizon. (That's why we decided to let you jump into a big black hole instead of a small one: we wanted you to survive at least until you got inside.)
What do you see as you are falling in? Surprisingly, you don't necessarily see anything particularly interesting. Images of faraway objects may be distorted in strange ways, since the black hole's gravity bends light, but that's about it. In particular, nothing special happens at the moment when you cross the horizon. Even after you've crossed the horizon, you can still see things on the outside: after all, the light from the things on the outside can still reach you. No one on the outside can see you, of course, since the light from you can't escape past the horizon.
How long does the whole process take? Well, of course, it depends on how far away you start from. Let's say you start at rest from a point whose distance from the singularity is ten times the black hole's radius. Then for a million-solar-mass black hole, it takes you about 8 minutes to reach the horizon. Once you've gotten that far, it takes you only another seven seconds to hit the singularity. By the way, this time scales with the size of the black hole, so if you'd jumped into a smaller black hole, your time of death would be that much sooner.
Once you've crossed the horizon, in your remaining seven seconds, you might panic and start to fire your rockets in a desperate attempt to avoid the singularity. Unfortunately, it's hopeless, since the singularity lies in your future, and there's no way to avoid your future. In fact, the harder you fire your rockets, the sooner you hit the singularity. It's best just to sit back and enjoy the ride.
My friend Penelope is sitting still at a safe distance, watching me fall into the black hole. What does she see?
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Penelope sees things quite differently from you. As you get closer and closer to the horizon, she sees you move more and more slowly. In fact, no matter how long she waits, she will never quite see you reach the horizon.
In fact, more or less the same thing can be said about the material that formed the black hole in the first place. Suppose that the black hole formed from a collapsing star. As the material that is to form the black hole collapses, Penelope sees it get smaller and smaller, approaching but never quite reaching its Schwarzschild radius. This is why black holes were originally called frozen stars: because they seem to 'freeze' at a size just slightly bigger than the Schwarzschild radius.
Why does she see things this way? The best way to think about it is that it's really just an optical illusion. It doesn't really take an infinite amount of time for the black hole to form, and it doesn't really take an infinite amount of time for you to cross the horizon. (If you don't believe me, just try jumping in! You'll be across the horizon in eight minutes, and crushed to death mere seconds later.) As you get closer and closer to the horizon, the light that you're emitting takes longer and longer to climb back out to reach Penelope. In fact, the radiation you emit right as you cross the horizon will hover right there at the horizon forever and never reach her. You've long since passed through the horizon, but the light signal telling her that won't reach her for an infinitely long time.
There is another way to look at this whole business. In a sense, time really does pass more slowly near the horizon than it does far away. Suppose you take your spaceship and ride down to a point just outside the horizon, and then just hover there for a while (burning enormous amounts of fuel to keep yourself from falling in). Then you fly back out and rejoin Penelope. You will find that she has aged much more than you during the whole process; time passed more slowly for you than it did for her.
So which of these two explanation (the optical-illusion one or the time-slowing-down one) is really right? The answer depends on what system of coordinates you use to describe the black hole. According to the usual system of coordinates, called "Schwarzschild coordinates," you cross the horizon when the time coordinate t is infinity. So in these coordinates it really does take you infinite time to cross the horizon. But the reason for that is that Schwarzschild coordinates provide a highly distorted view of what's going on near the horizon. In fact, right at the horizon the coordinates are infinitely distorted (or, to use the standard terminology, "singular"). If you choose to use coordinates that are not singular near the horizon, then you find that the time when you cross the horizon is indeed finite, but the time when Penelope sees you cross the horizon is infinite. It took the radiation an infinite amount of time to reach her. In fact, though, you're allowed to use either coordinate system, and so both explanations are valid. They're just different ways of saying the same thing.
In practice, you will actually become invisible to Penelope before too much time has passed. For one thing, light is "redshifted" to longer wavelengths as it rises away from the black hole. So if you are emitting visible light at some particular wavelength, Penelope will see light at some longer wavelength. The wavelengths get longer and longer as you get closer and closer to the horizon. Eventually, it won't be visible light at all: it will be infrared radiation, then radio waves. At some point the wavelengths will be so long that she'll be unable to observe them. Furthermore, remember that light is emitted in individual packets called photons. Suppose you are emitting photons as you fall past the horizon. At some point, you will emit your last photon before you cross the horizon. That photon will reach Penelope at some finite time -- typically less than an hour for that million-solar-mass black hole -- and after that she'll never be able to see you again. (After all, none of the photons you emit *after* you cross the horizon will ever get to her.)
If a black hole existed, would it suck up all the matter in the Universe?
---------------------------------------------------------------
Heck, no. A black hole has a "horizon," which means a region from which you can't escape. If you cross the horizon, you're doomed to eventually hit the singularity. But as long as you stay outside of the horizon, you can avoid getting sucked in. In fact, to someone well outside of the horizon, the gravitational field surrounding a black hole is no different from the field surrounding any other object of the same mass. In other words, a one-solar-mass black hole is no better than any other one-solar-mass object (such as, for example, the Sun) at "sucking in" distant objects.
What if the Sun became a black hole?
------------------------------------
Well, first, let me assure you that the Sun has no intention of doing any such thing. Only stars that weigh considerably more than the Sun end their lives as black holes. The Sun is going to stay roughly the way it is for another five billion years or so. Then it will go through a brief phase as a red giant star, during which time it will expand to engulf the planets Mercury and Venus, and make life quite uncomfortable on Earth (oceans boiling, atmosphere escaping, that sort of thing). After that, the Sun will end its life by becoming a boring white dwarf star. If I were you, I'd make plans to move somewhere far away before any of this happens. I also wouldn't buy any of those 8-billion-year government bonds.
But I digress. What if the Sun *did* become a black hole for some reason? The main effect is that it would get very dark and very cold around here. The Earth and the other planets would not get sucked into the black hole; they would keep on orbiting in exactly the same paths they follow right now. Why? Because the horizon of this black hole would be very small -- only about 3 kilometers -- and as we observed above, as long as you stay well outside the horizon, a black hole's gravity is no stronger than that of any other object of the same mass.
Is there any evidence that black holes exist?
---------------------------------------------
Yes. You can't see a black hole directly, of course, since light can't get past the horizon. That means that we have to rely on indirect evidence that black holes exist.
Suppose you have found a region of space where you think there might be a black hole. How can you check whether there is one or not? The first thing you'd like to do is measure how much mass there is in that region. If you've found a large mass concentrated in a small volume, and if the mass is dark, then it's a good guess that there's a black hole there. There are two kinds of systems in which astronomers have found such compact, massive, dark objects: the centers of galaxies (including perhaps our own Milky Way Galaxy), and X-ray-emitting binary systems in our own Galaxy.
According to a recent review by Kormendy and Richstone (to appear in the 1995 edition of "Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics"), eight galaxies have been observed to contain such massive dark objects in their centers. The masses of the cores of these galaxies range from one million to several billion times the mass of the Sun. The mass is measured by observing the speed with which stars and gas orbit around the center of the galaxy: the faster the orbital speeds, the stronger the gravitational force required to hold the stars and gas in their orbits. (This is the most common way to measure masses in astronomy. For example, we measure the mass of the Sun by observing how fast the planets orbit it, and we measure the amount of dark matter in galaxies by measuring how fast things orbit at the edge of the galaxy.)
These massive dark objects in galactic centers are thought to be black holes for at least two reasons. First, it is hard to think of anything else they could be: they are too dense and dark to be stars or clusters of stars. Second, the only promising theory to explain the enigmatic objects known as quasars and active galaxies postulates that such galaxies have supermassive black holes at their cores. If this theory is correct, then a large fraction of galaxies -- all the ones that are now or used to be active galaxies -- must have supermassive black holes at the center. Taken together, these arguments strongly suggest that the cores of these galaxies contain black holes, but they do not constitute absolute proof.
Two very recent discovery has been made that strongly support the hypothesis that these systems do indeed contain black holes. First, a nearby active galaxy was found to have a "water maser" system (a very powerful source of microwave radiation) near its nucleus. Using the technique of very-long-baseline interferometry, a group of researchers was able to map the velocity distribution of the gas with very fine resolution. In fact, they were able to measure the velocity within less than half a light-year of the center of the galaxy. From this measurement they can conclude that the massive object at the center of this galaxy is less than half a light-year in radius. It is hard to imagine anything other than a black hole that could have so much mass concentrated in such a small volume. (This result was reported by Miyoshi et al. in the 12 January 1995 issue of Nature, vol. 373, p. 127.)
A second discovery provides even more compelling evidence. X-ray astronomers have detected a spectral line from one galactic nucleus that indicates the presence of atoms near the nucleus that are moving extremely fast (about 1/3 the speed of light). Furthermore, the radiation from these atoms has been redshifted in just the manner one would expect for radiation coming from near the horizon of a black hole. These observations would be very difficult to explain in any other way besides a black hole, and if they are verified, then the hypothesis that some galaxies contain supermassive black holes at their centers would be fairly secure. (This result was reported in the 22 June 1995 issue of Nature, vol. 375, p. 659, by Tanaka et al.)
A completely different class of black-hole candidates may be found in our own Galaxy. These are much lighter, stellar-mass black holes, which are thought to form when a massive star ends its life in a supernova explosion. If such a stellar black hole were to be off somewhere by itself, we wouldn't have much hope of finding it. However, many stars come in binary systems -- pairs of stars in orbit around each other. If one of the stars in such a binary system becomes a black hole, we might be able to detect it. In particular, in some binary systems containing a compact object such as a black hole, matter is sucked off of the other object and forms an "accretion disk" of stuff swirling into the black hole. The matter in the accretion disk gets very hot as it falls closer and closer to the black hole, and it emits copious amounts of radiation, mostly in the X-ray part of the spectrum. Many such "X-ray binary systems" are known, and some of them are thought to be likely black-hole candidates.
Suppose you've found an X-ray binary system. How can you tell whether the unseen compact object is a black hole? Well, one thing you'd certainly like to do is to estimate its mass. By measuring the orbital speed of visible star (together with a few other things), you can figure out the mass of the invisible companion. (The technique is quite similar to the one we described above for supermassive black holes in galactic centers: the faster the star is moving, the stronger the gravitational force required to keep it in place, and so the more massive the invisible companion.) If the mass of the compact object is found to be very large very large, then there is no kind of object we know about that it could be other than a black hole. (An ordinary star of that mass would be visible. A stellar remnant such as a neutron star would be unable to support itself against gravity, and would collapse to a black hole.) The combination of such mass estimates and detailed studies of the radiation from the accretion disk can supply powerful circumstantial evidence that the object in question is indeed a black hole.
Many of these "X-ray binary" systems are known, and in some cases the evidence in support of the black-hole hypothesis is quite strong. In a review article in the 1992 issue of Annual Reviews of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Anne Cowley summarized the situation by saying that there were three such systems known (two in our galaxy and one in the nearby Large Magellanic Cloud) for which very strong evidence exists that the mass of the invisible object is too large to be anything but a black hole. There are many more such objects that are thought to be likely black holes on the basis of slightly less evidence. Furthermore, this field of research has been very active since 1992, and the number of strong candidates by now is larger than three.
How do black holes evaporate?
-----------------------------
This is a tough one. Back in the 1970's, Stephen Hawking came up with theoretical arguments showing that black holes are not really entirely black: due to quantum-mechanical effects, they emit radiation. The energy that produces the radiation comes from the mass of the black hole. Consequently, the black hole gradually shrinks. It turns out that the rate of radiation increases as the mass decreases, so the black hole continues to radiate more and more intensely and to shrink more and more rapidly until it presumably vanishes entirely.
Actually, nobody is really sure what happens at the last stages of black hole evaporation: some researchers think that a tiny, stable remnant is left behind. Our current theories simply aren't good enough to let us tell for sure one way or the other. As long as I'm disclaiming, let me add that the entire subject of black hole evaporation is extremely speculative. It involves figuring out how to perform quantum-mechanical (or rather quantum-field-theoretic) calculations in curved spacetime, which is a very difficult task, and which gives results that are essentially impossible to test with experiments. Physicists *think* that we have the correct theories to make predictions about black hole evaporation, but without experimental tests it's impossible to be sure.
Now why do black holes evaporate? Here's one way to look at it, which is only moderately inaccurate. (I don't think it's possible to do much better than this, unless you want to spend a few years learning about quantum field theory in curved space.) One of the consequences of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics is that it's possible for the law of energy conservation to be violated, but only for very short durations. The Universe is able to produce mass and energy out of nowhere, but only if that mass and energy disappear again very quickly. One particular way in which this strange phenomenon manifests itself goes by the name of vacuum fluctuations. Pairs consisting of a particle and antiparticle can appear out of nowhere, exist for a very short time, and then annihilate each other. Energy conservation is violated when the particles are created, but all of that energy is restored when they annihilate again. As weird as all of this sounds, we have actually confirmed experimentally that these vacuum fluctuations are real.
Now, suppose one of these vacuum fluctuations happens near the horizon of a black hole. It may happen that one of the two particles falls across the horizon, while the other one escapes. The one that escapes carries energy away from the black hole and may be detected by some observer far away. To that observer, it will look like the black hole has just emitted a particle. This process happens repeatedly, and the observer sees a continuous stream of radiation from the black hole.
Won't the black hole have evaporated out from under me before I reach it?
---------------------------------------------------------------------
We've observed that, from the point of view of your friend Penelope who remains safely outside of the black hole, it takes you an infinite amount of time to cross the horizon. We've also observed that black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation in a finite amount of time. So by the time you reach the horizon, the black hole will be gone, right?
Wrong. When we said that Penelope would see it take forever for you to cross the horizon, we were imagining a non-evaporating black hole. If the black hole is evaporating, that changes things. Your friend will see you cross the horizon at the exact same moment she sees the black hole evaporate. Let me try to describe why this is true.
Remember what we said before: Penelope is the victim of an optical illusion. The light that you emit when you're very near the horizon (but still on the outside) takes a very long time to climb out and reach her. If the black hole lasts forever, then the light may take arbitrarily long to get out, and that's why she doesn't see you cross the horizon for a very long (even an infinite) time. But once the black hole has evaporated, there's nothing to stop the light that carries the news that you're about to cross the horizon from reaching her. In fact, it reaches her at the same moment as that last burst of Hawking radiation. Of course, none of that will matter to you: you've long since crossed the horizon and been crushed at the singularity. Sorry about that, but you should have thought about it before you jumped in.
What is a white hole?
---------------------
The equations of general relativity have an interesting mathematical property: they are symmetric in time. That means that you can take any solution to the equations and imagine that time flows backwards rather than forwards, and you'll get another valid solution to the equations. If you apply this rule to the solution that describes black holes, you get an object known as a white hole. Since a black hole is a region of space from which nothing can escape, the time-reversed version of a black hole is a region of space into which nothing can fall. In fact, just as a black hole can only suck things in, a white hole can only spit things out.
White holes are a perfectly valid mathematical solution to the equations of general relativity, but that doesn't mean that they actually exist in nature. In fact, they almost certainly do not exist, since there's no way to produce one. (Producing a white hole is just as impossible as destroying a black hole, since the two processes are time-reversals of each other.)
What is a wormhole?
-------------------
So far, we have only considered ordinary "vanilla" black holes. Specifically, we have been talking all along about black holes that are not rotating and have no electric charge. If we consider black holes that rotate and/or have charge, things get more complicated. In particular, it is possible to fall into such a black hole and not hit the singularity. In effect, the interior of a charged or rotating black hole can "join up" with a corresponding white hole in such a way that you can fall into the black hole and pop out of the white hole. This combination of black and white holes is called a wormhole.
The white hole may be somewhere very far away from the black hole; indeed, it may even be in a "different Universe" -- that is, a region of spacetime that, aside from the wormhole itself, is completely disconnected from our own region. A conveniently-located wormhole would therefore provide a convenient and rapid way to travel very large distances, or even to travel to another Universe. Maybe the exit to the wormhole would lie in the past, so that you could travel back in time by going through. All in all, they sound pretty cool.
But before you apply for that research grant to go search for them, there are a couple of things you should know. First of all, wormholes almost certainly do not exist. As we said above in the section on white holes, just because something is a valid mathematical solution to the equations doesn't mean that it actually exists in nature. In particular, black holes that form from the collapse of ordinary matter (which includes all of the black holes that we think exist) do not form wormholes. If you fall into one of those, you're not going to pop out anywhere. You're going to hit a singularity, and that's all there is to it.
Furthermore, even if a wormhole were formed, it is thought that it would not be stable. Even the slightest perturbation (including the perturbation caused by your attempt to travel through it) would cause it to collapse.
Finally, even if wormholes exist and are stable, they are quite unpleasant to travel through. Radiation that pours into the wormhole (from nearby stars, the cosmic microwave background, etc.) gets blueshifted to very high frequencies. As you try to pass through the wormhole, you will get fried by these X-rays and gamma rays.
Where can I go to learn more about black holes?
-----------------------------------------------
Let me begin by acknowledging that I cribbed some of the above material from the article about black holes in the Frequently Asked Questions list for the Usenet newsgroup sci.physics. The sci.physics FAQ is posted monthly to sci.physics and is also available by anonymous ftp from rtfm.mit.edu (and probably other places). The article about black holes, which is excellent, was written by Matt McIrvin. The FAQ contains other neat things too.
There are lots of books out there about black holes and related matters. Kip Thorne's "Black Holes and Time Warps: Einstein's Outrageous Legacy" is a good one. William Kaufmann's "Black Holes and Warped Spacetime" is also worth reading. R. Wald's "Space, Time, and Gravity" is an exposition of general relativity for non-scientists. I haven't read it myself, but I've heard good things about it.
Both of these books are aimed at readers without much background in physics. If you want more "meat" (i.e., more mathematics), then you probably start with a book on the basics of relativity theory. The best introduction to the subject is "Spacetime Physics" by E.F. Taylor and J.A. Wheeler. (This book is mostly about special relativity, but the last chapter discusses the general theory.) Taylor and Wheeler have been threatening for about two years now to publish a sequel entitled "Scouting Black Holes," which should be quite good if it ever comes out. "Spacetime Physics" does not assume that you know vast amounts of physics, but it does assume that you're willing to work hard at understanding this stuff. It is not light reading, although it is more playful and less intimidating than most physics books.
Finally, if "Spacetime Physics" isn't enough for you, you could try any of several introductions to general relativity. B. Schutz's "A First Course in General Relativity" and W. Rindler's "Essential Relativity" are a couple of possibilities. And for the extremely valiant reader with an excellent background in physics, there's the granddaddy of all books on general relativity, Misner, Thorne, and Wheeler's "Gravitation." R. Wald's book "General Relativity" is at a comparable level to "Gravitation," although the styles of the two books are enormously different. What little I know about black-hole evaporation comes from Wald's book. Let me emphasize that all of these books, and especially the last two, assume that you know quite a lot of physics. They are not for the faint of heart.
| i don't know |
What title did George Orwell give his book recalling his time as a soldier in the Spanish Civil War ? | Homage to Catalonia: George Orwell, Will Jonson: 9781505818390: Amazon.com: Books
Homage to Catalonia
Buy the selected items together
This item:Homage to Catalonia by George Orwell Paperback $6.99
In Stock.
Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
FREE Shipping on orders over $25. Details
Ships from and sold by Amazon.com.
FREE Shipping on orders over $25. Details
Customers Who Bought This Item Also Bought
Page 1 of 1 Start over Page 1 of 1
This shopping feature will continue to load items. In order to navigate out of this carousel please use your heading shortcut key to navigate to the next or previous heading.
Paperback
$11.29 Prime
Page 1 of 1 Start over
Sponsored Products are advertisements for products sold by merchants on Amazon.com. When you click on a Sponsored Product ad, you will be taken to an Amazon detail page where you can learn more about the product and purchase it.
To learn more about Amazon Sponsored Products, click here .
Man with Gun and The Sea of Ulysses
John Ireland
Killers, cops, movie stars, Jesus, Bella Darvi, a teenage boy's secret, reality and fiction all bend and blend into a psychological autobiography
The Libyan
Esther Kofod
THE LIBYAN provides a rare look into an obscure culture and a young mothers journey into a chaotic world of political intrigue...
Ad feedback
Special Offers and Product Promotions
A National Review Top Ten Best Nonfiction Books of the Century
“One of Orwell’s very best books and perhaps the best book that exists on the Spanish Civil War.”—The New Yorker
In 1936, originally intending merely to report on the Spanish Civil War as a journalist, George Orwell found himself embroiled as a participant—as a member of the Workers’ Party of Marxist Unity. Fighting against the Fascists, he described in painfully vivid and occasionally comic detail life in the trenches—with a “democratic army” composed of men with no ranks, no titles, and often no weapons—and his near fatal wounding. As the politics became tangled, Orwell was pulled into a heartbreaking conflict between his own personal ideals and the complicated realities of political power struggles.
Considered one of the finest works by a man V. S. Pritchett called “the wintry conscience of a generation,” Homage to Catalonia is both Orwell’s memoir of his experiences at the front and his tribute to those who died in what he called a fight for common decency. This edition features a new foreword by Adam Hochschild placing the war in greater context and discussing the evolution of Orwell’s views on the Spanish Civil War.
“No one except George Orwell . . . made the violence and self-dramatization of Spain so burning and terrible.”— Alfred Kazin, New York Times
| Homage to Catalonia |
The Old Kent Road in London follows the line of which Roman road ? | George Orwell And Michael Herr Exploration Of Credibility Philosophy Essay
George Orwell And Michael Herr Exploration Of Credibility Philosophy Essay
Published:
Last Edited:
23rd March, 2015
This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers.
George Orwell's Homage to Catalonia and Michael Herr's Dispatches both tell the real life accounts of the authors' experiences during the Spanish civil war and the Vietnam war respectively. They are works of literary journalism which use narrative structures most often found in fiction and combine these with fact. This essay explores whether a subjective style of writing has an effect on the writer's ability to tell the truth and, more specifically, whether the writers themselves have credibility and can be considered truthful, or whether the truth is lost somewhere in the desire for a more artistic or moral endeavour. It also examines what "truths" each of the authors uncover in their work. Before looking directly at each author in turn, it would perhaps be more illuminating to first examine the critical arguments that may be made about this style of writing in terms of its status as a valid form of journalism.
The majority of criticisms of the genre of literary journalism revolve around its subjective nature, in comparison to an (apparently) objective journalism. Literary journalism has been criticized for 'opening the door to mistaken accounts of the conflicts, and for being 'self righteous', and 'moralising' (McLaughlin, 2002: 166-168; Ward, 1998).' [ 1 ] The opposite argument, however, has been applied to what might be described as objective "distanced" journalism,
'for example, recent criticism has condemned the tradition of detached reporting for its dispassionate stance. Public service broadcasters, including the BBC, have come under fire for acting merely as 'transmission vehicles' (Bell, 1996; McLaughlin, 2002: 21).' [ 2 ]
To say that literary journalism moralizes events does not actually question the truth of it. It merely means that value judgements may be attached to the work, something which objective media has been criticized for lacking. Centrism does not guarantee truth; the validity of the information has nothing to do with how it is presented.
Some critics argue that literary journalism is concerned more with artistic values than with journalistic ones, the result being that fact can become skewed in favour of a more dramatic narrative and that journalistic intent is overshadowed by artistic desire. John Hellman states that writers of literary journalism may 'sacrifice truth for effect by overly dramatizing. [...]But this breaking of the journalistic contract invalidates the works involved. ' [ 3 ] This may be true, but how as a reader are we to know when an author has broken the contract? Of course, major events and incidents can be checked against other reputable reports for inconsistencies, but the smaller details; private conversations for example, are much more difficult to verify. The first answer concerns the issue of trust, and it will be more illuminating to examine how this is established in the works of Orwell and Herr respectively. The second answer is that the smaller details and facts may be trivialities in a piece of work and to attempt to dissect and examine their reliability at every opportunity will prevent the critical reader seeing the "larger truth".
'In a work of new journalism the author is most interested in the effect and idea he can communicate by form. However exhaustive or important his reporting or analysis may be, his ultimate aim and achievement is an artistic one.' [ 4 ]
This, perhaps, is a misrepresentation of the literary journalist. Whilst artistic intent is most definitely present, it is more likely to be a device used by the author for the real "ultimate aim", which may differ between authors, but can be loosely described as the desire to present a reality or truth to the reader (regardless of how subjective or politically motivated that truth may be).
Critics who argue against a subjective form of journalism are making assumptions about the so-called "objective" media.
'The idea that journalists are impartial and independent monitors of military conduct is cherished by many media professionals and liberal commentators. It assumes that correspondents are able and willing to shrug off ideological and organizational restrictions to keep a watchful eye on the activities of military combatants. [ 5 ]
The ambition of an objective form of journalism is actually an unobtainable ideology, to suggest that literary journalism is subjective and "ordinary" journalism objective is a blind leap of faith.
'The procedures of the verification of facts, the separating of 'facts' from 'analysis', the presenting of conflicting possibilities and supporting evidence, the judicious use of quotation marks, the structuring of information in an appropriate sequence and the criterion of common sense in assessing news content, whilst enabling the claim to objectivity (which functions as a shield from criticism), do not guarantee objectivity (Tuchman, 1972: 662-679).' [ 6 ]
The structuring of a newspaper article, for example, requires subjective choices over content, sentence structures and word choice. The decision over who to interview is subjective, as is the decision over which stories to cover and which to ignore. 'The necessity of selection and the hierarchical organization of a story, suggests more of a subjective than objective outcome (Bourdie, 1996: 21; Bovee, 1999: 144 - 116, 121).' [ 7 ] To suggest that striving for objectivity is somehow able to promote truth is to not only ignore the fact that objectivity does not exist, but also the fact that the mere presence of the reporter will have an effect on the story he/she is covering and to 'ignore this through the conventions of the "objective" narration is to deny part of the reality of the event observed.' [ 8 ]
"Facts" do not have the ability alone to present any real meaning, they lack context or personal emotional ties. As a response to this, 'the new journalist seeks not only new facts, but also new ideas and forms through which they can develop a new meaning, and therefore perhaps approach a truth.' [ 9 ] The aim of new journalism therefore is not to present a selection of new facts to fit into the pre-existing frameworks of understanding presented by journalism, but to present new frameworks of understanding so that information can be assimilated in a different way. A stream of information means nothing, unless we are able to explore the different aspects of what exactly that information means in different contexts and webs of understanding. To do this, the literary journalist must remain truthful in their exploration, '"it is, or it should be, as reliable as the most reliable reportage although it seeks a larger truth..." The phrase "a larger truth" is a key statement of the need that caused new journalists to abandon the limitations of conventional journalism.' [ 10 ] One of the issues arising from conventional war journalism is in relying on the viewer/reader to form their opinions. A news report may say that "Military A" says "this" and then "Military B" says "that" in contradiction. The viewer/reader, the person often furthest from the action, is then required to make a value judgement based on that information and try to ascertain where their beliefs lie. All this does is feed new information into the public's pre-existing and mostly, thus far, ill-informed structures of understanding.
Political, personal and artistic influences are present in all forms of media and so it is not actually an argument of subjectivity and objectivity 'it is actually a conflict of a disguised perspective versus an admitted one, and a corporate fiction versus a personal one.' [ 11 ]
The emergence of literary journalism, and in particular the rise of the "new journalists" is seen by many to be a response to the limiting conventions of normal media coverage. The objective media deals in "facts", but facts can be structured and arranged in such a way as to suit a subjective, political or commercial interest.
Orwell admits in his narrative essay Why I Write that 'Every line of serious work that I have written since 1936 has been written, directly or indirectly, against totalitarianism and for democratic Socialism, as I understand it.' [ 12 ] He is admitting not only his subjective, but political influences in his work. These influences are not hidden; there is no deceit. In Homage to Catalonia Orwell writes not as an objective bystander, but as an active political participant, there is nothing hidden about this either. But does this political bias affect Orwell's ability to represent the truth?
'My book about the Spanish civil war, Homage to Catalonia, is, of course, a frankly political book, but in the main it is written with a certain detachment and regard for form. I did try very hard in it to tell the whole truth without violating my literary instincts.' [ 13 ]
Orwell would like us to think that despite his political bias, he has tried at all times to remain unbiased and detached. The ideal of objectivity is, as has been already discussed, an unobtainable one, his work will be biased towards his own political ideologies and the people in the book that he interacts with will be to the large extent from political allegiances similar to his own. Orwell does appear to write objectively; he talks of the incompetency of those within his own ranks on a number of occasions and never seems to denigrate the enemy without balancing this (to some extent) with comments about his own side.
'I have little direct evidence about the atrocities in the Spanish civil war. I know that some were committed by the Republicans, and far more (they are still continuing) by the Fascists. But what impressed me then, and has impressed me ever since, is that atrocities are believed in or disbelieved in solely on grounds of political predilection. Everyone believes in the atrocities of the enemy and disbelieves in those of his own side, without ever bothering to examine the evidence.' [ 14 ]
Along with the balanced comments between the two sides, Orwell (as in the previous quote) is often quick to point out that he cannot be factually certain. Is this because he is attempting to be as objective and unpartisan as possible, or is it a well constructed device? The admission that the republicans committed some atrocities for instance seems very honourable or fair, but actually helps Orwell to cement the idea that 'far more (they are still continuing)' are being committed by the Fascists, despite his admittance only a sentence ago that he has little direct evidence. Orwell admits on a number of occasions that he can't be certain of apparently trivial facts, for example he says that 'occasionally they [(the Fascists)] flew the flag of the Republic (red-yellow-purple).' [ 15 ] He then corrected this in his list of errata, saying 'Am not now completely certain that I ever saw the Fascists flying the republican flag.' [ 16 ] Perhaps this attention to detail in terms of his own mistakes and inconsistencies is a device; if he is this precise on the smaller details, then we can believe him on the larger ones. If it is indeed a device, it is one which he continued throughout his narrative essay writing career, and thought important enough to go back to previous works to clarify anything he thought was potentially misleading.
Orwell claims that the need to expose the truth was one of the driving forces behind his decision to write the book,
'I happened to know what very few people in England had been allowed to know, that innocent men were being falsely accused. If I had not been angry about that I should never have written the book.' [ 17 ]
Talking about the possibility of a future in which the ruling class can control history and therefore control facts, not only of the future but of the past, Orwell says the prospect 'frightens me much more than bombs - and after our experiences of the last few years that is not a frivolous statement.' [ 18 ] It would seem absurd for Orwell to then attempt to manipulate the reader to be aware of and fear those forces of control by using the very methods he abhors. It is these methods of information, control, and distortion that Orwell states are his fears and his impetus for writing the book, so to write with careless disregard for this fact would undermine his whole argument. Orwell writes in the closing chapter of Homage to Catalonia,
'It is difficult to be certain about anything except what you have seen with your own eyes, and consciously or unconsciously everyone writes as a partisan. In case I have not said this
somewhere earlier in the book I will say it now: beware of my partisanship, my mistakes of fact, and the distortion inevitably caused by my having seen only one corner of events. And beware of exactly the same things when you read any other book on this period of the Spanish war.' [ 19 ]
The "truth" that Orwell tries to uncover, by his own admission, is based on subjective, political and limited perspectives. It is difficult, therefore, to ascertain how trustworthy Orwell is in presenting the truth, but perhaps that is the point; despite his attempts to be balanced and fair, he admits that he is writing from a subjective stand-point, the truth he seeks to portray may not be an objective one free from political interest but it is still a truth personal to him. The truth in Homage to Catalonia therefore is not something universal and obtainable by objective methods, but something personal to Orwell, which he tries to convey to the reader. The truth in the book is based on an objection to the 'newspaper reports which did not bear any relation to the facts, not even the relationship which is implied in an ordinary lie [...and to] history being written not in terms of what happened but of what ought to have happened according to various 'party lines'.' [ 20 ] It is also an attempt to portray the reality of Orwell's experience during the war. This is an experience that Orwell doesn't feel he is able to truly convey;
'I suppose I have failed to convey more than a little of what those months in Spain meant to me. I have recorded some of the outward events, but I cannot record the feeling they have left me with. It is all mixed up with sights, smells, and sounds that cannot be conveyed in writing.' [ 21 ]
Orwell concludes that he was unable really to communicate the truth of the war. The desire to expose the lies of the different political parties is certainly achieved, but the personal truth of his experience is not fully realised. The truth is something that must be experienced and experience is something that can never fully be put down on paper. The facts don't give the full picture of truth, neither does the context of these facts or the events that took place.
In a contrast to Homage to Catalonia, The narrative style in Dispatches is fragmented, often following the thought processes of Herr just as much as the actual events themselves and makes many allusions to popular American culture. Subjective judgements are made continuously regarding almost everything mentioned and "facts" are often regarded as unhelpful in constructing a reality. The introduction by Michael Herr underlines a topic which will come up repeatedly; the truth according to the "official line". Facts are used by the army to distort reality, the operation to burn the Ho Bo Woods, an area which is, to the enemy, 'valuable resources and cover,' is repeated over and over again by an information officer whose job it had been 'for nearly a year now to tell people about that operation; correspondents, touring congressmen, movie stars, corporation presidents, staff officers from half the armies in the world, and he still couldn't get over it.' [ 22 ]
The operation was certainly real, Herr was taken to see the destruction himself, but the promotion of that one particular story in order to create a false reality is a form of propaganda. "Facts" in Dispatches do not equate to any discernible, clear form of truth. For Herr to then attempt to portray his reality through hard facts would therefore be a contradiction, he must use a different method. The strength of his credibility lies not in his reliable use of facts, but in his complete disregard for them. We need not worry about individual facts and details; they are not the "truth" that is explored in Dispatches, it is the experience and attempted rationalisation of experience that equates to truth for Herr.
Herr discovers the source of truth in Vietnam at the beginning of his time over there. It can be found in the soldiers who have experienced it first hand, 'All's you got to do is look in his eyes, that's the whole fucking story right there.' [ 23 ] Herr describes looking into his eyes like 'looking at the floor of an ocean.' [ 24 ] The truth in the soldiers eye's is the bottom, it is the ground, it is solid and it is true. Herr has already found his source of truth in Vietnam and exposed this to the reader within the first few pages of the book, but the problem for both Herr and his readers is in trying to access and verbalise that truth.
'But what a story he told me, as one-pointed and resonant as any war story I ever heard, it took me a year to understand it:
'Patrol went up the mountain. One man came back. He died before he could tell us what happened.'
I waited for the rest, but it seemed not to be that kind of story; when I asked him what had happened he just looked like he felt sorry for me, fucked if he'd waste time telling stories to anyone as dumb as I was.' [ 25 ]
The truth Herr discovers is something which on the surface seems simple, but is impossible to actually understand without the experience to go with it. The truth is in witnessing, in actually being there and experiencing it. It isn't something you can give to someone through a story, no elaboration or description can present the truth as it really is and so the inexperienced Herr, just arrived in Vietnam is unable to fully understand the resonance of the simple story, 'it took me a year to understand it' [ 26 ] At this point in the war, Herr is still trying to discover the 'truth' about the war which fits into previously created structures of understanding; the story the soldier tells is paradoxically too simple and yet too complicated for Herr to understand.
Language, facts and information would do nothing to help Herr understand the real meaning of the soldier's story. The fragmented style of writing and disregard for the streams of information is a rejection of the conventional media which 'got all the facts (more or less), it got too many of them. But it never found a way to report meaningfully about death.' [ 27 ] Herr attempts not to portray an already understood version of truth to the reader, but to involve the reader in his own exploration of what the exploration of the process of assimilating his experience is. To do this he has had to break the conventions and abandon the conventional frameworks of understanding into which the streams of useless information are usually fed. John Hellman supports this view, stating that,
'Herr's point is that, for individuals and for the nation, the previously formulated structures supplied by our culture prevented us from at first perceiving the reality of the Vietnam war, often even experiencing it first hand. The epistemological implication is that even the most terrible facts will not provide sufficient information for one to grasp truth, unless the structures of consciousness organizing those facts are changed as well.' [ 28 ]
Herr remains credible as a journalistic writer throughout the book, despite his rejection of conventional journalistic methods 'by working from a journalistic contract, and he makes the objective goals of the conventional journalists irrelevant by constructing his book not as a direct report on the Vietnam war, but as an exploration of his memory of the war.' [ 29 ]
Whether he embellished facts, or skewed events, really, is not the point. He summarizes that the 'truth' about Vietnam is a simple one; death. Experiencing the war first hand leaves him with the understanding that all meta-narratives and political jargon and party lines and newspeak are structures which blind people from the real truth, that the only relevant thing about Vietnam is cold unadulterated death, and to understand that fully, you would have had to have seen the fat marine 'pissing into the locked-open mouth of a decomposing north Vietnamese soldier.' [ 30 ] Vietnam according to Herr is "a place where no drama had to be invented, ever." [ 31 ] Herr has seen the truth, the truth is the depravity of war, the horror of killing and the stark finality of death.
The works of Orwell and Herr both attempt to portray a "truth" about war that conventional journalism with its straightforward presentation of information is unable to do. 'The basic assumption of nineteenth-century fiction, like that of twentieth-century journalism, lay in the existence of an objective reality that could be simply recorded.' [ 32 ] Literary journalism allows the author freedom of expression; they are not bound by political ties to broadcasters or newspapers; they are not compelled to tow an official line, or court certain opinions; they do not have to avoid ruffling feathers or be concerned about 'balance'. They are not disillusioned, believing that centrism equates to truth or equality, but are able to express thoughts and show that personal thoughts, no matter on which side of the fence they happen to be, count. The "truths" that they uncover are not central, solid realities, but fluidic personal ones. The fact that these truths are subjective does not invalidate them as "truth" because they do not portray themselves as a "whole truth" but as individual parts of reality; their strength is in the realisation that there is no one answer or framework of meaning but a multitude of different realities which overlap or contradict, each one holding its own validity.
Literary journalism does not disguise its bias with a guise of objectivity, Dispatches for example 'alludes both explicitly and implicitly to classic American war literature. Such highly stylized and allusive patterns draw attention to themselves as patterns; they function clearly as thematic overlays, products of an interpretive consciousness standing outside factual events.' [ 33 ] The facts therefore are still facts, they have merely been portrayed through a subjective framework or "pattern." The "truth" that works of literary journalism illuminate are these patterns, it is the attempt to provide meaning to data,
'Both the fiction writer and the new journalist have abandoned the relatively luxurious concerns and methods of the realistic novelist in a stable society, instead focusing on the more basic powers of fiction - the ordering of a meaningful world, and the defining of a relationship with it.' [ 34 ]
The criticism of subjective and objective journalism is not a debate about truth and lies, reality and distortion; it is one of different types or levels of truth. Facts may be true, these facts can inform a meaning, this meaning is a deeper level of reality, the means by which the facts are internalised by an individual and changed into meaning is a still deeper level of reality (explored more so in the work of Herr than Orwell).
The public may see clips of the war on television at home and feel as though they now know what is going on; they have now seen the truth. In actual fact what they are seeing is not only a subjective choice of what clips to show, disguised (to a large extent) as an objective choice, but it often bears no relevance to what the war actually means, it is a small fragment of information with no contextual relevance. '"It is certainly true to say that it is new to see footage of war so up-close but it is a key part of the propaganda war to claim that this makes it 'real.'"' [ 35 ] What the literary journalists do is break down the invisible wall between fact and emotional response. They show that the war is not something that happens "over there" or on the TV, offering a personal link to the events, allowing for a deeper understanding of one particular persons understanding of reality.
Literary journalists illuminate the inability of facts alone to provide much meaning. Death has no meaning as a statistic. Providing more "statistics" does not add any more to the meaning, if anything it detracts from it as we become more desensitized and detached. Even first hand experiences of soldiers and survivors often become desensitized and reality becomes almost like a fiction. Information overload does not add to reality. It is only the exploration of the meaning of these facts that shines any light upon what the truth is, and that truth is a personal one.
Reality and truth are not things "out there" for us to discover, but rather something each one of us creates internally for ourselves. Therefore, to pass facts on to an individual does not promote a new reality, or a new understanding of a pre-existing external reality, it merely provides new information to be assimilated into the already formed structures of the recipient's reality.
In order, therefore, to pass on a clearer understanding of truth, one must pass on not only the facts or details, but the experience. This is what Orwell and Herr both attempt to do with different narrative styles.
Both Orwell and Herr are compelled to write about the inaccuracies of the accounts of war. Their driving force (as they claim) is to expose these inaccuracies and discover in it the truth. Orwell is disenchanted with the 'newspaper reports which did not bear any relation to the facts, not even the relationship which is implied in an ordinary lie.[...]I saw, in fact, history being written not in terms of what happened but of what ought to have happened according to various 'party lines'. [ 36 ]
Orwell aims to be objective. He writes in a detached journalistic style. He is a product of his age and is writing from the perspective that journalism must be objective to be believable, so it is likely that he feels the need to appear objective in order to promote and 'sell' his ideas.
Orwell can bolster his credibility with his previous narrative essays, with the way that he describes his own "comrades", with the way he describes the enemy. He gives facts and figures and attempts to be rational and objective and tell the truth and we therefore believe him despite his desire to write politically. He is on a crusade, but he is not going to lie whilst doing it.
Herr backs up his credibility in a very different way. He does not claim to be objective at all, mainly because he attempts to show that all the information of war, the facts and figures, the who, what, where and when of conventional reporting and journalism, are not really that important. Not only are these conventions unable to contribute much to any representation of the truth, they can easily distort and even hide it. The truth about war is not something that can be transmitted from one person to another. You either know it because you were there, or you do not. Herr has no desire to appear objective, this isn't him deciphering the facts to reveal a truth, it is him living and experiencing the war to understand his own truth.
Arguably, Orwell is the more easily believable. His objectivity is paired with fairness and balance, but this is quite arguably an illusion; Paddy Donovan, whom Orwell served with, gave a very different account of Orwell's grenade attack on the front lines:
'The patrol got up close to the barbed wire and Orwell got way in front. Grenades were bursting right, left and centre. He stood up, very tall, and shouted : "Come on, move up here you bastards" and I yelled, "For Christ's sake, Eric, get down." When the grenade was thrown, 'a scream was heard and Orwell said: "That's got one bastard."'' [ 37 ]
In Homage to Catalonia, Orwell paints himself as cowering and sympathetic, perhaps this is all just a device to suit his political agenda.
Although Herr at first appears egocentric, too self-aware, too enamoured with shock and its effect, than with anything as mundane as fact, it then becomes apparent that this is the whole point of it. We are not being given information of what happened on what day and who won, or where they fought, or why the atrocities happened but how it felt to be there (or did not feel, since numbness is an underlying feeling throughout).
Objective journalism is an unobtainable ideology. Many writers have realised that true objectivity is an impossible goal in terms of journalism, as the construction of stories, news feeds and the selection and hierarchical orders of newsworthiness are all subjective acts. Orwell attempts to appear objective but although he has massive credibility, he is still subjective. Any attempt by a subjective reporter to appear objective is in some ways misleading. Orwell does admit his flaws, but these just make him all the more believable. We believe that what he says happened, happened. Herr does not claim to be objective at all; does not even try to be. His truth is not in what happened, but what happened inside him. The truth according to Herr, like the post-structuralists, is not something out there to be contained and portrayed to others, but something internal, something without language and indescribable, he is just going to try his best to put across his account of truth with language (which by its nature distorts the truth) as it is the best method available. A potential drawback to this method of portraying truth perhaps, is that people who come to read something will already have their own subjective views of different events, regardless of whether or not subjective journalism attempts to create new frameworks of understanding, the reader will also already have their own frameworks and therefore must either be willing to adapt and change their understanding, or must already have a framework which fits with the author's.
The truth that Herr writes is a simple one, it is horrific death, but it is not something which can be reported, it is not something that we can transmit through information and assimilate into our structures of understanding and schemas. Herr turns away from objective reportage because 'it would be as impossible to know what Vietnam looked like from reading most newspaper stories as it would be to know how it smelled.' [ 38 ] Yet Herr's subjective approach has similar limitations. We cannot look into the eyes of the soldier ourselves, we cannot really know what that truth means without experiencing it.
This essay has considered whether Orwell and Herr can be trusted, are credible in their presentations of truth in war. The evidence is that yes, even if they are subjective , even if they are politically motivated, the truth they are trying to write about is their truth and so those subjective thoughts or political ideals are as much a part of the truth as the physical, real world experiences they find themselves in.
We have also explored the extent to which they are ale to uncover or represent some specific "truth" of war. The evidence demonstrates that they are unable to do this. "Truth" is not a unified, static, graspable object, but personal and fluidic. The truth they aim for is not simply the antonym of false. It is something much more complex, tied up with human experience. They never truly reach their aims, by each of their own admissions, but this is through no major fault of their own, despite their differences in style. It is because the 'Truth' is not something which can be expressed in words; language fictionalizes reality, rendering it no longer reality but an approximation of it. This does not mean they do not try; their credibility and subjective, personal approaches allow for more of their truth to be seen than by any conventional journalistic means. They have adapted and restructured the frameworks of understanding enough so that at least some of their reality can be recognised and assimilated by the reader.
| i don't know |
Only two planets in our Solar system have retrograde rotation: Uranus and which other ? | Which planets have retrograde rotation? | Reference.com
Which planets have retrograde rotation?
A:
Quick Answer
The planets in our solar system that have retrograde rotation are Venus, Uranus and Pluto. Retrograde rotation refers to a planet, moon or other object that rotates in the opposite direction of the general rotation in a solar system.
Full Answer
The term "retrograde rotation" can also refer to the illusion that the planets change direction in the sky. This is caused by the motion of Earth as it passes a slower-moving planet. The changing view and different speeds of the planets can make them appear to move backwards. This can be strange to witness, but is an illusion of backwards motion.
| VENUS |
In which sport is the Stanley Cup awarded ? | Why does Venus rotate backwards from the other planets?
Why does Venus rotate backwards from the other planets?
The rotation period of Venus cannot be decided through telescopic observations of its surface markings because its featureless thick atmosphere makes this impossible. In the 1960's, radar pulses were bounced off of Venus while at its closest distance to the Earth, and it was discovered that its rotation period, its day, was 243.09 +/- 0.18 earth days long, but it rotated on its axis in a backwards or retrograde sense from the other planets. If you were to look down at the plane of the solar system from its 'north pole' you would see the planets orbiting the Sun counter clockwise, and rotating on their axis counterclockwise. Except for Venus. Venus would be rotating clockwise as it orbited the Sun counterclockwise. Venus is not alone. The axis of Uranus is inclined so far towards the plane of the solar system that it almost rolls on its side as it orbits the Sun.
What accounts for the extreme inclinations of the rotation axis of Venus and Uranus? For years it was thought that in the case of Venus that the Earth was the culprit. It is a curious fact that as Venus rotates three times on its axis in 729.27 days, the Earth goes twice around the Sun ( 728.50 days) This has suggested to many dynamicists that Earth and Venus are locked into a 3:2 tidal resonance. There are many bodies in the solar system that seem to be locked into various kinds of spin-orbit resonances, especially families of asteroids with the planet Jupiter. Mercury also seems to be gravitationally locked into some kind of resonance with the Sun since its day (58.646 days) and its year ( 87.969 days) are also in the proportion of 3:2.
Forces acting on spinning bodies result in some peculiar acrobatics. For instance, if you take a spinning top and give it a push, it will begin to wobble in a manner called precession. The axis of the Earth makes a 26,000 year wobble with an amplitude of tens of degrees. This is all due to the influence of the Moon's tidal attraction of the Earth. In the case of Venus, however, the gentle gravitational forces it may receive over billions of years to place it in a 3:2 resonance with the Earth don't seem to be strong enough to tip the entire planet over to make its rotation retrograde.
The best, current, ideas still favor some dramatic event that occurred while Venus ( and Uranus for that matter) were being formed. It is known from the cratering evidence we see on a variety of planetary surfaces, that soon after the planets were formed, there were still some might large mini-planets orbiting the Sun. One of these may have collided with the Earth, dredging up material that later solidified into our Moon. The satellites of the outer planets are probably representitives of this ancient population of bodies. Venus may have experienced an encounter with one of these large bodies in which, unlike for the Earth, the material didn't form a separate moon, but was absorbed into the body of Venus. In addition to mass and kinetic energy, this body would also have contributed angular momentum. The result is that the new spin direction and speed for Venus was seriously altered from its initial state which could have been very Earth-like. Today, the result of that last, ancient collision is Venus with a retrograde rotation.
This theory may also apply to Uranus provided that the collision happened before the 15 satellites themselves were captured or formed. Their orbital planes look very uniform and show no evidence for a dramatic gravitational event such as a collision. It may be, too, that the Uranian collision event dredged up matter and flung it into orbit around Uranus, and out of this were formed the larger moons of Uranus.
This is, clearly, a complicated and not well understood phenomenon. The facts for Venus point towards a collision event to put its axis and rotation in the retrograde sense. The tidal action of the Earth on Venus, acting steadily over billions of years, then established the 3:2 spin-orbit resonance. Every 2 earth years, the exact same portion of the Venerian ( Cytherian) surface faces Earth. Could there be some sub- surface concentration of mass on this portion of Venus that the Earth can grab onto to create the tidal lock? Stay tuned!!!
Return to
| i don't know |
What surname did actor Charles Buchinsky adopt in the Fifties before finding fame and success in films ? | Stage Names - TV Tropes
Stage Names
You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account
Share
A name used by an actor or actress when:
Their own isn't exciting or exotic enough
It may be embarrassing or difficult to pronounce
Their own isn't British enough (more common in the past but still not a Discredited Trope )
Someone very famous outside the union already has that name
Musicians will also take stage names for the first of the reasons listed above or when:
They have acquired or given themselves a Rule of Cool new name (especially prevalent in Hip-Hop ).
B Performers can go a lot of ways when choosing a new name. Some add a middle name, some add an initial somewhere, some add their mother's maiden name or the name of someone they respect, while others just choose a name at random. Carole Lombard chose her professional surname from a shop sign , for instance. In the old days , a lot of actors had their professional names chosen for them by the studio they were signed to, and others were given a list of approved names to pick from.
It has been fairly common for voice-over actors to do non-union work (video games, anime dubs, independent animation projects) under assumed names for less-than-negotiated rates, to avoid the consequences from the union. Often, they are still recognizable. It's becoming less common these days, as many dubbing and game projects can now afford union pay rates.
Many female actors retain their maiden names for professional purposes when they get married, since an important part of an actor's marketing is his or her name. Some unions also make it harder for a member to change her name if she already has a long list of credits. Of course, if the new name's already in use by someone else, the actor can't change her professional name anyway.
Picking one name can turn into weird coincidences
.
A common choice is one's mother's maiden name; see Nom de Mom .
See also Porn Names for a particular variant of this.
Authors have their own equivalent of this, the Pen Name , which is treated as a separate trope. See also Nom de Guerre . Sometimes may be a form of Meaningful Rename .
open/close all folders
Actors
Terry Quinn became Terry O'Quinn becase there was already a Terrance Quinn registered with the actors' guild.
Susan Antonia Williams Stockard combined her last name with that of her husband at the time and became Stockard Channing.
Michael Andrew Fox became Michael J. Fox upon joining the Screen Actor's Guild because there was a very busy character actor called Michael Fox who was already a member. He chose the fake middle initial "J." so no one could make "Michael, A Fox" jokes (or Canadian "Eh?" jokes ), as well as in tribute to actor Michael J. Pollard.
Ben Kingsley 's birth name is Krishna Bhanji. He changed it after it was mispronounced as 'Kristina Blange' during an audition for a high-school play.
Hynden Walch (Starfire on Teen Titans ) is actually Heidi Hynden Walch.
Tim Allen was born Timothy Allen Dick (who is no relation to Andy Dick, who was born Andrew Thomlinson). He dropped his last name mostly because he didn't think anybody would believe he didn't make it up for a cheap laugh.
Don Adams' birth name was Donald James Yarmy. He was once married to an actress with the stage name Adelaide Adams. He became Don Adams because auditions were frequently in alphabetical order.
John Wayne 's birth name was Marion Michael Morrison, although as it turns out he was called "Duke" (which was the name of a dog) long before he became "John Wayne".
Don Knotts' full name was Jesse Donald Knotts.
As revealed in Ray , Ray Charles was born Ray Charles Robinson, but dropped his surname due to the famous boxer "Sugar" Ray Robinson (which itself was the Stage Name of Walker Smith, Jr.).
Thomas Cruise Mapother IV dropped his last name, because " Tom Cruise " just sounds much cooler than "Tom Mapother".
Nicolas Coppola didn't want to ride on his director uncle's fame, so he took the last name of Super Hero Luke Cage to become Nicolas Cage .
Considering that Doctor Who has been on for over fifty years, many of the cast members have chosen stage names for a variety of reasons.
David Tennant is actually David MacDonald, but Equity already had someone with that name, so he named himself after Neil Tennant of the Pet Shop Boys .
Peter Moffet changed his name to "Davison" to avoid confusion with director Peter Moffat (who worked with him on Doctor Who ).
James Percy Patrick Kent-Smith took the stage name " Sylveste McCoy " while touring with Ken Campbell, and later added an R to the first name. According to one account, it was originally a joke about stage names — "Sylveste McCoy is only my stage name, of course, my real name is... Sylvester McCoy" — that he decided to run with after a theatre critic failed to get it and thought Sylvester McCoy actually was his real name.
Jon Pertwee's real name is Jean Roland Devon de Perthuis (he's of French and Austrian descent). People in his family use Pertwee as a phonetic spelling. He also went by the anglicised John, before a playbill misspelt his name.
It extends to companions too. Lalla Ward 's real first name is Sarah.
Billie Piper 's real name is Leian Piper, but chose the stage name "Billie" for her music career. When she switched to acting she then changed it again to Billie Piper.
Film actor Stewart Granger's real name was James Stewart, and in fact changed it before Jimmy Stewart came into Hollywood.
Kim Novak's first name is actually Marilyn, but was changed when she signed her contract with Columbia to avoid confusion with Marilyn Monroe . Of course, "Marilyn Monroe" was itself a stage name, her real name being Norma Jeane Baker. Many bombshells and sex symbols of old-time Hollywood have real names that are depressingly prosaic in comparison to their better-known stage names.
Joan Fontaine's real name is Joan de Beauvoir de Havilland (she's the sister of Olivia de Havilland ). Fontaine had been their mother's stage name.
Shirley MacLaine was originally Shirley MacLean Beaty. Her brother Warren simply added a second "t" to their last name, becoming Warren Beatty .
Catherine Dorleac chose her mother's maiden name Deneuve as her stage surname, to differentiate herself fron her (initially) more famous sister Francoise.
Colette Dacheville became Stephane Audran, while Marie-France Ogier dropped her first name after becoming generally known by the nickname "Bulle" ("Bubble").
Cyd Charisse's was born Tula Ellice Finklea. "Sid" was a childhood nickname. Nico Charisse was her first husband.
Yvonne De Carlo's real name is Margaret Yvonne "Peggy" Middleton. (In her pre- The Munsters career, De Carlo generally played exotic-beauty roles; "Peggy Middleton" just wouldn't have cut it for an actress playing such roles. See remarks on Cyd Charisse above.) Her mother's name was Marie De Carlo.
Claudette Colbert was born as Émilie Chauchoin.
Judy Garland 's real name was Frances Ethel Gumm. It's hard to blame her for not using her birth name.
Ginger Rogers's real name was Virginia Katherine McMath. Ginger is a standard nickname for Virginia; Rogers was her stepfather.
Diana Dors's real name was the unfortunate Diana Fluck. As she said: "They asked me to change my name. I suppose they were afraid that if my real name Diana Fluck was in lights and one of the lights blew..."
Triple or quadruple the "wouldn't cut it" comment for Archibald Leach, who went on to play Cary Grant in the movies. (Interviewer: "Everybody would like to be Cary Grant" Cary Grant: "So would I.")
Italian TV and film actors Terence Hill and Bud Spencer were born Mario Girotti and Carlo Pedersoli.
Spaghetti Western actor Giuliano Gemma is credited in some movies with anglophone name "Montgomery Wood".
Child actress Parker McKenna Posey uses her middle name so as not to confuse her with older actress Parker Posey .
Actress Sydney Tamiia Poitier also uses her middle name so as not to confuse her with her father, Sidney Poitier .
Idina Menzel 's last name is really "Mentzel". She eventually dropped the 't' to better reflect the pronounciation it gained in America.
A famous fake real name story: Walter Matthau was once famously credited for a cameo under the alias "Walter Matuschanskayasky"; fan folklore then turned this pseudonym into his supposed real name, which he allegedly changed to sound less ethnic. In reality, his real real name was Walter Matthow, which he changed to Matthau because it was the usual American spelling. He only used Matuschanskayasky as a stage name once, in the movie Earthquake , when he agreed to play a cameo role only if his real name wasn't used.
Bernadette Peters' real name is Bernadette Lazzara; her father's first name was Peter.
Lee J. Cobb's real name was Leo Jacob.
Alan Konigsberg changed his name to Woody Allen .
Jake Cohen used the stage name Jack Roy before he changed it to Rodney Dangerfield .
Louis Feinberg, Moses Harry Horwitz and Jerome Lester Horwitz - a/k/a Larry Fine and Moe & Curly Howard .
Samuel Horwitz = Shemp Howard (though this was due to a speech impediment on his Lithuanian-born mother's part, where "Sam" came out "Shemp").
Joseph Wardell = (Curley-)Joe DeRita.
Stanley Lieber is best known as Stan Lee (now his surname is legally changed to Lee), and his former creative partner Jack Kirby was born Jacob Kurtzberg.
Melvin Kaminsky became Mel Brooks (Brooks being a take on his mother's last name, Brookman).
Ramón Estevez wanted his name to sound less ethnic, so he changed it to Martin Sheen . His son, Carlos, chose to follow in his footsteps and became Charlie Sheen (although this is only his stage name; when some court documents related to one of his myriad arrests were leaked, they showed his legal name is still Carlos Estevez), some of the family (his brother, and some sons) switch between, while his daughter and one kept their original names - most notably Emilio Estevez .
The story goes that Arnold Schwarzenegger 's first US agent told him he'd never be successful in Hollywood for three reasons: he was too muscular, his accent was too thick and no one could pronounce his name. Hercules in New York was his first US movie (as Arnold Strong - a pun on both his physique and co-star Arnold Stang - with his voice redubbed.)
Bernard Schwartz changed his name to Tony Curtis.
Frederick Austerlitz became Fred Astaire. He started using the name "Astaire" as a kid, when he appeared in vaudeville acts.
Natalie Wood was born as Natalia Zacharenko. Her name was changed to Gurdin, then, when she started to appear in movies, Wood.
Lauren Bacall was born as Betty Joan Perske.
Phoebe Cates's original name is Phoebe Belle Katz. (This is likely a phonetic spelling, since "Katz" is sometimes pronounced "Cates".)
Doris Day's real name is Doris Mary Anne von Kappelhoff.
Jack Palance was born Volodymyr Palahniuk.
Charles Bronson was born Charles Buchinsky, which was the Latinized version of either Karolis Bučinskis, Casimir Businskis, or Karol Buczyński. He changed the name on the suggestion of his agent, who was concerned that someone with an Eastern European last name would wind up getting in trouble due to the McCarthy hearings going down in the 50s.
Margarita Carmen Cansino underwent extensive follicle removal to become the famous Rita Hayworth . Hayworth was her mother's maiden name, though.
Hedy Lamarr was born as Hedwig Eva Maria Kiesler.
Yvonne Strahovski 's actual last name is Strzechowski. Josh Schwartz asked her to change it to a phonetic spelling so people would actually know how to pronounce it.
Izabella Miko's actual last name is Mikołajczak. Most probably it was too long to pronounce.
Mia Sara, whose actual last name is Sarapocciello.
Barbara Bain was originally named Millicent Fogel.
Meet Millie writer Francis Allen Goldstucker changed his name to Frank Galen.
David S. Cohen was credited as David X. Cohen in the opening credits of Futurama because the WGA already had a completely different David S. Cohen on the books. He chose X because it sounded "sci-fi-ish".
Aaron (Perry) Johnson and Samantha Taylor-Wood, after working in Nowhere Boy, became a couple and decided to share a surname. Now they're Aaron and Sam Taylor-Johnson.
Reportedly, Jon Voight gave his children middle names that could act as last names, so they wouldn't be hooked to their famous father. James Haven isn't that well-known, but Angelina Jolie certainly has made a name for herself. Jon Voight's brother, James Voight, is better known as the musician Chip Taylor, who wrote the song Wild Thing, performed by the Troggs.
Richard E. Grant (Richard Grant Esterhuysen) used a twist on the dropping-your-last-name technique: the middle initial in his stage name is the first letter of his real surname.
Edward G. Robinson, formerly Emanuel Goldenberg.
Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz dropped his last name because of issues with his father. Now he's just Jon Stewart .
Jim Moir took the name Vic Reeves from his two favourite singers, Vic Damone and Jim Reeves.
Michael Keaton ( Beetlejuice , Batman , etc.) was born Michael John Douglas. "Keaton" is his mother's maiden name and tribute to Diane Keaton and Buster Keaton . He needed a stage name because the Michael Douglas ( The Streets of San Francisco , Fatal Attraction , Wall Street , etc.) had established a prior claim.
And just to make this even more fun, Buster Keaton's real first name is Joseph.
Michael Douglas' father, Kirk Douglas was born as Issur Danielovitch.
Robin Williams was often credited under assumed names (if he's credited at all) when he did a cameo: "Ray D. Tutto" for The Adventures of Baron Munchausen , "Sudy Nim" for A Wish for Wings That Work , "Marty Fromage" for Shakes the Clown , "George Spelvin" in The Secret Agent . George Spelvin, in fact, was rather long-running one. According to Playbill , back in the early 1900s people were unaccustomed to actors playing more than one part, and so Spelvin was credited with roles taken by an actor credited for a different one already. He became a long-running tradition but was eventually dropped in the late 1980s when audiences became more okay with the idea.
Albert L. Einstein, changed his name to Albert Brooks when he started performing comedy to distinuish himself from the Albert Einstein . The inspiration for the surname is homage to Mel Brooks . His brother Bob Einstein performs as "Super Dave Osborne" for less obvious reasons.
Another "the name was taken": when Joseph Lane went to register for Actors Equity, he discovered there was already a member by that name. So he took the first name of Guys and Dolls character Nathan Detroit, becoming Nathan Lane. (Appropriately enough, it was a turn as Nathan Detroit in a Broadway revival of the show that proved to be his star-making role.)
Vin Diesel was born Mark Vincent and picked up the 'diesel' part from his his friends, due his 'non-stop energy'. Ironic, considering what movie he's famous for .
Jerome Silberman changed his name while studying acting in New York as he felt it would look/sound odd on a marquee if he played Macbeth. He created a new name from his mother's first (Jean) and playwright Thornton Wilder 's last. Though he did serious roles early in his stage career, Gene Wilder became famous for film comedies.
Richard Henry Sellers was the second child born to his parents. The first died very, very young, and his name - Peter - became a nickname for the second, used so often that Richard Henry ultimately changed his name permanently.
Whoopi Goldberg 's birth name was Caryn Elaine Johnson. Not exactly an attention-grabber. Reportedly, she was originally going to call herself "Whoopi Coushin", after the gag gift, but her parents convinced her that - even as a comedian - the name would prevent anyone from taking her seriously. Also, her mother told her that her name "wasn't Jewish enough" to make her a star.
Sir Maurice Joseph Micklewhite, Jr. is better known as Sir Michael Caine . Originally, he wanted his stage name to be Michael Scott, but that was taken. Pressed for a new one, he looked at a nearby cinema billboard and saw The Caine Mutiny . And the rest, as they say, is history. He jokes that if he had looked the other way, he would be Sir Michael One Hundred and One Dalmatians.
Theda Bara, the original vamp , was born Theodosia Goodman. Her screen name combined a childhood nickname and a variation on a family surname — and, conveniently enough, was an anagram for "Arab death."
William Henry Pratt took the stage name Boris Karloff , possibly because he felt his surname had unwanted humorous connotations. He never legally changed his name, however.
Greg Pead changed his name in 1980 to Yahoo Serious (of Young Einstein fame).
Alexander Siddig (Dr. Julian Bashir from Star Trek: Deep Space Nine and Doran Martel from Game of Thrones ) was originally credited under his real name - Siddig El Fadil, which itself is just an abbreviation of his full real name, for obvious reasons: Siddig El Tahir El Fadil El Siddig Abderrahman Mohammed Ahmed Abdel Karim El Mahdi
Jackie Chan is really Chan Kong Sang.
Jet Li is really Li Lianjie.
Ever hear of Saedo Maeda? That's Sonny Chiba's real name.
Like Noriyuki "Pat" Morita
Kal Penn's real name is Kalpen Modi. Obviously, he just took his first name and divided it in two (and added an extra N). The late Italian actress Pier Angeli did something similar, only with her surname (Pierangeli).
Heather Renée Sweet became Dita Von Teese.
Jonathan Michael Francis O'Keefe changed his name to Jonathan Rhys Meyers .
Laszlo Loewenstein - "Lazzy" to his friends - was a struggling stage actor in Vienna when his mentor suggested he use a catchy new name. Combining a friend's name with the German word for parrot, the actor was redubbed Peter Lorre .
Jean Harlow 's original name was Harlean Carpanter, a combination of the last and first name of her mother, Jean Harlow. When Harlean went into acting, she adopted her mother's name.
Alphonso Giuseppe Giovanni Roberto d'Abruzzo took the first two letters of his first and last names as his surname and an Anglicised version of one of his middle names to come up with the name Robert Alda. When his sons (by different wives) Alphonso and Antonio followed their father into acting, they took his stage surname and Anglicised their first names (approximately in Alphonso's case) to create the names Alan Alda and Antony Alda.
Japanese actress/ J-pop singer Meisa Kuroki's real name is Satsuki Shimabukuro.
Armenian pop star Sirusho 's real name is Siranush Harutyunyan.
If the Playbills for the premiere performance for the play M. Butterfly had listed one of its stars' names as "Brad Wong", it would have spoiled show's big twist — so he became "B.D. Wong".
The Marx Brothers (who were actually brothers, surnamed Marx): Groucho (Julius Henry), Harpo (Adolph, changed to Arthur in 1911, before Hitler), Chico (Leonard), Zeppo (Herbert Manfred) and Gummo (Milton). Their stage names were coined for them by stand-up comedian Art Fisher during a poker game, and only adopted full-time when their act was well established. In an aversion of the ethnicity camouflage motivation, while the family was Jewish, their real names were passably not. (However, Chico did develop his trademark accent in order to divert antisemitic bullies.)
Rose Louise Hovick was a vaudeville performer, movie actress, and novelist. She's better known as Gypsy Rose Lee . Her sister appeared in Broadway shows under the name June Havoc.
Jayne Mansfield kept using her first husband's surname professionally, even after divorcing and remarrying. Additionally, Jayne was her middle name: her first name was Vera.
Lee Mack (real name Lee Gordon McKillop) takes his stage name from his great-grandfather, vaudeville performer Big Billy Mack.
Olivia Wilde 's original surname was the rather unfortunate "Cockburn" (pronounced "co-burn," but we can't really blame her for not wanting to spend her whole life correcting people on that). She took her stage name from Oscar Wilde .
Born to vaudevillian parents, 7-year-old Joseph Yule Jr. landed a role as Mickey McGuire in a series of film shorts, and became identified with that name, even legally adopting it for a short period during legal wrangles over the series. Prohibited from using the name when touring as a comedy act, he chose a similar one, modifying his mother�s suggestion of "Mickey Looney", and becoming Mickey Rooney.
Harris Glenn Milstead was better known as the outrageous drag diva Divine.
Laurence Tureauds birth name didn�t really suit a tough guy, so he became Mr. T.
Adrian Paul, of Highlander fame was born Adrian Paul Hewitt. He takes advantage of using his real last name when traveling, to keep a lower profile.
Anthony Head had to alter his name when he began working in the USA, due to someone else already being registered with his name. That's why in the US he's billed as Anthony Stewart Head, but often just Anthony Head in the UK.
Nicholas Brendan dropped his last name, as did his brother, to avoid confusion.
James Roday of Psych fame was born James Rodriguez (his dad is Mexican, even though he doesn't look it.) Since there was already someone with that name in the Screen Actors' Guild, he had to either use a middle initial (which he wasn't too thrilled about) or choose a different last name. Apparently, when he got his first job out of college, a TV exec suggested he change his name so they wouldn't get flack for trying to pass off a white guy as Latino for diversity reasons, hence the more Anglo-sounding "Roday", named after a character in The Three Sisters.
Dean Martin was born Dino Paul Crocetti. He used the stage name Dino Martini (a Shout-Out to Italian tenor Nino Martini) when he began performing as a singer in local bands, and then anglicised it.
Back when he was starting out, Keanu Reeves used the name Casey Reeves for auditions. He eventually started using his given name and the rest is history.
Stan Jefferson was told by his wife that his name was unlucky because it contained thirteen letters. Searching for something that would symbolise success, he hit upon the Roman emblem of victory, changed his last name to 'Laurel', and became immortal.
Well-upholstered comedian Roscoe Conkling Arbuckle disliked being referred to and billed under his lifelong nickname "Fatty", but accepted it as inevitable. In a straighter example, when he was barred from acting following legal accusations, he directed a number of comedies under the name William Goodrich.
When Jason Geiger came to a talent agency in California, they thought his name wasn't strong enough for an actor and created with him another inspired by Steve Austin : Austin St. John. And the rationale became Hilarious in Hindsight given the breakout role St. John got was Red Ranger Jason Lee Scott .
Randolph Severn Parker III is better known to audiences as Trey Parker , with "Trey" based off a nickname from being the third Randolph in line in his family. He also used the alias "Juan Schwartz" for Cannibal! The Musical, and for his work in the unaired pilot of South Park (an extended version of "Cartman Gets An Anal Probe").
Anne-Sophie Lennerfors, an actress in Japan known for her mixed heritage (Japanese-Swedish), is usually simply credited as "LiLiCo" or "LILIKO" for her film and voice acting work. In the case you don't know her significance as far as her acting goes, she was most prominently known as the (first) Japanese dub voice of Eric Cartman .
One of the child actresses who played Anne of Green Gables in the 1930s, Dawn Evelyeen Paris, adopted her character's name (Anne Shirley) as her stage moniker; previously she was billed as "Dawn O'Day."
Christian Camargo, better known as the Ice Truck Killer from Dexter , was born Christian Minnick, but he changed his surname to his maternal grandfather's out of pride in his Mexican-American heritage. Ironically, his grandfather�Ralph (born Rafael) Camargo, who was also an actor�urged his daughters to change their last name to something more Anglicized to avoid being locked out of roles in the acting world because of their heritage.
Christian's mother is former soap actress Victoria Wyndham, originally Victoria Camargo. You'd never guess she was Mexican, and apparently, the same goes for her son.
David Harvard Lawrence wanted to make himself stand out from the other David Lawrences in the SAG database. Seeing he was the seventeenth guy with that name on IMDb (who differentiates people with Roman algarisms), he became David H. Lawrence XVII.
Tony Malanowski, director of the infamous Night of Horror (and its remake Curse of the Cannibal Confederates
Kevin Michael Richardson always wanted to voice the character of
Cyborg . He's not yet been regularly cast in the role (though he did get to fill in for Khary Payton when the latter was unavailable for one of the New Teen Titans segments), but he has used the character's real name, "Victor Stone", as an alias when he voiced Spawn and Tekken 's Heihachi Mishima in SoulCalibur II.
Latin American and Spaniard voice actors has an enteresting twist on this: Unless stated otherwise, most of them use their second first name and their first (maternal) or second (paternal) name of their last name. As an example, Mexican voice actor Luis Eduardo Garza Escudero ( Krillin and Ichigo ) goes credited as only Eduardo Garza . Unlike Japanese and American voice actors, they rarely use stage names for hiding their identities in non-union or risky works (as it's considered rather stupid anyways there) and when they do, it's mostly because they like to use that name for other reasons unrelated with their work or maybe because their fans and friends prefers to call them with those names instead:
Gabriela Schietter Castañon goes credited as Gaby Willer or Gabriela Willert ( Li Meiling and Motoko Kusanagi )
Gabriel Basurto ( Sesshoumaru ) is quite a complex example: He was credited sometimes as such and sometimes as "Alfredo Basurto" as his full name is Alfredo Gabriel Basurto Contreras. This caused many fans to think both names refered to two unrelated voice actors with the same last name.
Maria Hiromi Hayakawa Salas ( Draculaura ) only goes as Hiromi Hayakawa, causing many fans to think she is a native Japanese voice actress (She's a Japanese-Mexican born in Japan, but raised in Mexico). Recently she goes with the name of Hiromi exclusively, especially when working outside of the voice acting industry.
Another Japanese-Mexican voice actress, whose real name is Noriko Takaya Satori, goes with the more simplier name of Noriko as her stage name.
Japanese voice actors also has a twist on this, too: While sometimes using an alias when working in risky works like Hentai , sometimes their stage names are also their real names, except written with a different alphabet, due of the way how Japanese language works:
Farrokh Bulsara, aka Freddie Mercury , is a prime example of this.
The "Mercury" part, yes. "Freddie" had been his nickname since he was a schoolboy, though.
Sabrina Bryan, one of The Cheetah Girls, is best known by her full name of Reba Sabrina Hinojos (as director Oz Scoot puts her on one of his made for TV feature films on the Disney Channel in 2003).
Dir en grey : Both the vocalist, Kyo , and the bassist, Toshiya, are guilty of this. Toshiya's full name is Toshimasa Hara, and while Kyo's real name is debated by most fans, most sites credit him as either "Tooru Niimura" or "Toru Nishimura."
The Tooru Niimura/Nishimura thing is a bit of a joke that international fans took seriously . Tooru Niimura is the name of a famous Japanese pornography director, and Kyo signed his name as Tooru Niimura on several of his written works as a joke. Nishimura is a mistranslation of Niimura. No one knows for certain what Kyo's birth name is, especially since he is a Self-Proclaimed Liar .
Trent Reznor's full name is Michael Trent Reznor, but as he has explained "My father is Michael Reznor."
Marilyn Manson (the first lineup, at least) all took their names from the juxtaposition of an American Icon and a serial killer. In the case of the titular frontman, Marilyn Monroe and Charles Manson .
Marilyn Manson is one of those bands who changes their lineup every time you turn around. Eventually, the new members stopped using the icon/killer model for stage names, then stopped using stage names altogether. This caused a pretty jarring effect in later years, when you looked at the lineup and realised that Marilyn Manson and Ginger Fish were in a band with Tim and Mark.
Years before, Vincent Furnier also took a feminine first name and named himself and his band after that name. Marilyn Manson, steal ideas from Alice Cooper ? Never...
Well, I mean, his real name is Brian Warner... How's he supposed to be the antichrist with a name like that?
Twiggy Ramirez's not much better off: Jeordie White does not bring to mind crossdressing, epic guitar playing and the occasional makeout session with Marilyn Manson.
William Michael Albert Broad got a "William is idle" comment on a report card, so he took the stage name Billy Idol .
The most egregious example of this is Buckethead , a guitarist who doesn't only have a stage name (almost everybody only knows his first name, "Brian"), but also a stage identity (which consists of a rather creepy man from a chicken farm, who wears a KFC bucket on his head and a mask to hid his allegedly mangled face). He will never wear anything else when performing.
The Beatles ' Ringo Starr was originally, and still is legally, Richard Starkey. The cowboy-based nickname partially emerges from his ringed fingers.
Paul McCartney is actually James Paul McCartney, but has also been credited under a number of unusual names - some notable ones include The Fireman, Apollo C. Vermouth, Percy 'Thrills' Thrillington (who had a self-titled album) and Paul Ramon, whose name was taken by all of The Ramones (see next example).
John Lennon was fond of the pseudonym 'Dr Winston O'Boogie' (Winston was his middle name, after Winston Churchill).
Mike McGear, of fellow Liverpool group The Scaffold, was, in reality, Peter Michael McCartney, brother of Paul. He invented the new surname ("gear" being a synonym for "fab" at the time) to avoid accusations of leeching off his brother's fame (and other unwelcome comparisons).
The Ramones : Dee Dee Ramone (Douglas Colvin), Johnny Ramone (John Cummings), Joey Ramone (Jeffry Hyman), Tommy Ramone (Thomas Erdelyi), Marky Ramone (Marc Bell), Richie Ramone (Richard Reinhardt), Elvis Ramone (Clem Burke) and C. J. Ramone (Christopher Joseph Ward). The surname came from the fact that Paul McCartney hid his identity in hotels by registering under Paul Ramone.
Clem Burke is a stage name itself - he was born Clement Bozewski.
Also Beatles-inspired: Buster Bloodvessel (Douglas William Trendle), the hefty, skinheaded frontman of UK ska group Bad Manners. Buster Bloodvessel was the name of Ivor Cutler's character in the Magical Mystery Tour film.
Each member of the band Malice Mizer go under stage names, many of which have hidden their actual identity.
Come to think of it, how many {[J rock}}ers in general do you know who actually use their real, full name? Most either abbreviate their first name, use just their first name, abbreviate their surname or make something up altogether. If there is anyone out their who uses both their first name and last name without tampering with either, then they're doing a good job of hiding.
Miyavi (formerly of Dué le Quartz, now a solo artist) doesn't seem to much care — it's pretty widely known that his real name is Takamasa Ishihara. Things like his Facebook page are generally under the name Miyavi Ishihara, however, because it entertains him more.
Another good Jrock example would be Man With A Mission , whose members are named Tokyo Tanaka, Kamikaze Boy, Jean-Ken Johnny, DJ Santa Monica and Spear Rib. Their real names (or faces for that matter, since they always wear masks) are unknown.
Kevin James LaBrie of Dream Theater assumed the stage name James LaBrie because there were already two Johns in the band (John Petrucci on guitars and John Myung on bass) and they didn't want another name match with keyboardist Kevin Moore.
W.A.S.P. frontman Blackie Lawless is a good example. Everyone knows him as Blackie, mainly because Stephen Duren is a somewhat boring name for someone that wore a circular saw codpiece.
Pick a black metal musician. Any black metal musician. They come in four flavors: nods to other bands or songs (Hellhammer, Euronymous, etc.), references to violence or other taboo subjects (Necrobutcher, Nocturno Culto, etc.), references to fantasy or paganism/the occult (Fenriz, Count Grishnackh, etc.), or "evil" sounding gibberish (Ihsahn, Samoth, Gaahl, Abbath, Horgh, Zingultus, etc., etc.). Like most everything about black metal, it is completely ridiculous and silly , yet fans take it very seriously and get offended when people remind them that it is ridiculous and silly. All of the aforementioned stage names are real musicians.
It's also worth noting that Count Grishnackh usually went by the name Varg Vikernes. Apparently his original first name, Kristian, just didn't cut it for a black metal musician who enjoyed burning down churches.
Prior to becoming famous, the musician Declan MacManus changed his name to Elvis Costello . However, in the mid-80s, Costello legally changed his name back to Declan MacManus. Although he continued to record and perform as Elvis Costello, his songs started being credited to MacManus. This began around the same time he co-wrote several songs with Paul McCartney , and he's said that part of the reason for the change back was just because he thought "McCartney / MacManus" would look cool.
Sting was born Gordon Matthew Sumner and got his nickname from a yellow and black striped sweater that he liked to wear on stage.
German singer Freddy Quinn, best known for schlager/shanty-type songs in Germany, was born Franz Eugen Nidl-Petz. And he's actually Austrian.
Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones was born John Baldwin.
Miley Cyrus was born "Destiny Hope Cyrus". The "Miley" came from a nickname. She legally changed her name though.
Hannah Montana , however, is still a stage name.
More so a defictionalized character on a television show. "Miley" is short for "smiley", due to her upbeat nature as a young child .
While reading the original cast list of The Phantom of the Opera , it's easy to assume no one is actually born with a name as pretty as Sarah Brightman . However, that is her real name- but her costar Michael Crawford was born Michael Dumble-Smith.
Spanish singer and actress Charo is really María Rosario Pilar Martínez Molina Moquiere de les Esperades Santa Ana Romanguera y de la Najosa Rasten .
Nicholas James Bates became Nick Rhodes for "aesthetic reasons." His Duran Duran bandmate Nigel John Taylor goes by his middle name.
A rare Japanese example: Masato Shimon, who changed his name from Masaharu Fujikawa, has gone under several names, including Akira Tani, Kouichi Fuji and Ryou Kisao.
Alecia Beth Moore decided to use the stage name P!nk (either with an I or the exclamation ). She's said in interviews she got it as a nickname in high school from Mr. Pink in Reservoir Dogs .
Hair Metal bands:
Every member of M�tley Cr�e ; the lead singer shortened from from Vincent Neil Wharton to Vince Neil, the drummer shortened from Thomas Lee Bass to Tommy Lee, the guitarist's real name is Robert Alan Deal but he uses the cooler stage name Mick Mars, and bassist Frank Carlton Serafino Ferrana Jr. legally changed his name to Nikki Sixx when he was eighteen, before Motley Crue had even formed.
Everyone from Poison 's classic lineup. Vocalist Bret Michael Sychak shortened his name to Bret Michaels, bassist Robert Kuykendall shortened to Bobby Dall, and drummer Richard Ream changed his name to Rikki Rockett. Original lead guitarist Matt Smith, the only original member who used his real name, was replaced by Bruce "C.C. DeVille" Johanneson. C.C. was then replaced by Richie Kotzen (his real name), and Kotzen by Blues Saraceno. (surprise, surprise - his real name as well!)
Beatle-esque glam rockers Enuff Z'nuff featured men named Donald Vandervelde, Gregory Rybarski, and Victor Cerny. To fans, they're vocalist Donnie Vie, guitarist and band namesake Chip Z'nuff, and drummer Vikk Foxx respectively.
Most of Warrant 's members went by their real names, but the unfortunately-named John Kennedy Oswald (later changed legally to John Patrick Oswald) went by the more glam-friendly name Jani Lane.
Likewise, everyone in Faster Pussycat used their real names, save for their vocalist, Gustave "Gus" Molvik, a.k.a. Taime Downe.
Bulletboys singer Mark Maytorena's real name is a bit of a mouthful, so he tweaked the spelling of his first name and shortened his last name, becoming Marq Torien.
Twisted Sister : Daniel "Dee" Snider, John "Jay Jay" French Segall, Eddie "Fingers" Ojeda, Mark Glickman = Mark "The Animal" Mendoza and Anthony Jude "A. J." Pero. In Pero's case, he usually went by Tony, but partly due to the One Steve Limit , had to go by "A.J." since the band had just recently had another drummer named Tony. His new nickname stuck till his death in 2015.
While better known in the hair metal scene as a club owner and eventually MTV VJ, Riki Rachtman wasn't born as Richard as one may expect, but as David Alan Rachtman.
L.A. Guns guitarist and band namesake Tracii Guns was born Tracy Ulrich.
Finnish band Hanoi Rocks mostly opted for Western-sounding pseudonyms: Matti Fagerholm became Michael Monroe, Antti Hulkko became Andy McCoy, Jan-Markus Stenfors became Nasty Suicide, and Sami Takamaki became Sami Yaffa. English drummer Nicholas "Razzle" Dingley mostly went by his real name.
Skid Row 's Sebastian Bach is actually Sebastian Bierk. You've also got bassist Rachel Bolan, who is male — his birth name is James Richard Southworth, and his stage name partly a tribute to T-Rex singer Marc Bolan.
U2 's Paul Hewson is better known as Bono (from his early stage name " Bono Vox - good voice - of O'Connell Street"; Brazil still adds a "Vox" as his surname) and his bandmate David Evans is The Edge.
Ryan Ross, formerly of Panic! at the Disco and now of The Young Veins, had his name changed from George Ryan Ross III.
Those bands are guilty of dropping their numerical names in favour of shorter, simpler monikers— such as Spencer James Smith V and Peter Lewis Kingston Wentz III.
Let's not forget the switch to Pat Stumph to Patrick Stump to Patrick Vaughn Stump!
Geddy Lee is really Gary Lee Weinrib ("Geddy" comes from his mother's heavy accent). Alex Lifeson is really Aleksandar �ivojinović ("Lifeson" is a literal English translation). Neil Peart is really Neil Peart.
B.B. (Blues Boy) King was born Riley B. King.
Avenged Sevenfold is a very notable example.
M. Shadows= Matthew Charles Sanders, Zacky Vengeance= Zachary James Baker, The Reverend Tholomew Plague(The Rev)= James Owen Sullivan, Synyster Gates= Brian Elwin Haner Jr, Jonny Christ= Jonathan Lewis Seward.
Averted following the death of Jimmy "The Rev" Sullivan. His replacements Arin Ilejay and Brooks Wackerman use their real names .
Steven Georgiou went by the stage name Cat Stevens, apparently inspired by a girlfriend telling him he had eyes like a cat. After converting to Islam he legally changed his name to Yusuf Islam ("Yusuf" being the Arabic form of "Joseph", a name he'd always liked) — he has recently begun recording music under the single name "Yusuf", in his words "because 'Islam' doesn't have to be sloganised".
Peter " Vance Joy " Keogh has a story behind his:
"I was going through a Peter Carey phase and reading a lot of his books. There's a book called Bliss. The main character's name is Harry Joy and his grandfather is Vance Joy. He's the storyteller and a crazy old man. Plus, I thought it was a cool name."
The difficulty of howling Lars Johan Yngve Lannerbäck through 45000 watts of Marshall-amps gave us Yngwie Malmsteen .
Running Wild : Rolf Kasparek a.k.a. Rock'N'Rolf. The name came to be when one bandmember's little brother came up with it.
Iron Maiden : Michael Henry "Nicko" McBrain. "Nick" was one of his favourite puppets, and once a stupid manager added an "O" to make him sound Italian...
Lead singer Bruce Dickinson 's proper first name is Paul. And, back when he was with Samson, he went by the name Bruce Bruce, which he took from Monty Python 's Bruces sketch.
Pantera : "Diamond" "Dimebag" Darrell Abbott. Also Vince "Vinnie Paul" Abbott, his brother.
Mot�rhead : Ian Fraser "Lemmy" Kilminster got his nickname (as did a number of people) in Hawkwind, note itself named after saxophonist Nik Turner's habits of farting and clearing his throat loudly his first band, note where he was a volunteer roadie and hanger-on until someone told him he was playing bass where he was known for borrowing money from everyone: "Lem'me (lend me) a quid..." etc. His last bandmates prior to his 2015 death were Micael Kiriakos Delaoglou a.k.a. "Mikkey Dee" and Philip "Phil" Campbell. (and the best known formation was Lemmy, "Fast Eddie"note not OURS , if you're asking that Clarke, and Phil "Philty Animal" Taylor)
Steve "Fuzz" Kmak, former bass player for Disturbed . No one ever asked him what "Fuzz" meant.
Vancouver Sea Shanty Punk band the Dreadnoughts are full of this trope: Uncle Touchy (sometimes The Fang) (vocals), Squid Vicious (bass), Seamus O'Flanahan (fiddle), The Dread Pirate Druzil (mandolin), Stupid Swedish Bastard (Drums). Formerly, the Wicked Wench of the West (bass), before she left.
Katy Perry 's last name was originally Hudson, but she changed it to avoid confusion with Kate Hudson.
All the members of ABBA had slightly altered names when they started their respective careers in the 1960s. Anni-Frid Lyngstad started calling herself Frida while performing in a jazz band, Goran Andersson called himself Benny while performing in a rock band, and Agnetha added the H to her name to distinguish herself from another Agneta in a band she sang in. Bjorn's a slightly different case since his father was the one who changed his surname to Ulvaeus, because he felt Andersson was too common. (The elder Ulvaeus certainly had a point, because otherwise all the credited composers in ABBA songs would be "S. Anderson , B. Andersson, and B. Andersson", and chaos hilarity would have ensued.)
The Rolling Stones : "Bill Wyman" was originally William George Perks, and he went by Lee Wyman for a period before joining the Stones. The surname came from a friend and comrade in the RAF during his national service.
Brian Jones billed himself as "Elmo Lewis" prior to forming the band.
For several years Keith Richards dropped the "s" from his name and billed himself as "Keith Richard" at the suggestion of band manager Andrew Loog Oldham (who felt the shortened surname looked and sounded more appropriate for a pop star...perhaps by analogy with Cliff Richard?).
Mick Jagger and Keith Richards have produced all their albums since the mid-'70s using the name "The Glimmer Twins".
Cliff Richard was born Harry Roger Webb.
cEvin Key (Kevin Crompton) and Nivek Ogre (Kevin Ogilvie) of Skinny Puppy .
The Damned has always been rife with this. Past and present members include Dave Vanian (David Lett), Captain Sensible (Raymond Burns), Rat Scabies (Christopher Millar), Brian James (Brian Robertson), Monty Oxy Moron (Montgomery Gillan), Pinch (Andrew Pinching), Lu (Robert Edmunds), Moose Harris (Jason James Harris) and Algy Ward (Alasdair Mackie Ward). Furthermore, Lemmy (Ian Fraser Kilminster - see Motorhead example) filled in on bass for a period in the '70s while they were between bassists, and Sid Vicious (John Simon Ritchie) was going to try for lead singer, but failed to turn up for the audition.
Sid Vicious (John Simon Ritchie) eventually joined the The Sex Pistols , performing alongside Johnny Rotten (John Joseph Lydon). They would sometimes be joined on stage by punk model and general hanger-on Jordan (Pamela Rooke).
Siouxsie and the Banshees : Siouxsie Sioux (Susan Janet Ballion), Steven Severin (Steven John Bailey) - who took his name from the character in Venus in Furs, and Budgie (Peter Edward Clarke).
Mudhoney : Frontman Mark Arm was born Mark Thomas McLaughlin. The stage name came from some sort of in-joke about using body parts as insults.
From the band X, we have Exene Cervenka, nee Christine Lee Cervenka. (She replaced the "Christ" in her name with "X", just like with "Xmas." X-ene. Get it?) Guitarist Billy Zoom was born Tyson Kindell; John Doe's real name is John Nommensen Duchac. Drummer D.J. Bonebrake, meanwhile, was born...Donald J. Bonebrake. Yes, he's the only one in the band without a stage name.
Engelbert Humperdinck 's real name is Arnold Dorsey.
Meat Loaf was born Marvin Lee Aday. The stage name was originally a childhood nickname given to him by his parents, because, for the opening months of his life, his skin was the colour of raw meatloaf. Plus, he changed his legal name to Michael Lee Aday in 2001.
Prince , while he did make an example of himself as <symbol> from 1993-2000, has in fact spent most of his career as an aversion of this. His birth name is Prince Rogers Nelson.
Many one-named musicians who appear to be examples but are actually aversions: Madonna (born Madonna Louise Ciccone), Donovan (born Donovan Philips Leitch), Seal (born Seal Henry Olusegun Olumide Adeola Samuel), and Taco (full name Taco Ockerse). Cher , on the other hand, is short for Cherilyn.
Manfred Mann, keyboardist of the band of the same name and later on, Manfred Mann's Earth Band, was born Manfred Lubowitz. And while record executives did like how distinctive his stage name sounded , hence his eponymous '60s band, Mann actually chose his stage name as a tribute to American jazz drummer Shelly Manne.
Tina Turner was born Anna Mae Bullock. Her marriage to Ike Turner doesn't really subvert this - she had already been performing with him under her stage name for around two years before they actually got hitched.
Lady Gaga 's legal name is Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta. She chose the name from the song "Radio Gaga" by Queen, given to her by her producer for her theatrical approach to music. Contrary to what some sources say, Gaga had been quoted many times saying that she makes "absolutley no distinction between Stefani and Gaga." She calls this her "favorite question."
Iggy Pop was born James Newell Osterberg. The "Iggy" part came about as a nickname, as he used to play drums for a group named The Iguanas. Apparently still goes by "Jim" among friends.
May'n is a short form of May Nakabayashi, and also for being a homophone of the English "Main" to express her desire to become a mainstream artist.
Green Day has Michael "Mike Dirnt" Pritchard (the surname is how he imitates a bass' sound) and Tré Cool (as if Frank Edwin Wright III is not an Awesome Mc Cool Name enough). Yet Billie Joe Armstrong is the singer's actual name.
And yet, the side project the Foxboro Hot Tubs lists its members as Michael Pritchard, Frank Edwin Wright III, and the Reverend Strychnine Twitch. (and Green Day's tour guitarist promoted to full-time member after 13 years Jason White is Frosco Lee)
Like the Elton John example above, Tori Amos (born Myra Ellen Amos) changed her name before she got famous.
Bo Diddley was born Ellas Otha Bates. His name was then changed to Ellas McDaniel during his childhood.
George Michael was born Georgios Kyriakos Panayiotou.
Pink Floyd : ex-frontman Roger Keith "Syd" Barrett used a nickname and ex-bassist George Roger Waters dropped his first name.
Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick and Tich started off performing under their nicknames, spotlighted this by naming the band after them, then racked up three Other Darrins as replacement bandmembers adopted their predecessors� nicknames . Those names in full: lead vocalist and frontman David John �Dave Dee� Harman, bassist Trevor Leonard �Dozy� Ward-Davies, founding rhythm guitarist John �Beaky� Dymond and successors Paul �Beaky� Bennett and Anthony Stephen �Beaky� Carpenter, founding drummer Michael �Mick� Wilson and successor John �Mick� Hatchman, and lead guitarist Ian Frederick Stephen �Tich� Amey.
Superhero-themed ska-punk/rock band The Aquabats! all go by super hero names while in-character. Their line-up as-of the album Hi-Five Soup! consists of The MC Bat Commander (Christian Jacobs, vocals), Crash McLarson (Chad Larson, bass), Jimmy the Robot (James Briggs, keyboard/sax), Eaglebones Falconhawk (Ian Fowles, guitar), and Ricky Fitness (Rick Falomir, drums).
Swedish Alternative Rock band The Hives all have dangerous-sounding stage names. Howlin' Pelle Almqvist (vocals), Nicholaus Arson (guitar/keyboard), Vigilante Carlstroem (guitar), Dr. Matt Destruction (bass), and Chris Dangerous (drums).
Perry Farrell of Jane's Addiction was born Peretz Bernstein. His stage name is meant to be a play on "peripheral".
Michael Balzary is better known as Flea . During his pre-RHCP stint playing bass for Fear, he apparently went by The Flea, if captions on promo photos are to be believed.
My Chemical Romance 's Ray Toro was born Raymond Toro Ortiz.
Veteran rock and roller Shakin' Stevens was born Michael Barratt. He picked up the nickname "Shaky" at school - it referred to his batting pose when playing cricket.
French singer, songwriter, actress and cultural icon �dith Piaf was born Édith Giovanna Gassion. Piaf is a colloquial French term for "sparrow".
One of the earliest and greatest bluesmen, Lead Belly (an orthography he repeatedly insisted upon to no avail, as "Leadbelly" still remains more common) Huddie Ledbetter spent much of his life in prison yet changed American music forever. His most recognizable song today is "Where Did You Sleep Last Night" because of the Nirvana cover on MTV Unplugged. Kurt Cobain asked David Geffen if he'd buy for him an old guitar played by Lead Belly. Presumably Geffen decided he'd already sufficiently compensated Cobain for Nevermind's 25 million copies, and declined to spend $500,000 on the proposed gift.
After forming the band Japan, David Alan Batt borrowed a new last name from a David Bowie song: "Drive-In Saturday" from Aladdin Sane , with the line, "He's crashing out with Sylvian." He's long since given up his most-obvious vocal resemblances to Bowie (and Bryan Ferry, which could be regarded as indirectly ripping off Bowie, anyway). But David Sylvian continues to record and perform with the name most recognizable to his audience, however increasingly alienated —or unable to recognize what he's doing —they might have become: particularly from the release of Blemish onward.
Karl Learmont and Amelia Tan became ZooG and DestroyX (although DestroyX is also known as Amelia Arsenic .
Walden Robert Perciville Cassotto, "Bobby" to his family and friends, became Bobby Darin (possibly taking the surname from a Chinese restaurant sign - i.e. Mandarin Duck).
Kanjani8 member, You Yokoyama, was born as Kimitaka Yokoyama. His jimusho felt the kanji used in Kimitaka (侯隆) was far too complicated to catch on so changed it to the much easier to say and spell "You". Fans usually just call him Yoko anyway.
Black Veil Brides' guitarist, Jinxx (whose real name is Jeremy Ferguson). The singer started out with the stage name of Andy Sixx, shortened it to Andy Six, then scrapped the stage name altogether for his real name, Andy Biersack.
All members of Mindless Self Indulgence :
Jimmy Urine (James Euringer)
Terje Winterstø Røthing (born Terje Vinterstø) - Killmaster Kaizer
Helge Risa - Omen Kaizer
Rune Solheim - Mink Kaizer
Øyvind Storesund - Thunder Kaizer
When working with fIREHOSE, Ed Crawford was billed as Ed Fromohio (or "ed fROMOHIO", in line with the band's idiosyncratic use of capitalization). The name stemmed both from his being the only member of the band from Ohio instead of California, and from how he signed the fan letter that eventually led to him being in the band in the first place.
R&B singer Ginuwine's real name is Elgin Baylor Lumpkin.
Uriah Heep 's original vocalist, David Byron, was born David Garrick. He probably took the name from poet and author Lord Byron, and perhaps did so partly to avoid sharing a name with David Garrick, pioneering 18th century actor and theatre manager.
Anna Shurochkina is the real name of Russian R&B singer Нюша (Nyusha)
Brothers Robert Bartleh Cummings and Michael David Cummings are better known as Rob Zombie and Spider One (whose band is filled with those as well).
The Offspring is Bryan "Dexter" Holland, Kevin "Noodles" Wasserman (the nickname comes from noodling his guitar), Greg K(riesel) and the more conventionally-nicknamed Peter "Pete" Parada (whose predecessors include Ronald "Ron" Welty and Adam "Atom" Willard).
Like Elton John and Tori Amos, Edward Louis Severson III became Eddie Vedder before he got famous (Vedder is his mother's maiden name).
While Eddie's guitarist is named Stone Gossard, their guest keyboardist is Kenneth "Boom" Gaspar.
Guns N' Roses : William Rose Bailey = W. Axl Rose, Saul Hudson = Slash, Michael Andrew "Duff" McKagan, Jeffrey Dean Isbell = Izzy Stradlin', Darren Arthur "Dizzy" Reed. (in Aerith and Bob style, the drummers and Stradlin's replacement Gilby Clarke went at most with a contraction on their name) In the years before Slash and Duff returned, only a fewalso fit the trope, such as Ronald Jay Blumenthal = Ron "Bumblefoot" Thal (though he's also simply referred to as "Bumblefoot") and Daren Jay "DJ" Ashba.
The funny thing is that one of the bands William Bailey (born William Bruce Rose, Jr., before his mom remarried) was in before GNR was called A.X.L. That band broke up and William Bailey used the name for himself.
Onika Tanya Maraj became Nicki Minaj when she pursued her musical career.
Daryl Frank Dragon, dubbed "Captain Keyboard" when he played with The Beach Boys , and now better known as Captain - one half of the well-known duo with Cathryn Antoinette "Toni" Tennille.
Mario Lanza was born Alfred Arnold Cocozza. He adopted a masculine form of Maria Lanza, his mother's maiden name.
Canadian singer/songwriter Joni Mitchell was born Roberta Joan Anderson.
Averted with Frank Zappa , whose last name sounds every bit as quirky as most of his musical output but is actually his real family name. His longtime friend/rival Don Van Vliet played this straight as Captain Beefheart , as did many musicians who played in the different lineups of his Magic Band.
Practically every K Pop singer. If they don't choose a cool stage name, they will go by their given name only. In Korean you are NEVER called by your given name, unless your are foreign or possibly by your close family. So, 'Hong Gil Dong' would be called as 'Hong Gil Dong,' but if he was a singer he would just be 'Gil Dong' unless he chose a different stage name.
Subverted with Goth musician Voltaire (Now going by the name Aurelio Voltaire). His real, full name is Aurelio Hernandez Voltaire. Doubles as Awesome Mc Cool Name .
Australian singer Kandiah Kamalesvaran uses the stage name Kamahl (originally spelt 'Kamal' but apparently people kept mispronouncing it as 'camel').
From Einsturzende Neubauten:
Blixa Bargeld (birth name Christian Emmerich)
F.M. Eineit (Frank-Martin Strauß)
Alexander Hacke (Alexander von Borsig)
N.U. Unruh (Andrew Chudy)
Godrun Gut (Gudrun Bredemann)
Kid Congo Powers (former member of the Gun Club, the Cramps and Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds) has the birth name Brian Tristan.
Cass Elliot, AKA Mama Cass , born Ellen Naomi Cohen. She adopted the "Cass" in high school, apparently, after actress Peggy Cass, and the "Elliot" came some time later, after a friend who had died. The "Mama" part, however, is a straight example - she picked it while the newly-formed band were trying to find a suitable name, and ended up naming the band.
Damon Gough, AKA Badly Drawn Boy.
Neo Soul artist Maxwell goes by his middle name, however he keeps his real name under wraps to protect his family's privacy.
The Horrors, during their early days, chose slightly gothic names to go with their goth garage punk sound (upon going under a Genre Shift to shoegazing on subsequent albums, they reverted to their real names):
Faris Rotter (Faris Badwan)
Joshua von Grimm (later changed his stage name to Joshua Third) (Joshua Hayward)
Spider Webb (Rhys Webb)
Coffin Joe (Joe Spurgeon)
Tomethy Furse (Tom Cowan, although it's technically a subversion , as his birth name is Tomethy Furse Cowan)
The original lineup of The Dead Milkmen :
Rodney Anonymous (Rodney Linderman)
Joe Jack Talcum (Joe Genaro)
Dean Clean (Dean Sabatino)
Dave Blood (Dave Schulthise)
For the album Soul Rotation, Rodney Linderman was credited as " HP Hovercraft " while Joe Genaro became "Butterfly Fairweather" - Genaro would later combine his two Milkmen stage names and call his solo project Butterfly Joe.
Brazilian musician Marcos Valadão Rodolfo was nicknamed "Nazi" for his punk wardrobe. For obvious reasons , he changed the spelling to "Nasi" when he became the frontman for Ira!
Bryan David "Butch" Vig. His Garbage bandmate Duke Erikson (Douglas Elwin Erickson) too.
Elizabeth Woolridge Grant did her first record under the nickname Lizzy Grant, but only took off under the name Lana Del Rey .
Chaka Khan (born Yvette Marie Stevens).
Lulu (born Marie McDonald McLaughlin Lawrie).
Billie Holiday (born Eleanora Fagan).
Post-Punk duo The Swell Maps were brothers Nikki Sudden (Adrian Nicholas Godfrey) and Epic Soundtracks (Kevin Paul Godfrey). Both continued to use their stage names after the group broke up, and Epic Soundtracks is the reason Epic Records ' soundtrack division had to call itself Epic Soundtrax .
| Charles Bronson |
Who is the Patron Saint of Grocers and Policemen ? | Blog archive - VilNews
Blog archive
Situaition plan created by and property of Castle Research Center Lithuanian Castles. All rights reserved
The Soviet repressions against the citizens of our country did not exclude members of the Church. In fact the members of the Church were prime targets.
Bishop Vincentas Borisevičiusis an example of these repressions.
A Holy man of great compassion, he was also a man of great honor and courage.
PART 3 OF 6
Photo property of the Lithuanian Central Archives.
All rights reserved.
Telšiai Theological Seminary Rector Vincentas Borisevičius. Telšiai
He was born 23 November 1887 in Vilkaviškis County, Paežeriai Rural District, Bebrininkai Village. In 1909, he graduated from Seinai Seminary. He studied at the University of Fribourg (Switzerland) from 1909 to 1913. In 1910, Borisevičius was ordained a priest, did pastoral work, and actively participated in public activities. Between 1922 and 1926 he taught at Gižai Seminary (Seinai Diocese). Between 1927 and 1940 he was a professor and rector at Telšiai Seminary. In 1940, he was ordained titular bishop of Lysia by Pope Pius XII and appointed auxiliary bishop to Telšiai Bishop Justinas Staugaitis. After the death of Bishop Staugaitis in 1944, Borisevičius became thediocesanbishop of Telšiai.
Photo property of the Lithuanian Central Archives. All rights reserved.
Group Seinai seminary students: The future bishop Vincas Borisevicius
(third row, second from left). About 1908.
Priest Juozas Montvila (second row, second from right) was a passenger on the Titanic.
He died in 1912 when the ship sank in the Atlantic Ocean.
After the Soviet occupation of Lithuania in 1940, Borisevičius protested against the restrictions of the rights of the Church and the persecution of priests and believers. During the Nazi occupation of Lithuania, the Bishop helped Jews hiding in the villages and parishes of Telšiai County. After the liquidation of the Telšiai Ghetto, he himself gave refuge and hid Jews who managed to escape from the ghetto. After the second Soviet occupation of Lithuania, on 18 December 1945, Borisevičius was arrested and detained in the internal prison of the NKGB–MGB. He was charged with anti-Soviet activities and contact with partisans. Attempts were made to recruit him to serve the Soviets.
Photo property of the Lithuanian Central Archives.
All rights reserved.
Theological Seminary Rector Monsignor Borisevičius (left)
and seminary professor of Canon George Galdikas (right). Telšiai.
After unsuccessful efforts to break him, he was released and given time to make up his mind. In the end the Bishop refused to cooperate with the Russians and on 3 January 1946 wrote the following letter to the leadership of the NKGB–MGB:
“I declare that to be an informer is incompatible with me as a person and as a bishop, it is incompatible with my conscience, so I categorically refuse to be the one,”
With this letter Borisevičius signed his own death sentence.
Photo Property of the Lithuanian Central Photos property of the Lithuanian Special Archives. All rights reserved.
Archives. All rights reserved
On 5 February 1946, he was arrested and on 28 August charged by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR MVD Troops under Article 58-1a of the Criminal Code of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (RSFSR)with supporting participants of the armed resistance against the Soviets, preaching anti-Soviet sermons and being in possession of prohibited literature. His sentence was death by execution. The sentence was carried out on 18 November 1946 in the internal prison of the NKGB–MGB. The Bishop was shot in the head. The repressive structures of the Soviet occupational government kept the circumstances, place, and time of death of the Bishop hidden.
Photo property of the Lithuanian Central Archives. All rights reserved.
Theological Seminary Rector Vincas Borisevicius (center), seminary professors
Simaitis Anthony (left) and Peter Lygnugaris (right). Telšiai
In 1990, the re-establishment of independence in Lithuania provided an opportunity to investigate the documents of the former KGB archive. In 1994, the State Security Department of the Republic of Lithuania identified a mass grave of people that had been within the grounds of the former Tuskulėnai Manor. That same year, archaeological excavations and exhumation of the bodies began. The body of Bishop Borisevičius was found and identified in mass grave No. 26. On 27 September 1999, a formal reburial ceremony took place and the body was laid to rest in the crypt of Telšiai Cathedral.
Photo property of the Lithuanian Central Archives. All rights reserved.
Bishop Vincas Borisevicius with parishioners after a First Communion ceremony.
Telšiai in the twentieth century. 3-4 decade.
In 1991, the cause for the canonisation of the Bishop was initiated. By decree of the President of the Republic of Lithuania, Borisevičius was posthumously awarded the Grand Cross of Commander of the Order of the Cross of Vytis in 1999, and in 2003, with the Life Saving Cross.
Order of the Cross of Vytis
Life Saving Cross
KGB – rus. Комитет Государственной Безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo komitetas – Committee for State Security [of the USSR]
MGB – rus. МГБ, Министерство государственной безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo ministerija – Ministry of State Security [of the USSR]
MVD – rus. МВД, Министерство внутренних дел – Lith. Vidaus reikalų ministerija – Ministry of Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
NKGB – rus. НКГБ, Народный Комиссариат Государственной Безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo liaudies komisariatas – People’s Commissariat for State Security [of the USSR]
NKVD – rus. НКВД, Народный комиссариат внутренних дел – Lith. Vidaus reikalų liaudies komisariatas – People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
PRIBVO – rus. ПРИБВО, Прибалтийский военный округ – Lith. Pabaltijo karinė apygarda – Baltic Military District
Look for the next article
Part 4 of 6
Dear readers
WE NEED YOUR HELP
Dear VilNews readers, we need your help. As we have said, the victims that were executed in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947 were buried in secret mass graves in the territory of the Tuskulėnai Manor. These victims have been found, their bodies recovered, given the dignified burial they never received and their souls have been blessed by a Holy person of the religion the worshipped.
26 May 1947, following the order of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the death penalty was abolished.
On 12 January 1950, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR passed a decree re-instating the death penalty. Between October 1950 and July 1952, 182 people sentenced to death were executed at Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison.
Their place of burial is still not known.
After July 1952 to 1961 executions continued pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown.
The 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR was terminated in 1961 but executions continued.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown
Dear readers we would like to find where these people are buried, recover their bodies, give them the dignified burial they never received and have them blessed by a Holy person of the Religion they worshipped.
This is where we need your help. The NKVD and NKGB–MGB officers that oversaw these executions are now all dead. What ever records and documents which still exist are most likely locked away in a vault somewhere in the Russian Federation and it would seem highly unlikely that anyone in the Russian Federation would be kind enough allow access to these documents and records so that we could find out the location of the burial sites or simply tell us where these people are buried.
We know that there are people out there that know the location of some of these burial sites. Maybe it is a person that processed the documents, maybe it is some one that was just a rank and file soldier that was ordered to drive the truck that transported the bodies or was ordered to dig the trenches for the graves, maybe it is a colleague of one of these people or maybe it is the bartender that heard some of these people talk of it one night. The possibilities are endless.
Maybe none of these people with first hand knowledge of the burial sites are still alive. In that case we are sure that there are people out there with second hand or even third hand information. To have first hand knowledge of these executions would weigh very heavily on any civilized person’s heart and it is very possible that after carrying this weight inside them for many years they finally felt the need to free themselves from this burden they carried inside and told some one.
If you have any information at all, any information of any kind – Please tell us.
It is not important to us how you know, who it was, what they did or who told you.
None of this is important.
The only thing that is important is that we find where the executed people are buried.
This is all we care about.
What we want to do is best explained in the words from Bronius Eiva’s farewell letter he wrote to his wife while waiting his execution while in the prison of Ukmergės Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs.
“Please find out when I was shot or hanged and where they bury me.
Dig me up and take me to Šeta cemetary.”
This is all we want to do – Find where they are buried, dig them up and then give them a proper burial but we can only do this with your help.
All information will be kept strictly confidential
We are not concerned with who or what
We are only concerned with where these people are buried
If you have any information of any kind please contact:
The Memorial Complex of Tuskulenai Peace Park
Žirmūnų Gatvė 1F,
You can also contact me at [email protected]
We sincerely thank you for your help.
Su pagarbe
Situaition plan created by and property of Castle Research Center Lithuanian Castles. All rights reserved
Article 58 of the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic) Penal Code was put in force on 25 February 1927 to arrest those suspected of counter-revolutionary activities. It was revised several times. In particular, its Article 58-1 was updated by the listed sub-articles and put in force on 8 June 1934.
58-1: Definition of counter-revolutionary activity:
"A counter-revolutionary action is any action aimed at overthrowing, undermining or weakening of the power of workers' and peasants' Soviets... and governments of the USSR and Soviet and autonomous republics, or at the undermining or weakening of the external security of the USSR and main economical, political and national achievements of the proletarian revolution"
PART 2 OF 6
EXECUTIONS BETWEEN 1944 AND 1947
The “PROCESS”
EXECUTIONS BETWEEN 1944 AND 1947
In Soviet-occupied Lithuania, Division A of the NKGB–MGB was in charge of the executions of people sentenced to death. When the documents containing information about the death sentences pronounced by the Military Tribunal and information on where the detained persons were held was received by Division A, the condemned people were moved from the various agencies of detention to Vilnius 1st prison of the NKVD–MVD (today– Lukiškių skg. 6) and from there to the Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison (today – Gedimino pr. 40 / Aukų g. 2A).
A special group consisting of the head of Division A, the head of the prison, deputy head of the prison, wardens, and a representative of the Military Prosecutor’s Office carried out the executions by shooting. Prior to execution, the head of Division A and the prosecutor verified the identity of the person sentenced to death and other documents. The convicts were shot in a special cell, which, in an attempt to mask its real purpose, was marked as a “kitchen” on the plan of the building. An executioner, who had gained experience in various regions of the Soviet Union, would carry out the sentence. Usually executions were carried out by the heads of internal prisons. According to the Criminal Code of the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic (RSFSR) the only method of execution was by shooting. The majority of the convicts were shot in the back of the head. However, some of them died differently, as signs of stabbing and cuts were identified on some bodies. After execution, the head of Division A, the prosecutor, and the executioner signed the deed of execution of the death sentence. The head of the division informed the leadership of the Military Tribunal which had passed the sentence, and the leadership of the USSR NKGB–MGB in Moscow about the execution by issuing certificates.
Between 1944 and 5 January 1946, when Division A was managed by Lieutenant-Colonel Stepan Kharchenko, 535 executions were carried out and from 15 January 1946 and 16 April 1947, under the leadership of Major Pavel Grishin, there were a further 232 executions.
The surviving KGB archive documents specify the names of the executioners. In September–October 1944, Yegor Kuznetsov, Commandant Captain of the NKGB–MGB unit of the Lithuanian SSR, personally carried out the execution of 18 convicts. Between November 1944 and October 1946, the head of the prison Major Vasiliy Dolgirev lead 41 mass executions during which he personally executed 650 people. From November 1946 until March 1947, executions were carried out by Captain Boris Prikazchikov, the head of the prison. During 11 such executions, 99 lives were taken.
After each execution, the bodies were stripped, loaded onto a truck, covered with tarpaulin, and taken at night to be buried within the grounds of Tuskulėnai Manor which was guarded by NKGB–MGB. The bodies were thrown into an already prepared trench. Many trenches were used several times: new bodies were thrown on top of the corpses covered with lime and tar paper. When the trench filled up, it was covered with soil and stones. Executioners referred to this procedure cynically as ‘disposal of the contingent.’
The “PROCESS” – ARTICLE 58
Article 58 of the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic) Penal Code was put in force on 25 February 1927 to arrest those suspected of counter-revolutionary activities. It was revised several times. In particular, its Article 58-1 was updated by the listed sub-articles and put in force on 8 June 1934.
This article introduced the formal notion of the “enemy of workers”. Penal codes of other republics of Soviet Union also had articles of similar nature.
58-1: Definition of counter-revolutionary activity:
"A counter-revolutionary action is any action aimed at overthrowing, undermining or weakening of the power of workers' and peasants' Soviets... and governments of the USSR and Soviet and autonomous republics, or at the undermining or weakening of the external security of the USSR and main economical, political and national achievements of the proletarian revolution"
58-1а. Treason: death sentence or 10 years of prison, both cases with property confiscation.
58-1в. In the case of flight of the offender of treason, his relatives were subject to 5–10 years of imprisonment with property confiscation or 5 years of Siberia exile, depending on the circumstances: either they helped or knew and didn't report or simply lived with the offender.
(Between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947, the death penalty was carried out on 767 people in Lithuania. 613 of them were sentenced under Articles 58-1а and 58-1в ‘For treason’ of the 1926 Criminal Code of the RSFSR)
58-1б. Treason by military personnel: death sentence with property confiscation.
58-1г. Non-reporting of a treason by a military man: 10 years of imprisonment. Non-reporting by others: offense by Article 58-12.
58-2. Armed uprising or intervention with the goal to seize the power: up to death with confiscation, including formal recognition as "enemy of workers".
58-3. Contacts with foreigners "with counter-revolutionary purposes" (as defined by 58-1) are subject to Article 58-2.
58-4. Any kind of help to "international bourgeoisie" which, not recognizing the equality of communist political system, strives to overthrow it: punishment similar to 58-2.
58-5. Urging any foreign entity to declaration of war, military intervention, blockade, capture of state property, breaking diplomatic relations, breaking international treaties, and other aggressive actions against USSR: similar to 58-2.
58-6. Espionage. Punishment: similar to 58-2.
58-7. Undermining of state industry, transport, monetary circulation or credit system, as well as of cooperative societies and organizations, with counter-revolutionary purpose (as defined by 58-1) by means of the corresponding usage of the state institutions, as well as by opposing their normal functioning: same as 58-2. Note: the offense according to this article was known as wrecking and the offenders were called "wreckers".
58-8. Terrorist acts against representatives of Soviet power or of workers and peasants organisations: same as 58-2.
58-9. Damage of transport, communication, water supply, warehouses and other buildings or state and communal property with counter-revolutionary purpose: same as 58-2.
58-10. Anti-Soviet and counter-revolutionary propaganda and agitation: at least 6 months of imprisonment. In the conditions of unrest or war: same as 58.2.
58-11. Any kind of organisational or support actions related to the preparation or execution of the above crimes is equated to the corresponding offenses and prosecuted by the corresponding articles.
58-12. Non-reporting of a "counter-revolutionary activity": at least 6 months of imprisonment.
58-13. Active struggle against revolutionary movement of tsarist personnel and members of "counter-revolutionary governments" during the civil war, same as 58-2.
58-14 (added on June 6, 1937) "Counter-revolutionary sabotage", i.e., conscious non-execution or deliberately careless execution of "defined duties", aimed at the weakening of the power of the government and of the functioning of the state apparatus is subject to at least one year of freedom deprivation, and under especially aggravating circumstances, up to the highest measure of social protection: execution by shooting with confiscation of property.
Article 58 was used for the imprisonment and execution of many prominent people as well as multitudes of nonnotable innocents.
Sentences were long, up to 25 years, and frequently extended indefinitely without trial or consultation. Inmates under Article 58 were known as "politichesky" (полити́ческий), as opposed to common criminals, "ugolovnik" (уголо́вник). Upon release, the prisoner would typically be sent into an exile within Russia without the right to settle closer than 100 km/60 miles from large cities.
On 3 September 1944, the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs arrested partisan signaler and teacher Jonas Tomėnas in Šiauliai. This is a translation of an excerpt from the letter of farewell he was able to secretly send to his family. Jonas Tomėnas was one of the many buried in the Mass Graves of Tuskulėnai.
“I do not know when I will return, it depends on various circumstances. Stay safe and strong.”
The “PROCESS”
The “PROCESS” consisted of four primary “STEPS”. It was required that these four steps be precisely documented so that everything was kept “legal”in accordance with the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR.
Step 1 – Conviction and Death Sentence
Military Tribunals of the USSR NKVD troops and the non-judicial authority, the Extraordinary Meeting of the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR, carried out the instructions of Communist Party officials by surveilling, arresting, investigating, imprisoning, and sentencing to death “traitors of the motherland”.
The following is the English translation of the document which sentenced to death by shooting partisan Jonas Sliuževičius issued by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops on 12 March 1946.
/Handwritten note: C06 (104) 120/
On behalf of the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics
12 March 1946, Kaunas
The Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops consisting of the chairman – Major of Justice Rumyancev, members – Lieutenant Bondarev and Militia Sergeant Nikolayenko, secretary – Mamedova, and translator – Leskauskas, at the hearing held in camera has heard the case in which citizen:
Jonas SLIUŽEVIČIUS, son of Pranas, born in 1923, residing in Graužėnai Village, Veliuona Rural District, Kaunas County of the Lithuanian SSR, originating from middle peasants, himself a middle peasant, non-party member, education – 4 grades, single, Lithuanian, citizen of the USSR, no previous convictions, is charged with a crime pursuant to Articles 58 (I)(a) and 58(II) of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR.
During both the investigation stage of the proceeding and the judicial proceeding the following has been
ESTABLISHED:
In July 1945, the defendant SLIUŽEVIČIUS voluntarily joined the counter-revolutionary nationalist cohort lead by the bandits Gedutis and Naujokas. As a member of the cohort, SLIUŽEVIČIUS was armed. He had a rifle, 150 pieces of ammunition, and a Walter pistol. At the end of July 1945, together with the bandit Marcinkus, SLIUŽEVIČIUS went for food to Gružėnai Village and on the way, in Gervėnai Village, came across Rudžinskas, the commander of Veliuona Rural District platoon of the defenders of the people who was armed with an automatic rifle. Sliuževičius and Marcinkus hid in a ditch and started shooting at Rudžinskas and shot him dead.
In view of the above, the Military Tribunal adjudged SLIUŽEVIČIUS to be guilty of the crimes pursuant to Articles 58 (I)(a) and 58(II) of the Criminal Code of RSFSR. Considering the degree of the crime committed by Sliuževičius and pursuant to Articles 319 and 320 of the Code of the Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR and Article 49 of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR:
RULED
to convict Jonas SLIUŽEVIČIUS, son of Pranas, pursuant to Article 58(I)(a) of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, and to impose the most severe sentence – death by shooting – and to confiscate all his personally owned property.
The sentence is final and no appeal in cassation can be lodged.
Original if certified by relevant signatures.
True copy.
Major of Justice /Signature/ Rumyancev
/Seal:
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
Step 2 – Giving the Instructions to Execute
When the documents containing information about the death sentences pronounced by the Military Tribunal or the Extraordinary Meeting of the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR and information on where the detained persons were held was received by Division A, the condemned people were moved from the various agencies of detention to Vilnius 1st prison of the NKVD–MVD (today– Lukiškių gatvė 6) and from there to the Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison (today – Gedimino pr. 40 / Aukų g. 2A).
The following is the English translation of a strictly confidential notification dated 7 March 1946 from Lieutenant-Colonel of Justice Aleksey Khaliavin, chairman of the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops, to Lieutenant-Colonel Stepan Kharchenko, head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB, instructing him to execute five convicts, informing him of the detention agency in which the convicts are located, and asking for a report when the sentence has been carried out.
/Handwritten note: (47)
To the Head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL
For execution
09/03/1946/
The Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops requests permission to carry out the most severe sentence – death by shooting – passed on 8–9 January 1946 by the Military Tribunal pursuant to Article 58 (1)(a) of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR on the following convicts:
Adolfas Kubilius, son of Leonas, born in 1918 in Budriai Village, Kartena Rural District, Kretinga County of the Lithuanian SSR.
Jonas Venclauskas, son of Antanas, born in 1919 in Tomsk.
Antanas Stalmokas, son of Antanas, born in 1920 in Gargždai Town, the rural district of the same name, Kretinga County of the Lithuanian SSR.
Sergejus Semsys, son of Jonas, born in 1908 in Trakiškiai Village, Kalvarija Rural District, Marijampolė County of the Lithuanian SSR.
Stepas Derbutas, son of Ferdinandas, born in 1904 in Alsėdžiai Town, the rural district of the same name, Telšiai County of the Lithuanian SSR.
The sentence was passed and approved by the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court.
The convicts are imprisoned in Vilnius prison.
Please notify the time for carrying out the execution.
Annex: a copy of the sentence and extracts dated 18 February 1946 from instructions (for 5 people) No. 1/00171-75 of the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court.
CHAIRMAN OF THE MILITARY TRIBUNAL OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL OF JUSTICE
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
The following is the English translation of a strictly confidential notification dated 19 March 1946 from Major of Justice Afonin, deputy chairman of the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops, to Lieutenant-Colonel Stepan Kharchenko, head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB, instructing him to execute Leonas Virkietis and Jonas Starevičius, informing him of the detention agency in which the convicts are located, and asking for a report when the sentence has been carried out.
/Handwritten note: (105)/
To the Head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL
for execution
30/03/1946/ /Signature/
The Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops requests permission to carry out the most severe sentence passed on 19 January 1946 by the Military Tribunal on the following convicts:
Leonas VIRKIETIS, son of Vladas, born in 1921 in Khabarovsk, RSFSR, prior to arrest residing in the city of Kaunas, Lithuanian SSR, convicted pursuant to Clauses 58 (I)(a) and 58(II) of the Criminal Code.
Jonas STAREVIČIUS, son of Petras, born in 1921 in the town of Jurbarkas, Raseiniai County, Lithuanian SSR, convicted pursuant to Clauses 58 (I)(a) and 58(II) of the Criminal Code, prior to arrest residing in the city of Kaunas, Lithuanian SSR.
The sentence was passed and approved by the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court. The convicts are imprisoned in Kaunas prison.
Please notify the time for carrying out the execution.
Enclosure: two copies of the instructions of the Military Collegium and a copy of the sentence.
DEPUTY CHAIRMAN OF THE MILITARY TRIBUNAL OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR NKVD
MAJOR OF JUSTICE
Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD/
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
The following is the English translation of a strictly confidential letter of 14 May 1946 from Colonel-General of justice Vasilij Ulrich, chairman of the USSR Supreme Court Military Collegium, to the chairman of the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR MVD troops to carry out the death sentence on Jonas Sliuževičius without delay and to notify him of the execution.
/Handwritten note: (108) 121/
of the USSR Supreme Court
14 May 1946
To the CHAIRMAN OF THE MILITARY TRIBUNAL OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR MVD TROOPS
Please carry out the most severe sentence passed by the Military Tribunal without delay on the following convicts:
Jonas SLIUŽEVIČIUS, son of Pranas, born in 1923.
Please inform when the sentence has been executed
Chairman of the Military Collegium of the USSR Supreme Court
Colonel-General of Justice (V. Ulrikh)
True according to the original.
Secretary of the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR MVD troops /Signature/ (Sakharova)
/Illegible/
Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD /
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
Please note - Military tribunals were subordinate to the USSR Supreme Court Military Collegium which was the highest instance of the legal system. After passing a death sentence, military tribunals had to notify the Military Collegium of it without delay and the Military Collegium, within 72 hours of the receipt of the notification by telegram, could suspend execution of the sentence. However, the Military Collegium usually confirmed decisions made by the military tribunals.
Step 3 – Verifying the Identity
The next step of the “Process” was that prior to an execution, the head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB–MGB and the prosecutor verified the identity of the person sentenced to death and other documents.
The following is the translation of a certificate issued by Major of Justice V. Barmin, assistant to the prosecutor of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops on 22 March 1946, confirming that the sentence on Jonas Starevičius can be carried out.
[ Handwritten note: (I V7)
CERTIFICATE
Jonas Starevičius, son of Petras, born in 1921 sent to me is indeed the person, pursuant to Article 58(I)(a) of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR, on 19/01/1946 sentenced by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troopsto death by shooting.
Assistant Military Prosecutor of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD
Major of Justice /Signature/ / Barmin /
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
Step 4 – The Execution
Translation of The deed of execution of the death sentence on 7 February 1945, which states who carried out the execution: “Eiva was shot by Major Dolgirev, head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB internal prison”. The deed was signed by Captain of Justice Fiodorov, deputy prosecutor of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD Troops Military Prosecutor’s Office, Major Stepan Kharchenko, head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB Division A, and Major Vasiliy Dolgirev, head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB internal prison.
/ Handwritten note: (250) 254/
7 February 1945, Vilnius
We, the undersigned, Deputy Prosecutor of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops Fedorov and State Security Major Kharchenka, head of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD Division A, carried out the sentence passed by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops on Bronius Eiva, son of Aleksandras, born in 1913, Pašėtė Village, Šėta Rural District, Kėdainiai County of the Lithuanian SSR, who was sentenced by the Military Tribunal pursuant to Article 58 (I)(a) of the Criminal Code of the RSFSR to death by shooting. Eiva was executed by State Security Major Dolgirev, the head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB internal prison. Subsequently this deed was completed.
Captain of Justice /Signature/ /Fedorov/
Head of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD Division A
State Security Major /Signature/ /Kharchenka/
Head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB internal prison
State Security Major Signature/ /Dolgirev/
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
.
Translation of the deed of execution of the death sentence dated 25 December 1946 and signed by Major Pavel Grishin, head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB, Lieutenant-Colonel of Justice Tugov, assistant to the prosecutor of the Baltic Military District, and the executioner Captain Boris Prikazchikov, head of the Lithuanian SSR MGB internal prison.
/Handwritten note: (111)/
25 December 1946, Vilnius
We, the undersigned, confirm that on the above date the sentence of death by shooting passed by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops on 17 August 1946 was carried out on Juozas GIEDRA, son of Juozas, who is also known as Juozas BUJANAUSKAS, son of Pranas, born in 1922 in the town of Josvainiai, Kėdainiai County of the Lithuanian SSR and on Juozas PETRUŠKEVIČIUS, son of Antanas, born in 1927 in Margininkai Village, Pakuonis Rural District, Kaunas County of the Lithuanian SSR. The remains were buried.
Head of the Lithuanian SSR
MGB Division A
Assistant Military Prosecutor of PRIBVO Lieutenant-Colonel of Justice
/Signature/ /Tugov/
Acting head of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB internal prison
Captain /Prikazchikov/ /Signature/
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
After the execution the body of the executed person would be stripped of clothing, loaded onto a truck and driven to Tuskulėnai for burial in a mass grave.
Step 4 – Confirming the Execution
Once the execution had been carried out the head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB–MGB informed the leadership of the Military Tribunal which had passed the sentence, and the leadership of the USSR NKGB–MGB in Moscow about the executions by issuing certificates.
Translation of a strictly confidential notification dated 31 December 1946 from Major Pavel Grishin, head of Division A of the Lithuanian SSR NKGB, to Colonel of Justice Aleksey Khaliavin, chairman of the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR MVD troops, informing him that the execution of Juozas Giedra-Bujanauskas was carried out on 25 December 1945.
To the CHAIRMAN OF THE MILITARY TRIBUNAL OF THE LITHUANIAN SSR MVD TROOPS
Ref 14/12/1946 No. 00964
I hereby inform you that the sentence passed on 17 August 1946 by the Military Tribunal of the Lithuanian SSR NKVD troops on Juozas GIEDRA, son of Juozas, who is also known as Juozas BUJANAUSKAS, son of Pranas, born in 1922 in the town of Josvainiai, Kėdainiai County of the Lithuanian SSR was carried out on 25 December 1946 in Vilnius.
Head of the Lithuanian SSR
MGB Division A
Translation property of the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park. All rights reserved.
Look for the next article
Part 3 of 6
Dear readers
WE NEED YOUR HELP
Dear VilNews readers, we need your help. As we have said, the victims that were executed in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947 were buried in secret mass graves in the territory of the Tuskulėnai Manor. These victims have been found, their bodies recovered, given the dignified burial they never received and their souls have been blessed by a Holy person of the religion the worshipped.
26 May 1947, following the order of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the death penalty was abolished.
On 12 January 1950, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR passed a decree re-instating the death penalty. Between October 1950 and July 1952, 182 people sentenced to death were executed at Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison.
Their place of burial is still not known.
After July 1952 to 1961 executions continued pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown.
The 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR was terminated in 1961 but executions continued.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown
Dear readers we would like to find where these people are buried, recover their bodies, give them the dignified burial they never received and have them blessed by a Holy person of the Religion they worshipped.
This is where we need your help. The NKVD and NKGB–MGB officers that oversaw these executions are now all dead. What ever records and documents which still exist are most likely locked away in a vault somewhere in the Russian Federation and it would seem highly unlikely that anyone in the Russian Federation would be kind enough allow access to these documents and records so that we could find out the location of the burial sites or simply tell us where these people are buried.
We know that there are people out there that know the location of some of these burial sites. Maybe it is a person that processed the documents, maybe it is some one that was just a rank and file soldier that was ordered to drive the truck that transported the bodies or was ordered to dig the trenches for the graves, maybe it is a colleague of one of these people or maybe it is the bartender that heard some of these people talk of it one night. The possibilities are endless.
Maybe none of these people with first hand knowledge of the burial sites are still alive. In that case we are sure that there are people out there with second hand or even third hand information. To have first hand knowledge of these executions would weigh very heavily on any civilized person’s heart and it is very possible that after carrying this weight inside them for many years they finally felt the need to free themselves from this burden they carried inside and told some one.
If you have any information at all, any information of any kind – Please tell us.
It is not important to us how you know, who it was, what they did or who told you.
None of this is important.
The only thing that is important is that we find where the executed people are buried.
This is all we care about.
What we want to do is best explained in the words from Bronius Eiva’s farewell letter he wrote to his wife while waiting his execution while in the prison of Ukmergės Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs.
“Please find out when I was shot or hanged and where they bury me.
Dig me up and take me to Šeta cemetary.”
This is all we want to do – Find where they are buried, dig them up and then give them a proper burial but we can only do this with your help.
All information will be kept strictly confidential
We are not concerned with who or what
We are only concerned with where these people are buried
If you have any information of any kind please contact:
The Memorial Complex of Tuskulenai Peace Park
Žirmūnų Gatvė 1F,
You can also contact me at [email protected]
We sincerely thank you for your help.
Su pagarbe
Article 1 of 6
Situation plan created by and property of Castle Research Center Lithuanian Castles. All rights reserved
In 1944, the Soviet Union drove the army of Nazi Germany from the territory of Lithuania and occupied the country for a second time. Repressions against the citizens of our country began without delay. Members of the anti-Soviet armed resistance and underground anti-Soviet organisations, their supporters, farmers, teachers, intelligentsia; politicians, public servants, soldiers, and other officials of former independent Lithuania; and members of the Catholic clergy were arrested, imprisoned, exiled, sentenced to death, and subsequently executed. The convicts were judged by Military Tribunals of internal troops and an Extraordinary Meeting with the State Security Minister of the USSR. Pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58 of RSFSR, they imposed penalties which included custody or the death sentence (by shooting). Indictments were based on torture or documents obtained illegally. Between 1944 and 1953, the Extraordinary Meeting convicted at least 11,932 people and the Military Tribunals – at least 22,080.
CONSEQUENCES OF THE TOTALITARIAN REGIME
IN LITHUANIA 1940–1953.
In 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a secret agreement (the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) for the division of Central and Eastern Europe. Lithuania fell under the sphere of influence of the Soviet Union, as a result, on 15 June 1940 Lithuania was occupied and subsequently annexed by the USSR. In order to carry out the sovietisation of the country, to break and destroy it, physical and spiritual destruction of the nation took place. The scheme was prepared by the top Communist Party officials of the Soviet Union and implemented by the repressive NKVD–MVD and NKGB–MGB structures and subordinate courts – Military Tribunals of the USSR NKVD troops and the non-judicial authority, the Extraordinary Meeting of the People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR. These institutions carried out the instructions of Communist Party officials by surveilling, arresting, investigating, imprisoning, and killing “traitors of the motherland”. During the first Soviet occupation in 1940, 23,000 Lithuanian citizens were arrested, executed, or exiled.
From the end of June 1941, when the country was occupied by the military forces of Nazi Germany until 1944, nearly 30,000 Lithuanian citizens were arrested and deported to concentration camps, another 60,000 were taken for forced labour in Germany, and 240,000 were killed, approximately 200,000 of them Jews.
In 1944, the Soviet Union drove the army of Nazi Germany from the territory of Lithuania and occupied the country for a second time. Repressions against the citizens of our country began without delay. Members of the anti-Soviet armed resistance and underground anti-Soviet organisations, their supporters, farmers, teachers, intelligentsia; politicians, public servants, soldiers, and other officials of former independent Lithuania; and members of the Catholic clergy were arrested, imprisoned, exiled, sentenced to death, and subsequently executed. The convicts were judged by Military Tribunals of internal troops and an Extraordinary Meeting with the State Security Minister of the USSR. Pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR, they imposed penalties which included custody or the death sentence (by shooting). Indictments were based on torture or documents obtained illegally. Between 1944 and 1953, the Extraordinary Meeting convicted at least 11,932 people and the Military Tribunals – at least 22,080.
Between 1944 and 1953, around 186,000 people were arrested and imprisoned, of which 143,000 were imprisoned in GULAG camps, 118,000 – exiled, and nearly 21,000 members of the armed anti-Soviet resistance and their supporters perished.
Soviet Gulag camps
Editors note - The Gulag (Russian: ГУЛаг, tran. GULag) was the government agency that administered the main Soviet forced labor camp systems. GULag is the acronym for Chief Administration of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies (Russian: Гла́вное управле́ние исправи́тельно-трудовы́х лагере́й и коло́ний, tran. Glavnoye upravlyeniye ispravityel'no-trudovih lagyeryey i koloniy) of the NKVD. It was officially created on April 25, 1930 and dissolved on January 13, 1960.
Prior to the collapse of the Soviet Union, the procedure for carrying out the most severe sentence – death by shooting – as well as the place of burial were classified as a state secret. In 1990, after the re-establishment of independence in Lithuania, it became known an appropriate burial place for the bodies of the executed convicts. General-Lieutenant Ivan Tkachenko, the person designated by the NKVD–NKGB for the Lithuanian SSR, had in 1944 selected the grounds of the former Tuskulėnai Manor as the site that complied with all the security requirements of the time. In this 1.3 ha territory near the city centre surrounded by a high brick and timber fence it was easy to safely hide the burial sites of the bodies. The MGB documents from 1952 specify that Tuskulėnai was selected “due to the impossibility of driving outside the city limits at night as the situation in the Lithuanian SSR was extremely tense”. There was still armed anti-Soviet resistance and therefore there was fear of clashes with freedom fighters while moving the corpses for burial. Another important circumstance was the experience of 1941 when, at the outset of the war between Germany and the USSR, retreating security agents did not have time and did not manage to conceal the execution sites. In summer and autumn 1941, graves of people executed in the NKVD internal prison were identified in Kaunas Petrašiūnai Cemetery.
This is the translation of a certificate dated 23 June 1952 by Lieutenant-Colonel Pavel Grishin, head of the Lithuanian SSR MGB Division, about the reasons why the grounds of the former Tuskulėnai Manor were selected in 1944 for burying the bodies of people executed in the Lithuanian SSR NKGB–MGB internal prison between 1944 and 1947. The place name Tuskulėnai is not mentioned in the certificate.
79
Photo property of the Lithuanian Special Archives. All rights reserved.
Lieutenant-Colonel Pavel Grishin
People executed in the NKGB–MGB internal prison and participants of the anti-Soviet underground movement tortured or killed during NKVD counterinsurgency operations in Vilnius and its environs, were buried within the grounds of Tuskulėnai until the late spring of 1947 when the death penalty was abolished in the USSR. At the beginning of 1950, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR passed the decree “On the employment of the death penalty for traitors of the motherland, spies, and saboteurs-subversives”, as a result of which the death penalty, pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR, was re-instated and the execution resumed. Most were carried out in the same NKGB–MGB internal prison as before and continued until 1961. Executions continued after 1961 but they were not carried out pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR. You would need to look at each and every individual execution that took place after 1961 to determine on what basis they were carried out.
Today, the burial sites of those executed after the re-instatement of the death penalty,
still remain a secret.
Tuskulėnai is the only known location where the bodies of those executed in Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison were buried, and therefore it has become one of the symbols commemorating the victims of the Soviet terror.
MGB – rus. МГБ, Министерство государственной безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo ministerija – Ministry of State Security [of the USSR]
MVD – rus. МВД, Министерство внутренних дел – Lith. Vidaus reikalų ministerija – Ministry of Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
NKGB – rus. НКГБ, Народный Комиссариат Государственной Безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo liaudies komisariatas – People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
NKVD – rus. НКВД, Народный комиссариат внутренних дел – Lith. Vidaus reikalų liaudies komisariatas – People’s Commissariat of Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
Lithuanian SSR – Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic
RSFSR – the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic
USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Bronius Eiva was a Lithuanian partisan leader. He was arrested 8 September 1944. He is one of the many that between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947 that were executed in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in Vilnius and then buried in the mass graves at Tuskulėnai.
This is a translation of excerpts from the letter of farewell Bronius Eiva wrote to his wife, dated September 1944, written from the prison of Ukmergės People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs, where severely wounded, he was being investigated after his arrest on 8 September 1944.
“This is my last letter. I shall die and you shall live. Please raise our precious daughter Rūtelė-Regina, and when she grows up please tell her I loved her…I lay wounded in the right leg. But it is not the pain that bothers me most, it is the sorrow for you…Please find out when I was shot or hanged and where they bury me. Dig me up and take me to Šeta cemetery.”
TUSKULĖNAI MASS GRAVES
Starting in autumn 1944, death penalties passed by Military Tribunals of the USSR and the Extraordinary Meeting were carried out in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in Vilnius (now – Gedimino pr. 40 / Aukų g. 2A). Between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947, the death penalty was carried out on 767 people; 613 of them were sentenced under Articles 58(I)(a) and 58(I)(b) ‘For treason’ of the 1926 Criminal Code of the RSFSR (Статья 58 Уголовного Кодекса РСФСР/вариант 1926 года). Under these articles, people were charged for actions which sabotage the military power of the USSR, its independence as a country, and sanctity of its territory.
In 1944, the death penalty was carried out on 45 convicts
In 1945 – on 479 convicts
In 1946 – on 185 convicts
In 1947 – on 58 convicts.
The largest number of executions, 45 people, was carried out on 21 March 1945. After the executions, the bodies were secretly buried within the grounds of Tuskulėnai Manor.
The convicts included;
Participants of the anti-Soviet movement
Participants of the uprising of 23 June 1941
Fighters of the Polish Armia Krajowa
People charged with war crimes
People who served in civil or military structures of Nazi Germany
Deserters from the Red Army
People charged with criminal offences
The death penalty was carried out on people of fifteen different nationalities, the majority being Lithuanians and included among others Russians, Poles, Germans, Belarusians, Latvians, Ukrainians, Jews, etc.
The territory of the Tuskulėnai Manor served as a secret mass grave until 26 May 1947 when, following the order of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the death penalty was abolished and replaced with 25 years imprisonment at a penitentiary establishment (work camps). On 12 January 1950, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR passed a decree re-instating the death penalty.
Between October 1950 and July 1952, 182 people sentenced to death were executed at Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison. Their place of burial is still not known.
During the time of the Soviet occupation, the territory of the former Tuskulėnai Manor was vigilantly watched over by NKGB–MGB–KGB officials. Until the early fifties, the territory was fenced and guarded. In 1990, after the re-establishment of independence in Lithuania, the archives became accessible and witnesses could tell their stories, as a result of which the secret of this location was revealed. At the beginning of 1994, the State Security Department of the Republic of Lithuania identified a mass grave within the grounds of Tuskulėnai Manor of people sentenced to death by Soviet repressive structures. An archaeological investigation was conducted and bodies were exhumed. Forty-five graves with 724 bodies were found.
Forensic medicine experts identified that 666 victims had gunshot wounds. 506 of them were killed with one shot to the head, 111 – two shots, 31 – three shots, 13 – four shots, 4 – five shots and 1 – six shots
The skulls of 239 victims had signs of gunshot wounds and other forms of physical violence. 122 of these had marks inflicted by a blunt instrument, 112 – had signs of cuts and stabbing and 5 – had signs of deep cuts
In 2004, after the remains of the bodies exhumed were transferred to the chapel-columbarium, the place was officially opened to public on All Soul’s Day, November 2.
KGB – rus. КГБ, Комитет Государственной Безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo komitetas – Committee for State Security [of the USSR]
MGB – rus. МГБ, Министерство государственной безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo ministerija – Ministry of State Security [of the USSR]
NKGB – rus. НКГБ, Народный Комиссариат Государственной Безопасности – Lith. Valstybės saugumo liaudies komisariatas – People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs [of the USSR]
RSFSR – the Russian Soviet Federal Socialist Republic
USSR – Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Scheme of archeological research
The situation plan of the archaeological excavations of the Tuskulėnai Manor between 1994 and 1996 and in 2003. (Created by the Castle Research Centre Lithuanian Castles)
Situaition plan created by and property of Castle Research Center Lithuanian Castles. All rights reserved
Note - The Lithuanian word “PERKASOS” is TRENCHES
Look for the next article
Part 2 of 6
EXECUTIONS BETWEEN 1944 AND 1947
Dear readers
WE NEED YOUR HELP
Dear VilNews readers, we need your help. As we have said, the victims that were executed in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947 were buried in secret mass graves in the territory of the Tuskulėnai Manor. These victims have been found, their bodies recovered, given the dignified burial they never received and their souls have been blessed by a Holy person of the religion the worshipped.
26 May 1947, following the order of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR, the death penalty was abolished.
On 12 January 1950, the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR passed a decree re-instating the death penalty. Between October 1950 and July 1952, 182 people sentenced to death were executed at Vilnius NKGB–MGB internal prison.
Their place of burial is still not known.
After July 1952 to 1961 executions continued pursuant to the 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown.
The 1926 Criminal Code Article 58of RSFSR was terminated in 1961 but executions continued.
The burial place of these victims is still unknown
Dear readers we would like to find where these people are buried, recover their bodies, give them the dignified burial they never received and have them blessed by a Holy person of the Religion they worshipped.
This is where we need your help. The NKVD and NKGB–MGB officers that oversaw these executions are now all dead. What ever records and documents which still exist are most likely locked away in a vault somewhere in the Russian Federation and it would seem highly unlikely that anyone in the Russian Federation would be kind enough allow access to these documents and records so that we could find out the location of the burial sites or simply tell us where these people are buried.
We know that there are people out there that know the location of some of these burial sites. Maybe it is a person that processed the documents, maybe it is some one that was just a rank and file soldier that was ordered to drive the truck that transported the bodies or was ordered to dig the trenches for the graves, maybe it is a colleague of one of these people or maybe it is the bartender that heard some of these people talk of it one night. The possibilities are endless.
Maybe none of these people with first hand knowledge of the burial sites are still alive. In that case we are sure that there are people out there with second hand or even third hand information. To have first hand knowledge of these executions would weigh very heavily on any civilized person’s heart and it is very possible that after carrying this weight inside them for many years they finally felt the need to free themselves from this burden they carried inside and told some one.
If you have any information at all, any information of any kind – Please tell us.
It is not important to us how you know, who it was, what they did or who told you.
None of this is important.
The only thing that is important is that we find where the executed people are buried.
This is all we care about.
What we want to do is best explained in the words from Bronius Eiva’s farewell letter he wrote to his wife while waiting his execution while in the prison of Ukmergės Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairs.
“Please find out when I was shot or hanged and where they bury me.
Dig me up and take me to Šeta cemetary.”
This is all we want to do – Find where they are buried, dig them up and then give them a proper burial but we can only do this with your help.
All information will be kept strictly confidential
We are not concerned with who or what
We are only concerned with where these people are buried
If you have any information of any kind please contact:
The Memorial Complex of Tuskulenai Peace Park
Žirmūnų Gatvė 1F,
Situation plan created by and property of Castle Research Center Lithuanian Castles.
All rights reserved
Between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947, the death penalty was carried out on 767 people in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in Vilnius. It took forty seven years and the restitution of Lithuania’s freedom to finally find the secret location where the Soviets had buried the victims.
INTRODUCTION
The Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania is a state institution which investigates all manifestations of genocide and crimes against humanity, the persecution during the Soviet and Nazi occupations and the armed and peaceful resistance to the occupations. It also gives juridical evaluations of the perpetrators of the reprisals and genocide, and immortalizes the memory of the freedom fighters and genocide victims.
The objectives of the centre are to establish historical truth and justice; to investigate the physical and spiritual genocide of Lithuanians carried out by the occupying regimes between 1939 and 1990, and the resistance to the regimes; to immortalize the memory of the freedom fighters and the genocide victims; and to initiate the juridical evaluation of the aftermath of the occupying regimes. The centre also researches into the policy of the occupying regime in the
Vilnius
district from 1920 to 1939 and the processes of resistance to it.
The
of
Genocide Victims
(often referred to as the KGB prison or KGB museum) is a part of The Memorial Department of the Genocide and Resistance Research Centre of Lithuania and is located at Aukų gatvė 2A in
Vilnius
. It is located in the former KGB headquarters where plans for deportations and the arrests of peaceful inhabitants, the persecution of opponents and the suppression of the resistance were devised and carried out by Soviet institutions between 1940 and 1991. The main area of the museum is located in the area where the prisoners were detained, tortured and executed.
While the
of
Genocide Victims
at Aukų gatvė 2A is actually well known of around the world and is often a planned destination for people visiting
Vilnius
, many are not aware of the other part of the museum. Inside the museum at Aukų gatvė 2A is a room that was labelled as the “kitchen” on the Soviet’s floor plan diagram – Its actual purpose was an execution chamber. In this room more than 1,000 people were executed. The other part of the
Museum
of
Genocide Victims
which many do not know about is the site of the mass graves in which many of the victims that were executed in the KGB prison were buried. This is the Memorial Complex of the
Tuskulėnai
which is located at Žirmūnų gatvė 1F in
Vilnius
. Here is also located the museum exposition "The Secrets of Tuskulenai Manor" located at Žirmūnų gatvė 1N.
Starting in autumn 1944, death penalties passed by Military Tribunals of the
USSR
and the Extraordinary Meeting were carried out in the NKGB–MGB internal prison in
Vilnius
, now Gedimino pr. 40 / Aukų g. 2A. Between 28 September 1944 and 16 April 1947, the death penalty was carried out on 767 people. The territory of the Tuskulėnai Manor served as a secret mass grave until 26 May 1947. This area of the mass graves is now the Memorial Complex of the
Tuskulėnai
This story about the Memorial Complex of the
Tuskulėnai
Peace
Park
all started on a warm sunny beautiful Lithuanian spring day. My intentions were to go to Tuskulėnai, take a few photos, get some information and then go home and write a story. Once I arrived and started to walk the grounds my immediate impression was how beautiful the park is. Since it was during the warmer months I greatly admired the finely manicured lawns, colorful flower gardens and made note of the many shady areas under the majestic trees. I also imagined what a spectacular site this place must be in autumn with all the trees sporting their colorful foliage. Using my imagination a little bit more I pictured how magical it must be in winter to walk here at night with a foot of shimmering snow on the ground. But as I walked more and started to get the details on what happened here during the Soviet occupation I soon felt my emotions peak as I felt the overpowering somber energy that exudes from this solemn site. It was then I realized that a few photos and a bit of information would by no means honor and give justice to the souls of the people that suffered and died and now are interned here as their final resting place.
So what I thought would be a story I could complete in two or three days turned into three months of research, meetings, visits to various government offices, telephone conversations and emails back and forth. While much of the text for this article was prepared by the expert staff of the Tuskulėnai Memorial Complex, there are so many other government offices, organizations and people that are involved with the Tuskulėnai Memorial Complex and the information for this article. What took all the time to prepare this article was getting all the information together. I must give credit to where credit is due. In effect I only acted as the person that put all this together so that it could be published for you our readers. The real work and all the credit for this article goes to the dedicated professional staff of the Tuskulėnai Memorial Complex and all the other government offices, organizations and people that have done all the research and work to tell the story of what happened here and give a dignified final resting place for the victims.
The next time you are in
Vilnius
I would highly recommend that you visit the Memorial Complex of the
Tuskulėnai
Peace
Park
at Žirmūnų gatvė 1F and the museum exposition "The Secrets of Tuskulenai Manor” at Žirmūnų gatvė 1N. The personel at both museums highly recommend and I strongly agree that you first visit the Museum of Genocide Victims and then the Memorial Complex of the Tuskulėnai Peace Park and the museum exposition "The Secrets of Tuskulenai Manor" to get a clearer and more complete view of the Soviet’s process of the arrest to the ultimate execution of prisoners during this time period. It is very easy to get to using public transport. If you want to drive there it is easy to find and there is plenty of free parking. It is also a very pleasant walk along the
Neris
from
Cathedral Square
. Here you will begin to feel the emotion that exudes from this very special place. The staff of the Tuskulėnai Memorial Complex are absolutely great. They are not only extremely knowledgeable they are also very warm and friendly. They are a pleasure to talk with and they will provide you with much information. Most importantly, while you are there you can pay your respects to the hundreds of souls that lost their lives in such a tragic and brutal manner and are interned here in their final resting place.
It is my hope that this information we share with you will provide some insight as to the tragic events that were taking place at the KGB prison and Tuskulėnai during the Soviet occupation of Lithuania. I hope that it will also give you some idea as to all the diligent effort that so many people have put in and are still putting in to honor the victims and try to bring some closure for their families and relatives.
My greatest hope is that this story will bring out the information that still to this day is unknown
Where are the people that were executed after 1950 buried?
Look for the first part of our six part story which will be out in a few days
CONSEQUENCES OF THE TOTALITARIAN REGIME
IN
Former Žagarė synagogue.
INVITATION TO A VERY SPECIAL EVENT IN ŽAGARĖ
Under the initiative and leadership of a Lithuanian activist Valdas Balčiūnas, A MEMORIAL PLAQUE TO COMMEMORATE THE ZAGARE JEWISH COMMUNITY will be unveiled. The ceremony coincides and may be considered to be taking place in the context of ZAGARE CHERRY FESTIVAL which will be held in July 12-15. The plaque will be in English, Lithuanian, and Yiddish. Here is what the English version will say:
For hundreds of years Žagarė (in Yiddish — Zhager) had been home to a vibrant Jewish community. Zhager’s marketplace had many Jewish shops and was a center of commerce for merchants from here and a range of other towns. Many of their shops surrounded this square. Zhager was also famous for its many Hebrew scholars, the “Learned of Zhager”. German military occupiers and their Lithuanian collaborators brought the region’s Jewish men, women, and children to this square on October 2, 1941. Shooting and killing of the entire Jewish community of Zhager began here and continued in the forests nearby. About 3,000 Jewish citizens were killed.
The festival begins on July 12, 2012. Here are some highlights of Jewish interest:
Dedication of the memorial plaque -- Friday July 13 at 1600 in the Zagare Town Square
"From the History of the Shtetl"– a presentation, exhibition, and concert organized by the Joniskis Municipality Museum -- Friday July 13 at 1700 at the Zagare Culture Centre
Baltic senior football (soccer) competition including the Makabi team from Vilnius – Saturday July 14 at 1300.
Please let us know if you are planning to attend. We look forward to seeing a strong representation of descendants of the former Jewish community of Zagare. After the official events there will be a FRIDAY EVENING GATHERING AND 'KABBALAT SHABBAT' FOR VISITORS. If you wish to be invited to this please let us know.
For more information please contact any of the following:
UK - Joy Hall ( [email protected]
Vilnius Jewish Public Library
The first time I heard the name of Zhagare (Žagarė) it was probably like for many Lithuanian kids related to cherries – Zhagre cherrys. Big and juicy ones. There were some of such trees in my parents’ orchard. Zhagare liqeuer came later. Maybe even later than mom‘s notice about St. Barbara of Zhagare (Barbora Žagarietė) from 17th century, though not beatified yet but very revered in Samogitia (Žemaitija) as a real saint in charge of many miraculous healings. And that was it for many years until it turned out that the family of my wife comes from Zhagare. During the first walking tour with her I enjoyed marvelous streets of wooden houses along river Shvete, radiating strange and sadly atractive kind of romantic atmosphere of brick houses around the Central Square. The architecture prompted straightforwardly that they used to belong to Jews and association with the direction sign by the road at the entrance to Zhagre showing the way to the Graveyard of the Jewish Genocide Victims made this atmosphere still blurry ghostly, not quite tangibly yet but bringing a distant smell of its “echos and absences” to use Roger Cohen phrase in his letter to the forthcoming event this Friday. Later I asked my wife’s grandmother, who is 84, weather it had been difficult during the Second World War. She said, - ouch, we did not see much of the war here; we were made to work of course for the war and got some food supplies but the most terrible thing was about Jews that they were killed. She remebers a German officer commanding from the balcony for the collaborators in the Central Square to start the massacre of the crowd herded into the central area. She was just waving her hands – oh oh oh… Layers of silence or surpressed whispers with heavy locks on wording went afterwards. Maybe or hopefully, or at least some “dutiful nod to shadows” was made by some (R. Cohen again). It’s a riddle for the younger generations. Perhaps to the older ones too.
It’s a long story and let those who know better to do the healing practice for everybody to speak the truth. Say for Rose Zwi , a writer, who has her ancestors in that mass grave. Her book the “Last walk in Naryshkin Park” to my mind had to be translated immediately after it was published in 1997. Today she is back to Lithuania to celebrate a sign of memory awakening little by little – a special plaque to be unveiled on July 13, 2012 in Zhagare Central Square. There are many other coming to the event from all over the world. R. Zwi made it from Australia. High guests will range from the Ambassador of Israel to film producer and director from Australia Rod Freedman , who made a documentary “Uncle Chatzkel“, „International Herald Tribune“ and “New York Times” columnist Roger Cohen (see his letter below), Joy Hall, the creator of the Lithuanian Link , Cliff Marks, the creator of ShtetLinks and to many others. Rose’s friend Sara Manobla came from Israel, her family has roots in Zhagare. And she she is one of those lucky few surviving Zhagare Jewish offsprings but not the only one to be present on that day.
There were very pleasant moments when on her way to Zhagare Rose Zwi and her friend Sara Manobla in companion of Rose’s local cousin Fryda visited the Vilnius Jewish Public Library on July 09, 2012. Her two presented books, “Last Walk in Naryshkin Park” and “Once Were Slaves” (about the Perlov family fate in Soviet gulags), with authors signatures will be of very high value for the library. The guests were very fond to find out the story of this new library to appear in Vilnius, its initator Wyman Brent and the role it is seeking to play in complex cutural polylog. Luckily, Fryda immediately came accross a book on the shelves “Life of the Jews of Joniškis region during the inter-war period (1918-1940)” where they found many familiar names and faces in the photos. It seemed the conversation could have lasted for hours and hours and many touched upon and vividly started stories remained to be continued. Everything was possible due to their friend and host Julius Bieliauskas who made all the linking, introducing and provided safe transportation. See more of these moments and see everybody in Zhagare.
By Roger Cohen,
Columnist, International Herald Tribune and New York Times
I look forward with considerable emotion to returning to Zagare for the unveiling of a plaque that will commemorate the slaughter of more than 2,250 Jews in the town on October 2, 1941. More than three score years and ten have gone by since that mass murder without full acknowledgment of its scope. The men, women and children taken from the main square into the woods to be killed have remained anonymous, mere shadows, their fates at first concealed by Soviet political calculation and taboos, and then only falteringly recognized after Lithuania gained independence in 1990. I do not know the Jews who were killed but I know that each of them valued life and its joys as we do, and I know that my grandmother, Pauline (“Polly”) Soloveychik would have been among them had she not left Zagare for South Africa in the early 20th Century. For me, the fate of the Zagare Jews is personal.
When I visited the village for the first time in November last year, as I began research on a family memoir, the last Jew in Zagare, Isaac Mendelson, has just died. So ended a presence that began in the 16th century. In 1897, three years after my grandmother’s birth, there were 5,443 Jews in Zagare. Mendelson, a community of one, used to stand on the corner of the market square with his dachshund, Chipa. He would recall the times after the war when he was a goalkeeper for the local soccer team. Never did he talk about the day Nazis and their Lithuanian collaborators murdered the Jews, including members of his own family.
Zagare is a place of echoes and absences, my grandmother’s being but one. It hovers over loss, a void that whispers. I came back to see what might have been. Next to a bridge on the Svete I noticed a plaque commemorating the death on June 29, 1941, of Jonas Bavanauskas, who was “killed defending his homeland.” He died a few days after the Nazis invaded Lithuania and embarked on one of the swiftest mass murders of a nation’s Jews in the entire European I extermination program, one largely completed before the gassing facilities of industrialized Jewish annihilation were in place.
Bavanauskas, who merits a plaque, was not a Jew. Yet he alone is identified in Zagare. He is thereby accorded a presence that feels like more than a dutiful nod to shadows. He lived, he felt, he resisted, he died. His name is there, legible. It is there at the center of a town that lies between two disused Jewish cemeteries, one in the “new” and one in the “old” district. In the cemeteries gravestones lurch, lichen advances and Hebrew inscriptions crumble or fade into illegibility. Fragments of letters recall Anna Akhmatova’s words in Requiem, “I’d like to call you all by name, but the list has been removed and there is nowhere else to look.”
The plaque to be unveiled on July 13, 2012, will go some way toward giving the people of Zagare a place to look to understand the history of their town. It is past time for that.
Roger Cohen joined The New York Times in 1990. He was a foreign correspondent for more than a decade before becoming acting foreign editor on Sept. 11, 2001, and foreign editor six months later.
Since 2004, he has written a column for The Times-owned International Herald Tribune, first for the news pages and then, since 2007, for the Op-Ed page. In 2009 he was named a columnistof The New York Times.
Mr. Cohen has written “Hearts Grown Brutal: Sagas of Sarajevo” (Random House, 1998), an account of the wars of Yugoslavia’s destruction, and “Soldiers and Slaves: American POWs Trapped by the Nazis’ Final Gamble” (Alfred A. Knopf, 2005). He has also co-written a biography of General Norman Schwarzkopf, “In the Eye of the Storm” (Farrar Straus & Giroux, 1991).
[email protected]
Our series on US-Lithuanians and their contact with the home country Lithuania has come to an end. Through nearly two months we have brought stories and articles in which the goal has been to shed light on both issues and individual cases, and it shall not be denied that many of the articles have revealed major differences, different mindsets and sometimes bitterness between today's Lithuanians and various emigrant groups in United States. There is still no doubt in my mind that there is much genuine love for the homeland in many diaspora groups, even among the descendants of people who came to America more than 100 years ago when the first major exodus from Lithuania took place.
My thinking is that today’s Lithuanian leaders should do whatever they could to invite and facilitate for as many emigrants as possible to return home, preferably for permanent living but at least for more frequent visits. There should be spared no effort to create more attractive conditions for the return of the fellow-countrymen to Lithuania. The US-Lithuanians’ wisdom, experience, knowledge and investments is still very much needed here.
Thousands of exiles spent half a century in America since WWII, waiting to come home, dreaming of a Lithuania as it was in its pre-communist days. But relatively few did move home despite the newfound freedom for their home country in 1990-1991. The contrast between living in the United States and in a country where the understanding of democracy and
Western-style leadership that still today is quite deficient has probably appeared too dramatic for many. Had liberation
come in the 1960s this would probably have been completely different.
There have, however, also been good moves to reunite the Lithuanian people in the USA and Lithuania. In 1998 Lithuanians elected a Lithuanian-American President, Valdas Adamkus, who returned to his homeland in 1997 after nearly 50 years in the U.S. Adamkus' post and position was largely symbolic, and he vowed to curb corruption, steer the country westward and restore "moral dignity" to government. As the nation's neighbours, Latvia and Estonia, Lithuania hit the fast track to NATO and E.U. membership, he was calculating that left-behind Lithuania would be ready for forward movement as well-to bury the ghosts from its Nazi and communist occupation, settle old scores and move westward into the 21st century. But the resistance against him was huge. In 1998, a member of the far-left wing put it: "Adamkus won the presidential elections by 14,000 votes. Is that a mandate to import Americans?"
Despite controversy, Adamkus continued to believe that importing Lithuanian-Americans was good for his country. "You know that when you need experience you can get it," he said. And even some of Adamkus' political rivals agreed. Vytautas Landsbergis, the fiery parliament speaker who led the Sajudis movement that won Lithuania's independence, welcomed the Americans. He said they had brought "a feeling of hope that helped Lithuania overcome the danger of depression.
Suspicion, however, does hang in the air, still today. One of Adamkus' goals was to deal with some of the dark corners of Lithuanian history, bringing to justice those who too eagerly aided foreign occupiers-first the Nazis, then the Soviets. In the late 1990s the Seimas passed a "lustration" law banning former officers of the Soviet KGB from holding jobs in the judiciary, security forces, diplomatic corps, banks and even in some private sector industries. To many Lithuanians Adamkus, was the man to heal his homeland's wounds, but the challenge was huge and the old ‘nomenklatura’ continued to play main roles in a society that desperately needed a total clean up.
Jonas Kronkaitis
Another interesting move took place when retired U.S. Army Colonel Jonas Kronkaitis became commander of the Lithuanian armed forces. Kronkaitis, who fled Lithuania as a young boy during World War II, served 27 years in the U.S. Army, including two years in Vietnam, and went through Ranger training with Colin Powell. But despite those military qualifications, Kronkaitis, whose reform agenda was focused on getting the tiny army up to NATO level in shortest possible time, did not sit well with some Lithuanians, especially the Soviet-trained members of the elite officer corps and the hard-liners among the reformed communists in the parliament.
People like Adamkus and Kronkaitis have done much to establish and improve ties between Lithuanians in the U.S. and in the home country here on the Baltic Sea shore. Also, many others could be mentioned. But there is still very much work to do regarding reconciliation and bridge building.
We have through this series sought to identify younger US-Lithuanians and other people who have ties and feelings towards their homeland even though they have never lived here. I think we have succeeded relatively well with regard to these efforts, and I hope that our goals of building new bridges with the help of communication has sown some small seeds that may lead to renewed contacts and more mutual understanding.
I hope to see many of our U.S. readers move here to actively take part in the further development of the tiny but amazing country called Lithuania! Thank you for following us!
Fleeing from domestic famine in the late 1800's:
Hordes of Lithuanians
came to Pennsylvania
to work in coal mines
Large numbers of Lithuanians first came to the United States in 1867-1868 after a famine in Lithuania, at that time a part of the Russian Empire after Saint Petersburg had annexed the Lithuanian lands piece by piece between 1772 and 1795 in the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth between Prussia, (later part of Germany), the Austrian-based Habsburg Monarchy and Czarist Russia, which ceased to exist in 1917-1918.
The beginnings of industrialization and commercial agriculture in the Russian Empire as well as a population boom that exhausted available land transformed Lithuanian peasant-farmers, once considered an immovable fixture of the land, into migrant-labourers. The pressures of industrialization drove numerous Lithuanian peasants to emigrate to the United States continuing until the outbreak of the First World War. This first wave of Lithuanian immigrants to the United States ceased when the US Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924 driven by xenophobic anti-immigrant attitudes against the newcomers from Eastern Europe. The Immigration Act of 1924 was aimed at restricting the Eastern and Southern Europeans who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s.
During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, an estimated 300,000 Lithuanians journeyed to America. This number is hard to document fully because census records did not officially recognize Lithuanians as a separate nationality until the twentieth century, and the country's people may have been reported as Russian, Polish, or Jewish.
Lithuanians differed from most immigrant groups in the United States in several ways. First, they did not plan to remain permanently and become "Americanized." Instead their intent was to live in the US temporarily to earn money, invest in property, and wait for the right opportunity to return to Lithuania. Official estimates were that 30% of the emigrants from the Russian provinces of Poland-Lithuania returned home. When adjusted to include only non-Jews the number is closer to 50-60%. Lithuanian immigrants who mostly came to the United States from Imperial Russia lived in a social environment akin to early European feudal society, where classless Jews performed the essential middle roles of artisans, merchants and moneylenders.
American employers considered Lithuanian immigrants, like the Poles as better suited for arduous manual labour in coal-mines, slaughterhouses, and steel mills, particularly in the primary stages of steel manufacture. Consequently, Lithuanian migrants were recruited for work in the coal mines of Pennsylvania and the heavy industries (steel mills, iron foundries, slaughterhouses, oil and sugar refineries) of the North-eastern United States as well the Great Lakes cities of Chicago, Pittsburgh, Detroit, Buffalo, Milwaukee, and Cleveland.
It is said about Pennsylvania that it was like a Western Lithuania at one point.
The Lithuanian Citizens Society of Western Pennsylvania is a Social Welfare Organization. It was founded on July 19, 1912 and is the only surviving Lithuanian club in the immediate Pittsburgh area. The organization's main building and meeting location is located at 1721 Jane St. on the South Side of Pittsburgh
Why Pennsylvania?
By Jay Zane
Copyright © 1998 by Jay Zane, Attorney at Law, and the Lithuanian Global Genealogical Society, All Rights Reserved.
Coal was discovered in the eastern part of Pennsylvania well before the American Civil War. In fact, the legendary Necho Allen accidentally ignited a vein of anthracite coal in 1790 while traveling in what would later be Schuykill County. In 1822, the Anthracite coal industry began in earnest when fortune hunters journeyed into the coal fields of Schuykill, Carbon, Luzerne and Lackawanna counties in northwestern Pennsylvania.
Large fortunes were discovered by a select few. Stephen Girard of Philadelphia amassed millions from the Anthracite area after purchasing more than 29,000 acres of coal land in 1830 for $30,000. The profits he and his successors reaped in the 1800's continue into the millions today.
The history of Schuykill and other anthracite coal counties is filled with "Robber Barons", individuals who selfishly exploited both the lush mountainous topography and the immigrant mines workers. As wealth was extracted from earth's womb into the pockets of mine owners, the coal waste devastated the mountains and the pure streams and rivers.
In 1820, coal output in Schuykill County was 357 tons, by 1880, 23 1/2 million tons. The mining explosion created employment for illiterate, unskilled immigrants with sparse economic alternatives. At first, the Irish filled the jobs. Eastern Europeans followed. Both groups dreaded working on farms.
Past horrors of crop failures, famines, ruinous taxes and the degrading misery of serfdom were fresh in their collective memories. The Irish suffered under the iron grip of the English Crown, Eastern Europeans under the Russian Czar.
When Lithuanian immigrants began to arrive in the early 1880's, safety nets like unemployment compensation, welfare checks, food stamps, and medical assistance were non-existent. Survival meant work, hard work. Coal mining, with ten hours of grueling back-breaking labor, six days a week, was considered a privilege to newcomers, grateful to be away from the serf existence and Russian military conscription.
Since there was no telephone, Internet service, or television in the late 1880's, how did word of plentiful employment opportunities spread? Agents from the Pennsylvania's Coal and Railroad Companies traveled throughout eastern and southern Europe, seeking cheap labor. Word spread quickly about the streets of America being "paved with gold." These stories hastened the Lithuanians to head towards the ports of Bremen and Hamburg, creating a labor shortage in their own land and prompting the Russian government to prohibit lawful immigration.
Before arriving at German ports, a risky trip had to be made to avoid the Russian army and police. Immigrants would have to sail in steerage, rather than first or second class, due to the meager savings they had with them. Their unventilated passengers room had double-decker, wide shelves for beds underscored by a permanent stench. Several persons were forced to share the inadequate accommodations. Although the United States Congress had enacted the "Passenger Act of 1882", improvements on the passenger ships came gradually.
Lithuanians first set foot on America soil, usually New York, in wooden or leather shoes. Wearing pleasant clothing, they carried what few possessions they owned in several suitcases. Each immigrant had to have a few dollars to prove to US Immigration officials that they were self sufficient. When my maternal grandfather arrived in 1911 from Rudnikia, Suvalkija, the ship's manifest indicated he had:
+ $7.00
+ A brother waiting for him in the coal town of Shenandoah, Pennsylvania.
When our ancestors arrived in Pennsylvania, newspapers were quick to pass judgement. The press complained the coal mining counties being afflicted by a new, mixed population. As the newcomers passed through town, speaking in their native tongues or broken English, they soon became the blunt of jokes and laughter. Children were tormented, young adults avoided.
Several cities and large towns in the Anthracite coal fields attracted Lithuanians. Shenandoah, in northern Schuykill County was one of the major settlements in the 1880's. It earned itself the nickname, "the Vilnius of North America". While Shenandoah was the county's largest metropolis, it lacked the charm and sophistication of the county's seat, Pottsville, located about 15 miles to the south. Situated in a pocket between rugged mountains which contained the valuable anthracite coal, Shenandoah was confident of its future even in the aftermath of the destructive fire of November 12, 1883 which laid waste to one quarter of its buildings.
By the end of the nineteenth century, there were as many as twenty foreign languages being spoken on the streets of Shenandoah. For awhile, Shenandoah had the distinction of having more people per square foot than any other place on earth. Many unmarried Lithuanian male immigrants were forced by economics to live in small huts or shacks made from scrap, lumber, and tin built on the hillsides near the mines. Others would crowd into cheap living quarters, including barns converted into dormitories.
Sometimes over a dozen men would rent an abandoned store. For a few dollars per month, they sleep on bunks or mattresses arranged along the walls. The owner's wife would wash the men's laundry, perform household chores, and cook her tenants a basic meal each day: bread, meat and coffee. This became known as the "boardinghouse system" and continued for decades.
The 1900 United States census files for Shenandoah reflect the prevalence of this system within the Lithuanian community. Supposedly 70% of Lithuanians took in boarders. To make ends meet, families picked huckleberries on the mountains and grew cabbage and potatoes. If financially able, they kept some livestock. Because it was difficult, if not impossible, to save enough money to purchase an stove, rye bread was baked communally in a large outdoor oven.
Even with limited earnings, miners were able to raise their families and educate their children so that the next generation would not have to follow their footsteps into the bowels of the earth. It cannot be emphasized enough: Mining was one of the most, if not the most, dangerous occupation.
Death in the mines was a regular occurrence. Fine coal dust was always in the damp air of the coal mines causing untold misery for thousands and "black lung disease." But, the biggest fear was explosions caused by methane gas build-ups in the crevices of the mines. Whistles would blow whenever a mine explosion occurred, wives and children would wait in fear until the names of the victims were circulated. Then, there was silence. Life was difficult, death tragic.
Besides Shenandoah, there are several other well known Lithuanian settlements in eastern Pennsylvania including:
SHAMOKIN, the site of the first Lithuanian printing press in the Western Hemisphere. Settlers arrived here in 1869.
HAZLETON had arrivals in 1870. By 1887 it had forty Lithuanian families.
NEW PHILADELPHIA elected Lithuanian public officials in the 1890's.
MAHANOY CITY, where Saule," a Lithuanian newspaper, was printed from 1888 to 1959.
MINERSVILLE, where Lithuanian socialists and freethinkers congregated.
WILKES-BARRE,
PLYMOUTH
FOREST CITY.
For further reading I recommend "Lithuanians In America," by Dr. Antanas Kucas or "Where the Sun Never Shines," by Priscilla Long (Paragon House), 1989.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Used copies of LITHUANIANS IN AMERICA and WHERE THE SUN NEVER SHINES are available through Lithuanian Global Resources .
Commercial use strictly prohibited. Printing of this file for non-commercial purposes and by libraries is encouraged, providing all notices and submitter information is included. Any other use, including uploading files to other sites requires permission from Lithuanian Global Genealogical Society. We encourage links.
The American coal mining industry
From: http://www.learner.org/biographyofamerica/index.html
The coal barons controlled politics and the press and had their own police force and company-owned towns. And they smashed every attempt by the workers, going back half a century, to form a labor union. The American Constitution wasn't a fact of life in the coal towns of northeastern Pennsylvania.
Here, coal was king. A single industry, hard coal, anthracite, dominated the region, and here the industrializing process assumed its most nakedly brutal form. In less than a generation, an unspoiled wilderness was made over into a wasteland of acid-polluted streams and smoke-scarred towns.
Workers were treated even worse than the land. Deep in the coal seams, men and boys worked in total darkness, at the most dangerous job of the day. Accidents were almost a way of life, and few miners past the age of 40 failed to contract "black lung" from inhaling the dust of the mines. Black lung was -- still is -- incurable and slowly kills its victims.
No other American industry inflicted more destruction on man and the environment than anthracite mining. Yet clean-burning anthracite was indispensable to the industrializing process. It was used to make iron, to power factories, to run locomotives; and it was the Northeast's chief domestic heating fuel. And almost all of this coal, almost all this anthracite, was located in Northeastern Pennsylvania.
Deprived of anthracite, entire areas of the country would be paralyzed or thrown into chaos, particularly in wintertime. Maybe the miners had more power than they thought? The anthracite industry had evolved in the classic capitalist pattern, from small firms operated by individual entrepreneurs, through big family-owned companies, to giant conglomerates. After the Civil War, the owners of the major coal hauling railroads began buying up huge amounts of coal lands merging into industry-wide combinations under Morgan's guidance and Morgan's money.
By 1900, Morgan's railroad cartel controlled almost the entire region. Meanwhile, mining went on much the way it had for almost a century. There's never been a more perilous occupation.
The miners were sometimes a thousand feet and more underground; and there were deadly gases there that could kill in a minute or set off tremendous explosions and fires. There were rats all over the place. The timber that helped hold up the roofs of the tunnels was creaking constantly under the tremendous weight -- a thousand feet of earth and rock right above the miners. And every day these miners were dynamiting underneath that mountain of rock.
Sometimes, that mountain collapsed and trapped men underground, or flattened them into the ground like pancakes, so that their bodies had to be scraped up with shovels. On average, three anthracite miners were killed every two days. When a miner was killed, his broken body was deposited, by the company, unceremoniously on the front porch of his house. The remains of men annihilated in mine blasts were brought home in coffee cans.
Mining was unlike other industrial work, and miners considered themselves a special breed, distinct from factory workers. Anthracite mining was a craft or cottage industry, requiring hand labor and skilled workers. Miners worked in crews of two or four men, and these crews worked on their own. Close supervision was impossible because of the tight underground passages and tunnels.
This kind of work bred what's called the "miner's freedom." Miners were fiercely independent. They were their own bosses and they didn't take orders well. Yet their independence was balanced by a strong sense of worker solidarity, because underground they had to depend on one another.
Because anthracite seams are sharply pitched, men usually had to climb to their work through narrow, 90 degree passages, carrying caps and powder, picks and shovels, axes and lumber for shoring up the roof. As they inched ahead, they checked for deadly gases with their safety lamps, and by the time they reached the coal face, they were often on the downside of their shift. At the face, they drilled holes in the wall of coal, filled them with blasting power, ran a fuse to a fire box, and blew the coal away from the seam. Then they loaded it on cars, and mules would pull the cars to the surface.
The average miner made about $400 a year; not enough to support a family. So his wife had to take in boarders, and his sons had to leave school at the age of eight or nine to work in a place called a "breaker," a huge factory for processing coal. The boys would work, sitting down, in step-like chutes. The coal would come roaring down and they'd pick out the slate and rock with their bare hands, for 45 cents a day.
The noise was earsplitting, and the whole building would shake with the movement of the coal. The dust was so thick the boys could hardly breathe; and they'd wear handkerchiefs over their noses and mouths and chewed tobacco to keep from choking. Behind them, supervising the work, were foremen with clubs and leather whips.
At age ten or eleven, the breaker boys graduated from the breaker and went into the earth with their fathers. There they worked until they died a natural death, were injured or killed, or contracted Black Lung. When their lungs filled up with coal dirt, they went back to where they'd started, to the breaker. As the miners used to say: "Twice a boy and once a man is a poor miner's lot."
A Melting Pot Prompts Intolerance
The only hope for change was a union. In the fall of 1899, John Mitchell, the new 29-year-old president of the United Mine Workers, entered anthracite country with a group of organizers. Mitchell's union was preparing for an all-out labor war, a struggle that would set the country's largest labor union against the mightiest financial combination of American capitalism.
The core issue was the right of miners to organize. Mitchell knew what he was in for. In the past, one union drive after the other had failed because of company opposition, but also because workers themselves were bitterly divided along ethnic lines.
Earlier in the century, it was the Irish against the Welsh and the English. Now it was English-speaking miners, mostly Irish, Welsh, and Germans, against new immigrants, some of them Italian, but most of them Slavs, an all-embracing term used by other miners to include Poles, Slovaks, Lithuanians, Croatians, Serbs, and other Easter European Catholics. The English-speaking miners believed that these new immigrants had been brought by the companies to depress wages. And some of Mitchell's organizers believed they wouldn't join a union because they were so docile and easily led.
So when trainloads of Slavs arrived in the region, they were given a great American welcome. They were stoned by Irish miners. To protect themselves, Slavs developed an intense communalism, banding together for mutual protection and comfort.
They organized mutual aid societies to bury their dead in dignity, youth organizations to instill ethnic pride in their kids, and savings and loans societies to help one anther purchase property. And on Sundays they gathered together as a community at ethnic feasts and picnics, letting off steam with a wild drink they called polinki, that's beer laced with whiskey and hot peppers. Catholic priests in the anthracite region said mass in the national languages of their parishioners. And church organizations helped preserve Slavic culture, getting these people to act and think together as a group, the only way to break down paternalism.
When they were strong together, these miners were ready to take on the bosses. An incident in 1897 at a town called Lattimer showed what they were made of. The Slavs in that part of the region took the lead in a small strike against coal owners. Three hundred striking workers marching from mine to mine shut them down.
They walked peacefully, behind a miner carrying an American flag. But when they got to Lattimer, they were met by the local sheriff and 150 deputies armed with Winchesters, with steel-piercing bullets. We'll never know who gave the order to fire. But it was a massacre.
At least l9 miners were killed and 32 wounded. Deputies were heard shouting, "Shoot the sons of bitches." Then these deputies boarded trolleys laughing and bragging about how many so-called Hunkies they'd taken down. In a highly prejudiced trial, a jury declared all the deputies innocent.
The Lattimer Massacre sparked a new level of militancy, among the women, especially. One Slavic woman, Big Mary Septak, organized a band of 150 women and tried to keep the strike going after the men started back to work. Armed with rolling pins and fire pokers, and carrying their children in their arms, Big Mary's "army of amazons," as they were called by the press, battled coal police and sheriff's deputies before they were broken up by the state militia.
These people, the men as well as the women, were conservatives, but it was their conservatism that fueled their insurgency, ironically, their desire to hold onto what they had. Slavic militancy gave Mitchell hope. His organizers also noticed that mining itself was bringing the men together.
A Coal Strike and an Election
If there was a melting pot in America, it was at the bottom of a thousand-foot mine shaft, where 26 nationalities worked in what was a democracy of misery. Mitchell skillfully built on this. As his men went through the region, they had one message: If you're Irish, you don't have to drink with Slovaks, but you work with them.
And to get any improvements at the mine site, you've got to bury your hatred and join with these people in a common effort. Otherwise, you're just cannon fodder for the capitalists. Everywhere Mitchell went he had the same message. "The coal you mine isn't Slovak coal. It's not Irish coal. It's not Italian coal. It's coal."
Mitchell wore a jeweled ring and a Prince Albert suit, but the miners liked him and trusted him. He was one of them, a former miner from Illinois. To Catholic miners, Mitchell looked like a priest with his long frock coat, buttoned up to the top, and his high white collar. Johnny d'Mitch, they called him affectionately.
Mitchell's organizers started to make progress, but the owners refused to deal with him or his union. So he rolled the dice and called for a strike on September 17, 1900. At that time, only 9,000 of more than 140,000 anthracite miners had joined the union.
On the morning of the strike, when the work whistle blew, no one knew what the miners would do. Then, amazingly, workers began to drift from their homes, not in their miner's boots but in their Sunday best. 90,000 men stayed out of the mines that first day. Within a week only 9,000 were still working.
By the middle of October, factories and homes across the country began running low of coal, and prices shot up. With the election and cold winter coming, the strike became a national issue. McKinley and his running mate, the New York governor, Theodore Roosevelt, were running on the theme of American prosperity. Their slogan was "A Full Dinner Pail" for the American worker.
This strike could trigger a depression and swing the election to Bryan. Bryan began hitting on the underlying issue of the strike: Who owns America? The people or the plutocrats? Then, when the press started to report the strike sympathetically, McKinley had to do something.
So he sent his friend and political manager, Mark Hanna, to meet with the mine owners. When they refused to budge, he went over their heads to J.P. Morgan, and Morgan got them to agree to a 10% wage increase. But they would not accept union recognition. That's about all Mitchell thought he could get however, for the miners were starving and soon would be forced to return to work.
The strike was over. McKinley won the election. Morgan was pleased. Mitchell knew that a bigger battle was ahead, as the company began stockpiling coal in preparation for the coming fight over union recognition.
But as he left anthracite country that fall, he was a hero. His union had won what he described as "the most remarkable contest between labor and capital in the industrial history of our nation." As he rode out of the town of Hazelton, his carriage was accompanied by thousands of cheering breaker boys.
Less than a year later, President McKinley was dead, shot by a demented anarchist. McKinley had offered no opposition to the consolidation of American capital. But his successor, Theodore Roosevelt, had his own ideas about this. And he'd be tested by both capital and labor in one of the first crises of his presidency, another and even more bitterly fought anthracite strike.
Annunciation of the Blessed Virgin Mary, 7 South Broad Mountain Avenue
Frackville, PA 17931-1800 (570) 874-0842 . No website.
St. Vincent de Paul Lithuanian Catholic Church, Girardville. Merged. See St. Joseph's , Girardville.
St. Joseph's Lithuanian Catholic Church, Mahanoy City
Our Lady of Siluva (formerly St. Louis), Maizeville. Closed.
St. Francis of Assisi, Minersville
Sacred Heart, New Philadelphia
St. George's Lithuanian Catholic Church, Shenandoah CLOSED. Per the Diocese, the records are at: Annunciation BVM, 218 W. Cherry St., Shenandoah, PA 17976 phone: 570-462-1916
Saints Peter & Paul Lithuanian Catholic Church, Tamaqua. 307 Pine Street, Tamaqua, PA 18252
Rev. William J. Linkchorst 570-668-1150
Allegheny County
Diocese of Scranton
St. Casimir (Polish & Lithuanian), Freeland. Closed. All four Catholic churches in Freeland are being merged into one new church to be housed at St. Ann's, to be known as Our Lady of the Immaculate Conception . Brief histories of the component churches is given here . I've read that getting records from any Freeland churches is hopeless; you'll be told the records are 'lost', or to contact the diocese. The Diocese, in turn, is said to respond tersely, if at all, saying that they 'don't have time' for such things, or that the church should have the records. St. Ann's,
898 Centre Street, Freeland PA 18224 Tel 570 - 636 - 3035 , Fax 570 - 636 - 1743
Saints Peter & Paul Lithuanian Catholic Church, Hazleton. Merged. Records at Transfiguration Church , W. Hazleton. 213 Green Street, West Hazelton PA
18201
Tel 570 - 454 - 3933 , Fax 570 - 454 - 8326
Holy Trinity, Wilkes Barre
Diocese: Diocese of Harrisburg
Holy Cross, Mt. Carmel. Closed. See: Divine Redeemer, 438 West. Avenue, Mount Carmel PA 17851 Tel 570 - 339 - 4350 , Fax 570 - 339 - 5759
St. Stanislaus Kosta (Polish-Lithuanian), Shamokin. CLOSED. Records at: Mother Cabrini, 214 North Shamokin Street, Shamokin PA 17872 Tel 717 - 648 - 4512 , Fax 717 - 648 - 1209
Other Northumberland links:
PA GenWeb page for Northumberland County
Philadelphia County
Pre-1920 Roman Catholic Church Records are archived at the Philadelphia Archdiocesan Historical Research Center . From the main page of the site, click the Genealogy tab to find what records they have/do not have, and how to order them. If only all dioceses were this well-organized. The early Archdiocese of Philadelphia also included Bucks, Chester, Delaware & Montgomery Counties.
Replies to This Discussion
Permalink Reply by Jaclyn Glemza on December 25, 2009 at 10:34pm
My great-grandfather was a Lithuanian who went to Pennsylvania. His name was Alex Glemza. He lived in Ritcheyville/Centerville. He was a coal miner at the Vesta Coal Mines. I'm having trouble finding any information about his parents. I even requested his death certificate, but his daughter gave the information, and she did not know his parents names either. Also strange is that I keep finding documents for him, and they all have different birth years. I'm not sure he actually knew what year he was born, either that or no one else did. Any advice?
Permalink Reply by Linda Johnson on December 26, 2009 at 10:55am
Jaclyn, Was he married in PA? If so, the marriage records from the church may help. Also, have you sent for his social security application? You don't indicate the approximate date of his birth (it is not uncommon to find different birth dates on documents) or death, so I am not sure if the SS application would apply to him. Maybe we could help if you gave us more information.
Permalink Reply by Richie C. on December 26, 2009 at 11:52am
Jaclyn,
Various birthdates/birthyears seem to be par for the course, even (in my experience) for those born in the country. Birthyears were fudged in order to get work, etc. Also, some celebrated their Saint's Day instead of a birthday. For your great-grandfather, the only way you'll nail it down will be to get his baptism certificate from Lithuania. It looks like Alex's birthyear is anywhere from 1882-1892, but most likely 1888 or 1892. There could be an error(s) made at any point.
Death certificates are not always useful because the information they contain is limited to what the reporting person knew, as you discovered.
The best thing is to collect as many sources as you can, and then see if they tell you anything. Linda's suggestion to get his SS Application is a very good one. And you *might* get parents names from that. Or not. Also, if you could find his immigration record, and see how old he was, it might help pinpoint a year. The other thing, if you don't already have it, is to get his naturalization papers, if any. Depending on when they might have been filed, they might tell you a lot...or very little.
At least, from his WW II Draft card, you know he was born in Treshkonia, which almost certainly must be Triškoniai, Lithuania. You hit paydirt where so many others are stumped: you know his village! That'll be essential in ordering a baptism certificate from the Archives in Lithuania.
-Rich
Permalink Reply by Jaclyn Glemza on December 26, 2009 at 8:43pm
Thanks. You seem to have found all the information I have. Did you look him up on ancestry.com?
I'm not sure how to get his baptism record. I spoke with a girl in Lithuania, and she told me the archives are all based on the church he attended. I do not know the church, but my grandma says that he was roman catholic, and his wife was greek-orthodox catholic. She said that she thinks they got married in the old country before they moved to PA.
I'll try to find his SS app. I'm not sure how to find his immigration record. I'm not sure which port he came in. I checked the ellis island site and found a Glemza, but it was Anton not Alex. I asked my family if they thought it could have been him, but they didn't think so. I'm also not sure how to get his naturalization papers. Where do I apply for those?
Permalink Reply by Richie C. on December 27, 2009 at 12:05pm
Jaclyn,
Yes, I found what little I found for Alex on Ancestry.com. It's curious I didn't see a census for him. Have you found a census for him? That would tell you year of immigration, naturalization status and date, etc. The years reported for these actions are somewhat unreliable in my experience, but it's a place to start.
1. SS App- I posted the link to request the SS-5 (Application) for an ancestor on the main page of the group.
2. Naturalization- If Alex filed papers, they'd be found in one of several places, depending on when he filed. Your two best bets are:
* The National Archives
I also put a new link on the group's main page that discusses Naturalization, where to look, timeframes, etc.
3. Baptism/Marriage in Lithuania. You'll have to do one of two things: hire a private researcher, or contact the Archives in Vilnius. Church records that have survived the (1) ravages of time (2) the Russians (3) the Germans, have all pretty much made it to the Archives in Vilnius. From the group main page, under "Discussions", you'll see a topic "Contacting the Archives in Vilnius". Once upon a time, they'd search a whole family for you. You'd wait about 3 years before they got to your request. Now, they really only go 'document by document'. So you could request a baptism cert for Alex, but you should have a better estimate of his birthyear and hopefully his parents names before you go down that road. We can help you with that after you hear back from the Social Security Administration which we hope will at least give a surname for Alex's mother. But you have one critical thing going for you, you know his village of birth now. You have no idea how jealous that will make other researchers!
4. Immigration- this is frustrating, I know. You just have to search everywhere (see main page), under every possible spelling you can think of...switching out vowels...and thinking, that possibly, Alex's first name was not Alex (or Aleksas), but something else.
Permalink Reply by Jaclyn Glemza on December 28, 2009 at 7:21pm
I haven't been able to find any census records for them.
Thanks for all the info! You've been a great help.
I'll keep you posted.
Permalink Reply by Jaclyn Glemza on January 22, 2010 at 9:22pm
I got Alex's Social Security application is the mail today!
It says his birthday is August 15, 1888 and he was born in Russia Europe
His father's name: John Glemza
His mothers's name: Mary Kloga
I'm very happy with this find. Thanks so much for your suggestion!
Permalink Reply by Richie C. on January 23, 2010 at 12:31am
Great news Jaclyn!
I think you have enough info to request his birth/baptism certificate from the Archives in Vilnius now. You have your best guess for a birthdate. His WW II Draft card gives his birthplaces as Treshkonia, which would be Troškūnai, and you have his parents' names. The only glitch is there there are two places called Troškūnai, one in the Vilnius region and one in the Utena region, near Anykščiai. Check the group main page on how to email the Archives with your request.
On the subject of Mary Kloga's name, I checked the phone directory...didn't find anything starting with Klog-, Klaug-, Klag-. There were two Klugas and a Klugiene, with Russian first names.
Permalink Reply by Tanya Breese on December 31, 2009 at 7:42am
My Great Grandmother is Lena Mischkus born 1877 in Lithuania. She married my Great Grandfather August Dombrowski (from Russia) in Allegheny County, 1897. I can't trace her line back or my Great Grandfather's.
Permalink Reply by Tanya Breese on December 31, 2009 at 8:01am
ok, not true,lol, I was just going through my notes, it's been a while since I've worked on this line. Lena was born Helena Myszkus abt 1877 Pavistytis and her parents are Georg Myszkus and Anna Reichkok. I *think* that's as far back as I go...
Permalink Reply by Richie C. on December 31, 2009 at 8:51am
I looked Pavistytis up on a map....interesting! You could throw a rock into either Poland or Kaliningrad from there!
What religion were your great-grandparents? Have you found a marriage record for them? Have you found immigration records?
Permalink Reply by Tanya Breese on December 31, 2009 at 10:53am
They were Lutheran, German speaking. I've got August's papers, but not Lena's. I have notes taken from a cousin that says August was from Prussia and Lena from Germany? Was that area considered Germany then? I have a "Return of a Marriage" copy for August and Lena, which states Lena's birthplace in Russia, so confusing! August worked for J & L Steel Corp and Semmelrock Undertaking, he took care of the horses that pulled the hearses.
They were married, all the children baptized and are buried at St. Paul's German Lutheran Church.
Movie Star Charles Bronson (1921-2003)
Son of a Lithuanian
Charles Bronson (1921-2003), son of a Lithuanian-Pennsylvanian
coal miner, was born in Ehrenfeld, Pennsylvania, USA
American actor Charles Bronson claimed to have spoken no English at home during his childhood in Pennsylvania. Though he managed to complete high school, it was expected that Bronson would go into the mines like his father and many brothers. Experiencing the world outside Pennsylvania during World War II service, however, Bronson came back to America determined to pursue an art career. While working as a set designer for a Philadelphia theater troupe, Bronson played a few small roles and almost immediately switched his allegiance from the production end of theater to acting. After a few scattered acting jobs in New York, Bronson enrolled in the Pasadena Playhouse in 1949. By 1951, he was in films, playing uncredited bits in such pictures as The People Against O'Hara (1951); You're in the Navy Now (1952), which also featured a young bit actor named Lee Marvin; Diplomatic Courier (1952); Bloodhounds of Broadway (1952), as a waiter(!); and The Clown (1953). When he finally achieved billing, it was under his own name, Charles Buchinsky (sometimes spelled Buchinski). His first role of importance was as Igor, the mute granite-faced henchman of deranged sculptor Vincent Price in House of Wax (1953). The actor was billed as Charles Bronson for the first time in Drum Beat (1954), although he was still consigned to character roles as Slavs, American Indians, hoodlums, and convicts. Most sources claim that Bronson's first starring role was in Machine Gun Kelly (1958), but, in fact, he had the lead in 1958's Gang War, playing an embryonic version of his later Death Wish persona as a mild-mannered man who turned vengeful after the death of his wife. Bronson achieved his first fan following with the TV series Man With a Camera (1959), in which he played adventurous photojournalist Mike Kovac (and did double duty promoting the sponsor's camera products in the commercials). His best film role up until 1960 was as one of The Magnificent Seven (1960), dominating several scenes despite the co-star competition of Yul Brynner, Steve McQueen, Eli Wallach, and others. Most of Bronson's film roles after Seven remained in the "supporting-villainy category," however, so, in 1968, the actor packed himself off to Europe, where American action players like Clint Eastwood and Lee Van Cleef were given bigger and better opportunities. Multiplying his international box-office appeal tenfold with such films as Guns for San Sebastian (1967), Once Upon a Time in the West (1968), Cold Sweat (1970), and The Valachi Papers (1971), Bronson returned to Hollywood a full-fledged star at last. His most successful films of the 1970s were Death Wish (1974) and its sequels, a series of brutal "vigilante" pictures which suggested not so subliminally that honest people would ultimately have to dole out their own terminal justice to criminals. In many of his '70s films, Bronson co-starred with second wife Jill Ireland, with whom he remained married until she lost her fight against cancer in 1990. Bronson's bankability subsequently fell off, due in part to younger action stars doing what he used to do twice as vigorously, and because of his truculent attitude toward fans. He did little but television work after 1991's The Indian Runner (Sean Penn's directorial debut), with Death Wish 5: The Face of Death (1994) his only feature since. Bronson's onscreen career would soon draw to a close with his role as law enforcing family patriarch Paul Fein in the made-for-cable Family of Cops series.On August 30, 2003 Charles Bronson died of pneumonia in Los Angeles. He was 81. ~ Hal Erickson, Rovi
keep on fighting
Knights of Lithuania #144 protesting Washington DC in 1990.
The Knights of Lithuania was founded as a national youth organization in 1913 by Mykolas Norkunas, the “father of the Knights of Lithuania.” Mykolas began his campaign to form a national Lithuanian organization by publishing appeals in the Lithuanian language press in various cities throughout the United States. His purpose was to unite the Lithuanian youth living in the USA, and through them, preserve Lithuanian culture and restore freedom to Lithuania, which was occupied at the time by Russia and Germany. Members placed their hope in their children, which is the basis of the organization. The Knights of Lithuania is a national non-profit organization of dedicated men and women of Lithuanian ancestry. Believing in the strength of the motto: "For God and Country," the Knights of Lithuania aspire to keep alive among its members an appreciation and understanding of the Lithuanian language, customs, and culture, while advancing the values and foundation of the Roman Catholic beliefs.
1977 Knights of Lithuania #144 Receiving Proclamation.
(L-R) Helen Chekso, Bernice Mikatavage, Msgr, Joseph Neverauskas, Anne Wargo, receiving Proclamation from Commissioner, Al Matunas, Anne Marie Slevokis, Fr. Casimir Pugevicius of the Lithuanian Catholic Religious Aid, Rita Slevokis, and Fr. Al Bartkus.
Many of the Lithuanian immigrants settled in the Anthracite coal region of Northeastern Pennsylvania in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They were simple, ordinary people from small towns and villages of the Suvalkija region of Lithuania. The men labored long and hard hours in the coal mines. Their parish became the center of social and religious life and their life philosophy was deeply rooted in the teachings of Jesus Christ. The annual “Lithuanian Days” is a well known memory and ongoing tradition for Lithuanian-Americans living in Pennsylvania. It started in 1914 by the Lithuanian Catholic Priest League. The priests were troubled by problems faced by incoming immigrants such as poor living conditions and the dangerous work environment from the mines. A change needed to occur and they pondered on how they could lift the morale and create a better lifestyle for Eastern European immigrants. They cultivated the idea of a massive festival that rejoiced in life, family, community, and pride for their native land. Lithuanian Days at Lakeside Park was the first recorded ethnic celebration in the United States. Lithuanian immigrants enjoyed ethnic food, drink, tradition, and song every year. In 1922 Lithuanian Days moved to Lakewood Park. All proceeds from the event went to Lithuanian charities. Thus no matter how difficult life seemed in America, most of the early immigrants idealized supported each other and idealized the splendor of nature and the memory of a simpler life in Lithuania.
The Frackville Council #144 joined the Knights of Lithuania in 1977 with about 25 members. Its first President was Bernice Mikatavage. Over the years Council # 144 grew, to over 130 members! Meetings were held after the Lithuanian Mass with Father Bartkus each month. Throughout the years, Council #144 worked diligently on Lithuanian Affairs. Members wrote letters, sent telegrams, went on demonstrations, and did whatever we could for the Lithuanian cause.
Eventually Council #144 became the primary sponsor for “Lithuanian Days.” At the 1978 “Lithuanian Days” in Lakewood Park our guest was the author, Simas Kidurka. A dinner was held in his honor where he signed his book, For Those at Sea. At the Park, we continued to enjoy Lithuanian dancers, ethnic food and the Council Lithuanian Choir. Vendors came with lovely Lithuanian souvenirs, crafts and books. Each year we had one prominent Lithuanian speaker and all profits were donated to Lithuanian Foundations especially Lithuanian Catholic Religious Aid, St. Casimir’s Pontifical College in Rome, and Lithuanian Orphan Relief.
Simas Kudirka Signs Autographs at St. Casimir Reception, St. Clair, PA
(L to R) Helen Ambrose, Annie Morgalis,Terri Taronis, Anna Yourkonis and Leona Taronis.
Sadly, Lakewood Park closed in 1984. The festival was held in various locations, until thankfully, we were able to continue the Lithuanian Days celebration at the Schuylkill Mall, in Frackville, PA. In fact this year on, August 11 and 12, 2012 we are celebrating our 98th year, making “Lithuanian Days” the longest consecutive ethnic festival in the USA! The festival allows Council #144 to share, spread, and remember Lithuanian heritage. It is a festival of Lithuanian culture, cuisine, song and dance.
Before Lithuania regained independence members traveled often to Washington, DC and New and York City to participate in Lithuanian Independence demonstrations at the Russian Embassy. We also participated in demonstrations at the United Nations. While Lithuania was still under Soviet rule, council members were asked by Rev. Casimir Pugivicius, an associate of Lithuanian Catholic Religious Aid, to donate medication and Bibles to Lithuania. Transporting the donated supplies to Lithuania was an extremely dangerous and risky task. Ten members including Anne KlizasWargo and Annie Morgalis agreed to embark on this venture. They divided the pharmacy supplies among them and boarded a plane for the USSR . After arriving in Vilnius they secretly gathered the medication and traveled to a third floor apartment. Two women opened the apartment door. For security reasons, they did not speak and only communicated using a “magic slate” pad or doodle pad. They wrote “Who are you and where are you from?” Our members wrote that they were from the United States and were asked by Father Pugivicius, to bring desperately needed medical supplies. The women were extremely overjoyed and elated and tears of joy began to form in their eyes. Our Council members later discovered that the two women were underground nuns. Members also collected needed clothing that was sent to Lithuanian schools and orphanages using VILTIS-HOPE Lithuanian Relief Parcel Service.
Many of our members donated gorgeous Lithuanian treasures to help create a Lithuanian Cultural Museum. The council obtained a building near the Annunciation BVM Church in Frackville and transformed it into a cozy and delightful museum. It was opened in November of 1982. Exhibits present the chronology of the life of the typical Lithuanian immigrant who arrived in the Anthracite Region of Pennsylvania at the turn of the century. Thru Russian Army discharge papers, passports, rubles (or Lithuanian money), clothing and straw suitcase, the story unfolds. The museum also contains an extensive library of rare Lithuanian books, stunning Lithuanian artifacts, items from the early immigrants who came to work in the coal mines, colorful coverlets, tablecloths, and other weavings in traditional Lithuanian designs, straw art, marguciai eggs decorated by members Christine Luschas and Ona Morgaliene, and unique mushroom art designed Ona Morgaliene. We wish future generations of Lithuanians will be able to use the many volumes of information at the Center for research, or that they may just cherish the beautiful artifacts of their ancestral heritage. Now the museum is open by appointment only.
Opening of the Lithuanian Museum & Cultural Center, November, 1982.
(L-R) Anne Wargo, Anne Sekora, Annie Morgalis, and Bernice Mikatavage.
The worries, fears, and obligations which many of the early immigrants felt for the land of their forefathers are still alive in the hearts and minds of Lithuanian-Americans today! Our council still contributes to Lithuanian charitable works and the Lithuanian Orphan Relief sending much needed aid overseas to orphanages in remote villages of Lithuania. The Knights of Lithuania Council #144 is extremely active and strives to keep Lithuanian heritage alive by sponsoring the annual Lithuanian Days, hosting a traditional Christmas Kucios Dinner, creating cultural displays/presentations, educational lectures, promoting tourism to Lithuania, while maintaining an informative website, blog and Facebook page. Please visit our website: www.kofl144.weebly.com and our Facebook Page at www.facebook.com/knightsoflithuania144 .
Amber District Meeting March 11, 2012
K of L C-144 members with their "Third Degree" medals and certificates.
Row 1 (L-R) Meredeth Domlakes, Elizabeth Fry, Carol Luschas, and Antoinette Pancerella.
Row 2 (L-R) Anthony Richtus, Margaret Valinsky, Peg Hess, James Hess, and Elaine Luschas.
Lithuanian Days 2007, Bernice
LT Days 2011, Heritage Room.
Resources
Lithuanian Museum and Cultural Center Brochure Pages 1-2
Sakalas, Ingas. Lieruvos Vyciai Amerikoje (Knights of Lithuania in America) History of the Knights of Lithuania Spaude Draugo Spaustuve Cikagoje.
Vytis. Knights of Lithuania Vol. 78: No. 4 79th Annual Convention Host: Anthracite C-144 Pgs. 19-20
Wargo, Anne Telephone Interview. March 13, 2012
Wydra, Marion. The Valley Plus Magazine. 97th Lithuanian Days to Be Held August 13 and 14 August: 2011 Pgs. 13-14
This week in the U.S.
Lithuanian ‘egg art’ on the Martha Stewart Show
From Christine Lushas’ blog: http://www.lithuanianeggart.blogspot.com/
Christine Luschas, a young American-Lithuanian from Pennsylvania, USA, was this week featured on the famous Martha Stewart Show, demonstrating how to make traditional Lithuanian "marguciai" eggs. It’s amazing to see such a young woman continuing this old and beautiful tradition from her ancestors homeland, nicely showing to Americans how to prepare and paint the typical Lithuanian Easter eggs. We recommend you to watch the clip. It might even be helpful for your own Easter preparations…
VIDEO: Christine Luschas on the Martha Stewart Show
“There are significant cultural differences
between LT-Americans and Lithuanians
that grew up in the Soviet Lithuania”
Just a couple of short notes to your article
“Healing the wounds between LT-Americans and the homeland”
Item 2. There are significant cultural differences between LT-Americans and Lithuanians that grew up in the Soviet Lithuania. In my opinion there is not enough appreciation of the lifetime dedication and work of some of the people outside of Lithuania. In my opinion press likes to focus on negative experiences (e.g. events with LT-Australian Petraitis) while ignoring genuine contributions to Lithuania. My own Alma Mater - Vytautas Magnus University is there in big part because of Lithuanians who grew up outside of Lithuania. IMHO Grybauskaite's comments of course miss the point and are rude.
Item 5. <"...ending the noxious practice of the Uzgavenes holiday when people dress as Jews and beg on the street.” > In my life I have not seen a person dressed up as a Jew and begging on the street. I would be really surprised if I would see this. On the other hand, during the Uzgavenes people go from house to house and ask for pancakes, coffee or money (similar to Halloween tradition in the US?). I guess the idea was that the person who knocks on the door is not known - and you share what you have with a stranger (the stranger could be a Jew, Roma, or a generic stranger). Is that offensive and should be eradicated? In the Soviet times I've heard the following chant in my Samogitian hometown Telsiai "mes Zydukai is Maskvos (Rygos), duokit blynu ir kavos" - "we are the Jews from Moscow (Riga), please give us pancakes and coffee" - not sure why Moscow/Riga is there, perhaps to indicate that the person came from afar? I am not certain how it was during the Interbellum - but as I said - in my opinion the old traditions are going away - be it good, bad or indifferent.
Evaldas Zvinys
- Posted by - 12750(9) Commenthttp%3A%2F%2Fvilnews.com%2F2012-03-127502012-03-30+14%3A11%3A200df53x21http%3A%2F%2Fvilnews.com%2F%3Fp%3D12750
A native American who loves Lithuania!
It is the 30th of March today. It is exactly 22 years since American Marie Sandler (pictured) married Lithuanian Jonas. He passed away in 1996, but Marie was already completely in love with Lithuania. It's a love she maintains to this day. Below you can read her love letter to her deceased husband's home country.
Dear Lithuania,
Ever since I got connected to you, my love for the culture and people of Lithuania has been on a daily increase.
I was born into a Christian family in Urbandale Iowa in United States and grew up as a normal American girl with good parental upbringing. One day, I met a man and for the first time hearing about a country called Lithuania.
I fell in love with this man, followed him to his home country to see and learn the beautiful culture of Lithuania. After some time my love for the man became wider, something more than an ordinary feeling – and I soon felt I became part of a hidden history of a country that once was the symbol of Europe, with an extremely well developed diplomacy and intelligent wisdom long before today's famous European nations came to such ideas. Through recognizing this small Baltic country, I felt that the background of my new love also got me into an older knowledge, something hard to define, but something that still today represents the mystery of Lithuania, a country like no other country.
I married him, but to a certain degree also Lithuania, the soil of ancient wisdom...
I, as an American, got into something I still today cannot fully explain. When he passed away, I could have forgotten Lithuania, but I didn't because his soul, and his country's soul still bells in my ears.
The smell of the Lithuanian soil makes me cry and smile and then I look up to the sky and realized that home is truly where the mind is.
Lithuania is a home. I love Lithuania.
Marie Sandler
- Posted by - 12687(1) Commenthttp%3A%2F%2Fvilnews.com%2F2012-03-only-a-few-kill-themselves-for-rational-reasonsOnly+a+few+kill+themselves+for+rational+reasons2012-03-28+13%3A30%3A390df53x21http%3A%2F%2Fvilnews.com%2F%3Fp%3D12687
By: Dr. Boris Vytautas Bakunas, M. A., M. Ed., Ph. D.
"The vast majority of people who commit suicide are severely depressed. Only a few kill themselves for rational reasons such as avoiding the final stages of an extremely painful and fatal illness. Depression may be triggered by adverse events, but they are not the direct cause of most depressions. Many people face extreme adversity without succumbing to depression.
As a vast amount of empirical research has shown, the belief systems that people hold have a profound effect on their moods. People who suffer from depression generally believe several of the following things : (a) their lives are terrible, (b) they are guilty for having brought on the bad conditions they face, (c) they are powerless to change their lives, and (d) their lives will never improve. When you're depressed you tell yourself that a horrible tragedy has struck your life, you are worthless and overwhelmed by the difficulties you face, and since there is nothing you can do to solve your problems, your life is not worth living.
A vast body of research also shows that the most effective ways of overcoming depression help people change their underlying attitudes and improve their abilities to cope with the inevitable frustrations of life. Two extremely effective -- and closely related -- forms of psychotherapy are Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy developed by Dr. Ellis and Cognitive Behavior Therapy developed by Dr. Aaron T. Beck.
Research conducted by Dr. Forrest Scogin and his colleagues from the University of Alabama Medical Center found that two thirds of the subjects given a book by Dr. David D. Burns called "Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy" and encouraged to read it as well as do the simple exercises described either experienced a substantial reduction in their depression or recovered entirely within four weeks, while those from whom the book was withheld failed to improve. No medications or psychotherapy were used with either of the two groups.
"Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy" was first published in the early 1980s and is still imprint. In a survey of 1,000 mental health professionals, it was selected as the best self-help book ever written. I have benefited enormously from it myself, and I have recommended it to many others. A typical response is "This book changed my life."
Of course, anyone with suicidal thoughts had better seek professional treatment immediately. Nevertheless, bibliotherapy has been shown to be extremely helpful. Read some of the reviews of "Feeling Good" on Amazon.com. In Europe, it can be purchased from Amazon.com UK.
http://www.amazon.com/Feeling-Good-The-Mood-Therapy/dp/0380810336/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1332863886&sr=1-1 "
Boris wrote: ""Rational Emotive Behavioral Therapy (REBT) methods can be beneficially directed toward addressing both irrationalities in depressive thinking but also conditions that commonly coexist with depression such as anxiety, anger, panic, and an inappropriately low tolerance for frustration. Effectively dealing with depressive thinking and these coexisting conditions can open opportunities for fulfillment as well as for preventing depression from coming back. Among the various cognitive methods for arresting depression, the REBT method would seem to be the more comprehensive approach for defeating both depressive thinking and the sort of negative thoughts that are part of those conditions of mind that so often coexist with depression.
Fascinating new brain scan research shows that applying cognitive procedures to reduce depressive thinking commonly results in measurable changes in the brain that are associated with a significantly lower relapse rate. Following the use of cognitive methods, brain wave studies show more normalized wave patterns. Following cognitive interventions, brain imaging shows a shift from the color of a depressed brain toward the color of a “normal” brain. These physical measures, coupled with reports of feeling better, make a compelling case for using cognitively oriented methods for defeating depressive thinking." Dr. Bill Knauss
Dr. Boris Vytautas Bakunas, M. A., M. Ed., Ph. D.
Chicaho, USA
[email protected]
The relationship between Lithuania’s diaspora groups in the U.S. and the home country Lithuania is not always the best. Many here in Lithuania still believe that those who left, whether for economic or political reasons, had very comfortable lives compared to those who stayed behind and had to fight through several decades of inhuman oppression and abuse by the Soviet occupiers.
Many Lithuanians in the United States believe in turn that the mother country does not welcome them to return or collaborate on improving the development of the nation called Lithuania, and have been critical about ongoing corruption, that rule of law is still not working effectively, etc.
VilNews will through much of April focus on this topic, and we hereby invite all with views to prepare posts; in the form of blogs, comment articles or information you think might shed light or be of benefit to the relationship. The goal is to build bridges and contribute to reconciliation!
These are some of the challenges and opportunities we face:
1.
Lithuanian-Americans played a significant role in the post-war years, until Lithuania's recovered independence in 1990-1991, by constantly exerting pressure on the U.S. President and leaders in other Western countries so that they would pressure the Soviet Union to allow the Baltic countries freedom after the Soviet occupation that took place during World War II. Now, as more than 20 years have passed since the freedom bells rang, the question is whether the Lithuanian-Americans have a role to play also today? See our article
http://vilnews.com/?p=8899
2.
“The majority, I believe, are disappointed and discouraged with the present president’s seemingly unfriendly view toward Lithuanian-Americans and others abroad.” This said Regina Narusiene, President of the World Lithuanian
Community, in a recent interview (see http://vilnews.com/?p=6704 ), based on a comment referred to in The Baltic Times, where President Grybauskaite should have said that most prominent U.S. Lithuanian émigrés, instead of focusing on developing U.S. - Lithuanian business ties, prefer providing political advice to the Lithuanian authorities, which may not be that necessary nowadays. She was supposedly “disappointed by Lithuanian émigrés’ inability to attract U.S.-based investments to Lithuania.” Here in VilNews we often hear Lithuanian-Americans say they do not feel welcome to their home country, and that Lithuania's current president seems to antagonize them. What are our readers’ comments to this?
3.
In a VilNews interview Regina Narusiene told about her youth in Chicago, after she and her family had settled there after escaping from Lithuania in 1944. One of the things she said, was: “I realized that my father was afraid of informers who could make life difficult for us, for our relatives who remained in Lithuania, and for the Lithuanian partisans who kept on fighting against the Soviet occupants well into the 1950s. The KGB had their own spies within the Lithuanian communities in the U.S., so we were extremely careful with what we said outside the home." Now, when the KGB archives have been made public, are there new traces of KGB post-war activities to be found also in the U.S.?
4.
In a meeting at the Lithuanian Embassy in Washington last year, representatives of LAC (Lithuanian American Council) expressed their concern on a wide range of topics including Lithuania's developing energy policy, the country’s image in the international community, emigration issues and their demographic impact, the prospect of maintaining citizenship rights of recent immigrants, ongoing cooperation between organizations of the Diaspora and Lithuania, and minority issues in Lithuania. LAC representatives suggested that Lithuania would benefit significantly by availing itself of the expertise and knowledge found in the Diaspora communities in developing energy and security policies and a host of other areas such as environmental issues, ecology, medicine, economic development, and the promotion of improved interactions between the government and the people through non-governmental organizations (ref. http://vilnews.com/?p=5031 ). Has there been any official Lithuanian response to this?
5.
In November 2011, the Jewish Lithuanian Heritage Project hosted a roundtable “Think Tank” at the Lithuanian embassy in Washington. The theme of the discussion was, "A comprehensive Five Year plan to improve Lithuanian-Jewish relations: Cultivating Sunflowers." (ref. http://vilnews.com/?p=9949 ). In a response, one of our readers wrote: “Is this about the establishment of a new Judenrat to apologize for Lithuanian anti-Semitism? “If truth be told” having a holiday party at Lithuania’s D.C. Embassy is not revolutionary. What would be revolutionary would have been, and would be, is the prosecution of Lithuanian collaborators and SS members, the prosecution of today’s neo-Nazi youth groups, reinstatement of the ban against the display of the swastika and ending the noxious practice of the Uzgavenes holiday when people dress as Jews and beg on the street.” Harsh words?
COMMENT 1:
Rimantas Aukstuolis
“I am very pleased to see this intra-Lithuanian forum open up and give vent to these prejudices we have about each other”
I am very pleased to see this intra -Lithuanian forum open up and give vent to these prejudices we have about each other. VilNews is perhaps the best and only such place I am familiar with, with a broad enough readership to bring disparate but, hopefully responsible discussion to bear on this topic.
I am the American born son of a post WW2 DP father and a US born and raised, second generation Lithuanian mother. The DP's and old immigration Lithuanians never did mix very much and we all have a similar disconnect with the new "third wave". So it's not surprising to see a gap between the Lithuanian diaspora (of whatever immigration) and modern Lithuanian-Lithuanians.
My wife Vita and I, together with our four (at the time) young children lived in Vilnius while I worked as an adviser from the US Treasury in the early 90's. We sure did experience the cultural differences but, on balance, came away, humbled and culturally enriched by the experience.
Yes, I have seen the dark prejudice and defensive suspicion held by some native Lithuanians, some of whom would, on balance, be more comfortable in a Russian dominated, Soviet style environment than a capitalist, democratic society. I have also seen the "successful" overseas Lithuanian who, of course, knows everything better than his native cousins and isn't bashful about letting them know. I hope I wasn't one! I think each of these extremes are embarrassing for people of good will on either side of the divide, of which there are many.
We do need to reach out, however. Lithuania can benefit by the skills of the diaspora which should not be turned away as help from any quarter is needed (President Grybauskaite notwithstanding). Likewise, in spite of our active Lithuanian cultural lives in the diaspora, our Lithuanian language and ethnic identities are fading, our children assimilating. Lithuania, for all its issues is our living, modern cultural cradle.
Rimantas Aukstuolis
Cleveland, Ohio, USA
Rimantas Aukstuolis:
I was born 1952 in Omaha, Nebraska, USA. Mother (Genevieve Jesonis) was born in Omaha to old immigration (1906) parents. Father (Mecys Aukstuolis) was born in Lithuania and DP, post war immigrant. Married to Vita (Musonis), daughter of post war immigrant parents (Vytautas and Genovaite). Vita is a clinical psychologist. We have four children; Kestutis, Algirdas, Lina and Vytautas who is youngest and studying at Ohio State University.
Currently living in Cleveland Ohio area where we have spent most of our lives although Vita was born and raised in the Chicago area.
I have been an international and commercial banker since 1976 and have worked for several large regional US banks. Currently working at Fifth Third Bank in Structured Trade Finance which involves export financing. In 1993 I moved with my family to Lithuania where I worked for the US Treasury Department as an advisor to the then fledgling Bank of Lithuania. We lived in Lithuania for two and a half years.
All members of the family have been involved in Lithuanian activities all their lives and the children all speak Lithuanian. Currently I belong to the Exultate Lithuanian choir in Cleveland and Vita is active with Ateitininkai.
Dalia Grybauskaite, President of the Republic of Lithuania
Regina Narusiene, President of the World Lithuanian Community
REGINA NARUSIENE: “The majority, I believe, are disappointed and discouraged with the present president’s seemingly unfriendly view toward Lithuanian-Americans and others abroad.”
The Baltic Times writes that Lithuanian President Grybauskaite is supposedly “disappointed by Lithuanian émigrés’ inability to attract U.S.-based investments to Lithuania.” The newspaper refers to a WikiLeaks document.
According to WikiLeaks, Grybauskaite emphasizes that most prominent U.S. Lithuanian émigrés, instead of focusing on developing U.S.- Lithuanian business ties, prefer providing political advice to the Lithuanian authorities, which may not be that necessary nowadays.
In a response to The Baltic Times, Regina Narusiene, President of the World Lithuanian Community, says that “The majority of Lithuanian-Americans are disappointed with Grybauskaite.”
“How do Lithuanian-Americans’ views generally differ on the former U.S.-much-linked President Valdas Adamkus and his successor, Dalia Grybauskaite? Which is favored?,” the newspaper asks Narusiene.
And she answers: “There are different points of view. Some favor President Adamkus, but the majority, I believe, are disappointed and discouraged with the present president’s seemingly unfriendly view toward Lithuanian Americans and others abroad.”
“There is the tendency of some Lithuanian politicians to think that “Lithuania belongs to the Lithuanians.” By that they mean those living in Lithuania only. The people of Lithuania have a more favorable view of Lithuanians living abroad.”
“The Lithuanians abroad have brought many investments to Lithuania. However, I want to emphasize, Lithuania has been having a difficult time setting an investment climate competitive with other countries.”
“Collaboration can have different meanings. Our private ties with the country after independence never diminished, but, in fact, intensified. Economic ties are different. A great deal of money is sent to Lithuania by Lithuanians abroad, especially to their family and friends. I believe an amount equal to about 20 percent of Lithuania’s annual national budget. Some firms have located in Lithuania, but Lithuania has to maintain an inviting environment for investment, which they are developing. Cultural collaboration, however, I admit, has been weak. There is a Lithuanian opera in Chicago that has been collaborating with the Lithuanian National Opera and Ballet Theater. We have participated in the Dance Festivals in Lithuania and sent works of art to Lithuania. Some of the entertainers from Lithuania have come to us to entertain, but working out joint programs has been difficult.”
“Can you think of any cases when Lithuanian émigrés cut off their ties with the Motherland because of the lack of the political will to adopt a dual-citizenship law?,” Baltic Times asks.
“There are a number of new émigrés who have simply said, “I can do better and live more securely abroad. If they do not want us, then why bother.” Unfortunately, these are well educated young people that Lithuania cannot afford to lose. In several instances, the taking away of Lithuanian citizenship has forced some to keep foreign citizenship so as not to lose their means of support, their pension.”
Ref: http://www.baltictimes.com/news/articles/28875/
* * *
Aroundhalf of allLithuaniansin the worldlive outsidetheir home country. They represent a humanresourceLithuaniadesperately needstoget the country back on its feet again after 50 years of bloody wars, genocides,deportations, Soviet oppressionand now two decadeswithmuchmuddle and confusion instead of professional focuson collaboration and team work amongitsown populations here and abroad.
I suggestthat thepresidentreaches outandinvitesallLithuanians,and friends of this countryaround theworld,toa close and constructive cooperation.A continued conflictis truly meaningless and devastating.
Aage Myhre, Editor-in-Chief
Lithuania would benefit significantly by availing
itself of the expertise and knowledge found
in the Diaspora communities…
| i don't know |
On a menu, what does ' Au Poivre ' mean ? | Culinary Dictionary - A, Food Dictionary, Whats Cooking America
Culinary Dictionary
Linda’s Culinary Dictionary – A
A Dictionary of Cooking, Food, and Beverage Terms
An outstanding and large culinary dictionary and glossary that includes the definitions and history of cooking, food, and beverage terms.
Please click on a letter below to alphabetically search the many food and cooking terms:
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U-Y Z
.
a la (ah lah) – It is French for “in the manner of,” “in the style of,” and “according to” In cooking, this phrase designates the style of preparation or a particular garnish. There is no difference between dishes listed as “a la boulangere” and “boulangere.” Many menus drop the “a la” because it is implied.
a la Anglaise (ah-la-an-glaz) – It is a French term for English. It refers to food which has been dipped in beaten egg, and then coated with bread crumbs and cooked in butter and oil.
a la boulangere (boo-lan-jair) – Describes a simple dish of stock, potatoes, and onions. “Boulangere” is French for “baker.” In history in France, many homes did not have an oven, so anything to be baked was taken to a local baker to be cooked in his oven.
a la Broche – Prepared on a skewer over a flame. Also called Brochettes.
a la Carte (KART) – “Carte” was originally a French term for a piece of paper or cardboard and later a bill of fare or menu. Today the term means according to the menu and that which is written down as available on the menu. Refers to meal in which the diner selects individual items, paying for each, rather than taking a complete meal at a fixed price.
a la Creole – Dishes prepared with tomatoes, green peppers and onions as the main ingredients.
a la Diable (ah-la-dee-abla) – “Diable” is French for the devil or satan. The term means food served deviled or in the devil’s style, usually served with a very sharp and hot seasoning.
a la King – Prepared with a Bechamel sauce containing mushrooms, green peppers, and red or pimento peppers.
a la Lyonnaise (ah-la-lee-on-az) – In French the term means with onions or served with Lyonnaise sauce, which is made from onions, white wine, and a meat glaze.
a la Maitre d’Hotel – Prepared with a sauce of lemon juice, parsley, salt, pepper, and drawn butter.
a la Marinera (ah-la-mah-ree-neh-rah) – Common style of cooking in Spanish cuisine, It says that the food is cooked with white wine, onions and sometimes tomatoes.
a la mode (ah lah MODH) – A French word for “in the manner of” or “mode or according to fashion.” Desserts a la mode are served with ice cream. Meats cooked a la mode are braised with vegetables and served with gravy.
a la Nage – A French term that literally means “in the swim” and refers to the fact that a some kind of seafood is “swimming” in a flavorful broth.
a la Plancha (ah-la-plahn-chah) – A Spanish cooking term that refers to the method of cooking grilled on a metal plate or cast-iron skillet that is used for cooking by dry heat.
a la Provencale (prov-on-sal) – Provence is a French maritime province that is famed for its wines and cuisine. The term is used to describe a dish, which uses products, which flourish, in the area of Provence, namely tomatoes, onions, garlic, and olives.
a la Royale – Prepared in the royal style; typically a veloute sauce with truffles, served on poached fish or poultry.
a la Russe – Prepared in the Russian style with sour cream or beetroot or both are added.
ababai – Ababai comes from the Caricacae family of fruits, which also contains the Mau Mau, and some forms of papaya. It is considered an exotic fruit in the United States. It is imported from Chile, as Chile is the only country in the world that exports this luscious fruit. Very few countries grow Ababai and then only for their local market. It is a protected fruit in Chile and was only recently available for export.
Fresh off the tree, ababai has a thin skin and looks like a small papaya. It is never eaten fresh due to its high enzyme content. It is first cooked for several minutes and then jarred. Its pale yellow color turns to a brilliant gold after processing. It is one of the few fruits that will not dissolve when cooked. It is superb for sauteing with vegetables, broiling on fish, and grilling on the barbecue (shish kebob). The seeds look like small raisins. The male and female seeds of the fruit cannot be distinguished before planting, and there is also a hermaphrodite seed. Several seeds are planted with the prospect of growing one successful Ababai tree. Ababai trees grow for 7 1/2 to 8 years and only bear fruit for 5 years. The tree is then cut down, recycled, and must be replanted on virgin soil.
abais – A French term that describes puff pastry that has been rolled very thin or sponge cake that has been cut very thin for dessert preparation.
abalone – Abalone are shellfish of the univalve family, meaning they only have one shell, unlike bivalves such as clams that consist of two shells. This edible gastropod belongs to the same family as the sea slug and is related to the snail. Out of its shell, it resembles a large scallop. They are found in United States, Japan, Australia, Mexico, and Indo-Pacific Region. On the Pacific coast, they are found on rocky inter-tidal and sub-tidal areas from Baja California to Alaska, as each species prefers a particular habitat, which appears related to the local sea temperature. They are also called ear shells, or sea ears (as their shape resembles the human ear). Also called Awabi in Japanese cuisine and Loco in South American cuisine. Since the abalone has been over-harvested, it is very expensive when available.
History: Abalone has lived along the Pacific coast of North America for millions of years. Fossilized shells have been found in sediments that are approximately 100 million years old. In more recent times, abalone were important in the economy of all native American peoples who dwelled in California’s coastal areas. Native Americans were using abalone for food, implements, and decoration long before the arrival of Europeans in North America
Absinthe (AB-sinth) – An anise-flavored liqueur that is made by steeping wormwood and other aromatic herbs (hyssop, lemon balm, and angelica) in alcohol. The drink is distinguished by its dazzling blue-green clarity due to its chlorophyll content. It was traditionally served with water and a cube of sugar; the sugar cube was placed on an “absinthe spoon” and the liquor was drizzled over the sugar into the glass of water. The sugar helped take the bitter edge from the absinthe, and when poured into the water the liquor turned milky white. Absinthe was believed to raise the drinker’s consciousness, insights, and emotional experience to another level altogether. Unfortunately, it also caused terrible hallucinations, permanent neural damage, as seen in the dazed condition of dedicated drinkers, and even its own diseases, known as absinthism, recognized as early as the 1850s. Read my web page on Absinthe Drinks – Learn how to make and drink absinthe.
History: Dr. Pierre Ordinaire as an all-purpose remedy invented Absinthe in 1792. Used as a cure-all for epilepsy, gout, drunkenness, kidney stones, colic, headaches, and worms, it was nicknamed “La Fee Verte” meaning The Green Fairy. In 1797, the heirs of Dr. Ordinaire sold the recipe to Henri-Louis Pernod. Pernod opened the first absinthe distillery in Switzerland and then moved to a larger one in Pontarlier, France in 1805. After the Algerian War (1844-1847), the demand for absinthe rose dramatically. The soldiers had developed a taste for absinthe, as they were given rations of absinthe along with their drinking water as a bacterial deterrent, and began drinking it after the war.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the drinking of absinthe was so popular that the cocktail hour in France was called “lheure verte,” meaning the “green hour.” Absinthe was exported to New Orleans and reached the same popularity in the United States. It was a drink considered ladylike and women freely enjoyed it in the coffee houses, where it was commonly served. In New Orleans, as well as in the rest of the United States, it became banned in 1912. Absinthe is still available in other areas of the world where it is not illegal.
Acetomel – A mixture of honey and vinegar that produces sweet-sour syrup. Traditionally used to preserve fruits.
acidify – To add acid (lemon juice or vinegar) to a culinary preparation to made a dish slightly acid, sour, or piquant.
acidulated water – It is a solution of 5 to 6 parts water to 1 part acid (typically the acid ingredient is lemon juice or vinegar). Since the flesh of certain fruits and vegetables, such as apples and pears, will darken when exposed to air unless used immediately after cutting, they are dropped into an acidulated water to stop this process.
aerate (ER-ayt) – Aerate means the same as “sift.” To pass dry ingredients through a fine-mesh sifter so large pieces can be removed. The process also incorporates air to make ingredients like flour, lighter.
after taste – Taste which returns to the mouth after ingestion of certain foods and beverages.
agar-agar – processed seaweed, grayish white in color and comes in sticks, flakes, granules or powder. It is a vegetarian gelatin. After it is soaked in cold water, it becomes bouncy, resilient, and crisp . It is used mostly for cold oriental dishes that contain chicken, meat, and vegetables. In the old days, before the introduction of gelatin, agar-agar was also used as a thickening agent in making cold jellied dishes. Once soaked in boiling water, it melts into a gelatinous substance. The Chinese use this paste to make their famous delicacy called “bird’s nest soup.” Agar-agar is commonly referred to as Chinese gelatin.
ahi (AH-hee) – Ahi tuna is simply yellow fin tuna. It is a term used in Hawaii to describe this variety of tuna, which is distinguished from the other variety of tuna, known as blue fin.
aiguillette – Long, thin slices of poultry of fish.
aioli (eye-YO-lee) – (French) The French word for garlic is “ail.” Aioli is garlic-flavored mayonnaise made from pounded cloves of garlic, egg yolks, oil, and seasoning. Just before it is served, lemon juice and a little cold water are added. It is served as a sauce for a variety of garnishes and main courses. The Italian for aioli is “aglio,” the Spanish is “ajo” and “allioil.”
History: It is believed to have originated in Provence, France. See “mayonnaise.”
akutaq – Also known as aqutuk, ackutuk, or Eskimo Ice Cream. Not the creamy ice cream as we know it, but a concoction made from reindeer fat or tallow, seal oil, freshly fallen snow or water, fresh berries, and sometimes ground fish. Air is whipped in by hand so that it slowly cools into foam. It is eaten as a desert, a meal, a snack, or a spread. Traditionally it was made for funerals, pot latches, celebrations of a boy’s first hunt, and any other celebration where food is brought. Today it is usually made with Crisco shortening instead of tallow and with raisins and sugar sometimes added
History: Alaska Natives have thrived on this delicacy for thousands of years. The region lived in usually determines what berry is used, and each family usually has their favorite recipe. It is said that your choice of berries used is a lifetime decision. If it okay to eat any flavor made by others, but if you are caught making more than one kind, you will lose all social standing. Learn more about the history and culture of Akuta or Eskimo Ice Cream .
al dente (ahl-DEN-tay) – In Italian the phrase means “to the tooth” and is a term used to describe the correct degree of doneness when cooking pasta, risotto, and vegetables. The food should have a slight resistance (chewy) when biting into it, but should not be soft, overdone, or have a hard center.
al forno (ahl FOHR-noh) – An Italian term to describe a dish that is “oven baked” or “oven roasted.”
all-purpose flour – All-purpose flour is made from a blend of high-gluten hard wheat and low-gluten soft wheat. It is a fine-textured flour milled from the inner part of the wheat kernel and contains neither the germ (the sprouting section) nor the bran (the outer husk). By law, in the United States, all flours not containing wheat germ must have niacin, riboflavin, and thiamin added. Most all-purpose flours are labeled “enriched,” indicating that these nutrients have been
allspice – The dried, unripe berry of a small tree. It is available ground or in seed form. Allspice can be used in a variety of dishes such as pickles, casseroles, cakes, and puddings. Also known as Jamaica Pepper. It is the fruit of the evergreen pimiento tree. The flavor resembles a blend of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmeg. This spice is used in both sweet and savory cooking and can be purchased whole or ground.
almond (AH-mund, AM-und) – It is the kernel of the fruit of the almond tree that is native of the warmer parts of western Asia and North Africa. It belongs to the same group of plants as the rose, plum, cherry, and peach. The seed is rounded at one end and pointed at the other, and covered with a thin brown coat. There are two types of almonds – sweet and bitter. Today, Americans give guests at weddings a bag of sugared almonds (representing children, happiness, romance, good health, and fortune). In Sweden, cinnamon-flavored rice pudding with an almond hidden inside is a Christmas custom (find it and good fortune is yours for a year).
History – Almonds were well know in Greece and Italy long before the Christian era. Explorers ate almonds while traveling the “Silk Road” between Asia and the Mediterranean. Before long, almond trees flourished in the Mediterranean (especially in Spain and Italy). Throughout history, almonds have maintained religious, ethnic, and social significance. The Bible’s “Book of Numbers” tells the story of Aaron’s rod that blossomed and bore almonds, giving the almond the symbolism of divine approval. The Romans showered newlyweds with almonds as a fertility charm. In the mid 1700s, the Franciscan Padres brought almond trees to California from Spain.
almond extract – A solution of oil, bitter almonds, and alcohol (approximately 1%) that is used for a flavoring in baking.
almond flour – Almond flour or meal is the residue left after almond oil has been extracted from the kernels. It is entirely free from starch and is used in making bread and biscuits for diabetics.
almond paste – A mixture of sugar, almonds, and egg whites. Also called marzipan. It is widely used in dessert preparations. Almond paste and marzipan are both made from ground almonds. They differ mainly in their sugar content. Marzipan is made from almond paste and sugar and is used primarily in confections and decorations because it is more moldable and the almond flavor is less pronounced. Almond paste is used in pastries and other baked goods. They are not interchangeable in recipes.
amaranth – Amaranth is from the Greek for “never-fading flower” or “everlasting.” It is an annual herb, and therefore not a true grain. It has broad leaves and large flower heads that produce thousands of tiny, protein-rich seeds. There are hundreds of varieties of amaranth. It is grown for its leaves-some varieties are good in salad, some are delicious steamed or stir-fried-and its somewhat peppery seeds. Amaranth can be cooked as a cereal. The seeds are very tiny-looking, a bit like caviar when cooked, and their lack of substance makes them rather unsatisfactory as the base of pilaf-type dishes. Amaranth is most often ground into flour, which has a fairly strong malt-like vegetable taste and is beige in color. It is the only known food that contains between 75% and 87% of total human nutritional requirements.
Amaranth is used in several cultures in very interesting ways, In Mexico, it is popped and mixed with a sugar solution to make a candy called alegria and the roasted seed is used to create a traditional Mexican drink called atole. People from Peru use fermented amaranth seeds to make chichi (beer). During the carnival festival, women dancers often use the red amaranth flower as rouge, painting their cheeks, and then dancing while carrying bundles of amaranth on their backs.
History: There is evidence that it has been in Central and South America for nearly 8,000 years. Amaranth was a staple in the diet of pre-Columbian Aztecs. Aztec Indians in Mexico grew it alongside maize as the main ingredient in their diets. They thought that it gave them supernatural powers and incorporated it into their religious ceremonies. On religious holidays, Aztec women ground the seed, mixed it with honey or human blood, then shaped it into idols that were eaten ceremoniously, a practice that appalled the conquistadors. After conquering Montezuma in 1519, the Spanish missionaries forbade its use because of its association with human sacrifice.
In ancient Greece, amaranth was considered sacred and was used to decorate tombs and images of gods as a symbol of immortality. The early Christian Church also adopted the amaranth as a symbol of immortality.
By the middle the 20th century, the cultivation of this grain had declined to the point where it was grown only in small plots in Mexico, the Andean highlands, and in the Himalayan foothills of India and Nepal. It was used to make tortillas even before the cultivation of corn. It remained in obscurity until the 1950’s when its nutritional values were again recognized through scientific development.
amaretti (ah-mah-REHT-tee) – An Italian almond macaroon cookie. The Italian word “amaro” means “bitter,” and the literal translation of “amaretti” is “the little bitter ones.” They are called amaretti because they are flavored with bitter almonds.
History: Francesco Moriodo, pastry chef at the court of Savoy, created them in the mid-17th century.
amaretto (am-ah-REHT-toh) – An Italian almond flavored liqueur (or cordial) that is made from apricot pits and flavored with almonds and aromatic extracts.
History: It is named after the town of Saronno Italy. It has been produced commercially since the 19th century.
ambrosia (am-BROH-zhah) – (1) The name is sometimes applied to certain beverages. (2) A traditional Christmas dish in many Southern homes, where the dessert is served in the best cut-glass bowl from the sideboard. It usually consists of chilled fruit (usually oranges and bananas) mixed with coconut.
History: In Greek mythology, this was a balsamic juice, which served as the “food of the gods” and was said to preserve their immortality, and without this substance, they became weak. Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and Hera, served the Gods Ambrosia and Nectar. One day she tripped and fell so Zeus dismissed her and in the shape of an eagle. A human being who took Ambrosia became strong and immortal, and received additional beauty, strength, and swiftness (becoming in some measure akin to the gods).
American Breakfast – It is an restaurant term that usually consists of eggs, juice, bacon or sausage, toast or hash browns.
amuse-bouche (ah-mewz-BOOSH) – Also known as amuse-gueule, amusee, petite amuse, and lagniappe are used interchangeably to describe these tasty morsels. A French term that literally means “mouth amusement.” These are tiny bites of food served before a meal to whet the palate and invigorate the appetite. They are more whimsical than hors d’oeuvres, and smaller than appetizers.
The best restaurants offer a tiny serving of something interesting (also known as palate teasers) soon after you sit down, which ideally previews the cooking style of the restaurant. In some restaurants, it is also a way to present something luxurious to favored customers. In the United States we think of them as ‘hors-d’oeuvre’. Customers regard them as tokens of appreciation. In this age of frequently getting less than what is expected, gestures like this make diners feel welcome and can promote customer loyalty.
History: According to the 1992 edition of Dictionnaire Historique de la Langue Francais (Dictionary of the History of the French Language), the term originated in 1946.
amuse-gueule – See “amuse-bouche.”
Anadama Bread (ana-a-dam-a) – It is a specialty yeast bread of the New England States that is made with flour, cornmeal, and molasses.
History: This bread originated in New England. There are a variety of stories or legends on how this bread got its name. According to these many legends, a farmer, fisherman, miner, sailor, or Yankee (depending on what account you read), angry with his wife, Anna, for serving him nothing but cornmeal and molasses, one day adds flour and yeast to his porridge and eats the resulting bread while cursing, “Anna, damn her.”
Anaheim chile (An-uh-hime) – Mild, long green chile peppers that are named after the area near Los Angeles where they were first cultivated. Also known as Chile Verde (green), Chile Colorado (red) or the California Long Green, the Anaheim Chile is light green in color and slightly bent . It is the most commonly found variety in the United States. Mild, sweet, and slightly bitter in flavor, this chile pepper can be used fresh or roasted and is often available canned. If you buy them fresh, Anaheim Chile peppers can be stored in the refrigerator for one week. Learn all about Chile Peppers (Preparing Fresh Chile Peppers, Roasting Fresh Chile Peppers, Preparing Dried Chile Peppers), Science of Chile Peppers
ancho chile peppers (AHN-choh) – A dried deep reddish brown chile pepper about 3 inches wide and 4 inches long with a sweet hot flavor. When fresh they are referred to as poblanos. They look like small bell peppers. Anchos are flat, wrinkled, and heart shaped. They range in color from very dark red to almost black. Anchos are mild to moderately hot and often soaked and ground for use in sauces.
ancho powder – It is ground ancho (pablano) chile peppers. In other words, it is a chile powder. Ancho Chili is a dark Smokey chili with a deep rich flavor and mild to medium heat. Their flavor is somewhat sweet and a little raisin like. This pepper is the most commonly used in authentic Mexican cooking and is a staple in red chili and tamales. Ancho Powder is a terrific choice for those who are looking for a “milder” taste in their cooking. Use Ancho Powder just as you would salt or pepper. Sprinkle on pasta, baked potatoes, vegetables, soups, pizza, popcorn and more. Also try it to season chicken, stews, potatoes, vegetables and, of course, Mexican dishes.
anchovy (AN-choh-vee) – Anchovies are tiny silver fish, about three inches long. They swim in large schools where the sea is temperate. In modern Italy, Spain, and Greece, salted anchovies are offered as appetizers. For the rest of the world, they are usually sold as flat or rolled fillets, salted, and packed in oil. The most popular and tasty are the ones in olive oil and salt.
anchovy paste – A paste of pureed anchovies with oil and salt. Available in tubes at most supermarkets and specialty food stores. You can also make your own using a can of anchovy fillets. First wash them in cold water, then mash them with a fork, and add just enough olive oil to make a smooth paste.more
History: Check out Linda Stradley’s web page Anchovy and Anchovy Paste .
andouille (ahn-doo-ee) – (1) Traditionally, the andouilles from France were made from the large intestines and stomach of the pig (seasoned heavily and smoked). (2) Andouille is also the Cajun smoked sausage so famous nationally today. Made with pork butt, shank, and a small amount of pork fat. This sausage is seasoned with salt, cracked black pepper, and garlic. The andouille is then slowly smoked over pecan wood and sugar cane. True andouille is stuffed into the beef middle casing, which makes the sausage approximately one and a half inches in diameter. When smoked, it becomes very dark to almost black in color. It is not uncommon for the Cajuns to smoke andouille for seven to eight hours at approximately 175 degrees.
History: The finest andouilles in France reportedly come from the Brittany and Normandy areas. It is believed that over half of the Acadian exiles that came to Louisiana in 1755 were originally from these coastal regions. In parts of Germany, where some say andouille originated, the sausage was made with all remaining intestines and casings pulled through a larger casing, seasoned and smoked . It was served thinly sliced as a hors d’oeuvre.
Angel Food Cake – Angel Food Cake is also known as foam-style cake. They are made with a large quantity of egg whites and no shortening or leavening. Angel Food or “angel cake” is thought to be a takeoff of the cornstarch cake and the sponge cake.
History: For a detailed history of the Angel Food Cake, check out Linda Stradley’s History of Cakes .
Angostura bitters – Named after a town in Venezuela and made in Trinidad from roots, bark, leaves, and alcohol. It is used in small amounts to lend an aromatic and slightly bitter element to mixed drinks. It is best known as the essential ingredient of the popular cocktail called the “Manhattan.”
History: In 1824, a German doctor living in Venezuela mixed this substance to create a tonic for his ailing wife. Legend says that this creation worked as a cure for malaria and other tropical diseases. Sailors swore that it cured seasickness (especially when mixed with rum).
antipasto (ahn-tee-PAH-sto) – The term antipasto, usually translated as “appetizer” in English. It literally means “before the meal” and denotes a relatively light dish designed to stimulate the palate before the service of more substantial courses.
Antipasti are not essential to the Italian kitchen; a formal Italian dinner without antipasti would not betray the traditions of Italian gastronomy. Today, however, it is difficult to imagine a formal dinner that would not include some dishes classified as antipasto. In the regional Italian kitchen, antipasti are an important element, not on a daily basis, but certainly on holidays and special occasions. Many dishes, served as accompaniments to main courses, are today considered too rich for such use. So, through the years, many of these dishes have been adapted to serve as antipasto. Antipasto takes full advantage of all kinds of different foods not generally regarded as being substantial enough to be served as main courses. The ingredients may be varied, but generally they must all be eaten with a fork.
aperitif (ah-pear-uh-TEEF) – A French term for an alcoholic beverage served before a meal as an appetizer to stimulate the appetite. It can be a punch made to complement the meal, but it is usually a white wine, sherry, champagne, or a sparkling wine It can also be non-alcoholic.
appetizer (apy-tizer) – It is a small portion of bite-size food which is served before a main meal as the first course in order to stimulate the appetite. If served before a meal it should be small. They may be hot or cold, plated, or served as finger food. If served at a cocktail party, it is usually called hors d’ oeuvres.
apple – Of nearly 8000 varieties known around the world, about 100 are grown in commercial quantity in the U.S., with the top 10 comprising over 90% of the crop. New varieties are still being discovered and cultivated, with the best eventually becoming household words like McIntosh, Delicious, Empire, Rome, Spartan, Cortland, Granny Smith, etc.
History: Check out History and Legend of Apples.
apple butter – Apple butter is a kind of jam made of tart apples, boiled in cider until reduced to a very thick smooth paste, to which is added a flavoring of allspice, while cooking. It is then placed in jars and covered tightly.
History: Apple butter was one of the favorite sweets during the colonial and pioneering historical eras of the United States.
Apple Charlotte – Apple Charlotte consists of layers of cake or breadcrumbs, sugar, butter, and apples.
History: For a detailed history of the Charlotte Russe, check out Linda Stradley’s History of Cakes .
apple cider – Most cider is made from fermented apple juice. Natural cider has nothing added and relies, for fermentation, upon the wild yeast present in the apples. For mass-produced ciders, a yeast culture is added in order to achieve consistency. Although much of today’s cider is produced from apple concentrate, many traditional cider-makers use only cider apples, cultivated specifically for the purpose.
History: When the Romans arrived in England in 55 B.C., they were reported to have found the local Kentish villagers drinking a delicious cider-like beverage made from apples. It has been recorded that the Romans and in particular their leader, Julius Caesar, embraced the pleasant pursuit with enthusiasm! How long the locals had been making this apple drink, prior to the arrival of the Romans, is anybody’s guess.
In America, cider was an everyday drink up until the middle of the 19th century. Anytime was considered a good time for drinking in the New England Colonies, and upon rising in the morning, the downing of a mug of cider was considered customary. Most of the early apple crops were made into cider since the apples had not yet been perfected into the sweet, juicy, eating apples of today. By the 1670s, cider was the most abundant and least expensive drink in New England. It quickly took the place of water, which was considered unsafe. During the colonial period, hard cider was the most popular beverage in America and often the measure of a town’s wealth was measured by how many barrels of cider were stored for the winter.
apple juice – It is the juice squeezed from apples. As long as apple juice (fresh cider) remains in its natural state and is not sweetened, preserved, clarified, or otherwise altered, it is apple juice. In sweet cider, fermentation is not permitted at all. See apple cider.
applejack – A brandy made by distilling apple cider. The name is also given to a beverage produced by freezing hard cider.
History: As early as 1698, William Laird began it distill cider for himself and neighbors, producing apple brandy or applejack. Applejack, because of its power, was also know as “jersey Lighting.” In 1780, a descendant of laird began commercial production of applejack and the company still distills it today.
apricot – The apricot derives its name from the Latin world “praecox” meaning “precocious.”
History: The apricot has a long history of cultivation, starting in China some 4,000 years ago and traveling along the trade routes to the shores of the Mediterranean. In Iraq and Iran, apricots are served with lamb, and a regional specialty is “kamraddin” (a kind of apricot leather). A drink is made from it to mark the end of a period of religious fasting. The Spanish missionaries introduced the apricot trees to the Santa Clara Valley in California.
aquaculture – It is the cultivation of the sea. The term refers specifically to the intensive production of fish and shellfish in a controlled environment for human food. It is an ancient practice in Asia but it has only began approximately 20 years ago in the U.S., but in virtually no time has become one of the fastest growing segments of the United States economy.
offshore farming – It takes place in deep, navigable waters and involves the use of boats.
onshore farming – It is done in shallow waters where boats are not necessary.
tank culture – It is another form of onshore farming. Tanks, usually made of steel and reinforced cement, or fiberglass in a variety of shapes, are used to contain populations of fish in water.
pond culture – It is the most widely used method of fish farming. All catfish farming is pond raised. The farming is done in man-made ponds that are drainable and often incorporate a system of dikes for harvesting.
tray culture – A tray culture involves the use of a permanent structure for mollusks to attach themselves to. Trays are set underwater in calm bays or estuaries to stimulate the growth of clams, oyster, and other shellfish. Sometimes ropes or strings are hung into the water for mussels and scallops to grow on.
arborio rice (ar-BOH-ree-oh) – An Italian short grain rice that was virtually synonymous with risotto for many years. It is the best known of the top-grade varieties of Italian rice. When purchasing arborio rice, the only precaution is to check the label to be sure it is not precooked.
Architectural Cuisine – Menu items that are stacked for height. Also called Vertical Cuisine.
arepas (ah-ray-pay-rah) – Similar to an English muffins but made from precooked corn flour, it is a cornmeal patty or pancake that is considered like bread in other countries. Arepas are popular throughout South America, but especially popular in Colombian and Venezuelan. It is considered the national dish of Venezuela (the local equivalent of an American hamburger). You can find arepas in small restaurants called Areperas. T he most famous arepa is La reina pepiada, made with chopped meat, avocado and cheese. The favorite way to serve them in Venezuela is to split them open, remove some of the steaming moist corn meal, and then stuff them with your favorite ingredients. The arepa is wrapped in a square of slick paper (like butcher paper), and handed to the purchaser to eat standing up. Very few people make arepas at home, choosing to buy them at the store or have them delivered directly to their homes. You can also find arepas all over Miami, Florida (the traditional arepa served in Miami has two cornmeal pancakes with a layer of cheese inside).
History: First made by the Indians of Columbia and Venezuela, an important part of their diet just like corn tortillas were to the Aztecs. For many centuries, it was considered a food for the poor. Today they are considered a comfort food for everyone.
aromatic – (1) A vegetable, herb, or spice used to enhance the flavor and fragrance of food and drinks. In classic cooking, a reference to “aromatics” most often means onions, carrot, and celery. (2) It also means spicy, pungent, or having a fragrant aroma.
arracheras – The Mexican term for fajitas or skirt steak.
arrack (Ah-RAK) – Also called arak. It is an anise-flavored liqueur, often homemade. It is a popular aperitif in the Middle East. It is a distilled from grapes, dates, and other fruits. In its countries of origin, it is included in cooking in some recipes for fish stews.
arrowroot – Also called arrowhead. A fine, dry white powdered starch made from a tropical root and exported from the British West Indies. It is named for its curative properties in treating arrow wounds. It makes exceptionally smooth sauces, and is a very good last minute thickener (it can be stirred into a sauce at the last minute without lumping). Arrowroot is slightly stronger in thickening power than cornstarch. However, if the sauce boils for more than a few seconds, the starch breaks down and its thickening power is lost.
arroz (AH-roz) – Spanish word for long-grain white rice. This is a main staple in Mexican cooking.
arroz con pollo (arros kon POH-yoh) – It is a popular chicken and rice Spanish and Mexican dish that is actually a paella without any shellfish or meat.
artichoke – The artichoke is a perennial in the thistle group of the sunflower family that is native to the Mediterranean and the Canary Islands. A name shared by three unrelated plants: the globe artichoke, Jerusalem artichoke, and Chinese (or Japanese) artichoke. In full growth, the plant spreads to cover an area about six feet in diameter and reaches a height of three to four feet. The part that we eat is actually the plant’s flower bud. If allowed to flower, the blossoms measure up to seven inches in diameter and are a beautiful violet-blue color. The size of the bud depends on where it is located on the plant. Larger artichokes are found on central stems towards the top of the plant, where they receive maximum sunshine. Smaller or “baby” artichokes are found lower down on the plant where they are shaded from the sun by the larger buds above.
History: Check out History of Artichokes .
arugula (ah-ROO-guh-lah) – It is also known as rocket, rulola, Italian cress, and roquette. It is a delicate salad green that is related to mustard. When the leaves are young, they are tender and nutty, with a subtle peppery flavor. The leaves look like radish leaves. The white blossoms are also edible. It is used as a salad green, as a garnish, and in combination with other ingredients in sandwiches.
asafetida (ah-sah-FEH-teh-dah) – This pungent resinous gum is used widely in Indian vegetarian cooking. Also called stinking gum and devil’s dung because of its unpleasant smell, this seasoning is obtained from the gum of a plant native to Afghanistan, Iran, and northern India. A perennial of the carrot family that grows wild to 12 feet high in natural forests. The whole plant exudes a characteristic smell, described by some as stink. The milky resin comes from both the thick stems and the root and it dries into asafoetida.
A popular ingredient in Indian vegetarian dishes, it imparts a subtle flavor if used sparingly (the odor does not transmit to cooked food). In the raw state, the resin or the powder has an unpleasant smell. This completely disappears when the spice is added to a variety of fish, vegetable pulse, and pickle ingredients. Also used in the curries and pickles of West and South India. The powdered version is easier to handle. Buy asafoetida in small quantities. The powder resin is usually mixed with flour to provide bulk and is sold in bright yellow plastic tubs.
History: Early record show that Alexander the Great carried this “Stink Finger” west in 4 BC. It was used as a flavoring in the kitchens of ancient Rome.
asiago cheese (ah-see-AH-go) – Asiago cheese is a semi-firm Cheese from Italy. Also known as “poor man’s Parmesan cheese.” It is made from whole or part-skim cow’s milk. It comes in small wheels with glossy rinds and is yellow inside with many small holes called “eyes.” Asiago is rich and nutty in flavor and used as a table cheese when young; when matured for 6 months or more it hardens and may be grated.
History: Originally, this cheese was made from ewe’s milk in the village of Asiago in the province of Vicenza.
asparagus – The name asparagus comes from the Greek language meaning “sprout” or “shoot,” and it is a member of the lily family. Plants in the lily family are also related to various grasses. In the dialects of 18th and 19th century cookbooks, asparagus was referred to as sparagrass or sparrowgrass. People throughout Europe, Asia, and the United States use fresh Asparagus in their favorite cuisine. In China, Asparagus spears are candied and served as special treats. It is widely popular today as a scrumptious, fresh, healthy vegetable. Learn more about A sparagus .
History: Asparagus cultivation began more than 2,000 years ago in the eastern Mediterranean Region. Greeks and Romans prized asparagus for its unique flavor, texture and, alleged medicinal qualities. They ate it fresh and dried the vegetable to use in winter. In the 16th Century, asparagus gained popularity in France and in England. Asparagus is often called the “Food of Kings.” King Louis XIV of France was so fond of this delicacy that he ordered special greenhouses build so he could enjoy asparagus all year round.
au bleu – The French term for the method of preparing fish the instant after it is killed. Used especially for trout, as in “truite au blue,” when the freshly killed fish is plunged into a boiling court bouillon, which turns the skin a metallic blue color.
Au (saw) – It is a French term that has the same meaning as “a la” meaning “in the manner of,” “in the style of,” and “according to” In cooking, this phrase designates the style of preparation or a particular garnish.
au beurre (bur) – Made with or in butter
au bleu (blo) – Means blue and describes the process where freshly killed fish is plunged into boiling water and poached until the skin of the fish has a bluish tinge.
au fromage (from-azh) – The term means cheese and means made with or in cheese.
au gratin (GRAH-tn) – To dress up vegetables, meats, and fish with a layer of bread crumbs and/or grated cheese on top. It is then broiled or baked until a thin brown crust forms.
au jus (joos) – (1) Is French and has the same meaning as a la and be translated as “in” or “with.” (2) It also describes meat served in its own natural juices, not with gravy.
Au lait – Contain milk.
au naturel (nat-tur-el) – Means natural or simple. It refers to foods which are served very simply or which are uncooked.
au poivre (pwa-vra) – Means pepper, and means cooked with pepper.
avocado (a-voh-KAH-doh) – The avocado used to be called alligator pear. It is a tropical fruit native to Central America. Today, this fruit is grown in Southern California. Avocados do not ripen on the tree and are rarely found ripe in the markets.
| with pepper |
Which group's first UK hit was ' Virginia Plain ' in 1972 ? | Menu | Silver Fox
Silver Fox
blue cheese, garlic and red wine shallot sauce
5.50
Macaroni & Cheese
9.95
Disclaimer: Always check with the business for pricing and availability of menu items. SinglePlatform is not responsible for menu or pricing changes, but the information is believed to be accurate when posted. Listing of a menu does not mean that there is any affiliation, endorsement or sponsorship between SinglePlatform and the listed business.
Dinner
All entrées served with potatoes, sugar snap peas, ripe tomatoes and spring onions.
Certified Angus Beef® Steaks
with red wine shallot sauce
28.95
au poivre with peppercorn gravy
5.50
blue cheese, garlic and red wine shallot sauce
5.50
with your choice of one side item. $40 per person.
Baseball Cut Filet
Cold Water Rock Lobster Tail
Mkt
with a peach serrano glaze
27.95
with potatoes, roasted baby carrots and Broccolini
24.95
on a bed of red wine shallot sauce
45.95
lettuce, tomato, onion, pickle and seasoned fries
15.95
Macaroni & Cheese
9.95
Disclaimer: Always check with the business for pricing and availability of menu items. SinglePlatform is not responsible for menu or pricing changes, but the information is believed to be accurate when posted. Listing of a menu does not mean that there is any affiliation, endorsement or sponsorship between SinglePlatform and the listed business.
Bar
SEASONAL SELECTIONS
Woodford Reserve Manhattan
Woodford Reserve Bourbon, maple syrup, sweet vermouth, Angostura bitters, Pig Candy. Martini or on the rocks
12.00
Chandon Brut 187ml split, St-Germain Elderflower Liqueur
16.00
Grey Goose Vodka, Solerno Blood Orange Liqueur, rose water syrup, fresh lemon juice
12.00
Maker's Mark Bourbon, fresh lemon sour, fresh strawberry, bitters, ginger beer
12.00
Bastille Hand-Crafted French Whisky, Luxardo Cherry Liqueur, orange bitters, Luxardo Cherry and orange bitters-infused ice
12.00
Patrón Silver Tequila, Patrón Citrónge Liqueur, fresh sweet and sour, orange juice
12.00
Pancho Villa Margarita
Maestro Dobel Tequila, Three Olives Cherry Vodka, pomegranate Juice, fresh lime juice, housemade simple syrup, Luxardo Cherries
12.00
Prairie Organic Vodka, St. Germain Elderflower Liqueur, lemon juice, fresh pineapple, sparkling wine
12.00
Beefeater Gin, St. Germain Elderflower Liqueur, lemon juice, rose water syrup, ginger beer
12.00
Ketel One Vodka, ginger beer, fresh lime juice
11.00
Belvedere Unfiltered Vodka, 1888 Hand-Pressed Olive Juice, bacon and blue cheese-stuffed olives
12.00
Reyka Vodka, agave nectar, fresh cucumber, lime juice, lemon and orange, club soda
12.00
Mount Gay Black Barrel Rum, Cointreau Orange Liqueur, grapefruit juice, honey, fresh orange
12.00
Modern Millionaire
Mount Gay Black Barrel Rum, PAMA Pomegranate Liqueur, Cointreau Orange Liqueur, fresh lime juice, grenadine, bitters
12.00
Featured Wines by the Glass
SPARKLING & ROSÉ
Craggy Range Te Muna Road Vineyard
Martinborough, New Zealand
Dry Creek Vineyard "Old Vine"
Sonoma County, California
Zinfandel17.00
Disclaimer: Always check with the business for pricing and availability of menu items. SinglePlatform is not responsible for menu or pricing changes, but the information is believed to be accurate when posted. Listing of a menu does not mean that there is any affiliation, endorsement or sponsorship between SinglePlatform and the listed business.
Banquet
All entrées include off-the-cob cream corn, sugar snap peas, potatoes, tea and coffee
Bronze Fox
Mixed Field Greens Salad, 6 oz. Filet Mignon or Salmon, Three Dessert Selections
56.00
Mixed Field Greens Salad, 10 oz. Filet Mignon or Salmon, Three Dessert Selections
63.50
Silver Fox
Seafood Medley (1 Shrimp Cocktail, 1 Shrimp Remoulade & 1 Mini Crabcake), Mixed Field Greens Salad, Lobster Bisque, 8 oz. Filet Mignon or Salmon, Three Dessert Selections
76.00
Mixed Field Greens Salad, 8 oz. Filet Mignon or Salmon, Three Dessert Selections
60.00
Platinum Fox
Seafood Medley (1 Shrimp Cocktail, 1 Shrimp Remoulade & 1 Mini Crabcake), Mixed Field Greens Salad, 8 oz. Filet Mignon or Salmon, Three Dessert Selections
71.50
| i don't know |
Sean Connery's first Oscar was awarded for his role in which film ? | Sean Connery Wins Supporting Actor: 1988 Oscars - YouTube
Sean Connery Wins Supporting Actor: 1988 Oscars
Want to watch this again later?
Sign in to add this video to a playlist.
Need to report the video?
Sign in to report inappropriate content.
Rating is available when the video has been rented.
This feature is not available right now. Please try again later.
Uploaded on Oct 28, 2010
Cher and Nicolas Cage presenting Sean Connery the Oscar® for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in "The Untouchables" at the 60th Academy Awards® in 1988.
Category
| Untouchable |
Which Cricket county's 'Twenty/20' team are known as the 'Gladiators' ? | Sean Connery, horoscope for birth date 25 August 1930, born in Edinburgh, with Astrodatabank biography - Astro-Databank
photo: Stuart Crawford at http://flickr.com/photos/potatojunkie/ , license cc-by-sa-3.0
Biography
Scottish actor and film icon for the role of agent 007 in the "James Bond" series. He was awarded the Academy Award in 1987 for "Best Supporting Actor" in the film, "The Untouchables." Connery's over 50-film career has not slowed. Known on movie sets as a hard-working actor, he demands and expects professionalism from every actor, director, and crew member
He lived in an Edinburgh tenement flat as a child where the lower dresser drawer served as his crib when he was a baby. At nine, he helped supplement his van driver father's income by delivering milk. Once he left school he tried his luck at brick laying, coal mining, usher at the cinemas and posing nude as a model at the Edinburgh Art School. He joined the Royal Navy but was discharged for stomach ulcers.
He began to sculpt his imposing lean 6'2 body to compete for the Mr. Universe title representing Scotland. In 1951, he auditioned for a part in the male chorus in the London West End version of South Pacific. At the age of 20, he began his acting training. He went to the public library and taught himself the classics with the encouragement of a theater manager-actor friend. His first staring film role was in "Requiem for a Heavyweight" in 1957.
Connery garnered bit parts until 1962 when he was chosen to play super agent 007 in the "James Bond" series. The movies triggered an immediate notoriety, fame, and high acclaim. Unhappy with the Bond franchise, he tried other roles but found his career limited by his Bond Adonis image. He continued to work in films but ran into little success in the late '70s and early '80s. After appearing in one more Bond film, "Never Say Never" in 1982, his career turned around. He won a British Best Actor Academy Award for his role in "The Name of the Rose" in 1986. He was honored by the American Academy when he won "Best Supporting Actor" Oscar for his role as an Irish beat cop in Brian DePalma's 1987 film, "The Untouchables." As a mature actor, he continues to work, often in roles where he is cast as a seasoned mentor teamed with another noted actor. In 1969, he made an attempt at directing but the film was never released.
In November 1962, Connery married actress Diane Cilentro and they had a son Jason, born on 1/11/1963. While married to Cilentro, Connery met Micheline Roquebrune at a golf tournament in Morocco in 1970, a painter and a fierce golf competitor with a young son. He divorced in 1973 and married Micheline in March 1975.
The couple own homes in Marbella, Spain, Monte Carlo, Los Angeles, and the Bahamas. They continue their passion for the game of golf with Connery's handicap between eight-twelve. He stays in shape by occasionally abstaining from his favorite drink, vodka and getting on the golf course. He likes to relax by writing poetry. He credits his years of studying movement under the dance therapist, Yat Malmgeren, for his ability in commanding his posture and movement when he walks. He prefers an unpretentious lifestyle without the trappings of celebrity status symbols and does not employ an agent. He makes his own travel arrangements and when in London, prefers to walk to his appointments by himself. When he drives, he prefers his fuel efficient Toyota Land Cruiser to his Mercedes.
In a 1965 Playboy interview he quipped that slapping a woman was justified if she was a bitch. His reputation as a male chauvinist still haunts him as he rallies against the female encroachment into traditional all-male enclaves like clubs and bars. Women, however, have always been a part of his life, as evidenced by the loss of his virginity at age 14 to an older woman, who seduced him.
He has no qualms about taking movie productions to litigation if he feels his financial earnings are hidden under clever accounting skills. As a philanthropist and cofounder, he has donated millions to the Scottish International Education Trust since 1970. He lends his rich voice to Scottish politics by doing voice-over advertisements for the Scottish Nationalist party for an independent Scotland.
| i don't know |
The island of Rapa Nui is better known as what ? | Mythology and traditions of Rapa Nui – Under the influence!
by ztevetevans
Mythology and traditions of Rapa Nui
Rapa Nui is better known as Easter Island and is one of the most isolated populated places in the world. Situated in the south eastern Pacific Ocean around 4,000 kilometres from Chile, South America its nearest inhabited neighbour is Pitcairn Island 2,075 to the west. There in the extreme isolation of the vast Pacific Ocean a unique and amazing civilization evolved that created the most wonderful giant statues and left behind a fascinating and mysterious legacy. Today the inhabitants of the island are known as the Rapanui. According to legend the original settlers named the island Te Pito Te Henua which translates as Navel of the World.
Ahu Tahai English: Ahu Tahai – By Gallardoval – CC BY-SA 3.0
The lost land of Hiva
Rapa Nui mythology tells how the first settlers arrived on the island and later how the island was divided to be ruled by different clans whose chiefs were descended from a legendary chieftain called Hotu Matu’a.
The location of Hiva is not known for certain but it is thought likely that it was somewhere in the Marquesas Islands, some 3,200 km way, or the Gambier Islands, 2,600 km distant. It was shown in 1999, that it was possible to sail from Mangareva, in the Gambier Islands to Rapa Nui, using traditional Polynesian sea vessels in 19 days.
According to oral tradition Hotu Matu’a lived in a place called Marae Renga, which may have been an island in the region of Hiva, or a land location. According to some versions, Hiva was found in the Marquesas Islands but sunk beneath the sea after a natural disaster, possibly a volcanic eruption. It could have been this that drove Hotu Matu’a into making the arduous journey to Rapa Nui and pioneer a new life for his family and his people. Other oral traditions say that it was internal conflicts that drove him to seek a new way of life.
The dream of Hau-Maka
Amanecer en Tongariki, Isla de Pascua – By Alanbritom – CC BY-SA 2.0
According to most versions of the legend of how the people came to Rapa Nui it was a priest called Hau-Maka who had a dream which he then told to Hotua Matu’a. In that dream Hau-Maka had flown out over the sea and discovered an island called Te Pito ‘o te Kāinga’, which means ‘the centre of the earth’ He then appeared to Hotu Matu’a in a dream to tell him this news. Hotu Matu’a believed the dream was his destiny and that of his people, so he sent out seven scouts in canoes to find this place. When they found it they ate and rested and planted crops of yams, and other plants on the new island so that when they returned with their King and people they would have something ready to eat.
Landing at Anakena beach
Oral tradition states that Hotu Matu’a and his people landed at Anakena beach in double hulled canoes similar to what Polynesians use to this day. From there they colonised the rest of the island which eventually was to be divided between his sons who went on to head their own clans.
The hanau eepe and the hanau momoko
Rapa Nui mythology tells that once two different ethnic groups lived together on the island. One group or tribe of people was called the hanau eepe. This term has been mistranslated as meaning ‘long-ears’ when it actually means ‘stout’ or ‘stocky.’ However one of the traits of the hanau eepe was that they inserted pebbles into their ear lobes causing them to elongate overtime. The other group was the hanau momoko. They did not practise ear elongation and kept their ears short, mistakenly becoming known as the ‘short-ears,’ when the term really means slender or thin.
Some experts think that the hanau eepe may have had higher status and were better fed than the hanau momoko who they thought were the workers or lower classes of their society. Other experts argue that the hanau epee came from South America and were an entirely different ethnic group from the hanau momoko who were of Polynesian origin and there is no agreed consensus among by the experts on this at the moment, other than to disagree with each other.
In some versions of the mythology the hanau epee arrived after the people of Hotu Matu’a and tried to enslave them. It was the hanau eepe who brought the stone-carving skills to Rapa Nui. In other versions the hanau eepe were already on the island when Hot Matu’a arrived. In yet other versions they came with Hotu Matu’a and had been defeated by him in a conflict in Hiva and he had brought them with him to work the land. Whatever the case, conflict again erupted between the two people resulting with the slaughter of all but one of the hanau eepe. His life was spared and he was said to have took a wife and had many descendants.
In 1722, the Dutch explorer, Jacob Roggeveen in 1722 gave the island its European name of Easter Island because he discovered it on Easter Day. In his accounts of his encounters with the islanders he records that there are two distinct ethnic groups. One group easily recognised as of Polynesian origin and the other group of white appearance with elongated earlobes, some to such an extent that they could be tied behind necks. He also records that some of the islanders were of large stature and this was also noted by Spanish explorers in 1770 who measured some of the inhabitants to be 196-199 cm tall.
South America or Polynesia?
There are arguments among the experts as to the origins of the Rapa Nui people. Some theories give Polynesia as their origins whereas others, notably by Thor Heyerdahl, the Norwegian ethnographer, who argued for South America. He cited the similarity of some of the stonework found on the island to that found in South America and also the cultivation of sweet potatoes and other plants that originated in South America. This raises the question of how the sweet potato came to Rapa Nui and other Polynesian islands suggesting some contact between Polynesians and South Americans. Whether this was one-way or two-way cannot be determined but the possibilities exist.
The Sweet Potatoes mystery
Sweet potatoes originate in South America but are found on Rapa Nui as well as other Polynesian islands. There are theories that they were washed off the South American landmass by heavy storms and floated to the islands where they took root, grew and were eventually cultivated by Polynesians.
There are also those see this as evidence of contact between South America and Polynesian cultures. They argue that either South Americans reached Polynesian islands, possible drifting on rafts of balsa wood and driven by currents to Polynesian islands. Once there they either lacked the knowledge or capacity to return against the currents, or did indeed manage a return trip taking back with them parts of Polynesian culture. Or Polynesians did arrive in the Americas and with their better navigational and boat building skills were equipped to make return journeys bringing back parts of American culture with them. The Mapuche Indians of southern and central Chile appear to have possible connections with Polynesians.
Motu Motiro Hiva
Situated 390 km east-northeast of Easter Island and 3,210 km west of Chile is Isla Salas y Gomez. In the language of Rapa Nui it is known as Motu Motiro Hiva or Manu Motu Motiro Hiva, which means ‘Bird’s islet on the way to a far away land.’ From Rapa Nui it points the way to mainland South America. Hive was the legendary land from which Hotu Matu’a is said to have originated and the similarity in name stand out, but there are also several other Polynesian islands part named ‘Hiva’ means ‘far away land,’ especially in the Marquesas Islands so it is difficult to draw conclusions.
With the great movement of the Polynesian people from island to island it may be a name for a previous island home, though there are those who argue that it points to South America as their original home. Either way it is inconclusive. The island was certainly known to the Rapa Nui and it is believed they used to visit at regular intervals to harvest eggs from the great colonies of sea birds that use the island for breeding and nesting. The island is surrounded by steep cliffs and rocks and Rapa Nui tradition says that it was made this way by MakeMake to protect the sea-birds.
The cult of the moai
Author: Aurbina:- Moai at Rano Raraku, Easter Island
In its isolation over the centuries its people evolved a unique culture whose most visual manifestation is the huge stone statues called moai, that are found all around the island. Little is really known of their purpose or how they were made and moved into position by people who had only Stone-Age tools and implements at their disposal.
They are believed to have been representations of some of their most important forefathers and were part of a system of ancestor worship. Care needs to be taken with the word ‘worship’ as it does not necessarily mean the moai were revered as gods, or were deified.
In many forms of ancestor worship there was a symbiotic relationship between the realm of the living and the realm of the dead. It was the task of the living to provide for the needs of the dead in the afterlife in the form of offerings. In return the dead looked after the needs of the living ensuring, health, good fortune and fertility of land to grow food.
Most of the Moai were situated with their backs to the spirit kingdom of the sea looking inland to the realm of the living looking over the villages where the people lived.
MakeMake
In Rapa Nui mythology MakeMake, or sometimes written as Makemake, or Make-Make was the creator of humanity, god of fertility and god of the ‘Tangata manu’ or bird-man cult. He was frequently depicted in petroglyphs found on Rapa Nui. Along with MakeMake there were three other gods associated with the bird-man cult. They were Hawa-tuu-take-take who was the ‘Chief of the eggs’ his wife Vie Hoa and Vie Kanatea.
Tangata manu and the cult of the bird-man
Despite all the effort put into the creation and situating of the Moai the culture was abandoned and most of the statues pulled down. There seems to have been some kind of civil war which swept aside the cult of ancestor worship to replace it with what is known as the cult of the bird-man, though Make-Make was still retained as the chief god of the cult. The cause of the conflict is believed to have been over the diminishing natural resources of the island.
The bird-man cult existed, though with lesser importance during the era of the ancestor worship. In essence the bird-man cult appears to have centred on an annual ritualistic competition which decided which clan would win the rights to harvest the island’s birds and their eggs and also who would be Tangata-Manu or bird-man for the year.
The contestants were the prophets of the clans, known as ivi-attuas, who would appoint an individual known as Hopu, who had been revealed to them in dreams to represent them and their clan by competing in the race to bring back the first egg.
Just off Rapa Nui there lies a small islet called Motu Nui that was home to a colony of Sooty terns. Starting from the sacred cliff-top village of Orongo, the hopu would have to climb down the cliffs to the sea, swim across dangerous shark infested waters to reach Motu Nui, and then scale the cliffs there to find the first egg and return it unbroken to again swimming the seas and climbing the cliffs to Orongo. The task was arduous and dangerous and some competitors were killed in the process. The ivi-attuas would await the return of the hopu in Orongo.
The hopu who found the first egg was allowed to rest on Motu Nui until he was physically and spiritually ready to carry the egg safetly back to Orongo. The other hopu returned to Orongo with news of the winner to their waiting patrons. The winning patron shaved his head and painted it either red, or white.
When the winning hopu returned bearing the egg he would hand it to his patron who would then be declared Tangata-Manu. With the egg in his hand he would lead a procession from Orongo to the place where he would spend a five month residence. This would be Anakena if he was a member of the western clans or Rano Raraku if he was from a clan from the east of the island.
When he arrived at his place of residence he became ‘tapu’, or sacred for the next five months of the year long term and grew his fingernails without cutting them for the term and wore a headdress made of human hair and received a new name. He was allowed special privileges as well as gifts of food and tributes. His clan was awarded the sole rights to harvest the birds and their eggs from Motu Nui for that season. He would then spend the rest of his term in seclusion in a special ceremonial residence.
Celebrating the past, present and future
After the arrival of Catholic missionaries in the 1860s the cult was suppressed and subsequently went into decline. Unfortunately the Rapanui were to suffer devastating raids by slave traders which decimated their population and contact with Europeans brought smallpox and other diseases which nearly wiped them out completely.
In this way many of their leaders and wise men perished and with then went most of the knowledge of the past.
But the Rapanui people are resourceful and resilient and their population has increased again to more healthy levels. We will probably never know the secrets of their past or of their origins and the answers to the mysteries of Rapa Nui.
Nevertheless, lets us celebrate the past of this truly wonderful island and its people while congratulating them on their present achievements and wish them the best – the very best, for the future.
© 08/16/2012 zteve t evans
This article was written and first published by zteve t evans on Wizzley 08/16/2012
Copyright 08/16/2012 zteve t evans
| Easter Island |
Which traditional Valencian dish is named after the Spanish word for pan? | NOVA - Official Website | The Fate of Easter Island
NOVA
Inquiry: AN OCCASIONAL COLUMN
The Fate of Easter Island
Can what happened on one South Pacific island serve as a cautionary tale for the planet as a whole?
By Peter Tyson
Posted 04.20.04
NOVA
To see just how clearly a growing human population relies on and impacts its natural environment, one need look no further than Easter Island, the South Pacific isle with the famous stone statues known as moai. I have been reading much about the fate of Easter in preparation for an upcoming trip, and, as the geographer John Flenley and archeologist Paul Bahn write in
The Enigmas of Easter Island
, "it is a story with an urgent and sobering message for our own times."
The hundreds of finely carved statues found across Easter Island bore mute witness to the collapse of Polynesia's most advanced megalithic culture. What happened? Enlarge Photo credit: © Brenden Kootsey
Easter Island is the most isolated piece of inhabited land in the world. A speck of volcanic rock only about twice the size of Manhattan, it lies roughly 2,250 miles northwest of Chile and 1,300 miles east of Pitcairn Island (of
Mutiny on the Bounty
fame). When, as most scholars believe*, the first Polynesian settlers arrived from the west about the middle of the first millennium A.D., they found a pristine tropical island. Covered in a palm forest, it resounded with the cries of 25 or more species of nesting seabirds and at least six land birds. Though its soils were low in nutrients, the island bore a wide coastal plain well suited for cultivation of the taro, yam, sweet potato, and other crops these pioneers brought with them and which became their staples.
The population grew slowly at first, then more quickly, reaching a peak around the middle of the second millennium A.D. of anywhere from 10,000 to 20,000 people. By this time, the Rapanui, as the islanders are known, had developed a complex society of chiefdoms and elaborate stone architecture epitomized by the moai. Beginning around 1600, however, Rapanui civilization began to fall apart, and by the mid-19th century, it had all but disappeared.
After decades of painstaking work, a host of archeologists, ethnographers, and other specialists have painted a comprehensive picture of what transpired on Easter Island. And the parallels between what happened there and what is occurring today in the world at large—albeit more slowly and on a much vaster scale—are, the evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond says, "chillingly obvious."
Moai are enormous: The largest one successfully transported from Easter's quarry and set upright on a pedestal was about 32 feet tall, more than 10 feet across at the shoulders, and weighed over 80 tons. The one seen here is smaller but still impressive. Enlarge Photo credit: © Brenden Kootsey
Trees of life
Scholars have argued that Rapanui culture and society rose and fell with the fortunes of the island's trees. Studies of pollen and charcoal from extinct plants have shown that, before people first arrived and well into the early centuries after settlement, a subtropical forest blanketed the island. Among its species was the world's largest palm tree. It outsized even the giant Chilean wine palm, today's biggest, which grows to 65 feet tall and a yard in diameter.
On Easter Island, the Polynesian word rakau ("tree," "wood," "timber") meant "riches" or "wealth." This is not surprising, for the Rapanui used trees and their products for almost everything. They ate the fruits of the trees as well as the birds that lived among them. They thatched their houses, which looked like upended boats, with palm fronds. They fashioned bark-cloth clothing. They burned firewood for cooking and for keeping warm on winter nights, which on Easter Island can drop as low as 50°F. They built oceangoing canoes and crafted harpoons to spear dolphins and pelagic fish such as tuna. And they used some combination of log rollers, sleds, and/or levers, along with rope made from tree fibers, to transport and erect the hundreds of moai that once stood around the edges of the island, their brooding faces gazing inland.
By 1872, the number of Rapanui had plummeted to just 111 individuals.
Archeologists have deduced that clearing of trees for crops and other uses began soon after the first Rapanui arrived and was largely over by 1600. In a recent article for
The New York Review of Books
, Diamond called it "the most extreme example of forest destruction in the Pacific, and among the most extreme in the world: the whole forest gone, and all of its tree species extinct." (A single endemic tree, the toromiro, survived in botanical gardens in Sweden, after some seeds germinated that the ethnologist Thor Heyerdahl had collected from the last surviving specimen, and someday the tree may again grace Easter's grassy slopes.)
When Captain James Cook visited Easter in 1774, he saw no trees taller than about 10 feet. Today, small stands of trees like these palms at Anakena, as well as several large eucalyptus plantations, can be found on the island. Enlarge Photo credit: © Brenden Kootsey
Fallen idols
The end of the forest had devastating consequences, both directly through the loss of the trees' raw materials and indirectly through what those products allowed the Rapanui to do. Archeologists have found, for example, that by 1500, porpoise bones all but vanish from the island's refuse heaps. Common dolphins weigh up to 165 pounds and live far offshore, yet the Rapanui had clearly found a way to fish for them. In garbage remains at an early site on the north coast, porpoise bones constitute more than one-third of all bones. Experts infer that the Rapanui must have built sturdy, oceangoing canoes out of the now-extinct trees. Without the trees, that rich food source fell frustratingly out of reach.
The expanding population put other food sources under extraordinary pressure. Garbage heaps show that seabirds and shellfish declined over time, and the six species of land birds, including two rails, two parrots, a heron, and a barn owl, went extinct. Their end came probably through a combination of hunting, loss of their forest habitat, and the stealing of their eggs by the Polynesian rat, the only animal to survive in abundance in the wild. (The rat forestalled any comeback by the vanishing trees: Every fossil palm nut that experts have turned up on the island had been nibbled by rats in such a way as to preclude germination.)
Many toppled moai were deliberately decapitated by having stones placed in the path of their fall. Here, pieces of a fallen moai frame the distant re-erected statues of Tongariki. Enlarge Photo credit: © Brenden Kootsey
Even as the forests dwindled, Rapanui chiefs intensified food production, eager to create surpluses to support the carving of ever-larger statues. But that practice stressed an already fragile agricultural system built on marginal soils and insufficient water. "The removal of the forest may have reduced localized rainfall and lowered the productivity that was needed for corporate work efforts and by a large and growing population," says Christopher Stevenson, an archeologist with the Virginia Department of Historic Resources who has done years of work on Easter Island. "They reached a threshold where their economy took a really severe hit."
To us today, the most obvious manifestation of that hit is the crash of the moai culture. Oral tradition holds that the last moai was erected in 1620. With the religious basis of their power severely weakened or gone, the chiefs and priests who had held sway on the island for centuries were overthrown by military leaders around 1680. The society collapsed into civil war, and rival factions began toppling moai; the last erect statue recorded by European visitors was seen in 1838. (All standing statues today were re-erected in modern times.)
Can Easter Island be seen as a microcosm of our planet today?
In the decades before the Dutch explorer Jacob Roggeveen "discovered" the island around Easter, 1722—hence the island's name—the Rapanui began to go hungry. Out of desperation, they may even have turned to cannibalism. Though Stevenson says the population had begun to rebound by the time Roggeveen's sails appeared on the horizon, contact with outsiders over the next century and a half spelled doom for the Rapanui through introduced diseases, slave raids, and other impacts. By 1872, the number of Rapanui had plummeted to just 111 individuals. (The population has rebounded to several thousand today.)
Just what lessons we should draw from Easter Island's natural and human decline remains a matter of debate among scholars. Enlarge Photo credit: © Grafissimo/iStockphoto
Metaphor for disaster?
Can Easter Island be seen as a microcosm of our planet today? Should we regard its tragic collapse as a cautionary tale of the utmost gravity? In the world at large, we are deforesting our land, overfishing our oceans, causing the extinction of species. We are watching our topsoil disappear by the millions of tons each year. We are starting to fight over ever-scarcer freshwater. We are overconsuming our resources as if there were no tomorrow, or future generations. One would have to be in denial not to see those "chillingly obvious" parallels to Easter Island, some experts maintain.
"The message is clear," says José Miguel Ramírez, a Chilean archeologist who served as superintendent of Rapa Nui National Park from 1993 to 1999. "In the past, some people on Easter Island, namely the ruling class, were able to destroy other people and their homes, but now some societies can destroy everything, and for the same reason: power and greed. The only difference is the scale—from a little island to the whole planet."
Some scholars take issue with the notion of seeing Easter's fate as a metaphor for disaster. Jo Anne Van Tilburg, one of the leading archeologists of Easter Island, considers it "a projection of Western values which emphasizes the self-destruction of the Rapanui culture over the actual, near-annihilation of it by contact with the West." Yet such cross-cultural contact is precisely the reason why we should be concerned, according to Jared Diamond:
Thanks to globalization, international trade, jet planes, and the Internet, all countries on Earth today share resources and affect each other, just as did Easter's eleven clans. Polynesian Easter Island was as isolated in the Pacific Ocean as the Earth is today in space. When the Easter Islanders got into difficulties, there was nowhere to which they could flee, or to which they could turn for help; nor shall we modern Earthlings have recourse elsewhere if our troubles increase. Those are the reasons why people see the collapse of Easter Island society as a metaphor, a worst-case scenario, for what may lie ahead of us in our own future.
Unless, the implication being, we can learn from the Rapanui and act accordingly.
*Editor's note: Since this article appeared in 2004, new studies posit a later arrival for the first Easter Islanders, a smaller maximum population, and a more complex explanation for what transpired there. See, e.g., articles by Hunt in Further Reading below.
This feature originally appeared on the site for the NOVA program World in the Balance .
Peter Tyson is editor in chief of NOVA Online.
Further Reading
| i don't know |
Which actress became known as ' The Sweater Girl ' ? | Lana Turner biography | birthday, trivia | American Actor | Who2
Lana Turner Biography
Name at birth: Julia Jean Mildred Frances Turner
Known as the “Sweater Girl,” Lana Turner (like Betty Grable ) was a popular pinup for GIs in World War II. After the war she became a genuine movie star, helped by her contract with powerful MGM Studios. Her best-known movies included The Postman Always Rings Twice (1946) and Peyton Place (1957). She became one of Hollywood’s favorite legends for allegedly being “discovered” at Schwab’s Drugstore on Sunset Boulevard. (Her official site claims the actual location was the Top Hat Cafe, across the street from Hollywood High.) Her notoriety was assured in 1958 when her lover, mobster Johnny Stompanato, was stabbed to death with a kitchen knife by her daughter Cheryl Crane. (The killing was later ruled justifiable homicide.) Turner was married to seven men, including bandleader Artie Shaw . In the 1980s she had a recurring role on the TV series Falcon Crest. Her autobiography, Lana: The Lady, the Legend, the Truth, was published in 1982.
Extra credit
Turner’s eyebrows were shaved off for her role in the 1938 film The Adventures of Marco Polo. The eyebrows never grew back, and thereafter Turner wore false eyebrows in public… Her birthdate is sometimes listed as 1920, not 1921. Turner claims in her autobiography that 1920 is an old error and that her birth certificate gives the date as 1921.
| Lana Turner |
How many different fences are jumped in the Aintree Grand National ? | Sweater Girl - TV Tropes
Sweater Girl
You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account
Share
As this scene shows, she's not The Ingenue in the movie, yet neither is she The Vamp .* same with her digital counterpart and her Sensual Spandex
Frank: I can knit a sweater!
Annie: I can fill it better!
— "Anything You Can Do", Annie Get Your Gun
Tight sweaters are often worn by ladies as a form of Fanservice .
A lot of the appeal is that they just outline the figure (why "sweater puppies" is a nickname for a shapely chest) while barely actually showing anything. That makes wearing a tight sweater some of the most tasteful and acceptable fanservice and Fetish Fuel around (not to mention one of the few of the latter actually acknowledged in mainstream fiction ). In the days of The Hays Code , once those sweaters caught on, they were almost up there with the heart-shaped neckline as a way of Getting Crap Past the Radar . Actresses who embraced this look were known as sweater girls
, hence the trope name. This especially became a common form of fanservice for actresses who were playing wholesome, innocent characters that wouldn't be expected to wear revealing outfits.
Not that a sweater can never be tacky. It's just if ladies want to look sexy, and the choice is between a halter top or an angora sweater, the latter is far less likely to have the wearer say, "Just because I'm wearing these clothes doesn't make me a prostitute!" It's more the "I'm way out of your league" kind of sexy. Particularly fuzzy sweaters can emphasize this by subtly echoing the glamour of a fur coat .
A special note as there are cultural differences: in Asian countries, school girls (and even boys) wear a sweater to cover up their developing figure, especially when they are growing to be more mature and starting to show differences in their bodies. So it is not uncommon to see school girls and boys wear sweaters when it is 30 degrees Celsius or higher. This has nothing to do with sexiness, and the wearers actually want the opposite. It is the authors that draw them to be much more revealing(as fanservice, obviously), but the hidden meaning is still cultural. Most of the Anime and Manga examples are actually girls that are more introvert, traditional and shy. However, it's not unknown for young Muslim women from liberal backgrounds, in both Asia and the West, to wear sweaters in the Western sense, as it is quite alluring while conforming to the letter of Islamic dress requirements by not showing any skin between the neck and wrists.
Used quite often in ads, as a milder form of Sex Sells .
Anime and Manga
Shizuna-sensei of Mahou Sensei Negima! is often shown with one, which really accentuates her ahem maternal figure.
Adult form Vivio's casual outfit in Magical Girl Lyrical Nanoha Vi Vid . Is she showing off to her mamas ?
In A's: The Battle of Aces Reinforce (I/Eins) takes to this fashion, as can be seen here
◊
(no, not the Lethal Chef with the flaming dish ). It's less... perky than her usual outfit.
In Kenichi: The Mightiest Disciple , this is one of the fashion styles that Miu frequently sports when being in public. (The other two are her school outfit and her training suit.) Of course, the Form-Fitting Wardrobe rule applies here as well.
Motoko from Change 123 . Once it got her into trouble when she (as her Bokukko Split Personality Hibiki) got its thread hooked up on a fence when jumping onto the top of a truck . The consequence was that all her sweater got torn away, which was only one in the series of clothing damages she had in that chapter.
Rinko Iori in Gundam Build Fighters .
Ami's school uniform in Sailor Moon Crystal had a sweater added to it.
Comicbooks
The girls of Archie Comics are prone to wearing the occasional tight sweater, especially Veronica.
Film
At the end of TRON , Lora wore a white angora sweater, seen in the picture above.
In Lord Love a Duck , Barbara Ann (Tuesday Weld) wants sweaters so that she'll fit in with the 'in' crowd, and goes shopping for them with her father. The scene with her trying on the sweaters in front of him is rather disturbing.
Kristen Bell's character in Fanboys refers to her breasts as "Sweater yams".
As Corey in Empire Records , Liv Tyler wears a tight blue cropped sweater, which is featured prominently
◊
on the poster.
Denise (Denise Darcel), the Frenchwoman whom the men of the 327th bivouac with in Battleground , puts some strain on her sweaters. This is played for a gag when Denise is busily slicing a loaf of bread for the men, knife repeatedly coming close to her prominent bosom, while Pfc. Holley winces nervously.
Lana Turner in a bunch of movies starting with her film debut They Won't Forget. She was even called the Sweater Girl, which makes her the Trope Namer .
Jennifer of Pleasantville once she gets Trapped in TV Land as " Mary Sue ". She even comments on the effect of one such sweater in one scene.
Tracy Flick in Election .
Ed Wood pulls off a Wholesome Crossdresser version in his film Glen or Glenda? , which is cheerfully reprised by Johnny Depp in the Biopic Ed Wood .
One of the first uses of the new powers gained in Zapped was to make a girl's pink sweater pop open to reveal her (also pink) bra underneath.
Susan Abbott wears a purple fuzzy sweater in Anchors Aweigh .
Angie Dickinson wears the standard tight sweater with pointy bra in Sex Comedy (and very Black Comedy ) Pretty Maids All in a Row . The sexually frustrated student who's the protagonist of the movie can't stop staring at her breasts, and she manages to twice accidentally hit him in the face with her breasts.
Sonja Henie was one of the earliest in her films.
Janet Leigh was dressed this way in several films, including Holiday Affair, Touch of Evil , and The Manchurian Candidate . A biography of her Holiday Affair co-star Robert Mitchum revealed
that Holiday Affair producer Howard Hughes, who was notorious for his obsession with breasts and his predatory habits with young starlets, forced Leigh to wear an absurdly tight sweater after she rejected his advances.
Kim Novak, playing Judy Norton, is dressed this way when she meets James Stewart in Vertigo . This serves to contrast Judy's earthy sexuality with Madeline Elster (also played by Novak), the icy blonde that Stewart became obsessed with before her death.
Literature
In Are You There God? It's Me, Margaret. by Judy Blume , Laura Danker, the most physically mature girl in Margaret's class, wears a sweater and gets harassed. Freddie Barnett a.k.a. the Lobster asks Margaret why she doesn't look like that in a sweater, which Margaret does not think is funny.
Neighbor girl Lisa Hoober in Then Again, Maybe I Won't , Judy Blume 's subsequent novel.
In William Goldman 's Magic, the narrator flashbacks about seeing his love interest in a sweater and being aroused for the first time in his life.
The original book How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying reads:
"It must be remembered that the well-bred girl is always fully clothed in the office. The broken shoulder strap, the deeply split skirt , and the bare midriff are de trop in most businesses. The bright girl soon learns that these devices are not only in bad taste, but are not necessary.
"It is not skin area but contour that counts.
"A few simple experiments with sweaters, jerseys, and a slightly smaller dress size will bring pleasing and surprising results. One young lady who made a careful study of contour planning found that results were little short of breath-taking."
The seventh book in The Dresden Files introduces Sheila, an assistant at an antique book store , and one of the first things Harry Dresden notices is how well she fills out a sweater. Though it probably helped that she was a construct built by a fallen angel Lasciel who chose a form that Harry would find ultimately appealing .
In Piers Anthony Mode Series Colleen uses a too small sweater to convince the 'mob boss' to give her an appointment to make a deal.
Live-Action TV
Buffy the Vampire Slayer : Season 3 Willow Rosenberg.
Vamp Willow (looking Willow over): Well, look at me. I'm all fuzzy.
Midge Pinciotti of That '70s Show is introduced to us in the first episode through the eyes of Eric clad in a sweater and quite... jiggly .
In a later episode, when Midge left Bob, the boys lament over losing "her sweet uptown rack ".
Fez: Oh, good God, man, what a marvelous set of kittens. Remember that sweater?
Kelso: Oh. Remember the other sweater?
Eric: Yeah. Remember that time she ran up to us in a sweater?
Hyde: Remember the week she took up jump rope? In a sweater?
This is followed by a montage of said sweaters.
Later in the same episode, after deciding they want to want to chase older women, Fez and Kelso decide that Kitty is hot and maybe they should buy her a sweater.
Jennifer Marlowe of WKRP in Cincinnati wore a few sweaters, including a pink sweater dress.
Joanna Loudon in Newhart (played by Mary Frann) wore sweaters all the time, to the point where in the All Just a Dream finale, Bob tells Emily she should wear more sweaters.
Sara Rush (played by Lydia Cornell) in Too Close for Comfort was the mistress of the tight sweater.
In The Drew Carey Show , Oswald's mom (played by Adrienne Barbeau
◊
) remembers how when she used to hug other boys, they tended to breathe faster. Drew admits it was her tight angora sweater, with the plunging neckline.
Millennium . A female friend of Katherine Black mentions that she was the "favourite student" of (male lecturer at college). Katherine replies: "I wore tight sweaters."
Christina Hendricks' character Joan Holloway on Mad Men deploys sweaters coupled with a variety of form-fitting but tasteful business skirts to devastating effect.
Once she tells a cleavage-flaunting new secretary to button up, saying that less is more if you know what you're doing. Said secretary ends up getting company partner Roger Sterling, Joan's former lover, to leave his wife for her, which says something about Roger's tastes.
Rachel Berry (played by Lea Michele) tends to wear these a lot on Glee . The show even lampshades it.
Jacob: Get those sweater puppies out of their cashmere cage!
The girls of Charmed like wearing sweaters. In one episode, Phoebe wore a white sweater with fur-trimmed sleeves .
Jack was often distracted by sweater girls on Three's Company , resulting in Freudian Slips on several occasions: "You need to separate the yolk from the sweater." "I just came to button up my coffee."
Spooks : In "Spiders", Zoe needs to get close to a particular target.
Tom: The kids' lives are in danger. (beat) So, wear a tight sweater tomorrow.
Zoe: What?
Tom: I've been watching him all day. He obviously fancies you. We need to build up on that connection.
Zoe: (sarcastically) Any particular sweater in mind?
Tom AND Danny, simultaneously: The blue one.
In an episode of Happy Days Richie, Potsie, and Ralph break into another student's college dorm to get back an incriminating photo he took of Richie; they discover a nudist camp magazine and get Distracted by the Sexy .
| i don't know |
Which country uses the international car registration ZA ? | Vehicle Verifications | TransUnion South Africa
Request more information
Act with confidence when buying, selling or financing a vehicle
Our Verifications solution gives the wider South African motor industry the power to reduce crime, risk and losses – even helping to improve business practices. By sharing the wealth of vehicle information stored in our database, we can help you prevent the sale, auction, registration, financing and insuring of suspect, invalid or stolen vehicles.
Verifications brings together the results of extensive international experience, using state-of-the-art technology in the sourcing, aggregation, management and dissemination of data relating to vehicles. Our comprehensive vehicle information is widely used by dealers, asset finance institutions, loss adjusters, auctioneers and the public sector for the confirmation of specific motor vehicle identification and verification criteria. Our database is updated daily from reputable sources, such as the South African Police Service (SAPS), and is fully supported by the National Association of Automobile Manufacturers South Africa (NAAMSA), the South African Council of Banks and the Retail Motor Industry (RMI). The highest international standards of data security, accuracy and audit logging are incorporated and adhered to.
Applications
Our Vehicle Valuations delivers extensive and dynamic information to enable more informed, less risky vehicle trading decisions.
Vehicle Profile Enquiry
Identify and confirm vehicles’ primary identifiers, as well as other related financial encumbrances or third-party interest.
Financial Registrations
Utilised by banks and dealers that finance vehicles to register and confirm legal ownership (title-holder status) and determine outstanding finance.
Security Alerts
A ‘bolt-on’ IT flag for registering adverse, ownership or irregular vehicle status, as well as a proactive tracing and reporting facility when activity on a flagged vehicle is detected.
SAPS Confirmation
All vehicle enquiries include an automatic referral to the SAPS in real-time for confirmation of vehicles’ current status (this is not a Police Clearance and does not replace one)
| South Africa |
Which Disney cartoon character was originally known as Dippy Dawg ? | South Africa Country Code 27 Country Code ZA
About South Africa Hide
CountryCode.org is your complete guide to make a call from anywhere in the world, to anywhere in the world. This page details South Africa phone code.
The South Africa country code 27 will allow you to call South Africa from another country. South Africa telephone code 27 is dialed after the IDD. South Africa international dialing 27 is followed by an area code.
The South Africa area code table below shows the various city codes for South Africa. South Africa country codes are followed by these area codes. With the complete South Africa dialing code, you can make your international call.
Rand (ZAR)
Languages
IsiZulu (official) 22.7%, IsiXhosa (official) 16%, Afrikaans (official) 13.5%, English (official) 9.6%, Sepedi (official) 9.1%, Setswana (official) 8%, Sesotho (official) 7.6%, Xitsonga (official) 4.5%, siSwati (official) 2.5%, Tshivenda (official) 2.4%, isiNdebele (official) 2.1%, sign language 0.5%, other 1.6% (2011 est.)
Electricity
| i don't know |
What is the main currency unit of Vietnamn ? | Vietnamese monetary unit - definition of Vietnamese monetary unit by The Free Dictionary
Vietnamese monetary unit - definition of Vietnamese monetary unit by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Vietnamese+monetary+unit
Related to Vietnamese monetary unit: Papuan monetary unit
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
monetary unit - a unit of money
dong - the basic unit of money in Vietnam
hao - 10 hao equal 1 dong in Vietnam
Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content .
Link to this page:
Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc
Disclaimer
All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.
| Dong (administrative division) |
"Which brand of sweets were promoted with the slogan ""What a lot I Got"" ?" | Vietnamese monetary unit - Dictionary Definition : Vocabulary.com
Vietnamese monetary unit
Definitions of Vietnamese monetary unit
1
n monetary unit in Vietnam
Types:
10 hao equal 1 dong in Vietnam
Type of:
Usage Examples
Sign up, it's free!
Whether you're a student, an educator, or a life-long learner, Vocabulary.com can put you on the path to systematic vocabulary improvement.
| i don't know |
Westminster Abbey is dedicated to which saint ? | UK - London - Westminster: Westminster Abbey - North entra… | Flickr
Wally Gobetz By: Wally Gobetz
UK - London - Westminster: Westminster Abbey - North entrance
The Collegiate Church of St Peter, Westminster, which is almost always referred to as Westminster Abbey, is a mainly Gothic church, on the scale of a cathedral (and indeed often considered one). It is the traditional place of coronation and burial site for English monarchs.
Legend has it that a shrine was first founded in 616 on the present site, then known as Thorn Ey (Thorn Island) after a fisherman on the River Thames saw a vision of Saint Peter. In the 960s or early 970s Saint Dunstan, assisted by King Edgar planted a community of Benedictine monks here. The stone Abbey was built around 1045–1050 by King Edward the Confessor, who had selected the site for his burial, and was consecrated on December 28, 1065, immediately before the Confessor's funeral. It was the site of the last Saxon coronation of his successor King Harold. The Abbot and learned monks, with close proximity to the Palace of Westminster became a powerful force in the centuries after the Norman Conquest.
The Abbey became the coronation site of Norman kings, but none were buried there until Henry III rebuilt it in Anglo-French Gothic style as a shrine to honour Edward the Confessor and as setting for his own tomb, under the highest Gothic nave in England. The work continued between 1245-1517 and was largely finished by the architect Henry Yevele in the reign of King Richard II. Henry VII added a Perpendicular style chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary in 1503 (known as the Henry VII Chapel ). Henry VIII had assumed direct royal control in 1539 and granted the Abbey cathedral status by charter in 1540, simultaneously issuing letters patent establishing the diocese of Westminster and sparing it from dissolution. Westminster was a cathedral only until 1550. The expression "robbing Peter to pay Paul" may arise from this period when money meant for the Abbey, which was dedicated to St Peter, was diverted to the treasury of St Paul's Cathedral.
The Abbey was restored to the Benedictines under the Catholic Queen Mary, but they were again ejected under Queen Elizabeth I in 1559. In 1579, Elizabeth re-established Westminster as a "Royal Peculiar" — a church responsible directly to the sovereign, rather than to a diocesan bishop — and made it the Collegiate Church of St Peter. It suffered damage during the turbulent 1640s, when it was attacked by Puritan iconoclasts, but was again protected by its close ties to the state during the Commonwealth period.
The abbey's two western towers were built between 1722 and 1745 by Nicholas Hawksmoor, constructed from Portland stone to an early example of a Gothic Revival design. Further rebuilding and restoration occurred in the 19th century under Sir George Gilbert Scott.
Until the 19th century, Westminster was the third seat of learning in England, after Oxford and Cambridge. It was here that the first third of the King James Bible Old Testament and the last half of the New Testament were translated. The New English Bible was also put together here in the 20th century.
Since the coronations in 1066 of both King Harold and William the Conqueror, all English and British monarchs (except Lady Jane Grey, although it is highly debatable whether she was, either in theory or practice, the Queen of England; and Edward V and Edward VIII, who did not have coronations) have been crowned in the Abbey. St Edward's Chair, the throne on which British sovereigns are seated at the moment of coronation, is housed within the Abbey; from 1296 to 1996 the chair also housed the Stone of Scone upon which the kings of Scotland are crowned, but pending another coronation the Stone is now kept in Scotland. According to H.V. Morton's "In Search of London," a ghostly monk is said to appear in the Abbey on the eve of a coronation. The book states that the monk was last seen prior to the coronation of George VI in 1937. (The book was published in 1951; it is unknown if the monk was seen prior to Queen Elizabeth II's coronation in 1953.)
Henry III rebuilt the Abbey in honour of the Royal Saint Edward the Confessor whose relics were placed in a shrine in the sanctuary. Henry III was interred nearby in a superb chest tomb with effigial monument, as were many of the Plantagenet kings of England. Subsequently, most Kings and Queens of England were buried here, although Henry VIII and Charles I, and all monarchs after George II are buried at St George's Chapel at Windsor Castle . In 2005 the original ancient burial tomb of Edward the Confessor was discovered, beneath the 1268 Cosmati mosaic pavement, in front of the High Altar. A series of royal tombs dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries was also discovered using ground-penetrating radar. Aristocrats were buried in side chapels and monks and people associated with the Abbey were buried in the Cloisters and other areas.
Done
| Saint Peter |
Whose first solo UK No. 1 single was ' I'm Still Waiting ' in 1971 ? | Westminster Abbey - London, United Kingdom - History and Visitor Information
Site information
Westminster Abbey HISTORY
Westminster Abbey is an iconic medieval structure and the site of many historic royal and national events, from coronations and weddings to burials and even deaths. Centrally located in London, Westminster Abbey was first constructed in the eleventh century by King Edward the Confessor, a Saxon king who dedicated this new church to St Peter.
Before the Abbey
In fact, the site on which Westminster Abbey was built was already of religious importance prior to its construction. The earliest record of the site of Westminster Abbey being used for religious purposes dates to the mid 10th century, when St Dunstan arrived at what was then known as Thorny Island to establish a religious house for the Benedictine order. The king built his church near to the existing monastic buildings.
The First Burial, the First Coronation
Westminster Abbey was consecrated in December 1065, a few days before Edward died. Fittingly, the king was the first of a long line of monarchs to be buried there. In 1066, William the Conqueror added to the growing prestige of Westminster Abbey by choosing to be crowned there, becoming King William I on 25th December 1066. From that point onwards, Westminster Abbey would be the site of almost every royal coronation.
By the middle of the 12th century, Edward the Confessor had been canonised and his remains were moved to a magnificent shrine within the Abbey’s sanctuary, where pilgrims would flock to ask for his intercession. They also gave donations to the shrine, making Westminster Abbey rather wealthy. In the 13th century, King Henry III resolved to rebuild Westminster Abbey to make it rival the French Gothic cathedrals of the era. This construction project would eventually form the current incarnation of the Abbey. He also moved the remains of St Edward to an even more magnificent shrine, where he still remains.
Death of Henry IV
One of the most famous events recorded to have taken place in the Abbey was the death of Henry IV in the Jerusalem Chapel in 1413. It had been predicted that he would die in Jerusalem, so, when he collapsed in the Abbey, he knew he was dying when he was taken to the Jerusalem chamber. Shakespeare immortalised the scene with Henry V trying the crown on while his father lay dying.
Tudor Times
The 16th century finds the Tudor monarchs influencing the history of the Abbey: Henry VII started to build the Lady Chapel, Henry VIII dissolved the monastery (but spared the Abbey) and Elizabeth I established the Abbey as the foremost cathedral in England (a position it only held briefly).
Burials
Over 3,000 people are buried at Westminster Abbey. There are 600 tombs and monuments to see, many of them Royal and open to visitors. Some of the most famous royals buried there are Mary Queen of Scots, Elizabeth I and Henry III. The tomb of the Unknown Soldier is in the Abbey and there is a service each Remembrance Sunday. Funeral services for important figures and royalty are also held in the Abbey and over time prominent funerals at the Abbey have included those of Winston Churchill, George VI, Princess Diana and Queen Elizabeth I.
Poets’ corner is one of the main attractions at the Abbey, it being the burial site of many prominent non-royal figures. The first poet to be buried here was Geoffrey Chaucer, and many others have joined him in the succeeding centuries.
The Coronation Chair
In addition to the numerous burial sites and architectural features, one of the most impressive sites at Westminster Abbey is the Coronation Chair, produced in 1300-1301 under the orders of King Edward I (Longshanks). Its purpose was to accommodate the Stone of Scone, which the king had brought from Scotland.
To have an informed visit and to see the most interesting parts of Westminster Abbey, take a tour, as just wandering around can be overwhelming.
Along with Westminster Palace and Saint Margaret's Church, Westminster Abbey is a UNESCO world heritage site.
| i don't know |
Name the last film in which Sean Connery played the role of James Bond. | 7 James Bond Movies Starring Sean Connery
Buy from Amazon
In 1962, the movie-going world was introduced to James Bond, a British secret agent with a devil-may-care attitude and license to kill, and with it the success of the spy movie in the 1960s was born. In this first film, Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the death of a fellow British agent, only to encounter deadly assassins, a sexy femme fatale and even a poisonous tarantula. With the help of CIA agent Felix Leiter and the bikini-clad Honey Rider - who makes an unforgettable entrance - Bond searches for the headquarters of the fanatical Dr. No, a Chinese scientist bent on world domination. Made on a low budget, Dr. No was a big box office hit and laid the cornerstone for what would become the most successful film franchise in history. Check Amazon rating »
continue reading below our video
Actors Who Have Played James Bond
MGM Home Entertainment
Buy from Amazon
Undeniably the gold standard of Bond films, Goldfinger set forth the template for all other 007 pictures: theme song sung by a popular artist, a focus on high-tech gadgets – in this case an Aston Martin complete with ejector seat – and a maniacal arch-villain who spouts campy one-liners while devising Rube Goldberg-like methods of trying to kill Bond. That’s not to say any of this is bad; Goldfinger is a wildly entertaining movie that introduced a lethal hat-throwing henchman called Oddjob and the sultry villainess Pussy Galore. It was a clear departure from the first two films and set the stage for increasingly flashier productions, setting the precedent that each subsequent film had to surpass its predecessor. Check Amazon rating »
MGM Home Entertainment
Buy from Amazon
While on location in Japan, Connery publicly announced that he would be retiring from the role after five movies. In the film, Bond takes on the head of SPECTRE, Ernst Stavro Blofeld (Donald Pleasance), in an effort to prevent a world war after a mysterious rocket ship seizes manned space missions from Earth’s orbit. For the first time, Blofeld’s face was revealed on screen – only his hands and back of his head were seen in From Russia with Love and Thunderball – while the movie continued the trend of shifting away from the real-world espionage of the earlier movies toward the campy world-domination plots that defined the Roger Moore era. Check Amazon rating »
MGM Home Entertainment
Buy from Amazon
In 1971, Connery famously said that he would never play Bond again. Fast-forward 12 years and he agreed to return for one final performance. Never Say Never Again was the only Bond film not produced by Broccoli and Saltzman’s Eon Productions. Instead it was written and produced by Kevin McClory, who managed to retain rights to Fleming’s novel, Thunderball, after a lengthy legal battle. Essentially a remake of Thunderball, the movie saw an aging Bond brought out of retirement to do battle with megalomaniacal millionaire Maximillian Largo, who steals several nuclear warheads in order to bring the world to its knees. The film opened mere months after Roger Moore ’s Octapussy, and set a record for the best opening for a Bond film. It also was a return to form for Connery after the silliness of Diamonds Are Forever, and allowed him to depart the character on a high note. Check Amazon rating »
| Never Say Never Again |
Who exercises power in a stratocracy ? | Sean Connery | James Bond Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia
From Russia with Love (video game)
Sir Thomas Sean Connery, Légion d'honneur, (born 25 August 1930) is an Oscar winning Scottish actor who has starred in many films and is best known as the original cinematic James Bond .
Connery is known for his trademark Scottish accent and his good looks, repeatedly mentioned as one of the most attractive men alive by magazines even after he was considerably older than more conventional sex symbols. Some consider him more handsome now than when he was younger.
Contents
[ show ]
Personal life
Connery was born in Fountainbridge in Edinburgh, Scotland, to a Christian mixed-denomination couple. His father, Joseph Connery, was of Irish-Catholic descent with roots in County Wexford, Ireland; his mother, Euphamia "Effie" Maclean, was a Protestant. Neither he nor his brother, Neil Niren , were raised as Catholics. Connery claims that he was called by his middle name of Sean long before he became an actor, explaining that he had an Irish friend named Seamus (pronounced Sha-mus), and those who knew them decided to call him by his middle name, which started with an "S", whenever he was with Seamus, and it stuck. He joined the Royal Navy after leaving school, and after being discharged on medical grounds went on to a succession of jobs, including truck driver, labourer and lifeguard. He competed for Scotland in the Mr. Universe competition in 1950, which led to work on the stage, TV, and eventually film. As a weight lifter, his nickname was "Big Tam".
He has long advocated Scottish independence, and has supported the Scottish National Party (SNP), a political party campaigning for Scottish self-government, financially and through personal appearances. This support is illustrated by a comment from his official website:
"While it is generally accepted that his support of Scotland's independence and the Scottish National Party delayed his knighthood for many years, his commitment to Scotland has never wavered. Politics in the United Kingdom often has more intrigue than a James Bond plot. While Scotland is not yet independent, she does have a new parliament. Sir Sean campaigned hard for the yes vote during the Scottish Referendum that created the new Scottish Parliament. He believes firmly that the Scottish Parliament will grow in power and that Scotland will be independent within his lifetime." [1]
Connery used part of the fees from his work as James Bond to establish a charity to support deprived children in Edinburgh as well as Scottish Film production. These charitable works may have earned him a Knighthood earlier, but it was revealed in 1997 that the award had been declined by the UK Labour government due to his support for the SNP.
Connery received the Légion d'honneur in 1991. He received Kennedy Center Honors from the United States in 1999, presented to him by President Bill Clinton. He received a Knighthood on July 5, 2000, wearing a hunting tartan kilt of the MacLean of Duart clan. Connery received the Orden de Manuel Amador Guerrero from Mireya Moscoso, former president of Panama on 11 March 2003, for his talent and versatility as an actor.
He became the second husband of Australian-born actress Diane Cilento from 1962 until 1973, with whom he had a son, Jason. Since 1975, he has been married to French-Moroccan artist Micheline Roquebrune Connery.
In September 2004, media reports indicated that Connery intended to retire after he pulled out of Josiah's Canon, which was to be released in 2005. However, in a December 2004 interview with The Scotsman newspaper from his home in the Bahamas, the then 74-year-old actor denied he was retiring and said he would like to make another movie, but that he is taking a break from acting in order to concentrate on writing his autobiography, but now the book will no longer be written. Just weeks before his 75th birthday, over the weekend of July 30/31 2005, it was widely reported in the broadcast media, and again in The Scotsman [2] which credited the source as an interview in an unspecified New Zealand newspaper, that he had decided to retire from film making following disillusionment with the "idiots now in Hollywood" and the turmoil making and box office failure of the 2003 film The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen.
As a personality he has been accused of being an overbearing bully but has also been praised as a highly professional and polite actor, courteous and supportive of those around him. Connery made a big impression on actors such as Harrison Ford, Kevin Costner and Christopher Lambert, who considered him a great friend during filming.
James Bond
Sean Connery as James Bond 007.
Connery is well known to audiences around the world for his role as James Bond . He first appeared as agent 007 in Dr. No (1962) and subsequently played Bond in several sequels.
Never Say Never Again (1983) (unofficial)
Connery was discovered by Harry Saltzman after numerous names as possible contenders for Bond were thrown or ruled out, including Roger Moore , David Niven , Cary Grant, and many others. Ian Fleming , the creator of James Bond pays tribute to Connery in his 1963 novel, On Her Majesty's Secret Service by stating that 007's surname as well as his father, was Scottish. Ironically, Fleming reportedly did not like the casting of Connery on the grounds that the stocky, 6'2" Scotsman was too "unrefined", but with some tutelage from director Terence Young, Connery won Fleming over. Young helped to smooth Connery's rough and tumble edges over, and then used Connery's imposing physique yet amazingly graceful, cat-like carriage so effectively in every scene.
Connery's favorite of the films was From Russia with Love, one of the most critically acclaimed in the series. He confirmed that, in a 2002 interview with Sam Donaldson for ABCNews.com. (American Movie Classics erroneously cited Thunderball as Connery's favorite during its recent Bond retrospectives.)
In 1967 Connery quit the role of Bond, having grown tired of the repetitive plots, lack of character development and the general public's demands on him and his privacy (as well as fearing typecasting), which led Albert R. Broccoli to hire George Lazenby to assume the role in the 1969 film On Her Majesty's Secret Service . After the film's release, Lazenby backed out of a seven-film contract. Broccoli lured Connery back to the role with $1.25 million plus 12.5% of the film's profits, or about $6 million total to do so, then the highest salary for any actor. Connery reprised the official role just one last time in 1971 for Diamonds Are Forever , then retired from the role shortly after that release.
Due to, and at the height of, an ongoing legal battle between Broccoli's EON Productions and Kevin McClory (co-writer of Thunderball ), McClory was allowed to create a remake of Thunderball after a 10-year span after the release of Thunderball. In the late 1970s McClory teamed with Connery to write an original James Bond film. The project never got off the ground due to further lawsuits brought about by United Artists ; however, in 1983 Connery teamed with McClory again to play the role of secret agent James Bond 007 for the seventh and final time in the unofficial film and remake Never Say Never Again . The title of the film has long believed to have derived from Connery's comments after the release of Diamonds Are Forever who, after filming it, claimed he would never play James Bond again. (For the legal battle see the controversy of Thunderball )
Connery returned to the role once more in 2005, providing the voice and likeness of James Bond for the video game adaptation of From Russia with Love .
According to director Sam Mendes , the idea of approaching Connery to portray the part of Kincade in the 2012 film Skyfall was very briefly considered. In an interview with the Huffington Post , Mendes noted that there "was a very brief flirtation with that thought, but it was never going to happen, because I thought it would distract.” [1]
Over 40 years since he first played the role, Connery is still widely regarded as the definitive cinematic incarnation of James Bond, despite credible interpretations of the character by the likes of Roger Moore , Pierce Brosnan , and what many believe to be a more authentic literary performance by Timothy Dalton . Connery's own feelings on Bond in interviews has run the gamut from bitter resentment to great fondness. At one point he joked he hated Bond so much that he'd have killed him, but he has also stated that he never hated Bond, he merely wanted to pursue other roles. Certainly, when the James Bond series was at its peak in the mid-1960s, his association with the 007 image was so intense that fine performances in his non-Bond films, such as Alfred Hitchcock's Marnie and Sidney Lumet's The Hill, were being virtually ignored at the time. When asked if he'd ever escape the identification, he replied "It's with me till I go in the box." At another point, he stated that he still cared about the future of the character and franchise, having been associated with the icon for too long not to care, and that all Bond films had their good points.
Post-James Bond Career
Although his most famous role was that of James Bond, Sean Connery has also maintained a highly successful career since, much more so than the other actors who assumed the role. As part of the agreement to appear in Diamonds are Forever, Connery was given carte blanche to produce two films at United Artists but felt that the only film made under this deal, The Offence, was buried by the studio. Apart from The Man Who Would Be King, most of Connery's successes in the next decade were as part of ensemble casts, in films like Murder on the Orient Express and A Bridge Too Far. After the experience with Never Say Never Again and the following court case Connery became unhappy with the major studios and for two years did not make any films. Following the European production The Name of the Rose Connery's interest in more credible material was revived. His performance as a hard-nosed cop in The Untouchables (1987) earned him an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor. Subsequent box-office hits such as Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989) and The Hunt for Red October (1990) secured his place as a bankable leading man. He later received a Crystal Globe for outstanding artistic contribution to world cinema. In more recent years, Connery's filmography has included its fair share of box office and critical disappointments such as The Avengers (1998), and The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003), but he also received positive reviews for films including Finding Forrester (2000).
He was planning to star in a $80 million movie about Saladin and the Crusades that would be filmed in Jordan before the death of the producer Moustapha Akkad as a result of the 2005 Amman bombings.
Movies
Lilacs in the Spring](1955) (role unconfirmed)
No Road Back (1957)
Action of the Tiger (1957)
Time Lock (1957)
Another Time, Another Place (1958)
Darby O'Gill and the Little People (1959)
Tarzan's Greatest Adventure (1959)
A New World (1966) (Cameo)
A Fine Madness (1966)
The Bowler and the Bonnet (1969) (documentary) (also director)
The Molly Maguires (1970)
A Spain Golf Course (1972) (short subject)
The Offence (1973)
Murder on the Orient Express (197])
The Terrorists (1975)
The Dream Factory (1975) (documentary)
The Wind and the Lion (1975)
The Man Who Would Be King (1975)
Robin and Marian (1976)
A Bridge Too Far (1977)
The Great Train Robbery (1979)
Meteor (1979)
Five Days One Summer (1982)
Wrong Is Right (1982)
Sword of the Valiant: The Legend of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1984)
Highlander (1986)
The Name of the Rose (1986)
The Untouchables (1987) as Jim Malone
The Presidio (1988)
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989)
The Hunt for Red October (1990)
The Russia House (1990)
Medicine Man (1992) (also executive producer)
Rising Sun (1993) (also executive producer)
A Good Man in Africa (1994)
Just Cause (1995)
The Rock (1996) (also executive producer)
The Avengers (1998)
The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen (2003)
Trivia
Sean Connery, as a youth, had a job delivering milk to Fettes College, Edinburgh, Scotland. This was James Bond's second school.
Wore a toupee in all the James Bond movies (excluding Doctor No). He began losing his hair at 21. Privately and in most other movies, he wears none.
First American television role was as a porter in an episode of The Jack Benny Show.
Darrell Hammond plays Connery in the Celebrity Jeopardy sketches on Saturday Night Live. In these sketches, Connery is the contestant on all but two of the sketches, where he insults host Alex Trebek (played by Will Ferrell) of withering invective and sexual innuendo, and answers no questions right. The sketches aired twice a season on SNL from 1996–2002, and returned once more when Ferrell guest-hosted in 2005.
Starred in Never Say Never Again with Klaus Maria Brandauer. Coincidentally, Brandauer was originally considered to play Marko Ramius in The Hunt for Red October.
Has a tattoo that says "Scotland Forever" on his forearm.
Sean Connery's line in Finding Forrester, "You're the man now dog," became immortalized as the phrase that started the YTMND website.
George Lucas has said on multiple occasions that Connery's portrayal of the character James Bond was one of the primary inspirations for his Indiana Jones character. As a tribute to this, when casting his third Indiana Jones film, Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, Lucas chose Connery for the role of Indiana's father , with his reasoning being "Who else could play Indiana Jones' father, but the guy who inspired all of this in the first place, James Bond himself!"
Sean Connery's likeness was used in Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake as a template for the character Big Boss , but not in later Metal Gear games. In the 2006 re-release of the game, his likeness is no longer used, along with all the other characters that had actor likenesses.
Ironically, in a conversation with the character Para-Medic in Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater , a younger Big Boss would admit that he doesn't like James Bond movies.
External links
| i don't know |
In Horseracing , at which racecourse are all five of the Irish Classics held ? | Curragh Racecourse | UK Horse Racing | HorseRacing.co.uk
Address: Curragh, Newbridge, Co. Kildare, Ireland
Phone: +353 45 441 205
History of Curragh Racecourse
The Curragh has one of the richest histories in the world of racing. Cherney’s racing calendar can trace races being held at the course back to 1727, but it is believed that the plain was used before this time to stage amateur horse racing events. In 1865 a commission was established by the house of parliament to examine the Curragh and the resultant 1868 Curragh act of Kildare settled the right of common pasture and the Curragh was preserved for the purposes of horse racing and training. In 1921 the lands passed from the British Crown to the minister for finance and later to the Minister for Defence, who is now responsible for the administration of the track. The total area of the Curragh is 4870 acres and until 1964, much of the land was used to graze sheep.
Notable Races of Curragh Racecourse
10 of the 12 Group One races staged in Ireland are held at the Curragh, including all five Irish Classics. These are:
Irish 1000 Guineas
How to Get to Curragh Racecourse
Curragh Racecourse can be reached by road, rail, and air.
The Curragh Racecourse is located in County Kildare Ireland. Situated just an hour out of Dublin, punters can take Exit 9 off the M50 onto the M7 southbound. Take Exit 12 off the M7. There is plenty of free parking available, however regular racegoers can secure preferred parking for a nominal rate.
Special shuttle buses will depart from Busarus in the Dublin City Centre on race days and will return at the end of the day. However punters should note that these services are not available for the Summer Evening Meeting (around June 3) and Derby Day (around June 24)
Visitors can also catch a train to Kildare Town, with complimentary shuttle buses running from the station on race days.
Curragh Racecourse Facilities
Food and Beverages – The Curragh has a host of on course restaurants and eateries. Visitors can treat themselves at the Bollinger Bar and Bistro, which serves fine cuisine with your favourite glass of bubbly. Add to this the Classic Self-Serve Bistro, Classics Fast Food Outlet and the Balcony Bar and Bistro. What’s more in the Horseshoe Restaurant punters can enjoy fine dining while overlooking the winning post.
Corporate/Conference – The Curragh has a number of hospitality options available for your next corporate event. The platinum hospitality option gives visitors parking passes, admission to the Members Enclosure, a private suit for the day, silver service or executive buffet lunch, complimentary wines and bar service, race cards, tote betting facilities and CCTV facilities. The platinum package will set you back around 200 pounds per person, while the Group Value package will set you back around 50 pounds per person.
Disabled Facilities – Disabled patrons are asked to contact the racecourse before their arrival to ensure all requirements can be met.
| Curragh |
Who was the second U.S. President to be assassinated ? | Curragh Racecourse
Curragh Racecourse
Get �200 Deposit Bonus
- Claim �200 (with 100% initial deposit bonus)
- Open an account and deposit any amount up to �200 and Bet365 will match it.
Collect �30 Free
- Claim �30 in free bets
- Open an account and place a 3 consecutive bets of �10
- Ladbrokes will match your bets up to �30
Collect a �50 free bet
Collect a �50 free bet
Sportsbook Offers
FA Cup
Known to most racegoers simply as �The Curragh,� Curragh Racecourse is situated on the Curragh Plain near Newbridge, County Kildare, Ireland. It hosts all five of the Irish Classics�the Irish Derby, the Irish Oaks, the Irish 1000 Guineas, the Irish 2000 Guineas and the Irish St Leger�as well as many other great races in the course of 18 meetings that comprise a season running from March through October. The right-handed, horseshoe-shaped track covers a distance of two miles, with an adjoining chute that feeds into the home straight and can stage races of up to one mile.
The Home of Irish Flat Racing
Racing on Curragh Plain predates the first written record of a contest in 1727. The course here is believed to have been used as a meeting place for the sporting activities of the Celtic Kings, including horseracing, and in 1741 the first official race was conducted. By 1760, a Jockeys� Club was set up in a coffee house in Kildare town and within 30 years it evolved into the present-day governing body for horse racing throughout Ireland, �The Turf Club.�
In the Irish language, the word Cuirreach means �place of the running horse,� and it is from this term that �Curragh� is derived. In 1865, a commission was set up by the house of parliament to examine the Curragh, and the resultant 1868 Curragh of Kildare Act officially declared the right of common pasture on 4,870 acres, and preserved the use of the Curragh for the purpose of horse racing and training. In the meantime, the first Derby was held in 1866 and won by a horse named Selim. In 1895, the Irish Oaks was added to the annual schedule, followed by the Irish St. Ledger in 1915.
Upon the signing of the Treaty of 1921, the Curragh lands passed from the British crown to the Minister for Finance and the inaugural Irish 2,000 Guineas was run in May. The first Irish 1,000 Guineas was launched in May the following year. Thereafter, the Minister of Defence and his department became responsible for the lands, and they have administered them under the Curragh of Kildare acts to this day. It was not until 1961, however, that a provision was made for enclosure of parts of the plain, which is recognised as one of the oldest natural grasslands in Europe and designated as a Special Environment under the National Monuments Act.
From 1875 to 1977, the Curragh Racecourse Railway Station served racegoers. Since its closure, complimentary shuttle buses have been arranged to bring patrons in from the mainline trains arriving at Kildare Town. The biggest attendance at the Curragh was 31,136 at the Irish Derby in 2003.
Racing at the Curragh Today
All season long, the Curragh holds centre stage in Irish racing, offering the biggest purses and the highest quality level of flat racing in the country. No fewer than ten of Ireland�s 12 Group One races have been held at the track since 2007. Dubai Duty Free Irish Derby Day in late June or early July is the biggest party of the year at an Irish racecourse and not to be missed. It features some of the finest racehorses in the world competing for a prize of �1.25 million. The other big dates are May�s Guineas Spring Festival, the Darley Irish Oaks Weekend in July and the Gain Irish St. Ledger Meeting in September.
Admission prices vary according to the raceday. Regular adult entry starts at �15, increasing to �20 on Classic racedays and �40 on Derby Day. Under 16s are admitted free of charge when accompanied by an adult. There�s a Punters Package featuring admission, a racecard, a �5 dining/beverage voucher and a �2 betting voucher for �20~�35. And the Meal Deal Package ranges in cost from �20 to �45.
Hospitality and dining facilities at the Curragh are numerous. O�Briens Champagne & Wine Bar beside the parade ring serves an excellent selection of fine cuisine, while Classics Bistro Restaurant is informal, serving hot meals and snacks. The Horseshoe Restaurant on the first floor of the main grandstand has its own private Tote betting facility and plasma screen, along with a full wine list & cash bar facility. There are several lively bars located throughout the racecourse, too.
Comment on this article
| i don't know |
Who has painted the first official portrait of the Duchess of Cambridge, unveiled at the National Portrait Gallery in 2013 ? | Duchess of Cambridge's first official portrait unveiled - CNN.com
Duchess of Cambridge's first official portrait unveiled
By Bryony Jones, CNN
Updated 1:33 PM ET, Mon January 14, 2013
Chat with us in Facebook Messenger. Find out what's happening in the world as it unfolds.
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – Paul Emsley's "The Duchess of Cambridge" has been unveiled at the National Portrait Gallery in London. The painting is the first official portrait of Catherine , wife of Britain's Prince William, at the gallery. It joins centuries-worth of official paintings and photographs of the British royal family in the gallery's collection.
Hide Caption
1 of 6
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – The unveiling of the Duchess of Cambridge's first official portrait at the National Portrait Gallery has attracted considerable attention.
Hide Caption
2 of 6
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – Paul Emsley, an award-winning artist born in Glasgow, Scotland, painted the picture from a series of photos taken during two sittings in May and June 2012.
Hide Caption
3 of 6
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – The duchess is said to have asked to be portrayed naturally, and Emsley said he had chosen to show her smiling, because "that is really who she is."
Hide Caption
4 of 6
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – Catherine, who is expecting her first baby, is reported to be pleased with the finished work, telling Emsley at a private viewing that it is "amazing."
Hide Caption
5 of 6
Photos: Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled
Duchess of Cambridge's portrait unveiled – However, the reaction from art critics and the public has been more mixed, with many taking to Twitter to share their views that the portrait is unflattering.
Hide Caption
Duchess of Cambridge's first official portrait, by artist Paul Emsley, unveiled in London
Catherine, who is expecting her first baby, posed for the picture last year
She is a patron of the National Portrait Gallery, where the painting will be shown
Reaction to the portrait has been mixed; many on Twitter claim it is unflattering
The first official portrait of Catherine, the Duchess of Cambridge , has been unveiled at London's National Portrait Gallery -- but has met with a mixed reaction from art critics and the public.
Award-winning artist Paul Emsley , who spent three-and-a-half months painting the Duchess's likeness, said he had tried to portray her warmth and personality in the picture.
"The Duchess explained that she would like to be portrayed naturally -- her natural self -- as opposed to her official self," he said in a video posted on the gallery's website .
Duke and Duchess of Cambridge announce royal due date
"She struck me as enormously open and generous and a very warm person, so after initially feeling it was going to be an unsmiling portrait I think it was the right choice in the end to have her smiling - that is really who she is."
Both Catherine, who is expecting her first baby, and her husband Prince William, are said to be pleased with the finished painting, with the Duchess reportedly telling Emsley at a private viewing on Friday that it is "amazing... brilliant."
JUST WATCHED
Duchess attends first event since pregnancy
However, reaction from art critics and the public has been more mixed, with many taking to social media, including Twitter, to share their thoughts, claiming the picture is unflattering and ages the Duchess beyond her years.
Writing in the UK's Guardian newspaper, Charlotte Higgins claimed the painting transformed "a pretty young woman... into something unpleasant from the 'Twilight' franchise ."
In the Independent, art critic Michael Glover wrote that the portrait was "catastrophic," combining "hamsterish" cheeks and "hair whose featheriness has been borrowed from an advert for shampoo."
Emsley , who was born in Glasgow but grew up in South Africa before returning to Britain in 1996, won the prestigious BP Portrait Award in 2007. He has previously painted portraits of Nelson Mandela and author VS Naipaul.
Royal waxworks of William and Catherine revealed
He created the work from a series of photographs taken during two sittings, at Kensington Palace in London and at his studio in South West England, in May and June last year.
"I'm always worried about the sitter -- are they cold, are they hot, are they comfortable -- and photography today is so accurate and so good that it is really so much easier just to take photographs and work from that," he said.
Catherine's portrait joins centuries-worth of official paintings and photographs of the British royal family in the NPG's collection . The duchess is a patron of the gallery.
NPG director Sandy Nairne said revealing the portrait, which he described as "a captivating contemporary image," was "an exciting moment."
In a statement, Stephen Deuchar, director of the Art Fund, said: "The unveiling of a first official portrait of a royal sitter is always an important and intriguing moment, defining and enshrining their public image in a new way."
| Paul Emsley |
In which building in central London was London Zoo housed before moving to Regent's Park ? | Kate Middleton as you have never seen her before: Duchess of Cambridge is portrayed in jelly beans, Marmite and Lego | Daily Mail Online
Next
Queen of Arts! It's Kate as you have never seen her before - Duchess is portrayed in jelly beans, Marmite and Lego
First official portrait of the Duchess of Cambridge is set to be unveiled at the National Portrait Gallery
Paul Emsley the artist believed to have created picture has divided opinion because of his realistic style
We commissioned eight artists to create their own unique - albeit peculiar - portraits of Kate Middleton
| i don't know |
The currency of which European country is the Kuna ? | HRK | Croatian Kuna | OANDA
Croatian Kuna
Overview
The Croatian Kuna is the official currency of Croatia, a country in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Croatia has diverse climates, mostly continental and Mediterranean. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast is long and traced by more than a thousand islands. The country’s capital and largest city is Zagreb.
Economy
Monetary Fund data shows that Croatian nominal GDP stood at $ 69.357 billion or $ 15,633 per capita. In 2008, purchasing power parity GDP was $ 82.407 billion or $ 18,575 per capita.
According to Eurostat data, Croatian PPS GDP per capita stood at 63.2% of the EU average in 2008. Real GDP growth in 2007 was 6.0 percent.
The average gross wage of a worker in Croatia during the first nine months of 2008 was 7,161 Croatian Kuna (U.S. $ 1,530) per month.
In 2007, the unemployment rate defined by the International Labour Organization stood at 9.1%, after falling steadily from 14.7% in 2002. The unemployment rate then went up, reaching 13.7% in December 2008.
Privatization and the drive toward a market economy had just begun under the new post-Communist government when war broke out in 1991. As a result of war, economic infrastructure suffered massive damage, in particular in the revenue-producing tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, GDP fell by 40.5%.
The Croatian state still controls a significant portion of the economy, with government spending accounting for up to 40% of GDP.
A backward judicial system is of particular concern, combined with inefficient public administration especially on issues of land ownership and corruption. Another problem is a huge and growing national debt.
History
The Croatian Kuna reappeared in 1939 when the Banovina of Croatia, established in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was due to issue its own money.
In 1941, when the Ustase formed the Independent State of Croatia, the Independent State of Croatia Kuna currency was created. This currency remained in circulation until 1945, when, along with other national institutions, it disappeared at the creation of FPR Yugoslavia.
In 1990, Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia. The Croatian Dinar replaced the Yugoslav Dinar at par, and declined in value by a factor of about 70 until replaced by the Kuna a rate of 1 Kuna = 1,000 Dinar when introduced on May 30, 1994, beginning a transition period that ended December 31, 1994.
In 1994, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 lipa (the Croatian word for lime or linden tree), and 1, 2, 5 and 25 Croatian Kuna. The coins are issued in two versions: one with the name of the plant or animal in Croatian (issued in odd years) and the other with the Latin name (issued in even years).
Symbols and Names
Lipa = 1/100 of a Kuna
Denominations
Bills: 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 kn
Coins: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 lipa. 1, 2, 5, 25 kn
Countries Using This Currency
SITE MAP
© 1996 - 2017 OANDA Corporation. All rights reserved. "OANDA", "fxTrade" and OANDA's "fx" family of trademarks are owned by OANDA Corporation. All other trademarks appearing on this Website are the property of their respective owners.
Leveraged trading in foreign currency contracts or other off-exchange products on margin carries a high level of risk and may not be suitable for everyone. We advise you to carefully consider whether trading is appropriate for you in light of your personal circumstances. You may lose more than you invest. Information on this website is general in nature. We recommend that you seek independent financial advice and ensure you fully understand the risks involved before trading. Trading through an online platform carries additional risks. Refer to our legal section here .
Financial spread betting is only available to OANDA Europe Ltd customers who reside in the UK or Republic of Ireland. CFDs, MT4 hedging capabilities and leverage ratios exceeding 50:1 are not available to US residents. The information on this site is not directed at residents of countries where its distribution, or use by any person, would be contrary to local law or regulation.
OANDA Corporation is a registered Futures Commission Merchant and Retail Foreign Exchange Dealer with the Commodity Futures Trading Commission and is a member of the National Futures Association . No: 0325821. Please refer to the NFA's FOREX INVESTOR ALERT where appropriate.
OANDA (Canada) Corporation ULC accounts are available to anyone with a Canadian bank account. OANDA (Canada) Corporation ULC is regulated by the Investment Industry Regulatory Organization of Canada (IIROC), which includes IIROC's online advisor check database ( IIROC AdvisorReport ), and customer accounts are protected by the Canadian Investor Protection Fund within specified limits. A brochure describing the nature and limits of coverage is available upon request or at www.cipf.ca .
OANDA Europe Limited is a company registered in England number 7110087, and has its registered office at Floor 9a, Tower 42, 25 Old Broad St, London EC2N 1HQ. It is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority , No: 542574.
OANDA Asia Pacific Pte Ltd (Co. Reg. No 200704926K) holds a Capital Markets Services Licence issued by the Monetary Authority of Singapore and is also licenced by the International Enterprise Singapore.
OANDA Australia Pty Ltd is regulated by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission ASIC (ABN 26 152 088 349, AFSL No. 412981) and is the issuer of the products and/or services on this website. It's important for you to consider the current Financial Service Guide (FSG) , Product Disclosure Statement ('PDS') , Account Terms and any other relevant OANDA documents before making any financial investment decisions. These documents can be found here .
OANDA Japan Co., Ltd. First Type I Financial Instruments Business Director of the Kanto Local Financial Bureau (Kin-sho) No. 2137 Institute Financial Futures Association subscriber number 1571.
Trading FX and/or CFDs on margin is high risk and not suitable for everyone. Losses can exceed investment.
| Croatia |
Which city did the Romans make their seat of government when they first occupied Britain ? | HRK | Croatian Kuna | OANDA
Croatian Kuna
Overview
The Croatian Kuna is the official currency of Croatia, a country in Europe at the crossroads of the Mitteleuropa, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Croatia has diverse climates, mostly continental and Mediterranean. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast is long and traced by more than a thousand islands. The country’s capital and largest city is Zagreb.
Economy
Monetary Fund data shows that Croatian nominal GDP stood at $ 69.357 billion or $ 15,633 per capita. In 2008, purchasing power parity GDP was $ 82.407 billion or $ 18,575 per capita.
According to Eurostat data, Croatian PPS GDP per capita stood at 63.2% of the EU average in 2008. Real GDP growth in 2007 was 6.0 percent.
The average gross wage of a worker in Croatia during the first nine months of 2008 was 7,161 Croatian Kuna (U.S. $ 1,530) per month.
In 2007, the unemployment rate defined by the International Labour Organization stood at 9.1%, after falling steadily from 14.7% in 2002. The unemployment rate then went up, reaching 13.7% in December 2008.
Privatization and the drive toward a market economy had just begun under the new post-Communist government when war broke out in 1991. As a result of war, economic infrastructure suffered massive damage, in particular in the revenue-producing tourism industry. From 1989 to 1993, GDP fell by 40.5%.
The Croatian state still controls a significant portion of the economy, with government spending accounting for up to 40% of GDP.
A backward judicial system is of particular concern, combined with inefficient public administration especially on issues of land ownership and corruption. Another problem is a huge and growing national debt.
History
The Croatian Kuna reappeared in 1939 when the Banovina of Croatia, established in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was due to issue its own money.
In 1941, when the Ustase formed the Independent State of Croatia, the Independent State of Croatia Kuna currency was created. This currency remained in circulation until 1945, when, along with other national institutions, it disappeared at the creation of FPR Yugoslavia.
In 1990, Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia. The Croatian Dinar replaced the Yugoslav Dinar at par, and declined in value by a factor of about 70 until replaced by the Kuna a rate of 1 Kuna = 1,000 Dinar when introduced on May 30, 1994, beginning a transition period that ended December 31, 1994.
In 1994, coins were introduced in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 50 lipa (the Croatian word for lime or linden tree), and 1, 2, 5 and 25 Croatian Kuna. The coins are issued in two versions: one with the name of the plant or animal in Croatian (issued in odd years) and the other with the Latin name (issued in even years).
Symbols and Names
Lipa = 1/100 of a Kuna
Denominations
Bills: 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, 1000 kn
Coins: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50 lipa. 1, 2, 5, 25 kn
Countries Using This Currency
SITE MAP
© 1996 - 2017 OANDA Corporation. All rights reserved. "OANDA", "fxTrade" and OANDA's "fx" family of trademarks are owned by OANDA Corporation. All other trademarks appearing on this Website are the property of their respective owners.
Leveraged trading in foreign currency contracts or other off-exchange products on margin carries a high level of risk and may not be suitable for everyone. We advise you to carefully consider whether trading is appropriate for you in light of your personal circumstances. You may lose more than you invest. Information on this website is general in nature. We recommend that you seek independent financial advice and ensure you fully understand the risks involved before trading. Trading through an online platform carries additional risks. Refer to our legal section here .
Financial spread betting is only available to OANDA Europe Ltd customers who reside in the UK or Republic of Ireland. CFDs, MT4 hedging capabilities and leverage ratios exceeding 50:1 are not available to US residents. The information on this site is not directed at residents of countries where its distribution, or use by any person, would be contrary to local law or regulation.
OANDA Corporation is a registered Futures Commission Merchant and Retail Foreign Exchange Dealer with the Commodity Futures Trading Commission and is a member of the National Futures Association . No: 0325821. Please refer to the NFA's FOREX INVESTOR ALERT where appropriate.
OANDA (Canada) Corporation ULC accounts are available to anyone with a Canadian bank account. OANDA (Canada) Corporation ULC is regulated by the Investment Industry Regulatory Organization of Canada (IIROC), which includes IIROC's online advisor check database ( IIROC AdvisorReport ), and customer accounts are protected by the Canadian Investor Protection Fund within specified limits. A brochure describing the nature and limits of coverage is available upon request or at www.cipf.ca .
OANDA Europe Limited is a company registered in England number 7110087, and has its registered office at Floor 9a, Tower 42, 25 Old Broad St, London EC2N 1HQ. It is authorised and regulated by the Financial Conduct Authority , No: 542574.
OANDA Asia Pacific Pte Ltd (Co. Reg. No 200704926K) holds a Capital Markets Services Licence issued by the Monetary Authority of Singapore and is also licenced by the International Enterprise Singapore.
OANDA Australia Pty Ltd is regulated by the Australian Securities and Investments Commission ASIC (ABN 26 152 088 349, AFSL No. 412981) and is the issuer of the products and/or services on this website. It's important for you to consider the current Financial Service Guide (FSG) , Product Disclosure Statement ('PDS') , Account Terms and any other relevant OANDA documents before making any financial investment decisions. These documents can be found here .
OANDA Japan Co., Ltd. First Type I Financial Instruments Business Director of the Kanto Local Financial Bureau (Kin-sho) No. 2137 Institute Financial Futures Association subscriber number 1571.
Trading FX and/or CFDs on margin is high risk and not suitable for everyone. Losses can exceed investment.
| i don't know |
What does J.I.T. mean , applied to production scheduling ? | Detailed Scheduling and Planning
work remaining
40
A ratio less than 1.0 indicates the job is behind schedule, a ratio greater than 1.0 indicates the job is ahead of schedule, and a ratio of 1.0 indicates the job is on schedule.
Demand A need for a particular product or component. The demand could come from any number of sources, e.g., customer order or forecast, an interplant requirement, or a request from a branch warehouse for a service part or for manufacturing another product. At the finished goods level, demand data are usually different from sales data because demand does not necessarily result in sales; i.e., if there is no stock, there will be no sale.
Demonstrated capacity Proven capacity calculated from actual performance data, usually expressed as the average number of items produced multiplied by the standard hours per item. See: maximum demonstrated capacity.
Dependent demand Demand that is directly related to or derived from the bill of material structure for other items or end products. Such demands are therefore calculated and need not and should not be forecast. A given inventory item may have both dependent and independent demand at any given time. For example, a part may simultaneously be the component of an assembly and sold as a service part.
Dispatching rule The logic used to assign priorities to jobs at a work center.
Dispatch list A listing of manufacturing orders in priority sequence. The dispatch list, which is usually communicated to the manufacturing floor via hard copy or CRT display, contains detailed information on priority, location, quantity, and the capacity requirements of the manufacturing order by operation. Dispatch lists are normally generated daily and oriented by work center. Syn: work center schedule.
Distribution 1) The activities associated with the movement of material, usually finished products or service parts, from the manufacturer to the customer. These activities encompass the functions of transportation, warehousing, inventory control, material handling, order administration, site and location analysis, industrial packaging, data processing, and the communications network necessary for effective management. It includes all activities related to physical distribution, as well as the return of goods to the manufacturer. In many cases, this movement is made through one or more levels of field warehouses. Syn: physical distribution. 2) The systematic division of a whole into discrete parts having distinctive characteristics.
Economic order quantity (EOQ) A type of fixed-order-quantity model that determines the amount of an item to be purchased or manufactured at one time. The intent is to minimize the combined costs of acquiring and carrying inventory.
The basic formula is:
2 x annual demand x average cost of preparation
annual inventory carrying costs percentage x unit cost
Syn: economic lot size, minimum cost order quantity.
Efficiency A measure (as a percentage) of the actual output to the standard output expected. Efficiency measures how well something is performing relative to expectations; it does not measure output relative to any input. Efficiency is the ratio of actual units produced to the standard rate of product expected in a time period, or actual hours produced to standard hours, or actual dollar volume to standard dollar volume in a time period. For example, if there is a standard of 100 pieces per hour and 780 units are produced in one eight-hour shift, the efficiency is 780/800 multiplied by 100%, or 97.5%.
80-20 A rule referring to the Pareto principle. The principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes; that is, 80% of the effects come from 20% of the possible causes. See: ABC classification.
EOQ Abbreviation for economic order quantity.
EOQ=1 Reducing setup time and inventory to the point where it is economically sound to produce in batches with a size of one. Often EOQ=1 is an ideal to strive for, like zero defects.
Finite loading Assigning no more work to a work center than the work center can be expected to execute in a given time period. The specific term usually refers to a computer technique that involves calculating shop priority revisions in order to level load operation by operation.
Firm planned order (FPO) A planned order that can be frozen in quantity and time. The computer is not allowed to change it automatically; this is the responsibility of the planner in charge of the item that is being planned. This technique can aid planners working with MRP systems to respond to material and capacity problems by firming up selected planned orders. In addition, firm planned orders are the normal method of stating the master production schedule. See: planning time fence.
Forward flow scheduling A procedure for building process train schedules that starts with the first stage and proceeds sequentially through the process structure until the last stage is scheduled.
Independent demand Demand for an item that is unrelated to the demand for other items. Demand for finished goods, parts required for destructive testing, and service parts requirements are examples of independent demand.
Infinite loading Calculation of the capacity required at work centers in the time periods required regardless of the capacity available to perform this work.
Input/output control A technique for capacity control where planned and actual inputs and planned and actual outputs of a work center are monitored. Planned inputs and outputs for each work center are developed by capacity requirements planning and approved by manufacturing management. Actual input is compared to planned input to identify when work center output might vary from the plan because work is not available at the work center. Actual output is also compared to planned output to identify problems within the work center. Syn: production monitoring. See: capacity control.
Inventory turnover The number of times than an inventory cycles, or "turns over," during the year. A frequently used method to compute inventory turnover is to divide the average inventory level into the annual cost of sales. For example, an average inventory of $3 million divided into an average cost of sales of $21 million means that inventory is turned over seven times. Syn: inventory turnover.
Just-in-Time (JIT) A philosophy of manufacturing based on planned elimination of all waste and continuous improvement of productivity. It encompasses the successful execution of all manufacturing activities required to produce a final product, from design engineering to delivery and including all stages of conversion from raw material onward. The primary elements of just-in-time are to have only the required inventory when needed; to improve quality to zero defects; to reduce lead times by reducing setup times, queue lengths, and lot sizes; to incrementally revise the operations themselves; and to accomplish these things at minimum cost. In the broad sense, it applies to all forms of manufacturing, job shop and process, as well as repetitive. Syn: short-cycle manufacturing, stockless production, zero inventories.
Kanban A method of Just-in-Time production that uses standard containers or lot sizes with a single card attached to each. It is a pull system in which work centers signal with a card that they wish to withdraw parts from feeding operations or suppliers. The Japanese word kanban, loosely translated, means card, billboard, or sign. The term is often used synonymously for the specific scheduling system developed and used by the Toyota Corporation in Japan. See: move card, production card, synchronized production.
Lead time 1) A span of time required to perform a process (or series of operations). 2) In a logistics context, the time between recognition of the need for an order and the receipt of goods. Individual components of lead time can include order preparation time, queue time, processing time, move or transportation time, and receiving and inspection time. Syn: total lead time. See: manufacturing lead time, purchasing lead time.
Level of service A desired measure (usually expressed as a percentage) of satisfying demand through inventory or by the current production schedule in time to satisfy the customers requested delivery dates and quantities. In a make-to-stock environment, level of service is sometimes calculated as the percentage of orders picked complete from stock upon receipt of the customer order, the percentage of line items picked complete, or the percentage of total dollar demand picked complete. In make-to-order and design-to-order environments, level of service is the percentage of time that the customer-requested or acknowledged date was met by shipping complete product quantities. Syn: measure of service, service level.
Load The amount of planned work scheduled for and actual work released to a facility, work center, or operation for a specific span of time. Usually expressed in terms of standard hours of work or, when items consume similar resources at the same rate, units of production.
Load leveling Spreading orders out in time or rescheduling operations so that the amount of work to be done in sequential time periods tends to be distributed evenly and is achievable. Although both material and labor are ideally level loaded, specific businesses and industries may load to one or the other exclusively (e.g., service industries). Syn: capacity smoothing, level loading. See: level schedule.
Load profile A display of future capacity requirements based on released and/or planned orders over a given span of time. See: capacity requirements plan, load projection.
Make-to-order A production environment where a product or service can be made after receipt of a customers order. The final product is usually a combination of standard items and items custom-designed to meet the special needs of the customer. Where options or accessories are stocked before customer orders arrive, the term assemble-to-order is frequently used. See: assemble-to-order, make-to-stock.
Make-to-stock A production environment where products can be and usually are finished before receipt of a customer order. Customer orders are typically filled from existing stocks, and production orders are used to replenish those stocks. See: assemble-to-order, make-to-order.
Manufacturing order A document, group of documents, or schedule conveying authority for the manufacture of specified parts or products in specified quantities. Syn: job order, manufacturing authorization, production order, production release, run order, shop order. See: assembly parts list, batch card, blend order, fabrication order, work order.
Manufacturing strategy A collective pattern of decisions that act upon the formulation and deployment of manufacturing resources. To be most effective, the manufacturing strategy should act in support of the overall strategic direction of the business and provide for competitive advantages (edges).
Master production schedule (MPS) 1) The anticipated build schedule for those items assigned to the master schedule. The master scheduler maintains this schedule, and in turn, it becomes a set of planning numbers that drives material requirements planning. It represents what the company plans to produce expressed in specific configurations, quantities, and dates. The master production schedule is not a sales forecast that represents a statement of demand. The master production schedule must take into account the forecast, the production plan, and other important considerations such as backlog, availability of material, availability of capacity, and management policies and goals. 2) The result of the master scheduling process. The master schedule is a presentation of demand, forecast, backlog, the MPS, the projected-on-hand inventory, and the available-to-promise quantity. See: master scheduler, master scheduling.
Normal distribution A particular statistical distribution where most of the observations fall fairly close to one mean, and a deviation from the mean is as likely to be plus as it is to be minus. When graphed, the normal distribution takes the form of a bell-shaped curve.
On hand balance The quantity shown in the inventory records as being physically in stock.
Open order 1) A released manufacturing order or purchase order. Syn: released order. 2) An unfilled customer order.
Ordering cost Used in calculating order quantities, the costs that increase as the number of orders placed increases. It includes costs related to the clerical work or preparing, releasing, monitoring, and receiving orders, the physical handling of goods, inspections, and setup costs, as applicable. Syn: acquisition cost.
Order point A set inventory level where, if the total stock on hand plus on order falls to or below that point, action is taken to replenish the stock. The order point is normally calculated as forecasted usage during the replenishment lead time plus safety stock. Syn: reorder point, statistical order point, trigger level. See: fixed reorder quantity inventory model.
Order qualifiers Those competitive characteristics that a firm must exhibit to be a viable competitor in the marketplace. For example, a firm may seek to compete on characteristics other than price, but in order to "qualify" to compete, its costs and the related price must be within a certain range to be considered by its customers.
Order winners Those competitive characteristics that cause a firms customers to choose that firms products and services over those of its competitors. Order winners can be considered to be competitive advantages for the firm. Order winners usually focus on one (rarely more than two) of the following strategic initiatives: price/cost, quality, delivery speed, delivery reliability, product design, flexibility, after-market service, and image.
Pegging In MRP and MPS, the capability to identify for a given item the sources of its gross requirements and/or allocations. Pegging can be thought of as active where-used information. See: requirements traceability.
Perpetual inventory An inventory recordkeeping system where each transaction in and out is recorded and a new balance is computed.
Perpetual inventory record A computer record or manual document on which each inventory transaction is posted so that a current record of the inventory is maintained.
Physical distribution Syn: distribution.
Planned order A suggested order quantity, release date, and due date created by the planning systems logic when it encounters net requirements in processing MRP. In some cases, it can also be created by a master scheduling module. Planned orders are created by the computer, exist only within the computer, and may be changed or deleted by the computer during subsequent processing if conditions change. Planned orders at one level will be exploded into gross requirements for components at the next level. Planned orders, along with released orders, serve as input to capacity requirements planning to show the total capacity requirements by work center in future time periods. See: planning time fence.
Planning horizon The amount of time the master schedule extends into the future. This is normally set to cover a minimum of cumulative lead time plus time for lot sizing low-level components and for capacity changes of primary work centers or of key suppliers. See: cumulative lead time, planning time fence.
Production Activity Control (PAC) The function of routing and dispatching the work to be accomplished through the production facility and performing supplier control. PAC encompasses the principles, approaches, and techniques needed to schedule, control, measure, and evaluate the effectiveness of production operations. See: shop floor control.
Production plan The agreed-upon plan that comes from the aggregate (production) planning functions, specifically the overall level of manufacturing output planned to be produced, usually stated as a monthly rate for each product family (group of products, items, options, features, etc.). Various units of measure can be used to express the plan: units, tonnage, standard hours, number of workers, etc. The production plan is managements authorization for the master scheduler to convert it into a more detailed plan, that is, the master production schedule. See: sales and operations planning, sales plan.
Pull (system) 1) In production, the production of items only as demanded for use or to replace those taken for use. 2) In material control, the withdrawal of inventory as demanded by the using operations. Material is not issued until a signal comes from the user. 3) In distribution, a system for replenishing field warehouse inventories where replenishment decisions are made at the field warehouse itself, not at the central warehouse or plant.
Push (system) 1) In production, the production of items at times required by a given schedule planned in advance. 2) In material control, the issuing of material according to a given schedule or issuing material to a job order at its start time. 3) In distribution, a system for replenishing field warehouse inventories where replenishment decision making is centralized, usually at the manufacturing site or central supply facility.
Quality Conformance to requirements or fitness for use. Quality can be defined through five principal approaches: (1) Transcendent quality is an ideal, a condition of excellence. (2) Product-based quality is based on a product attribute. (3) User-based quality is fitness for use. (4) Manufacturing-based quality is conformance to requirements. (5) Value-based quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price. Also, quality has two major components: (1) quality of conformancequality is defined by the absence of defects, and (2) quality of designquality is measured by the degree of customer satisfaction with a products characteristics and features.
Random variation A fluctuation in data that is caused by uncertain or random occurrences.
Rated capacity 1) The expected output capability of a resource from such data as planned hours, efficiency, and utilization. The rated capacity is equal to hours available x efficiency x utilization. Syn: calculated capacity, nominal capacity. 2) In the theory of constraints, rated capacity = hours available x efficiency x activation, where activation is a function of scheduled production and availability is a function of uptime. Syn: standing capacity.
Released order Syn: open order.
Rough-cut capacity planning (RCCP) The process of converting the master production schedule into requirements for key resources, often including labor, machinery, warehouse space, suppliers; capabilities, and, in some cases, money. Comparison to available or demonstrated capacity is usually done for each key resource. This comparison assists the master scheduler in establishing a feasible master production schedule. Three approaches to performing RCCP are the bill of labor (resources, capacity) approach, the capacity planning using overall factors approach, and the resource profile approach. See: bill of resources, capacity planning, capacity planning using overall factors, product load profile.
Routing Information detailing the method of manufacture of a particular item. It includes the operations to be performed, their sequence, the various work centers involved, and the standards for setup and run. In some companies, the routing also includes information on tooling, operator skill levels, inspection operations, and testing requirements, etc. Syn: bill of operations, instruction sheet, operation chart, operation list, operation sheet, route sheet, routing sheet. See: bill of labor, bill of resources.
Safety lead time An element of time added to normal lead time to protect against fluctuations in lead time so than an order can be completed before its real need date. When used, the MRP system, in offsetting for lead time, will plan both order release and order completion for earlier dates than it would otherwise. Syn: protection time, safety time.
Safety stock 1) In general, a quantity of stock planned to be in inventory to protect against fluctuations in demand or supply. 2) In the context of master production scheduling, the additional inventory and capacity planned as protection against forecast errors and short-term changes in the backlog. Overplanning can be used to create safety stock. Syn: buffer stock, reserve stock. See: hedge, inventory buffer.
Safety time Syn: safety lead time.
Seasonal index A number used to adjust data to seasonal demand. See: base series.
Seasonality A repetitive pattern of demand from year to year (or other repeating time interval) with some periods considerably higher than others. See: base series.
Service level Syn: level of service.
Shop order Syn: manufacturing order.
Single-level where-used Single-level where-used for a component lists each parent in which that component is directly used and in what quantity. This information is usually made available through the technique known as implosion.
SKU Acronym for stockkeeping unit.
Standard hours Syn: standard time.
Standard time The length of time that should be required to (1) set up a given machine or operation and (2) run one part, assembly, batch, or end product through that operation. This time is used in determining machine requirements and labor requirements. Standard time assumes an average worker following prescribed methods and allows time for rest to overcome fatigue. It is also frequently used as a basis for incentive pay systems and as a basis for allocating overhead in cost accounting systems. Syn: standard hours.
Stockout A lack of material, components, or finished goods that are needed. See: backorder.
Stockout costs The costs associated with a stockout. Those costs may include lost sales, backorder costs, expediting, and additional manufacturing and purchasing costs.
Time fence A policy or guideline established to note where various restrictions or changes in operating procedures take place. For example, changes to the master production schedule can be accomplished easily beyond the cumulative lead time, while changes inside the cumulative lead time become increasingly more difficult to a point where changes should be resisted. Time fences can be used to define these points. See: demand time fence, hedge, planning time fence.
Total productive maintenance (TPM) Preventive maintenance plus continuing efforts to adapt, modify, and refine equipment to increase flexibility, reduce material handling, and promote continuous flows. It is operator-oriented maintenance with the involvement of all qualified employees in all maintenance activities.
Total quality management (TQM) A term coined to describe Japanese-style management approaches to quality improvement. Since then, total quality management (TQM) has taken on many meanings. Simply put, TQM is a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. TQM is based on the participation of all members of an organization in improving processes, products, services, and the culture they work in. The methods for implementing this approach are found in teachings of such quality leaders as Philip B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, and J. M. Juran.
Trend General upward or downward movement of a variable over time, e.g., demand, process attribute.
Two-bin system A type of fixed-order system in which inventory is carried in two bins. A replenishment quantity is ordered when the first bin is empty. During the replenishment lead time, material is used from the second bin. When the material is received, the second bin (which contains a quantity to cover demand during lead time plus some safety stock) is refilled and the excess is put into the working bin. At this time, stock is drawn from the first bin until it is again exhausted. This term is also used loosely to describe any fixed-order system even when physical "bins" do not exist. Syn: bin reserve system. See: visual review system.
Utilization 1) A measure of how intensively a resource is being used to produce a good or a service. Utilization compares actual times used to available time. Traditionally, utilization is the ratio of direct time charged (run time plus setup time) to the clock time scheduled for the resource. This measure led to distortions in some cases. 2) In the theory of constraints, utilization is the ratio of actual time the resource is producing (run time only) to the clock time the resource is scheduled to produce.
Work in process (WIP) A product or products in various stages of completion throughout the plant, including all material from raw material that has been released for initial processing up to completely processed material awaiting final inspection and acceptance as finished product. Many accounting systems also include the value of semifinished stock and components in this category. Syn: in-process inventory.
Work order 1) An order to the machine shop for tool manufacture or equipment maintenance; not to be confused with a manufacturing order. 2) An authorization to start work on an activity (e.g., maintenance) or product. See: manufacturing order.
This course is copyright 1997, 1999 by the MGI Management Institute, Inc.
| Just in Time |
What is the name of Athens' seaport ? | Detailed Scheduling and Planning
work remaining
40
A ratio less than 1.0 indicates the job is behind schedule, a ratio greater than 1.0 indicates the job is ahead of schedule, and a ratio of 1.0 indicates the job is on schedule.
Demand A need for a particular product or component. The demand could come from any number of sources, e.g., customer order or forecast, an interplant requirement, or a request from a branch warehouse for a service part or for manufacturing another product. At the finished goods level, demand data are usually different from sales data because demand does not necessarily result in sales; i.e., if there is no stock, there will be no sale.
Demonstrated capacity Proven capacity calculated from actual performance data, usually expressed as the average number of items produced multiplied by the standard hours per item. See: maximum demonstrated capacity.
Dependent demand Demand that is directly related to or derived from the bill of material structure for other items or end products. Such demands are therefore calculated and need not and should not be forecast. A given inventory item may have both dependent and independent demand at any given time. For example, a part may simultaneously be the component of an assembly and sold as a service part.
Dispatching rule The logic used to assign priorities to jobs at a work center.
Dispatch list A listing of manufacturing orders in priority sequence. The dispatch list, which is usually communicated to the manufacturing floor via hard copy or CRT display, contains detailed information on priority, location, quantity, and the capacity requirements of the manufacturing order by operation. Dispatch lists are normally generated daily and oriented by work center. Syn: work center schedule.
Distribution 1) The activities associated with the movement of material, usually finished products or service parts, from the manufacturer to the customer. These activities encompass the functions of transportation, warehousing, inventory control, material handling, order administration, site and location analysis, industrial packaging, data processing, and the communications network necessary for effective management. It includes all activities related to physical distribution, as well as the return of goods to the manufacturer. In many cases, this movement is made through one or more levels of field warehouses. Syn: physical distribution. 2) The systematic division of a whole into discrete parts having distinctive characteristics.
Economic order quantity (EOQ) A type of fixed-order-quantity model that determines the amount of an item to be purchased or manufactured at one time. The intent is to minimize the combined costs of acquiring and carrying inventory.
The basic formula is:
2 x annual demand x average cost of preparation
annual inventory carrying costs percentage x unit cost
Syn: economic lot size, minimum cost order quantity.
Efficiency A measure (as a percentage) of the actual output to the standard output expected. Efficiency measures how well something is performing relative to expectations; it does not measure output relative to any input. Efficiency is the ratio of actual units produced to the standard rate of product expected in a time period, or actual hours produced to standard hours, or actual dollar volume to standard dollar volume in a time period. For example, if there is a standard of 100 pieces per hour and 780 units are produced in one eight-hour shift, the efficiency is 780/800 multiplied by 100%, or 97.5%.
80-20 A rule referring to the Pareto principle. The principle suggests that most effects come from relatively few causes; that is, 80% of the effects come from 20% of the possible causes. See: ABC classification.
EOQ Abbreviation for economic order quantity.
EOQ=1 Reducing setup time and inventory to the point where it is economically sound to produce in batches with a size of one. Often EOQ=1 is an ideal to strive for, like zero defects.
Finite loading Assigning no more work to a work center than the work center can be expected to execute in a given time period. The specific term usually refers to a computer technique that involves calculating shop priority revisions in order to level load operation by operation.
Firm planned order (FPO) A planned order that can be frozen in quantity and time. The computer is not allowed to change it automatically; this is the responsibility of the planner in charge of the item that is being planned. This technique can aid planners working with MRP systems to respond to material and capacity problems by firming up selected planned orders. In addition, firm planned orders are the normal method of stating the master production schedule. See: planning time fence.
Forward flow scheduling A procedure for building process train schedules that starts with the first stage and proceeds sequentially through the process structure until the last stage is scheduled.
Independent demand Demand for an item that is unrelated to the demand for other items. Demand for finished goods, parts required for destructive testing, and service parts requirements are examples of independent demand.
Infinite loading Calculation of the capacity required at work centers in the time periods required regardless of the capacity available to perform this work.
Input/output control A technique for capacity control where planned and actual inputs and planned and actual outputs of a work center are monitored. Planned inputs and outputs for each work center are developed by capacity requirements planning and approved by manufacturing management. Actual input is compared to planned input to identify when work center output might vary from the plan because work is not available at the work center. Actual output is also compared to planned output to identify problems within the work center. Syn: production monitoring. See: capacity control.
Inventory turnover The number of times than an inventory cycles, or "turns over," during the year. A frequently used method to compute inventory turnover is to divide the average inventory level into the annual cost of sales. For example, an average inventory of $3 million divided into an average cost of sales of $21 million means that inventory is turned over seven times. Syn: inventory turnover.
Just-in-Time (JIT) A philosophy of manufacturing based on planned elimination of all waste and continuous improvement of productivity. It encompasses the successful execution of all manufacturing activities required to produce a final product, from design engineering to delivery and including all stages of conversion from raw material onward. The primary elements of just-in-time are to have only the required inventory when needed; to improve quality to zero defects; to reduce lead times by reducing setup times, queue lengths, and lot sizes; to incrementally revise the operations themselves; and to accomplish these things at minimum cost. In the broad sense, it applies to all forms of manufacturing, job shop and process, as well as repetitive. Syn: short-cycle manufacturing, stockless production, zero inventories.
Kanban A method of Just-in-Time production that uses standard containers or lot sizes with a single card attached to each. It is a pull system in which work centers signal with a card that they wish to withdraw parts from feeding operations or suppliers. The Japanese word kanban, loosely translated, means card, billboard, or sign. The term is often used synonymously for the specific scheduling system developed and used by the Toyota Corporation in Japan. See: move card, production card, synchronized production.
Lead time 1) A span of time required to perform a process (or series of operations). 2) In a logistics context, the time between recognition of the need for an order and the receipt of goods. Individual components of lead time can include order preparation time, queue time, processing time, move or transportation time, and receiving and inspection time. Syn: total lead time. See: manufacturing lead time, purchasing lead time.
Level of service A desired measure (usually expressed as a percentage) of satisfying demand through inventory or by the current production schedule in time to satisfy the customers requested delivery dates and quantities. In a make-to-stock environment, level of service is sometimes calculated as the percentage of orders picked complete from stock upon receipt of the customer order, the percentage of line items picked complete, or the percentage of total dollar demand picked complete. In make-to-order and design-to-order environments, level of service is the percentage of time that the customer-requested or acknowledged date was met by shipping complete product quantities. Syn: measure of service, service level.
Load The amount of planned work scheduled for and actual work released to a facility, work center, or operation for a specific span of time. Usually expressed in terms of standard hours of work or, when items consume similar resources at the same rate, units of production.
Load leveling Spreading orders out in time or rescheduling operations so that the amount of work to be done in sequential time periods tends to be distributed evenly and is achievable. Although both material and labor are ideally level loaded, specific businesses and industries may load to one or the other exclusively (e.g., service industries). Syn: capacity smoothing, level loading. See: level schedule.
Load profile A display of future capacity requirements based on released and/or planned orders over a given span of time. See: capacity requirements plan, load projection.
Make-to-order A production environment where a product or service can be made after receipt of a customers order. The final product is usually a combination of standard items and items custom-designed to meet the special needs of the customer. Where options or accessories are stocked before customer orders arrive, the term assemble-to-order is frequently used. See: assemble-to-order, make-to-stock.
Make-to-stock A production environment where products can be and usually are finished before receipt of a customer order. Customer orders are typically filled from existing stocks, and production orders are used to replenish those stocks. See: assemble-to-order, make-to-order.
Manufacturing order A document, group of documents, or schedule conveying authority for the manufacture of specified parts or products in specified quantities. Syn: job order, manufacturing authorization, production order, production release, run order, shop order. See: assembly parts list, batch card, blend order, fabrication order, work order.
Manufacturing strategy A collective pattern of decisions that act upon the formulation and deployment of manufacturing resources. To be most effective, the manufacturing strategy should act in support of the overall strategic direction of the business and provide for competitive advantages (edges).
Master production schedule (MPS) 1) The anticipated build schedule for those items assigned to the master schedule. The master scheduler maintains this schedule, and in turn, it becomes a set of planning numbers that drives material requirements planning. It represents what the company plans to produce expressed in specific configurations, quantities, and dates. The master production schedule is not a sales forecast that represents a statement of demand. The master production schedule must take into account the forecast, the production plan, and other important considerations such as backlog, availability of material, availability of capacity, and management policies and goals. 2) The result of the master scheduling process. The master schedule is a presentation of demand, forecast, backlog, the MPS, the projected-on-hand inventory, and the available-to-promise quantity. See: master scheduler, master scheduling.
Normal distribution A particular statistical distribution where most of the observations fall fairly close to one mean, and a deviation from the mean is as likely to be plus as it is to be minus. When graphed, the normal distribution takes the form of a bell-shaped curve.
On hand balance The quantity shown in the inventory records as being physically in stock.
Open order 1) A released manufacturing order or purchase order. Syn: released order. 2) An unfilled customer order.
Ordering cost Used in calculating order quantities, the costs that increase as the number of orders placed increases. It includes costs related to the clerical work or preparing, releasing, monitoring, and receiving orders, the physical handling of goods, inspections, and setup costs, as applicable. Syn: acquisition cost.
Order point A set inventory level where, if the total stock on hand plus on order falls to or below that point, action is taken to replenish the stock. The order point is normally calculated as forecasted usage during the replenishment lead time plus safety stock. Syn: reorder point, statistical order point, trigger level. See: fixed reorder quantity inventory model.
Order qualifiers Those competitive characteristics that a firm must exhibit to be a viable competitor in the marketplace. For example, a firm may seek to compete on characteristics other than price, but in order to "qualify" to compete, its costs and the related price must be within a certain range to be considered by its customers.
Order winners Those competitive characteristics that cause a firms customers to choose that firms products and services over those of its competitors. Order winners can be considered to be competitive advantages for the firm. Order winners usually focus on one (rarely more than two) of the following strategic initiatives: price/cost, quality, delivery speed, delivery reliability, product design, flexibility, after-market service, and image.
Pegging In MRP and MPS, the capability to identify for a given item the sources of its gross requirements and/or allocations. Pegging can be thought of as active where-used information. See: requirements traceability.
Perpetual inventory An inventory recordkeeping system where each transaction in and out is recorded and a new balance is computed.
Perpetual inventory record A computer record or manual document on which each inventory transaction is posted so that a current record of the inventory is maintained.
Physical distribution Syn: distribution.
Planned order A suggested order quantity, release date, and due date created by the planning systems logic when it encounters net requirements in processing MRP. In some cases, it can also be created by a master scheduling module. Planned orders are created by the computer, exist only within the computer, and may be changed or deleted by the computer during subsequent processing if conditions change. Planned orders at one level will be exploded into gross requirements for components at the next level. Planned orders, along with released orders, serve as input to capacity requirements planning to show the total capacity requirements by work center in future time periods. See: planning time fence.
Planning horizon The amount of time the master schedule extends into the future. This is normally set to cover a minimum of cumulative lead time plus time for lot sizing low-level components and for capacity changes of primary work centers or of key suppliers. See: cumulative lead time, planning time fence.
Production Activity Control (PAC) The function of routing and dispatching the work to be accomplished through the production facility and performing supplier control. PAC encompasses the principles, approaches, and techniques needed to schedule, control, measure, and evaluate the effectiveness of production operations. See: shop floor control.
Production plan The agreed-upon plan that comes from the aggregate (production) planning functions, specifically the overall level of manufacturing output planned to be produced, usually stated as a monthly rate for each product family (group of products, items, options, features, etc.). Various units of measure can be used to express the plan: units, tonnage, standard hours, number of workers, etc. The production plan is managements authorization for the master scheduler to convert it into a more detailed plan, that is, the master production schedule. See: sales and operations planning, sales plan.
Pull (system) 1) In production, the production of items only as demanded for use or to replace those taken for use. 2) In material control, the withdrawal of inventory as demanded by the using operations. Material is not issued until a signal comes from the user. 3) In distribution, a system for replenishing field warehouse inventories where replenishment decisions are made at the field warehouse itself, not at the central warehouse or plant.
Push (system) 1) In production, the production of items at times required by a given schedule planned in advance. 2) In material control, the issuing of material according to a given schedule or issuing material to a job order at its start time. 3) In distribution, a system for replenishing field warehouse inventories where replenishment decision making is centralized, usually at the manufacturing site or central supply facility.
Quality Conformance to requirements or fitness for use. Quality can be defined through five principal approaches: (1) Transcendent quality is an ideal, a condition of excellence. (2) Product-based quality is based on a product attribute. (3) User-based quality is fitness for use. (4) Manufacturing-based quality is conformance to requirements. (5) Value-based quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price. Also, quality has two major components: (1) quality of conformancequality is defined by the absence of defects, and (2) quality of designquality is measured by the degree of customer satisfaction with a products characteristics and features.
Random variation A fluctuation in data that is caused by uncertain or random occurrences.
Rated capacity 1) The expected output capability of a resource from such data as planned hours, efficiency, and utilization. The rated capacity is equal to hours available x efficiency x utilization. Syn: calculated capacity, nominal capacity. 2) In the theory of constraints, rated capacity = hours available x efficiency x activation, where activation is a function of scheduled production and availability is a function of uptime. Syn: standing capacity.
Released order Syn: open order.
Rough-cut capacity planning (RCCP) The process of converting the master production schedule into requirements for key resources, often including labor, machinery, warehouse space, suppliers; capabilities, and, in some cases, money. Comparison to available or demonstrated capacity is usually done for each key resource. This comparison assists the master scheduler in establishing a feasible master production schedule. Three approaches to performing RCCP are the bill of labor (resources, capacity) approach, the capacity planning using overall factors approach, and the resource profile approach. See: bill of resources, capacity planning, capacity planning using overall factors, product load profile.
Routing Information detailing the method of manufacture of a particular item. It includes the operations to be performed, their sequence, the various work centers involved, and the standards for setup and run. In some companies, the routing also includes information on tooling, operator skill levels, inspection operations, and testing requirements, etc. Syn: bill of operations, instruction sheet, operation chart, operation list, operation sheet, route sheet, routing sheet. See: bill of labor, bill of resources.
Safety lead time An element of time added to normal lead time to protect against fluctuations in lead time so than an order can be completed before its real need date. When used, the MRP system, in offsetting for lead time, will plan both order release and order completion for earlier dates than it would otherwise. Syn: protection time, safety time.
Safety stock 1) In general, a quantity of stock planned to be in inventory to protect against fluctuations in demand or supply. 2) In the context of master production scheduling, the additional inventory and capacity planned as protection against forecast errors and short-term changes in the backlog. Overplanning can be used to create safety stock. Syn: buffer stock, reserve stock. See: hedge, inventory buffer.
Safety time Syn: safety lead time.
Seasonal index A number used to adjust data to seasonal demand. See: base series.
Seasonality A repetitive pattern of demand from year to year (or other repeating time interval) with some periods considerably higher than others. See: base series.
Service level Syn: level of service.
Shop order Syn: manufacturing order.
Single-level where-used Single-level where-used for a component lists each parent in which that component is directly used and in what quantity. This information is usually made available through the technique known as implosion.
SKU Acronym for stockkeeping unit.
Standard hours Syn: standard time.
Standard time The length of time that should be required to (1) set up a given machine or operation and (2) run one part, assembly, batch, or end product through that operation. This time is used in determining machine requirements and labor requirements. Standard time assumes an average worker following prescribed methods and allows time for rest to overcome fatigue. It is also frequently used as a basis for incentive pay systems and as a basis for allocating overhead in cost accounting systems. Syn: standard hours.
Stockout A lack of material, components, or finished goods that are needed. See: backorder.
Stockout costs The costs associated with a stockout. Those costs may include lost sales, backorder costs, expediting, and additional manufacturing and purchasing costs.
Time fence A policy or guideline established to note where various restrictions or changes in operating procedures take place. For example, changes to the master production schedule can be accomplished easily beyond the cumulative lead time, while changes inside the cumulative lead time become increasingly more difficult to a point where changes should be resisted. Time fences can be used to define these points. See: demand time fence, hedge, planning time fence.
Total productive maintenance (TPM) Preventive maintenance plus continuing efforts to adapt, modify, and refine equipment to increase flexibility, reduce material handling, and promote continuous flows. It is operator-oriented maintenance with the involvement of all qualified employees in all maintenance activities.
Total quality management (TQM) A term coined to describe Japanese-style management approaches to quality improvement. Since then, total quality management (TQM) has taken on many meanings. Simply put, TQM is a management approach to long-term success through customer satisfaction. TQM is based on the participation of all members of an organization in improving processes, products, services, and the culture they work in. The methods for implementing this approach are found in teachings of such quality leaders as Philip B. Crosby, W. Edwards Deming, Armand V. Feigenbaum, Kaoru Ishikawa, and J. M. Juran.
Trend General upward or downward movement of a variable over time, e.g., demand, process attribute.
Two-bin system A type of fixed-order system in which inventory is carried in two bins. A replenishment quantity is ordered when the first bin is empty. During the replenishment lead time, material is used from the second bin. When the material is received, the second bin (which contains a quantity to cover demand during lead time plus some safety stock) is refilled and the excess is put into the working bin. At this time, stock is drawn from the first bin until it is again exhausted. This term is also used loosely to describe any fixed-order system even when physical "bins" do not exist. Syn: bin reserve system. See: visual review system.
Utilization 1) A measure of how intensively a resource is being used to produce a good or a service. Utilization compares actual times used to available time. Traditionally, utilization is the ratio of direct time charged (run time plus setup time) to the clock time scheduled for the resource. This measure led to distortions in some cases. 2) In the theory of constraints, utilization is the ratio of actual time the resource is producing (run time only) to the clock time the resource is scheduled to produce.
Work in process (WIP) A product or products in various stages of completion throughout the plant, including all material from raw material that has been released for initial processing up to completely processed material awaiting final inspection and acceptance as finished product. Many accounting systems also include the value of semifinished stock and components in this category. Syn: in-process inventory.
Work order 1) An order to the machine shop for tool manufacture or equipment maintenance; not to be confused with a manufacturing order. 2) An authorization to start work on an activity (e.g., maintenance) or product. See: manufacturing order.
This course is copyright 1997, 1999 by the MGI Management Institute, Inc.
| i don't know |
Who painted ' The Surrender at Breda ' and ' Las Meninas ' ? | Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda (article) | Khan Academy
Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda
Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda
Essay by Javier Berzal.
Email
Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas, 307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas, 307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
What defines a great leader
How military leaders treat their vanquished enemies conveys much of their character. In early modern Europe, paintings of military victories usually followed a preconceived structure: the victorious commander appeared seated high on his horse, or on a throne, while the capitulating general would kneel on the ground. Degraded and humiliated, the conquered army leader would prostrate himself in submission to the contempt of the triumphant general. But what happens if these dynamics are shifted? What would an image of an honorable commander showing respect for a conquered army communicate? Would a magnanimous leader be seen as weak? And how could abstract concepts such as honor or magnanimity be represented? Velazquez’s The Surrender of Breda revolutionized the genre of military painting precisely by emphasizing that to win with elegance and magnanimity is what defines a great leader, and not merely the ferocious capacity to triumph in combat.
A commission from the King of Spain
Between 1630 and 1635 the Spanish king Philip IV commissioned the construction of a royal palace just outside of Madrid. The Surrender of Breda was one of the paintings that decorated the most lavish room in that palace, the Hall of Realms. This multipurpose room had two important functions; it was a throne room, and it was a place for music and theatrical performances. As such, the Hall of Realms was the space where emissaries and ambassadors were received and entertained. When visitors entered the room, they encountered a highly ornate space decorated with large paintings that celebrated the Spanish king’s military victories. The Surrender of Breda is one of these paintings. It commemorates the capture of the city of Breda during the Eighty Years’ War, a conflict between Spain, which controlled the Low Countries, and the Dutch, who were fighting for political independence.
Youthful Dutch soldier (detail), Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas, 307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
Youthful Dutch soldier (detail), Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas, 307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
The aftermath of battle
Though the painting depicts a military victory, Velázquez removed the bloody and violent aspects of the battle from the canvas. Instead, he chose to present the aftermath of the battle: the capitulation of the Dutch to the Spanish troops. It is important to notice how Velázquez established the difference between these two groups. The Dutch, on the left, appear disorganized, youthful, and few in number. This contrasts with the Spanish troops located on the right, which are presented as a large, well-organized, and seasoned group. Velázquez’s depiction of the spears, vertically rising over the horizon, has received much attention, to the point that the painting is also known as The Lances. The numerous spears create a sense that there are more Spanish troops than we can actually see and, because of their ordered arrangement, they emphasize the military competence of the Spanish soldiers.
Exchange of keys from the Dutch to the Spanish captain (detail), Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas, 307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
Exchange of keys from the Dutch to the Spanish captain (detail), Diego Velázquez, The Surrender of Breda, 1634-35, oil on canvas,
307 cm × 367 cm (Museo del Prado, Madrid)
A painting about magnanimity
The center of the painting is dominated by the exchange of the keys. Ambrogio Spinola, the captain of the Spanish troops, receives the keys of the city from Justinus van Nassau. Having descended from his horse, and looking at the Dutch commander eye-to-eye, Spinola places his hand over Justinus’ shoulder, most likely in order to stop him from kneeling. This respectful gesture separates The Surrender of Breda from typical surrender scenes. In The Surrender of Breda, the battle remains in the distance, only noticeable because of the smoke columns rising in the background. It is the human encounter, in the foreground, that Velázquez emphasized. Hence, it is a painting about magnanimity as much, if not more, than a painting about military prowess.
Not a document of the event
Some aspects of the painting correspond to the historical reality of the event. After the siege, Spinola granted the Dutch army very generous terms of surrender; he ordered the Spanish army to respect the Dutch, who were allowed to leave Breda in military formation and carrying their ensigns. However, we should not let Velázquez’s naturalistic style deceive us. The Surrender of Breda is not a faithful reproduction of the event. It is highly unlikely that the encounter between the two commanders took place as depicted. The painter, who was not present at the siege of Breda, carefully constructed the scene to commemorate Spinola’s magnanimous character, not to document an event. Velázquez has subtly emphasized the figure of Spinola who, holding a baton of command, wears a distinct, splendid armor and a vivid magenta sash. At the same time, Velázquez’s astonishing skill is precisely shown in the easiness with which he transforms the viewers into eyewitness to an impromptu encounter. The muted earth tones and a soft light give the painting a naturalistic character. Without blatant symbols, allegorical figures, or even idealized figures, the viewer is invited to encounter the scene as if they had been there.
The painting presents a humane encounter in the midst of the chaos and cruelty of war. But we should not think that there are no ulterior motives for the presentation of this seemingly virtuous moment. Spinola, the Spanish troops, and by extension Philip IV, are presented as powerful and honorable. Thus the painting operates at multiple levels: it is a rhetorical exaltation of Spanish national identity, a symbol of Philip IV and his army, and a tribute to Spinola, a personal friend of Velázquez who had died a few years before the commission of the painting.
Essay by Javier Berzal
| Diego Velázquez |
"What product was advertised with the slogan "" Splash It All Over "" ?" | Diego Velazquez Prints, Posters & Paintings
Michelangelo
Diego Velazquez
Diego Velazquez is a famous Spanish Baroque artist who produced high quality oil paintings throughout the 17th century. As was common for the time, Velazquez produced mainly portrait paintings. Velazquez best known portrait paintings were of the Spanish royal family plus other key subjects from all around Europe. His best known painting remains Las Meninas with other notable works including Rokeby Venus “La Venus del espejo” and The Surrender of Breda “La Rendición de Breda”. Despite producing his work so long ago, Velazquez still managed to become an inspiration for many more contemporary artists such as those involved in Realism and Impressionism. Many artists have also featured his work one way or another in their own careers, including the likes of Picasso and Dali to name just two.
Las Meninas remains his best known painting from a distinguished career. Produced just a few years before his death, it represents an example of the culmination of all he had learnt and experienced throughout his career. Las Merinas remains an important topic for study for any young budding artist and is a figurehead for the whole Baroque art movement, as it’s creator is as well.
Whilst Impressionists and Realists were both influenced by the works of this great artist, Edouard Manet is seen by some as the link between these two art movements. Interestingly, Manet himself was also a great fan of the works of this 17th century artist, particuarly enjoying Velázquez’s use of colour and creativeness against a backdrop of the academic status quo in Baroque art at that time.
Recent paintings inspired by the works of Diego Velazquez paintings have included many different styles of art all across the globe. Francis Bacon produced several expressionist variations on Velazquez’s original portrait entitled Pope Innocent X, which Bacon viewed as one of the most impressive portrait paintings of all time. Dali and Picasso also felt great passion for Velazquez’s works and produced the likes of Velázquez Painting the Infanta Margarita With the Lights and Shadows of His Own Glory and Las Meninas (in many different styles) respectively.
Velazquez paintings can be found all over the world in key galleries and museums such as Museo del Prado, Madrid, São Paulo Museum of Art, Sao Paulo, National Gallery, Edinburgh, National Gallery, London and Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg. Descendants from Diego and the Velazquez family have included Queen Sofía of Spain, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands, King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden, King Albert II of Belgium, Hans-Adam II, Prince of Liechtenstein, and Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg.
Below you can find a longer list of major Diego Velazquez paintings. Each is ready to buy from our website, just contact us for a quote on any one you want. We can supply them in any size you need. All our paintings are handmade by experienced artists. Velazquez is only estimated to have produced between 110 and 120 known canvases.
Apolo en la Fragua de Vulcano
Christ in the House of Martha and Mary
Cristo crucificado
El Triunfo de Baco (Los borrachos)
Equestrian portrait of Duke de Olivares
Esopo
Imposición de la casulla a San Ildefonso
Old Woman Frying Eggs
La reina Isabel de Borbón a caballo
Las Hilanderas (The Fable of Arachne)
Las Meninas
Portrait of Count Duke of Olivares
Portrait of Duke de Olivares
Portrait of Innocent X
Portrait of Juan de Pareja
Portrait of Mother Jeronima de la Fuente
Rokeby Venus (La Venus del espejo)
The Surrender of Breda
The Adoration of the Magi
The Lady with a Fan
The Lunch
| i don't know |
Which great ship was originally known as the ' Leviathan ' when launched in 1858 ? | Dark Roasted Blend: The Last Victorian Leviathan Steam Ship
The Last Victorian Leviathan Steam Ship
Link - article by M. Christian and Avi Abrams
The More-Than-Great "Great Eastern" -- one of the most spectacular ships ever built!
Take a good long look at this ship. Built in 1858, it was capable of bringing 4,000 people around the world, without ever once needing to refuel...
An Iron Monster, framed in a cloud of billowing white sails, or looming through the hellish black smoke - this was the ultimate Victorian luxury Trans-Atlantic liner, affectionately called the "great babe" by its eccentric designer:
(images credit: Robert Dudley, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London )
We will see more of this ship, but first let's consider the extraordinary figure of its designer, and a fantastic era he lived in.
Great Eastern leaving America with the 1866 Atlantic cable on board (art fragment)
An introduction to Victorian grandiosity:
The Victorians - and so you don't have to look it up, means the British and U.S. during the reign of Queen Victoria, from about 1837 to 1901 -- did some truly great things. Theirs was an glowing-brass and crusty-iron era of chugging, whistling, hissing wonders. Nothing, they seemed to think, was impossible: the answer to every question, every engineering challenge, was just the matter of finding the right kind of steam engine for the job.
One of their greats was the legendary Crystal Palace:
Although the Palace wasn't powered by coal, it was certainly fueled by Victorian mechanical audacity. Originally set up in Hyde Park in 1851 for the Great Exhibition, though later expanded and moved, the Palace was a transparent monster of a building, a huge greenhouse made up of 900,000 square feet of glass supported by an iron framework:
(image credit: buildinghistory )
900,000 may not sound like much but keep this in mind: the Palace was home to more than 14,000 exhibits. The Palace was something no one had seen before, a precisely engineered celebration of British innovation. The future had arrived in Hyde Park, and it was a tomorrow of crystal and steel.
Another Victorian great was ... well, it might not have been as spectacular as the Crystal Palace but it was still something that made the people of London sit up and take notice. Or perhaps sit down and take notice. We take sewers and such for granted now but back then it was a true technological miracle, especially when executed on giant Victorian scale. Before Joseph Bazalgette began his work, London was a filthy nightmare. Decades, and more than 1,000 miles of pipe and connections later, the great city had become a marvel of cleanliness: a tomorrow of (mostly) clean streets and sweet smells.
Enter: Isambard Kingdom Brunel
But perhaps the greatest of the great Victorian engineers was a rather small man with very big dreams.
At just about five feet, Isambard Kingdom Brunel wasn't a striking figure but what he lacked in height he made up with towering ability. Sure, some of his ideas didn't ... well, work out that well, but no one denies his mechanical genius. Even in failure some of his works were more advanced than the successes of his contemporary engineering rivals.
Some say, "he was the most intense man in the business, the greatest artist ever to work in iron. He smoked 40 cigars per day and slept 4 hours per day."
(image credit: Robert Howlett )
First brush with death: thrown into the awful maelstrom
One of his early projects, and the one that almost killed him, was a tunnel. Okay, there were already a lot of tunnels -- and the Victorians took to tunneling like the Romans took to aqueducts -- but this one was different. It was a tunnel under the Thames, London's legendary river.
(Thames Tunnel; a diving bell used in its construction)
But even Brunel's engineering skills weren't a match for the simple weight of all that water. Even with the city's sewer advances the river was more like a toilet than a body of water, so when it leaked -- which the tunnel did a lot -- what came dripping down from the ceiling wasn't ... shall we say, in a dry British way, "pleasant."
(image credit: International Urban Glow )
It all went very wrong in 1828. When part of the tunnel collapsed, a monstrous wave of filthy water roared down on Brunel, knocking him unconscious and propelling him toward a very nasty death. Luckily an assistant managed to reach out and grab the master engineer before his diminutive boss got sucked into that awful maelstrom.
Brunel never completely recovered from his injuries, but instead of retiring to dreams of steam-driven wonders, Brunel went on to build everything from immense bridges to the advanced (but unsuccessful) "atmospheric caper" pneumatic railway (more info ). Here is a similar creation - "The Pneumatic Passenger Railway", 1867 by Alfred Ely Beach :
An impressive suspension bridge that he designed for Clifton in Bristol:
He then tackled the biggest and grandest of his big, grand projects -- what many folks see as one of the most spectacular ships ever built.
An iron-riveted mountain, a black-smoke metal volcano
Like with those 900,000 square feet of glass or 1,000 miles of sewer pipe, just prattling off the numbers doesn't do Brunel's Great Eastern justice. Its true scale can be better appreciated from these construction photographs:
(image credit: victorianweb.org )
Although many innovations were used in the ship's construction, it was still mostly built by hand, with thousands of workers pounding the iron out of its hull from the first laying of its keel to its ultimate launch in 1858.
(image credit: marine-marchande )
There is a very intricate 3D model of the "Great Eastern" construction, on display at National Maritime Museum -
(John Scott Russell's shipyard, 'Great Eastern' under construction, courtesy National Maritime Museum )
When you look at pictures of the Eastern, at first it doesn't look like much; just a typical ship of that era with, perhaps, some odd details. For instance, the Eastern had side wheels, propellers, and even sails on six huge masts.
But look closer at some of those old illustrations and daguerreotypes. See those tiny little boats next to the Eastern? Well, they weren't that tiny, and the Eastern was anything but typical:
Seeing The Great Eastern chugging through a harbor or across the ocean must have been like watching an iron-riveted mountain, or a black metal volcano -- when its five funnels were pouring black smoke into the sky from its 10 boilers fed by 100 furnaces -- crushing across the sea.
(image credit: porthcurno )
Okay, she was big -- you've got that. But I still don't think you really get how big Brunel's ship actually was. For instance, although the crew of the ship was around four hundred, but she was built to carry 4,000 passengers -- the population of a pretty good sized town. And this was in 1858. She also carried enough coal to take those 4,000 passengers a good, long distance. Around the world, in fact, without ever once needing to refuel.
The Cable Ship
But the Great Eastern's most famous job wasn't shuttling passengers across the Atlantic. The Victorians had a great fondness for boilers, condensers, pistons, furnaces, and the stacks of steam power, but they'd also begun to harness the power of lightning -- or at least enough of it to send dots and dashes across a wire.
The telegraph was a revolution but it was mostly limited to the continents. If you wanted to write Aunt Joan in New York you still had to put pen to paper and trust the post. Until the Great Eastern laid the transatlantic cable.
(image credit: Robert Dudley, Atlantic Cable )
Time for numbers again: 2,600 miles of cable is what the Eastern carefully laid out across the Atlantic and later, across the Indian Ocean. Twenty-six-hundred miles when one kink, one break, would mean having to start all over again. That's a tremendous endeavor to try even today, let alone when men wore stovepipe hats and horses were still the preferred method of traveling on land.
Two great ships: the "Great Eastern" & the "Titanic".
Both suffered a damage to their hull.
One sunk, one didn't.
SS "Great Eastern" was also incredibly modern, boasting double hull construction (far ahead of its common use) and even gas lighting. It is this DOUBLE HULL that kept her afloat in the same circumstances that sent the "Titanic" to its doom. According to this source , here is a comparison with the Titanic:
- Both the Titanic and the Great Eastern were the largest ships of their time.
- Each suffered nearly the same accident, with utterly different results.
- The Great Eastern featured fifty water-tight compartments, and a maze of bulkheads.
- The Titanic's hull had only a single wall on each side!.. And even though the hull was divided in fifteen sections, which were designed to be sealed on a moments notice, "the bulkheads between those sections were riddled with access doors to improve luxury service"
The Great Eastern compartment plan
The Great Eastern suffered a huge 83-foot-long, 9-foot-wide gash, after the encounter with an uncharted rock in Long Island Sound in 1862. But the inner hull held, and the ship remained afloat.
The Titanic did not suffer anything like the huge continuous gash in the side of the Great Eastern:
According to these recent acoustic imaging results, Titanic's hull "had not been gashed at all, but had been punctured in six of its forward compartments with a series of thin slits amounting to no more that 12 square feet."
No double sidewall ensured the fate of famous luxury liner, sending it to the depths in less than three hours.
Huge ship takes 2 years to dismantle
Alas, the end of the Eastern came with more of a whimper than bang. After suffering far too many accidents, and far too many money troubles, the Eastern passed from one hand to another until eventually the largest ship in the Victorian world came to a humiliating end, first as a floating billboard in Liverpool and then finally broken up and sold as scrap.
(Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
(image credit: National Maritime Museum )
- It took two ful years just to dismantle this ship (gives you an idea how big it was).
- A mysterious dead body was found inside that special double hull (one can only imagine the desperate story of that stowaway...)
Some memorabilia: a depiction of "Great Eastern" on a cigarette card (see a great set of them) and a vintage coffee cup:
(images credit: mando_gal and National Maritime Museum )
At least Brunel didn't see the sad and pathetic end to his magnificent Great Eastern, though he didn't live to see its majesty either. Brunel died only four days after the great ship's first sea trial.
Brunel, fortunately, has remained an engineering legend, though his mighty Great Eastern has become nothing but a curiosity, a footnote in the history of Victorian grandiosity and innovation. But you could say "The Great Eastern" left at least a pretty BIG footnote in the annals of history.
| Great Eastern |
On which island did the actor Oliver Reed die in 1999 ? | Laying the First Transatlantic Cable
The Question:
I am looking for the name of the 700 foot long ship that laid the first transatlantic cable connecting Europe with North America in 1866. They also say the ship was haunted by a young boy. What is the name of this ship?
The Answer:
Launched in 1858, the magnificent steamship was first known as the Leviathan, and was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel . The largest ship in the world at the time, she weighed 18,000 tons; was 700 feet long, and 85 feet wide. Used for the trade between Great Britain, Australia, and the Far East, the Leviathan could carry 4,000 passengers and go great distances without stopping to refuel. Later the Great Eastern Navigation Company renamed her Great Eastern. Despite her huge capacity, the Great Eastern was a financial failure and by 1864 she was docked.
However, the Great Eastern had a second life as a cable-laying ship. Between July 13 and July 27, 1866, the crew of the Great Eastern, under the command of Captain James Anderson, laid 1,686 nautical miles of electric communications cable between Valencia (or Valentia), Ireland , and Heart's Content, Newfoundland . Historians have said the endeavor was the Victorian equivalent of the Apollo space program .
Cyrus W. Field, an investor and organizer of the project, sent the following message after the cable had been secured: "We arrived here at nine o'clock this morning. All well. Thank God, the cable is laid, and is in perfect working order."
The first news message sent on the cable - the signing of the peace agreement ending the war between Prussia and Austria - soon followed. The cable was then open for commercial business at a cost of $1 per letter, payable in gold, pretty steep at a time when the average laborer might earn $20 per month.
The Great Eastern was permanently docked at Liverpool in 1872. She rusted away until she was scrapped in 1889. Even then, no longer steamship was built until 1899. No steamship that was as large in bulk appeared until 1906.
Check out this link for more facts and information about other famous vessels .
—The Editors
| i don't know |
Of which famous vessel was Miles Standish the captain ? | Standish-Myles — MayflowerHistory.com
Myles Standish
BIRTH: Traditionally 1584, but something closer to 1587 seems more probable, probably in co. Lancashire, England.
FIRST MARRIAGE: Rose, probably not long before 1619 or 1620, since they had no children yet.
SECOND MARRIAGE: Barbara, sometime about 1623 at Plymouth.
CHILDREN (by Barbara): Charles (died young), Alexander, John, Myles, Lora, Josias, and Charles.
DEATH: 3 October 1656 at Duxbury.
yDNA HAPLOGROUP: I-L38
This modern portrait of Myles Standish by Mike Haywood. It is based off a portrait that was purported to have been done in London in 1626. Prints of this portrait can be obtained in the MayflowerHistory.com Store .
Myles Standish's birthplace has been the subject of great debate. Those who believe he was from Lancashire point to the following evidence: Nathaniel Morton, writing in his 1669 book New England's Memorial, states that Standish was from Lancashire; Myles Standish owned a book about the former head of the Rivington Grammar School in Lancashire; and Standish named his American residence "Duxbury," which may have been a reference to his ancestral home, Duxbury Hall, Lancashire. Those that believe he was from the Isle of Man point to the lands enumerated in his probate will that were "surreptitiously detained" from him (including lands on the Isle of Man itself); these lands all belonged at one time to Thomas Standish, of the branch of the Standish family from the Isle of Man. In September 2006, Jeremy D. Bangs supplied a scholarly review of the evidence and controversy in "Myles Standish, Born Where?", Mayflower Quarterly 72:133-159.
Myles Standish is alleged to have joined Queen Elizabeth's army and attained the rank of Lieutenant, but the documentation for this claim was lost in the 1920s without having been published or transcribed, so may be suspect. In any case, Standish was certainly a part of Queen Elizabeth's army, and was stationed for a time in Holland where he eventually met and became well acquainted with John Robinson and the Pilgrims who were living in Leiden. Standish was hired by the Pilgrims to be their military captain, to establish and coordinate the Colony's defense against both foreign (French, Spanish, Dutch) and domestic (Native American) threats.
This iron cooking pot is believed to have belonged to Myles Standish. It is on display at the Pilgrim Hall Museum in Plymouth.
Standish led or participated in all the early exploratory missions sent out to explore Cape Cod, and was heavily involved in selecting the site where the Pilgrims would settle. He was one of the few who did not get sick at all the first winter, and is recorded as having greatly helped and cared for those who were sick. He organized the deployment of the colony's cannons and the construction of the fort at Plymouth. He led both trading expeditions and military expeditions to the various Indian groups in the region. He led the party that went in pursuit of the alleged killers of Squanto (who was later discovered to be safe). He led the revenge attacks on the Indians in the Massachusetts Bay after they were caught in a conspiracy planning to attack and destroy the Plymouth and Wessagussett colonies; several Indians were killed or executed, for which Standish received some criticism, even from his friends, for being too heavy-handed.
Standish was heavily involved in numerous aspects of Plymouth Colony, from defense to keeping the law. He was on the receiving end of John Billington's verbal wrath in 1621 (Billington refused to follow the captain's orders), and was called a "silly boy" in a letter that was sent out during the Oldham-Lyford scandal of 1624, and was noted for his short stature and for his quick temper. He was sent to arrest Thomas Morton in 1628, for which he received the nickname "Captain Shrimp" from Morton. William Hubbard reported Standish's temper was like a "chimney soon fired".
17th century image of a man in armor with musket. Myles Standish would have worn similar armor, clothing and used similar weapons to those seen here.
Despite the heavy criticism by his enemies, Standish was well respected within the Plymouth Colony, and held a number of positions of authority. He made several trips to England to bring trading goods back and to negotiate with the Merchant Adventurers who had financially sponsored the joint-stock company that funded the Pilgrims' voyage. In the mid-1630s, Standish moved his family and helped found the town of Duxbury, which may have been named after his ancestral home. Standish was an heir to a fairly sizeable estate in Lancashire, but his lands were lost during the English Civil War, and neither he nor his son Alexander were ever able to legally regain control of the estate.
Myles Standish's first wife Rose came with him on the Mayflower, and died the first winter. His second wife, Barbara, arrived on the ship Anne in 1623, and they were apparently married before the year was out. Nothing is known about either of his wives: there is absolutely no indication they were his cousins, as has sometimes been claimed.
Standish lived out his later years in Duxbury, dying in 1656 "after his suffering of much dolorous pain," apparently from kidney stones.
| Mayflower |
Who painted ' Supper at Emmaus ' and ' The Anatomy Lesson ' ? | Courtship of Miles Standish : and other poems / Henry Wadsworth Longfellow [electronic text]
IN the Old Colony days, in Plymouth the land of the Pilgrims,
To and fro in a room of his simple and primitive dwelling,
Clad in doublet and hose and boots of Cordovan leather,
Strode, with a martial air, Miles Standish the Puritan Captain.
Buried in thought he seemed, with his hands behind him, and pausing
Ever and anon to behold his glittering weapons of warfare,
Page 8
Hanging in shining array along the walls of the chamber, —
Cutlass and corslet of steel, and his trusty sword of Damascus,
Curved at the point and inscribed with its mystical Arabic sentence,
While underneath, in a corner, were fowling-piece, musket, and matchlock.
Short of stature he was, but strongly built and athletic,
Broad in the shoulders, deep-chested, with muscles and sinews of iron;
Brown as a nut was his face, but his russet beard was already
Flaked with patches of snow, as hedges sometimes in November.
Near him was seated John Alden, his friend, and household companion,
Writing with diligent speed at a table of pine by the window;
Page 9
Fair-haired, azure-eyed, with delicate Saxon complexion,
Having the dew of his youth, and the beauty thereof, as the captives
Whom Saint Gregory saw, and exclaimed, "Not Angles but Angels."
Youngest of all was he of the men who came in the May Flower.
Suddenly breaking the silence, the diligent scribe interrupting,
Spake, in the pride of his heart, Miles Standish the Captain of Plymouth.
"Look at these arms," he said, "the warlike weapons that hang here
Burnished and bright and clean, as if for parade or inspection!
This is the sword of Damascus I fought with in Flanders; this breastplate,
Well I remember the day! once saved my life in a skirmish;
Page 10
Here in front you can see the very dint of the bullet
Fired point-blank at my heart by a Spanish arcabucero.
Had it not been of sheer steel, the forgotten bones of Miles Standish
Would at this moment be mould, in their grave in the Flemish morasses."
Thereupon answered John Alden, but looked not up from his writing:
"Truly the breath of the Lord hath slackened the speed of the bullet;
He in his mercy preserved you, to be our shield and our weapon!"
Still the Captain continued, unheeding the words of the stripling:
"See, how bright they are burnished, as if in an arsenal hanging;
That is because I have done it myself, and not left it to others.
Page 11
Serve yourself, would you be well served, is an excellent adage;
So I take care of my arms, as you of your pens and your inkhorn.
Then, too, there are my soldiers, my great, invincible army,
Twelve men, all equipped, having each his rest and his matchlock,
Eighteen shillings a month, together with diet and pillage,
And, like Caesar, I know the name of each of my soldiers!"
This he said with a smile, that danced in his eyes, as the sunbeams
Dance on the waves of the sea, and vanish again in a moment.
Alden laughed as he wrote, and still the Captain continued:
"Look! you can see from this window my brazen howitzer planted
Page 12
High on the roof of the church, a preacher who speaks to the purpose,
Steady, straight-forward, and strong, with irresistible logic,
Orthodox, flashing conviction right into the hearts of the heathen.
Now we are ready, I think, for any assault of the Indians;
Let them come, if they like, and the sooner they try it the better, —
Let them come if they like, be it sagamore, sachem, or pow-wow,
Aspinet, Samoset, Corbitant, Squanto, or Tokamahamon!"
Long at the window he stood, and wistfully gazed on the landscape,
Washed with a cold gray mist, the vapory breath of the east-wind,
Forest and meadow and hill, and the steel-blue rim of the ocean,
Page 13
Lying silent and sad, in the afternoon shadows and sunshine.
Over his countenance flitted a shadow like those on the landscape,
Gloom intermingled with light; and his voice was subdued with emotion,
Tenderness, pity, regret, as after a pause he proceeded:
"Yonder there, on the hill by the sea, lies buried Rose Standish;
Beautiful rose of love, that bloomed for me by the wayside!
She was the first to die of all who came in the May Flower!
Green above her is growing the field of wheat we have sown there,
Better to hide from the Indian scouts the graves of our people,
Lest they should count them and see how many already have perished!"
Page 14
Sadly his face he averted, and strode up and down, and was thoughtful.
Fixed to the opposite wall was a shelf of books, and among them
Prominent three, distinguished alike for bulk and for binding;
Bariffe's Artillery Guide, and the Commentaries of Cæsar,
Out of the Latin translated by Arthur Goldinge of London,
And, as if guarded by these, between them was standing the Bible.
Musing a moment before them, Miles Standish paused, as if doubtful
Which of the three he should choose for his consolation and comfort,
Whether the wars of the Hebrews, the famous campaigns of the Romans,
Or the Artillery practice, designed for belligerent Christians.
Page 15
| i don't know |
Whose Law states that galaxies are moving apart at a rate that increases with their distance ? A telescope was named after him ? | Hubble law and the expanding universe
Expanding Universe
The distant galaxies we see in all directions are moving away from the Earth, as evidenced by their red shifts . Hubble's law describes this expansion.
The fact that we see other galaxies moving away from us does not imply that we are the center of the universe! All galaxies will see other galaxies moving away from them in an expanding universe unless the other galaxies are part of the same gravitationally bound group or cluster of galaxies. A rising loaf of raisin bread is a good visual model: each raisin will see all other raisins moving away from it as the loaf expands.
The fact that the universe is expanding then raises the question "Will it always expand?" Since the action of gravity works against the expansion, then if the density were large enough, the expansion would stop and the universe would collapse in a "big crunch". This is called a closed universe. If the density were small enough, the expansion would continue forever (an open universe). At a certain precise critical density, the universe would asymtotically approach zero expansion rate, but never collapse. Remarkably, all evidence indicates that the universe is very close to that critical density. Discussions about the expansion of the universe often refer to a density parameter Ω which is the density divided by the critical density, such that Ω = 1 represents the critical density condition.
Go Back
Hubble's Law
Hubble's law is a statement of a direct correlation between the distance to a galaxy and its recessional velocity as determined by the red shift . It can be stated as
The reported value of the Hubble parameter has varied widely over the years, testament to the difficulty of astronomical distance measurement . But with high precision experiments after 1990 the range of the reported values has narrowed greatly to values in the range
An often mentioned problem for the Hubble law is Stefan's Quintet. Four of these five stars have similar red shifts but the fifth is quite different, and they appear to be interacting.
The Particle Data Group documents quote a "best modern value" of the Hubble parameter as 72 km/s per megaparsec (+/- 10%). This value comes from the use of type Ia supernovae (which give relative distances to about 5%) along with data from Cepheid variables gathered by the Hubble Space Telescope . The WMAP mission data leads to a Hubble constant of 71 +/- 5% km/s per megaparsec.
Go Back
Hubble Parameter
The proportionality between recession velocity and distance in the Hubble Law is called the Hubble constant, or more appropriately the Hubble parameter we have a history of revising it. In recent years the value of the Hubble parameter has been considerably refined, and the current value given by the WMAP mission is 71 km/s per megaparsec.
The recession velocities of distant galaxies are known from the red shift , but the distances are much more uncertain. Distance measurement to nearby galaxies uses Cepheid variables as the main standard candle, but more distant galaxies must be examined to determine the Hubble constant since the direct Cepheid distances are all within the range of the gravitational pull of the local cluster. Use of the Hubble Space Telescope has permitted the detection of Cepheid variables in the Virgo cluster which have contributed to refinement of the distance scale.
The Particle Data Group documents quote a "best modern value" of the Hubble constant as 72 km/s per megaparsec (+/- 10%). This value comes from the use of type Ia supernovae (which give relative distances to about 5%) along with data from Cepheid variables gathered by the Hubble Space Telescope . The value from the WMAP survey is 71 km/s per megaparsec.
Another approach to the Hubble parameter gives emphasis to the fact that space itself is expanding, and at any given time can be described by a dimensionless scale factor R(t). The Hubble parameter is the ratio of the rate of change of the scale factor to the current value of the scale factor R:
The scale factor R for a given observed object in the expanding universe relative to R0 = 1 at the present time may be implied from the z parameter expression of the redshift. The Hubble parameter has the dimensions of inverse time, so a Hubble time tH may be obtained by inverting the present value of the Hubble parameter.
One must use caution in interpreting this "Hubble time" since the relationship of the expansion time to the Hubble time is different for the radiation dominated era and the mass dominated era. Projections of the expansion time may be made from the expansion models .
| Hubble Space Telescope |
Which museum was originally housed in a London mansion called Montague House ? | AST 101: Homework Solutions
AST 101: Introduction to Astronomy
Homework Solutions
Spring 2007
Updated 27 January
The following are the answers to the homework assignments. We provide these so that you may check your answers, and determine whether or not you have answered correctly. It is most important that you know HOW to solve these problems. If you do not arrive at these answers, you should check with the TA or your instructor.
Week of January 22
Chapter 1:
1. A geocentric universe is an Earth-centered universe (everything in our solar system revolving around the Earth). Our modern view is a heliocentric universe or a Sun-centered universe (everything in our solar system revolving around the Sun). 4. Carl Sagan use to say we are "star stuff" because most of the material from which we are made was created inside stars that died before the birth of our Sun. 5. Light travels 300,000 km/s. A light year is the distance that light travels in one year. 6. The quote mentioned means that since light takes time to travel through space, anything that we look at is as old as the time it takes for the light from the object to get to us. 12. Our galaxy is a spiral shape with a central bulge. Extending from this bulge are spiral arms. Our solar system, along with surrounding stars, move randomly relative to one another. 15. No, there is one star in our solar system and galaxies contain millions to trillions of stars. 16. No, a light year is a measurement of distance, not time. 17. No, a light year is a measurement of distance, not time. 18. Yes because the space ship is traveling the distance of one light year in the time of a decade. 19. No, because the definition of a moon is an object that orbits a planet. 20. No, because we do not have the right technology for interstellar travel. The distance to travel to get to the edge of our galaxy is around 22,000 light years, and that's if we traveled at the speed of light. 21. No, if the universe were only 6 billion years old, our observable universe would consist of objects that lie within 6 billion light years. Now that our universe is 13.7 billion years old, our observable universe consists of objects that lie within 13.7 billion light years. 22. Yes, because light takes time to travel through space. 23. No, because the Earth is far to small to be able to use a basketball to represent it if one is using a park to represent our solar system. In the Voyage Model, the Earth is the size of a pall point pen and at a distance of 15 meters from the Sun. 24. No, it is true that all galaxies look to be moving away from us but, reviewing the raisin cake analogy, since we do not believe that the universe has a center and edges, we could go to any point in the universe and see galaxies moving away from wherever we are. 25. A. Going from smallest to largest we have: earth, the solar system, the Milky Way Galaxy, the Local Group, the Local Supercluster, and finally the universe. 30. B. This is the Voyage Model. 31. A. Assuming that there are 100 billion galaxies each containing 100 billion stars, the number of grains of sand on the Earth is comparable to the amount of stars in the observable universe.
Week of January 29
Chapter 2 1. A constellation is a region of the sky with well-defined borders. They got their names from the International Astronomical Union (IAU) choosing constellation names that were familiar to American and European astronomers. Constellations visible in the Northern hemisphere have names that can be traced back to civilizations of the ancient middle east and constellations visible in the southern hemisphere carry names that originated with 17th century European explorers. 5. We can only measure angular sizes and angular distances for objects in the sky because we lack depth perception on the celestial sphere, making us unable to judge the true size or separation of objects that we observe. Arcminutes and arcseconds are finer gradations the angular size or angular distance of an object. One arcminute is 1/60 of a degree and one arcsecond is 1/60 of an arcminute. 11. Precession is the gradual wobble of the axis of a rotating object around a vertical line. It is due to a torque, a force acting perpendicular to the rotation axis. Precession affects the sky that we see from Earth because as of right now our axis is pointing towards Polaris but in around 13,000 years from now, because of precession, our axis will point towards Vega, making Vega our new North Star. 15. Apparent retrograde motion of the planets is when the planet, which normally moves eastward relative to the stars, appears to move westward relative to the stars. This concept was difficult for early astronomers to explain because they believed that we lived in an Earth-centered solar system. 17. No, the constellation Orion was seen by the Greeks so if they were able to see Orion, then your grandfather saw it too. 18. No, the dark lanes appear in regions where dense interstellar clouds obscure our views of stars behind them, so we would not be able to see a cluster of distant galaxies. 19. No, even when the moon is at its closest to earth, the angular distance is about 1/2 degree and could never stretch for a mile across the sky. 20. Yes, the constellations vary with latitude because the observer's latitude determines the orientation of their horizon relative to the celestial sphere. 21. No, the Big Dipper is not part of any if the constellations that are on the ecliptic. 22. Yes, retrograde motion is when the planets are moving westward relative to the stars. 23. No, our planet rotates from west to east, making the planets, sun, moon, and stars appear to move east to west. There would be no way for a star to move in the opposite direction. 24. No, the reason that we have seasons is because of the tilt of the Earth's axis by 23.5 degrees. 25. No, precession affects the direction that the Earth's axis is pointed, it has nothing to do with the seasons. 26. Yes, the full moon sets around sunrise because at the time of the full moon, the moon is opposite the sun. 27. C- may actually be very far away from each other. 30. A- the axis points toward the Sun 33. B- third quarter 35. A- the Moon's phase is full Chapter S.1 1. A solar day is longer than a sidereal day because in a solar day, the Earth has to rotate an extra degree to point back to the sun. A sidereal day is the time between successive appearances of any particular star on the meridian. 4. The circumstances that are needed to see a transit of a planet across the Sun are that the planet has to be nearer than Earth to the Sun. Only Mercury and Venus can transit the Sun. 8. Declination and right ascension are how we locate objects in the celestial sphere. Declination is analogous to latitude, and is measured in degrees, but on the celestial sphere and right ascension is analogous to longitude, but is measured in units of time. 9. The sun's celestial coordinates change over the course of each year because the suns declination varies. Since the declination varies over the course of a year, the path of the sun also changes. 15. No, because at its greatest eastern elongation, the planet is at 46 degrees east of the sun, and sets before midnight. 16. No, the apparent solar time is based on the position of the sun in the local sky. The sun cannot set when the apparent solar time is noon. 17. Yes, because mean solar clocks that are farther west are behind of clocks that are east. 18. No, Baltimore and Washington, D.C. are in the same time zone so they have the same standard time. 19. No, there is no way to find Jupiter since there is nothing to tell us what Jupiter is 45 degrees south of. 20. No, the statement doesn't tell us where we are measuring Orion's belt from. 21. No, on the celestial sphere we measure objects with right ascension and declination, not with altitude. 22. No, right ascension tells us how far an object is relative to the spring equinox on the celestial sphere, it cannot be used to measure distances between two places on the Earth. 23. Yes, the distance between summer solstice and the vernal equinox is 6 hours of right ascension. 24. No, to find your longitude, you must know the position of the Sun or a star in your sky and its position at the same time in the sky of some specific location. 30. A: declination 34. A: measure its altitude when it crosses the meridian
Week of February 5
Chapter 3 1. Scientific thinking is natural to all of us because it deals with careful observations along with trial and error that we use in everyday life. Modern science differs form everyday type of thinking because they are trained to organize everyday thinking in a way that makes it easier for them to share their discoveries. 2. Ancient people studied astronomy to keep track of time and seasons, which was crucial for farmers. Egyptians - huge obelisks that probably served as clocks Stonehedge - helped ancient cultures mark the seasons Aztecs - Temple Mayor used to mark the seasons Anasazi - sun dagger to mark the suns position on special dates such as summer and winter solstice Greek - Metonic cycle; 19 yr. cycle on which the dates of lunar phases repeat Babylonians - predicting eclipses with the help of 18 yr. Saros cycle 6. A model in science is a conceptual representation whose purpose is to explain and predict observed phenomena. 10. The Copernican model wasn't immediately accepted because it was less accurate than the accepted geocentric Ptolemaic model. It was simpler. But to match observations using circular orbits, one needed to add epicycles, which resulted in a model as complex as the Ptolemaic model, differing only in the central object. Tycho helped Copernicus' model with accurate, naked eye observations. Kepler found a model of planetary motion to fit Tycho's data and also found his three laws of planetary motion. Galileo, using his telescope, saw sunspots on an "imperfect" sun, craters on an "imperfect" moon, and saw 4 of Jupiter's moons orbiting Jupiter, crushing the notion that everything revolves around Earth and the complaints that the Moon could not stay with a moving Earth. 13. A hypothesis in science is a tentative model proposed to explain observed facts, but has not been rigorously tested. A theory in science is a model of some aspect of nature that has been rigorously tested and has passed all tests to date. 14. The three hallmarks of science are: modern science seeks explanations for observed phenomena that rely solely on natural causes (Tycho's careful measurements of planetary motion motivated Kepler to come up with a better fitting model), science progresses through the creation and testing of models of nature that explain the observations as clearly as possible (several competing models were tested, most notably yhose of Copernicus, Kepler, and Ptolemy), and a scientific model must make testable predictions about natural phenomena that would force one to revise or abandon the model (the model could make predictions about the motions of the planets, moon, and sun). Occam's razor is a principle often used stating that scientists should prefer the simpler of two models that agree equally well with observations. Science doesn't accept personal testimony as evidence because it can't be verifiable by everyone, whereas a scientific test can be. 17. False, it wasn't because they weren't as smart as we are today, they didn't have the necessary tools to look at the sky during their time of observation (ex. the telescope). 18. True, Egyptian "hours" varied in length because of the amount of daylight varies during the year. A child would have a longer "summer hour" than a "winter hour". It wasn't until later that an hour became fixed. 19. True, since our seven days were named after the sun, moon, and all observable planets at the time, if Uranus were observed at that time, a day might have been named for it. 20. False, a lunar calendar only has 354-355 days in a year. Our Christmas would occur 11 days earlier with each subsequent year, like Ramadan. 21. False, the Big Dipper is only observable in the Northern Hemisphere. If they are in the southern pacific, below the equator, they could not see the Big Dipper. 30. A: it made significantly better predictions of planetary positions in our sky. 32. B: Earth travels faster in its orbit around the Sun in January than in July. 36. B: Science advances only through the scientific method
Week of February 12
Chapter 4 1. Speed is the rate at which an object is moving while velocity is the rate and direction at which an object is moving. An example of an object moving at a constant speed but not velocity is an object moving at the same speed, but constantly changing its direction. 2. Acceleration is the change in velocity. Acceleration of gravity is the change in velocity of a falling object. The units of acceleration mean that an object is changing its velocity with each passing second. 3. Momentum is the mass of an object multiplied by its velocity. Momentum can be affected by a force causing the object to accelerate, changing the objects velocity. The net force acting on an object represents all the individual forces acting on the object put together. 9. A rock that you hold out the window of a 10-story building has more potential energy than a rock on the ground because the rock 10 stories up has more stored energy to convert to kinetic energy if it falls. A rock on the ground has no potential energy. 12. An orbit is a trajectory in space. In a bound orbit. an object goes around another object (e.g. our Earth and the Sun) over and over again. An unbound orbit is when an object goes around another object only once. The 4 types of orbital shapes are: hyperbolic, parabolic, ellipse, and circle. 18. No. One would not fall at the same rate on Earth as on the Moon because the your acceleration depends on the mass of the object that you are falling to. Since the Earth's mass is more than the mass of the Moon, one would fall faster on Earth than on the Moon. 19. No, since the strength of gravity is weaker on the Moon, the weight of the chocolate would be less on the Moon than here on Earth so you would get more chocolate on the Moon than on Earth even though the mass of the chocolate on Earth is the same as on the Moon. 20. Yes, by entering a vacuum chamber, you get rid of all air resistance that would cause the feather to fall at a slower rate than the rock. Inside the vacuum, they fall at the same rate. 21. Yes, outside the space station the astronaut becomes weightless which is the result of the astronaut falling without any resistance to slow them down (free-fall). 22. Yes, if given the period of Titan, the distance from the center of Saturn to Titan one can calculate the mass of Saturn by using Newton's version of KeplerN!NGs third law. 23. Yes, if we were able to replace the Sun with a giant rock with the same mass, because both the Earth and the Sun orbit around their center of mass, the Earth's orbit would go unchanged since now it will be the Earth and rock that orbit around the same center of mass that the Sun and Earth had. 24. No, scientists are able to explain the fact that the Moon rotates once in precisely the time it takes to orbit the Earth due to the consequence of tidal friction, friction within an object that is caused by a tidal force. 25. No, tides affect both land and ocean, though it is easier to see the affects on the ocean. If Venus had a moon, tides would be created by the difference in the force of attraction between different parts of Venus and the moon. 26. No, the only thing that Earth would do would be for it to cause the asteroid to lose orbital energy, changing the unbound orbit to a bound orbit around the Sun, not Earth. 27. Yes, since Kinetic Energy is energy in motion, an object moving at a slower speed will have less Kinetic Energy than an object moving at a faster speed. 28. No, because energy can never be created or destroyed (conservation of energy), an engine will produce only as much energy as it consumes. 32. A: completely false 34. C: exactly the same as its angular momentum at aphelion.
Week of February 19
Chapter 5 2. A spectrum is the result of dispersing a beam of electromagnetic radiation so that components of different wavelengths are separated. We see a spectrum by passing light through a prism and seeing a rainbow of color (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet). 4. In everyday life a particle would be a pebble and a wave would be the ripples in the water when you through the pebble in the water. A wavelength is the length form one crest to the next (or one trough to the next), the frequency of the wave is the number of peaks that pass a given position every second, and the speed of the wave is how fast the peaks travel. 8. An atom consists of a nucleus, inside being protons and neutrons, and one or more electrons orbiting the nucleus. An atom is extremely tiny (billions would fill the dot at the end if this sentence). The nucleus is about 100,000 times smaller than an atom. 9. The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus. The atomic mass number is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. Different isotopes of the same atom have different numbers of neutrons, but the same number of protons. 14. For a continuous spectrum, one would need a hot light source and a prism. For an emission line spectrum, one would need a thin or low-density cloud of gas. The atoms in this gas emit only at specific colors seen by using a prism. For an absorption line spectrum there is a hot light source, a cooler gas cloud absorbing the light at wavelengths determined by the cloud's temperature and composition, and a prism to see the dark absorption lines over the background rainbow from the light source. 18. The Doppler effect tells us how fast an object is moving toward or away from us. When an object is moving towards us its entire spectrum is shifted to shorter wavelengths because the light waves bunch up between us and the object. When the object is moving away from us the spectrum is shifted to longer wavelengths. The Doppler effect widens the spectral lines of rotating objects because the faster an object is rotating, the broader in wavelength the spectral lines become. The overall spectral line is wider because the light is spread over a greater range of wavelengths. 19. Yes, if this were not true we would not be able to listen to radios inside buildings. 20. No, all of the electromagnetic spectrum has a speed of 3x10^5 km/s. The only changes would be with the wavelength and frequency of each. 21. Yes, since molecules moving around in a warm object emit infrared light and we are at a temperature of 100 degrees, if we closed our eyes, we would see a glow (if we saw in infrared of course). 22. No, since nothing emits X-rays of their own, there would be nothing to see with the X-ray vision. 23. No, the two isotopes could only differ in the amount of neutrons, not the number of protons. 24. Yes, a "white hot" object is hotter than a "red hot" object because the red hot object has longer wavelength giving off a lower temperature compared to the white light which is a combination of all the colors in the spectrum. 25. Yes, if the temperature increased, according to Wein's Law, the peak in wavelength would be more towards the ultraviolet range of the spectrum with the visible decreasing. 26. No, The only color that you would see if you took a spectrum of light from the blue sweatshirt would be blue because all the other colors have been absorbed into the chair, the only color scattered or transmitted is blue. 27. No, the galaxies showing red shits indicate that they are moving away from us, not that they are all red in color. 28. Yes, since if we observe them red-shifted or moving away from us, they will observe us red-shifted or moving away from them. 29. C: it reflects yellow light. 30. A: higher energy and shorter wavelength than red light. 37. A: cooler than our Sun. Chapter 6 2. It's better to have a camera than using your eye if you want to remember your observation or study it in detail further. There are three advantages to having a CCD than photographic film: more sensitive to light, have a much wider dynamic range (more easily record both dim and bright light at the same time), and the image can be manipulated through image processing to bring out details of the image. 9. The three ways that the Earth's atmosphere hinders astronomical observations are light pollution (scattered light caused by human made lights that obscure the view of the sky), turbulence (blurring of images by atmospheric motions), and that most forms of light don't reach all the way to the ground to observe them. If we put a telescope in space, we don't have to worry about light pollution, the telescope wouldn't have to worry about the air in our atmosphere constantly moving, and we would be able to reach all forms of light above our atmosphere. Adaptive optics helps with eliminating much of the blurring from our atmosphere. 13. No, the image could have been blurry due to a number of reasons, turbulence, or the lens could have a deformation in it. One does not know if this is the actual reason why the image was blurry. 14. Yes, since one of the advantages of a CCD is the fact that it has a much wider dynamic range. If using a photographic plate to capture an image of a galaxy, the length of time would be longer and the center of the galaxy would be over-exposed. 15. No, for a reflecting telescope, the primary mirror is larger than the secondary mirror. 16. No, we can't see anything distinctly because of light interference causing a blurring of images that limits a telescopes angular resolution. Also since the telescopes would have to be rather big to see these two stars and not see that they are binary systems the telescopes would have to be on Earth and our atmosphere would blur the image. 17. No, the diffraction limit gets lower with a larger telescope, so a 14-inch telescope would not have a lower diffraction limit than the larger professional telescopes. 18. No, one would need a CCD and a diffraction grating (spectrograph) to do spectroscopy. As for imaging, one uses filters, not a spectrograph. 19. Yes, because the Moon doesn't have an atmosphere. 20. No, X-rays don't reach the ground on Earth; the only way to use an X-ray telescope is to put it in space. 21. No, adaptive optics got rid of some of the blurring, but only visible, a small portion of infrared, and a radio waves are observed from the ground. 22. Yes, interferometry allows multiple telescopes to be linked in a way that allows them to obtain the angular resolution of a much larger telescope. 26. C: above Earth$(B!G(Bs surface. 27. C: it depends: the colors are chosen arbitrarily to represent something about the X-rays recorded by the telescope. 28. C: motion of air in our atmosphere.
Week of February 26
Chapter 14 2. The two forces that are balanced in gravitational equilibrium are the gravity pulling inward and the pressure pushing outward. Gravitational equilibrium makes the Sun hot and dense in its core since pressure increases with depth causing the gas to be hot and dense enough to cause nuclear fusion. The energy released by nuclear fusion heats the gas and maintains the pressure that is needed to cause the nuclear fusion. 4. The Sun consists of a core (the source of the Sun's energy, around 15 million K, and the density is more than 100 times that of water), radiation zone (where energy moves outward in the form of photons and temperature is almost 10 million K), convection zone (energy transported by convection; rising of hot gas and falling of cool gas), photosphere (lowest layer of the atmosphere, temperature around 6,000K, and where you find sunspots), chromosphere (temperature around 10,000K, radiates most of the Sun's ultraviolet light), corona (outer most layer of the atmosphere, extends several million kilometers above the Sun, temperature around 1 million K, and emits most of the Sun's X-rays), and solar wind (a stream of charged particles continually blown outward in all directions from the Sun). 6. Nuclear fusion requires high temperatures because the higher the temperature the harder the collisions since the collisions must occur at very large speeds if they are to come close enough together to fuse. Without the high pressure, the hot plasma would explode into space and no nuclear reactions would occur. 7. The overall nuclear fusion that occurs in the Sun is fusing Hydrogen into Helium. The proton-proton chain has four steps: two protons fuse and form deuterium, deuterium and proton collide and form helium-3, and two helium-3 fuse to form helium-4 releasing two excess protons in the process. 13. Solar activity refers to the short-lived phenomena on the Sun, including the emergence and disappearance of individual sunspots, prominences, and flares. Sunspots are dark blotches on the Sun's surface, solar prominences are gases that gets trapped in the loops of the magnetic fields of the Sun, solar flares are short-lived but intense storms on the Sun's surface which send bursts of X-rays and charged particles shooting into space, and coronal mass ejections are bursts of charged particles from the Sun$(B!G(Bs corona that travel outward into space. 15. Magnetic fields keep sunspots cooler by preventing hot plasma to enter them. The tight magnetic field lines suppress convection within the sunspot and prevent surrounding plasma from entering the sunspot. 17. The sunspot cycle is a cycle in which the average number of sunspots on the Sun gradually rise and falls. Sunspots tend to form at lower latitudes as the cycle progresses and at each solar minimum the Sun's entire magnetic field flips turning the magnetic north into the magnetic south and vice versa. There are longer changes with the sunspot cycle, the number of sunspots can vary dramatically, with sometimes sunspots being absent altogether. 19. Yes, before they understood the concepts of nuclear fusion and fission, astronomers consiered the idea of gravitational contraction for the Sun generating energy. 20. Yes, this is because of the solar thermostat or gravitational equilibrium. 21. No, because of radiative diffusion (or random walk) it takes a very long time for photons that are released to make it to the Sun's surface. 22. No, magnetic fields are invisible so they can't be photographed, we can only photograph their effects. 23. No, Neutrinos don't harm us, but wearing a lead vest won't keep them from going through you, neutrinos rarely interact with anything. 24. Yes, according to the graph in the book, more sunspott will appear in the next 5 years. Right now we are at a minimum. 25. Yes, solar flares sometimes eject large numbers of highly energetic charged particles which can create a geomagnetic storm, hampering radio communications and disrupting electrical power. 26. Yes, by observing them we can study the Sun's interior including if nuclear fusion occurs in the Sun. 27. Yes, sunspots are caused by tightly wound magnetic fields so if we no longer have magetic fields, then we will no longer have sunspots. 28. No, Even with an infrared telescope, one would not be able to observe fusion reactions in the Sun's core. 40. If fusion reactions were to suddenly shut off in the Sun, we would be able to tell by the decrease in the amount of neutrinos that pass though Earth. Eventually, we would notice a decrease in the amount of photons leaving the Sun (due to the random walk that they take). Also, there would be no more gravitational equilibrium, the inward force of the pressure would dominate the outward force of nuclear reactions and the sun would contract. Chapter 15 1. A star's apparent brightness is related to its luminosity expressed in the inverse square law for light. The more luminous a star is, the larger the apparent brightness is. 2. We use stellar parallax to determine a star's distance by comparing observations of a star made six month apart. The inverse of this angular separation is the distance to the star (angular separation in arcseconds and distance in parsecs). Once we know the distance, as well as the apparent brightness of the star, we can use the inverse square law to calculate the luminosity. 4. A star's spectral type is determined by the spectral lines present in the star$(B!G(Bs spectrum. The spectral types go from hottest (O) white stars to the coolest (M) red stars with each letter having numbered subcategories (1-9). The larger the number, the cooler the star. 7. Refer to figure 15.10 for a diagram of the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram. The lower right corner is where you would find cool and dim stars. The upper right is for cool and luminous, the lower left is for hot and dim stars, and the upper left is for hot and luminous stars. 10. Less massive stars have longer lifetimes because they burn through their hydrogen at a slower rate than the massive stars and a stars lifetime depends on its mass and luminosity. 14. Open clusters contain several thousand stars and are found in the disk of a galaxy whereas globular clusters contain hundred of thousands of stars closely compact and found mainly in the halo of the galaxy. 15. The H-R diagrams look different for star clusters of different ages because the main sequence turnoff point will vary for each cluster of stars. The location of the turnoff point gives the age because the hydrogen burning lifetime of the hottest most luminous stars that remain on the main sequence is equal to the clusters age. 16. Yes, F, G, K, and M stars have ionized metals while O, B and A stars are strong in Hydrogen and helium lines. 17. No, two stars that have the same apparent brightness don't have to have the same luminosity because one can be more luminous, but at a further distance than one that is closer and less luminous. 18. Yes, for Alpha Centuri to be closer than Sirius, it would need a larger parallax angle to give a closer distance. 19. No, stars that look blue have hotter surfaces, given by the spectral classification of stars. 20. No, all stars on the main sequence are converting Hydrogen into Helium, it is when they move off of the main sequence that this no longer applies. 21. Yes, the smallest hottest stars are plotted on the lower left side of the H-R diagram. 22. No, stars that are born with more mass live shorter lives because they use up more of their hydrogen fuel at one time than a less massive star. 23. Yes, since O and B stars have the shortest lifetime, those clusters with these stars are generally younger than clusters without. 24. Yes, all stars start off on the main sequence in the beginning of their life. 25. No, our Sun is of average mass, so half the stars in the sky are more massive than our Sun. 36. a) Sirius b) Regulus c) Antares d) Spica, Sirius, Regulus, Fomalhaut, and Alpha Centauri A e) Spica f) Antares g) Alpha Centauri A h) Antares i) Antares j) Aldebaran, Antares, and Canopus>
Week of March 5
Chapter 16 1. The interstellar medium is the gas and dust that fills the space between stars within a galaxy. Its chemical composition is that it is composed mainly of Hydrogen and Helium and a small fraction of heavier elements (for the Milky Way it is 70% Hydrogen, 28% Helium, and 2% heavier elements by mass). We can measure this by use of spectroscopy (observe the spectrum of a star lying behind a cloud of gas and measure the absorption lines the cloud leaves in the stars spectrum. 2. A molecular clouds are cool dense interstellar clouds in which the low temperature allows Hydrogen atoms to pair up into Hydrogen molecules. The temperature is much lower and the density is much higher compared to the rest of the interstellar medium (temperature is 10^3 K and density is 300 molecules/cm^3 3. Interstellar dust is tiny solid flecks of carbon and silicon minerals found in cool interstellar clouds. These dust grains scatter or absorb virtually all the visible light that enters a molecular cloud and stars that are seen near the edges of these molecular clouds appear redder than similar stars outside the cloud (interstellar reddening). Infrared light makes the clouds appear more transparent and allow us to see through the molecular clouds to stars lying at great distances. 10. A protostar is a forming star that has not yet reached the point where sustained fusion can occur in its core. A protostar is formed when a contracting cloud's core starts trapping the thermal energy released by gravitational contraction. As pressure begins to push back harder, the contraction slows down and the central part of the cloud becomes a protostar. Its mass increases with time because the gas just above the protostar rains down on the protostar because there is no longer the pressure support from below to keep them raining down on the protostar. 11. A protostellar disk is a disk of material surrounding a protostar. These disks enable additional matter to accrete onto the protostar because the friction in the disk can transfer angular momentum away from the inner parts of the disk, allowing gas to accrete more easily onto the protostar. 14. Degeneracy pressure is a type of pressure (unrelated to an object's temperature) that arises when electrons or neutrons are packed so tightly that the exclusion and uncertainty principles come into play. Thermal pressure is related to the object's temperature, while degeneracy pressure is not. Degeneracy pressure can support a stellar core against gravity even when the core becomes very cold because since degeneracy pressure does not rise and fall with temperature (will not diminish with time), gravity will never gain the upper hand when the interior of a star is cooling. 16. The maximum mass a star can have is 150 times the mass of the Sun. Radiation pressure limits the maximum mass that a star can have. 17. Very massive stars are less common than low mass stars. 18. Yes, since if using infrared light can make molecular clouds more transparent to see through, one would be able to get a better estimate of the number of stars in our galaxy. 19. No, a molecular cloud will trap the energy to get hot enough for a protostar to form, but a protostar differs from a main sequence star in that it is not hot enough in its core for nuclear fusion to begin. 20. No, low mass stars only form in clouds that are colder and denser than normal (temperature 10-30K and density around 300 molecules/cm^3). 21. No, after becoming a protostar, mass rains down on the protostar and viscosity (friction) in the protostellar disk enables more matter to accrete onto the protostar. 22. Yes, the rotation of the protostar increases with time because of the law of conversation of angular momentum. 23. Yes, since massive star do everything faster, the most massive stars in a cluster can live and die before the youngest ever start nuclear fusion. 24. No, protostars are generally best observed in visible light because the negatively charged ions that are on the surface interact strongly with visible light, not ultraviolet light. 25. No, degeneracy pressure is not affected by temperature, only by density. 26. No, because even if Jupiter was 100 times more massive, it never had nuclear fusion in its core. A star creates its own light, a planet reflects light from a star. 27. No, most of the stars that formed with the Sun are still alive because there are typically 50 stars with masses between 0.5 and 2 solar masses and a few hundred stars with masses less than that. Chapter 17 1. Mass is so important to a star' s life because the amount of mass determines the life that the star will have. We divide stars into 3 groups: low mass (mass less than 2 solar masses), intermediate mass (between 2 and 8 solar masses), and high mass (greater than 8 solar masses). 4. The basic reaction of helium fusion is that it converts 3 helium nuclei into one carbon nucleus. It requires a much higher temperature because Helium repels one another more strongly than Hydrogen so the higher temperature makes the nuclei move at higher speeds. 6. After a low mass star exhausts its core Helium it will expand again and the Helium burning inside such a star never reaches equilibrium but instead proceeds in a series of thermal pulses. Gravitational collapse is halted by degeneracy pressure and the low mass star will eject its outer layers into space. It can't fuse Carbon into heavier elements because the core doesn't get above 600 million K for Carbon fusion to occur. 8. Planetary nebula is the glowing cloud of gas ejected from a low-mass star at the end of its life. The core will be a white dwarf. 10. The stages of life that is in the figure 17.8 are: the Sun starts on the main sequence (nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium), after hydrogen burning ceases helium fusion occurs causing a helium flash (helium burning core into carbon, hydrogen burning shell), after helium burning ceases have thermal pulses and luminosity and radius increases, carbon fusion can't occur because core isn't hot enough so Sun ejects outer layers and the exposed core will emit ultraviolet radiation ionizing the gas (planetary nebula) and after the glow will fade the only remains will be a white dwarf. 17. No, the iron in the blood did come from stars but from more than 4 billion years ago. 18. No, the Sun is not massive enough to end its life as a supernova, only a white dwarf surrounded by a planetary nebula. 19. Yes, hydrogen has a higher mass per nuclear particle than many other elements and this means that fusion of light nuclei into heavier nuclei generates energy. 20. Yes, if two stars are in a close binary with each other, they can exchange masses when one of the stars begins to expand into a red giant. 21. Yes, the more mass star will be more luminous so Earth would be hotter, causing conditions similar to Venus and Jupiter would probably have Earth-like conditions. 22. Yes, because of the core has nuclear fusion of hydrogen into Helium so there would be more Helium in the core today and less Hydrogen now than when the star was born. 23. Yes, since massive stars have shorter lives, supernovas will happen at the end of their lives, which are around 100 million years. 24. Yes, globular clusters contain very old stars, including white dwarfs. 25. No, the core actually gets hotter for nuclear burning of Helium to occur in the core. 26. Yes, though only if the supernova explosion happened a long time ago. 34. C-a. 1 solar mass star in a close binary with a 2 solar mass star
Week of March 12
Chapter 17 35. A - it shrinks and heats up. 36. C - oxygen Chapter 18 1. Degeneracy pressure is a type of pressure that arises when subatomic particles are packed as closely as the laws of quantum mechanics will allow. Electron degeneracy pressure are electrons that are packed as close as quantum mechanics will allow (white dwarfs) and neutron degeneracy pressure is when neutrons are packed as close as quantum mechanics will allow (neutron stars). 2. A typical white dwarf has the mass of the Sun, very high density (a teaspoon of a white dwarf would weigh the same as a small truck), and the size of Earth. The more massive the white dwarf is, the smaller the size of the white dwarf. 5. A nova is the dramatic brightening of a star that lasts for a few weeks and then subsides. They occur when a burst of hydrogen fusion ignites in a shell on the surface of an accreting white dwarf in a binary star system. 9. Neutron stars in a close binary system can accrete hydrogen from their companion forming hot accretion disks. The hot accretion disk emits in X-rays, so the binary looks like an X-ray binary. Some binary star systems appear as X-ray bursters because some neutron stars have frequent bursts of helium fusion igniting on their surfaces. 10. Since space and time are not distinct and that an extremely massive object curves spacetime, the curvature of a black hole becomes greater when approaching the black hole, creating a bottomless pit in spacetime. 12. The passage of your own time as you fall into a black hole stays the same (never slows down or speeds up) but the passage of time in the universe around you increases quite rapidly. This trip would be lethal because the tidal force near the black hole is much, much greater than here on Earth, stretching you apart lengthwise while squeezing you from side to side. 15. False, the maximum mass of a white dwarf can be 1.4 times the mass of the Sun. 16. False, the more massive a white dwarf gets, the smaller the radius gets since the more massive WD has a greater gravity to compress its matter to a much greater density. 17. False, the way to detect a pulsar is to measure the pulses of radio waves from the neutron star. 18. False, we could measure the X-rays from the black hole and see that the X-rays fade when you get closer to the center of the black hole. For a neutron star the center would also be illuminated with X-rays. 19. True, if the Sun turned into a black hole the orbits of the planets would not alter since the mass of the Sun hasn't changed. 20. False, the matter doesn't smash onto the event horizon; it falls through the event horizon. 21. False, a more massive black hole has a larger Schwarzschild radius so if two black holes merged together; the result would be a bigger black hole. 22. True, if gamma-ray bursts channeled their energy into narrow searchlight beams, only some would be visible from Earth, so the amount we detect would be less than the amount that actually occur. 23. False, since the mass of the Sun isn't changing, the tidal force on Earth would not change. 24. True, is the pulsar is moving towards us, the period of the pulsations appears to speed up. 28. C - Earth's orbit would not change. 33. C - a black hole 106 times massive than the Sun.
Week of March 19
1. We use the density of the planet to determine what the planet is made of. Since the density of water is 1 gm/cc and the density of rock is about 3 gm/cc, any planets that have densities of about 1gm/cc are made mostly of ice and those planets with densities around 3gm/cc are composed mainly of rock. 2. The definition of a planet is an object that is about less than 13 Jovian masses that reflects starlight (cannot produce starlight). Since it is less than 13 Jovian masses, it can never generate significant amounts of nuclear energy. 3. A comet has a nucleus, coma, ion tail, and a dust tail. The tails of the comet far exceed the size of the nucleus and the coma. 4. The tail of a comet always points away from the sun because the solar wind carries the ion tail and the weak pressure of the sunlight pushes away the dust tail (radiation pressure). 5. Comets come from the Oort Cloud. The Oort Cloud extends to about 50,000 AU and contains about a trillion comets. 6. The extra-solar planets that have been found are bigger than Earth since the techniques required to find an extra-solar planet (Astrometric Wobble, Doppler Wobble, Photometric techniques etc.) require a massive object to detect these wobbles or the dimming of a star. A small extra-solar planet (like the size of Earth) would not create an effect great enough to be able to measure it.)
Week of April 9
1. Refer to page 593 figure 19.1b for sketch of galaxy. 3. Stars in the disk orbit the galactic center in about the same plane in the same direction while the halo and bulge stars orbit the center of the galaxy with randomly inclined orbits. 4. By using the orbital velocity of the Sun, the distance of the Sun from the galactic center, and the equation M=v^2 r/G (M being the enclosed mass, v being the velocity of the Sun, r being the distance from the Sun to the galactic center, and G being the gravitational constant) we can solve for the enclosed mass. If we take a star at the edge of the our galaxy, since it is at a greater distance and velocity, it should give us a better estimate of the total mass. The problem arises when we realize the velocity seems to never decrease so the mass will never decrease bringing about the introduction to dark matter. 15. The disk population of stars are younger, bluer and have a higher content of heavier elements (metals) while the spheroidal population of stars are much older, more yellow to red in color, and are very metal poor. 19. No, we have never sent a NASA satellite into the galactic halo; all observations have been done on Earth. 20. Yes, the more massive stars that formed and had a supernova, the more elements that could be made to produce planets (i.e. Earth). 21. Yes, since we see in visible, we do not see light that is blocked by gas and dust, but if we saw in the infrared, we could see through the gas and dust, giving us a better view of the galaxy. 22. No, ionization nebulae are found near very hot stars and the halo consists of old cooler stars. 23. Yes, since interstellar dust consists of tiny solid flecks of carbon and silicon minerals. 24. No, we have seen the existence of dark matter because the mass is increasing the farther one moves from the galactic center. 25. No, we know a black hole is at the center of our galaxy because we have observed stars revolving around an object that we cannot see and when we solve for the mass of this unknown object, it is about 3 million times more massive than our Sun. Being that it is so massive but we can't see it, this suggests a black hole. 26. Yes, younger, bluer stars formed in the disk, which unlike the stars in the halo, are higher in mass and go through their stellar evolution quicker so if we sat and watched from outside our galaxy, we would see stars being born and dying over a time of millions of years. 27. No, the gas and dust is decreasing when some of the gas gets locked up in brown dwarfs, never returning to space so in the next 50 billion years or so the rate of star formation will taper off and stop completely. Our galaxy will not look just as bright as it does now, it will look brighter since there will be less gas and dust blocking our view. 28. Yes, disk stars orbit as well as "bob" up and down, while halo stars swoop from high above the disk to below and back at huge velocities far greater than the velocities of the disk stars. 31. C. from the orbits of stars and gas clouds orbiting the galactic center at greater distances than the Sun.
Week of April 16
1. Since we know that galaxies formed when the universe was very young and have aged along with the universe, knowing about the universe will better help astronomers understand the lives of galaxies. 2. The three main types of galaxies are: spiral (disk with spiral arms, bulge and are white or yellow in color), elliptical (bulge, no disk, and look red in color), and irregular (appear neither disk like or round). 4. The disk component is the flat disk n which stars follow orderly, nearly circular orbits around the galactic center and have interstellar gas and dust. The spheroidal component have stars with orbits that are inclined randomly and contain little or no dust. The disk component would have the cool gas giving rise to the active star formation. 5. The main differences between spiral and elliptical galaxies are that spirals have a disk, bulge and halo. The disk will have active star formation being that there is a lot of gas and dust in the disk. In the bulge and halo, there is very little gas and dust so no star formation occurs there. In elliptical galaxies, they lack a disk preventing the elliptical galaxies to have active star formation. This is why stars in elliptical galaxies are very old. 7. A standard candle is an object for which we have some means of knowing its true luminosity, so that we can use its apparent brightness to determine its distance with the luminosity-distance formula. 11. The Cosmological Principle is the idea that matter is distributed uniformly throughout the universe on very large scales, meaning that the universe has neither a center nor an edge. 16. Yes, elliptical galaxies are more "social" than others, so if you want to find a lot of elliptical galaxies, just look for a cluster of galaxies. 17. No, Cepheids are good standard candles because we can measure relationship between the period of a Cepheid and its luminosity (the longer the period, the more luminous the star). They are not all have the same luminosity. 18. No, if you observe a star and suggest that it is less luminous than it really is, using the inverse square law you will obtain a distance that is greater than the actual value. 19. Yes, there is a direct relationship between the velocity of a galaxy and the to the galaxy. So if a galaxy is twice as far away, it is moving twice as fast. 20. No, after you measure the redshift you have to convert it to a velocity and, knowing the Hubble Constant, then you could solve for the distance. The problem is that we don't know exactly what the value of the Hubble Constant is yet. 21. No, because of the Cosmological Principle, our universe has no center or edge. 22. Yes, since the Andromeda galaxy is 2.5 million light-years from us, its lookback time is 2.5 million light-years. 23. No, the universe isn't expanding into anything so you couldn't see the black void. 24. Yes, since our solar system formed around 4.6 billion years ago, if someone looked through a super powerful telescope at a lookback time of 4.6 billion years, they would be able to see our solar system beginning to form. 25. No, nothing moves faster than the speed of light, not even galaxies. We can't see past the age of time before our galaxy was formed. Chapter 21 4. When two galaxies collide they first orbit around one another, much of the gas in the disk of each galaxy collapses towards the center, gravitational forces between the two tears out long streamers of stars, they begin to merge, and the end result is and elliptical galaxy surrounded by debris. 5. Collisions between galaxies are much more common than collisions between stars because the distances are much smaller when dealing with galaxies than with stars. Galaxy collisions were more common in the past than today because there were more back then, but now since it takes two galaxies to collide to form only one galaxy, there are less. 9. Quasars were found by Maarten Schmidt when he was identifying cosmic sources or radio-wave emission. The object that Schmidt was observing had hugely redshifted hydrogen emission lines and, after calculating it, a luminosity a trillion times that of the Sun. This was the first quasar found. Improved imaging showed that high redshifts do really tell the distance to the quasar and by observing active galaxies and radio galaxies; it is easier to learn about the quasar's nature and gives the basic picture of what occurs in a radio galaxy. 13. No, we can see galaxies that have a lookback time of about 13 billion years. 14. No, we are in a local group that was formed from a protogalactic cloud, but the only things around our galaxy are those galaxies that formed with us, not more protogalactic clouds. 15. Yes, elliptical galaxies are formed from high density protogalactic clouds. 16. Yes, if these two galaxies collide, the end result will be an elliptical galaxy. 17. No, it takes a few million years to exhaust all the interstellar gas and dust in a starburst galaxy, not 10 billion years. 18. Yes, because of the galactic wind caused by the super bubble produced by the supernovas within the galaxy, the galactic wind can blow some of the interstellar gas and dust out of the galaxy. 19. No, scientists need to find the mass of the object that stars are orbiting (if you can not see the object that the stars are orbiting) and if the mass is very large, then they can assume it is a black hole. 20. Yes, the massive black hole at the center of a galaxy is the only explanation for how radio galaxies, quasars, and other active galactic nuclei release so much energy in such a small volume. 21.Yes, when looking at a radio galaxy they emit only unusually strong radio waves, along with jets and radio lobes. 22. Yes, the more clouds that the quasar light passes through, the more light that will be absorbed from the light, even if we can$(B!G(Bt detect these protogalactic clouds.
Week of April 23
Chapter 23 2. The Big Bang Theory is the scientific theory of the universe's earliest moments, stating that all the matter in our observable universe came into being at a single moment in time as an extremely hot, dense mixture of subatomic particles and radiation. 5. The four forces are: gravity, strong, weak, and electromagnetic. We believe that there were fewer forces operating in the past because under high temperatures the forces were not so distinct (electromagnetic and weak combined to the electroweak, electroweak and strong combined to GUT, and GUT and gravity combined to super force). 8. There was a slight imbalance between matter and antimatter because if there wasn't then all the matter would collide with the antimatter and we wouldn't be here today if there wasn't any matter. All of the antimatter got annihilated by some of the matter. 14. The three major questions left unanswered by the Big Bang are: the origin of the density enhancements that turned galaxies into larger structures (inflation stretched tiny, random quantum fluctuations to sizes large enough for them to become the density enhancements around which structures later formed), the overall smoothness of the universe on a large scale (prior to inflation everything was close enough to temperatures and densities to equalize), and the fact that the actual density is close to the critical density (inflation caused the universe to expand so much that it appears flat, implying that mass and density equals the critical density). 17. No, if there were equal parts of matter and antimatter, then they would have collided and never formed any galaxies, stars, planets, us, etc. 18. Yes, according to the Big Bang Theory, the CMB was created when energetic photons ionized the neutral hydrogen atoms that originally filled the universe. 19. No, the CMB cannot be explained assuming that it comes from individual stars and galaxies, the CMB would not be smooth. 20. No, according to the Big Bang Theory, most of the helium was created during the era of nucleosynthesis fusing hydrogen into helium, not inside the stars. 21. Yes, inflation stretched tiny random quantum fluctuations into sizes large enough for them to become the density enhancements around which structures later formed. 22. No, the fact that the night sky is dark tells us that we can only observe light from objects in our observable horizon, nothing past that. 23. No, we can test the idea of inflation by exploring whether its predictions are consistent with our observations of the universe at later times. 24. No, in the distant past the spectrum of the CMB peaked at visible light, not infrared. 25. No, the main reason that the night sky is dark is because we can only observe objects in our observable horizon, nothing further back in time than that. 26. No, looking at the CMB we are seeing back to a time when the universe was only 380,000 years old, not three minutes. Chapter S3 4. The equivalence principle is the fundamental starting point for general relativity, which states that the effects of gravity are exactly equivalent to the effects of acceleration. 5. A dimension describes the number of independent directions in which movement is possible, a point has zero dimensions (no movement is possible), a line is when you sweep a point back and forth in one direction, a plane is when you sweep that line back and forth in one direction, a three-dimensional space is taking that plane and sweeping it back and forth in one direction, and a four dimensional space is sweeping space back and forth in some other direction. Hyperspace means beyond space (any space with more than three dimensions). 12. Gravity, according to general relativity, arises form the curvature of spacetime, the more massive the object, the more curved spacetime is. With this view, the Earth orbits the Sun because the Earth is following the straightest possible paths allowed by the curvature of spacetime. The curvature of spacetime causes its path through space to go round and round. 17. Gravitational lensing is the magnification or distortion of an image caused by light bending through a gravitational field. According to general relativity, this occurs because when starlight passes near a large object, the curvature of spacetime causes a shift in the objects apparent position. 21. Yes, the equivalence principle tells us that if we perform an experiment on a spaceship accelerating through space at 1g we will get the same results as if we performed the experiment on Earth. 22. No, the equivalence principle talks about the effects of gravity on experiments, not about planets and spaceships. 23. Yes, observers in different reference frames may measure space and time differently even though they are all observing the same four-dimensional spacetime reality. 24. No, you could look for the effects a black hole has on other nearby stars (stars rotating around an unseen object), but you can't observe a black hole by looking for funnel-shaped objects in space. 25. Yes, because the Sun is more massive time runs slightly slower on the surface of the Sun than on Earth.
Week of April 30
1. Dark matter is the name given to the unseen mass whose gravity governs the observed motions of stars and gas clouds. Dark energy is the name given to whatever may be causing the expansion of the universe to accelerate. Observing orbital velocities of stars in galaxies to calculate the total mass shows that the mass calculated is far more than the mass observed (evidence for dark matter) and observations of distant supernovae indicate the expansion of the universe is speeding up (evidence for dark energy). 2. A rotation curve is a graph that rotational velocity against distance from the center for any object or set of objects. The rotation curve for the Milky Way shoots up and then about 40,000 light years from the center, it stays at the same rotational velocity. If there were no dark matter, the rotational velocity would decrease since there would be less mass at the edge of the galaxy. Because it doesn't do this, it indicates the existence of dark matter. 8. Dark matter is dark because it appears to give off little or no light. Planets, dim stars, and even us can be considered dark matter because all of the examples give of little or no light compared to bright stars and galaxies. 15. The four possible patterns for the expansion of the universe are: recollapsing (no dark energy and the matter density of the universe is greater than the critical density halting the expansion and reversing it), critical (no dark energy and the matter density of the universe equals the critical density causing the expansion to slow down as time progresses but never stopping it completely), coasting (no dark energy and the matter density in the universe is less than the critical density causing the universe to expand forever at its current rate of expansion), and accelerating (existence of dark energy causing the expansion rate to accelerate with time). Observing distant supernovae show that the accelerating expansion seems to be the right choice. 17. Yes, the dark matter and energy that we cannot see make up most of our universe. 18. No, clusters of galaxies are held together by the total mass of the stars as well as the total amount of dark matter in the cluster. 19. Yes, one way to measure the mass of a cluster is to study the distorted images of galaxies whose light passes through the cluster. 20. No, there are such things called super clusters that are many clusters of galaxies together. 21. No, the primary evidence for an accelerating universe comes from observations of distant white dwarf supernovae. 22. No, there is not enough evidence yet to be 100% sure that the universe is going to expand forever, right now they believe so, but forever is a long time. 23. No, dark matter is called dark because it is a mysterious form of mass that appears to emits little or no light. 24. Yes, if the universe had more dark matter than we though, we would be in a recollapsing universe and the age of this universe would be younger than the one we live in now. 25. No, a white dwarf supernova at an extremely far distance will show a larger distance, but a close white dwarf supernova's distance with a particular redshift will not appear larger in a accelerating universe than a universe with no acceleration. 26. No, WIMPs cannot produce photons and rarely interact and exchange energy with other particles.
| i don't know |
"Which British astronomer , who wrote a science fiction novel called ""The Back Cloud"" , is particularly associated with the Steady State theory of the Universe ?" | The best science fiction books | Books | theguardian.com
The best science fiction books
We asked for suggestions of your favourite science fiction books . Here are the results
Thursday 26 May 2011 09.54 BST
Title of book
Roadside Picnic
Arkady & Boris Strugatsky
A novel that works on many levels. Literate. Politically subversive. An insight into the human condition.
Charlie Cornelius
The Left Hand of Darkness
Ursula K. LeGuin
Not only does the book imagine an alien race, but an alien race without genders. However, this never stops the novel from reaching the high levels of characterization and prose that we expect not only from LeGuin, but from the very best of fiction. By the time the reader leaves the world of Winter, their world will never be the same again.
Trystero
Ubik
Philip K Dick
Philip K Dick is the best author in the genre and this is his best book by a street.
pjlythgoe
Dune
Frank Herbert
The lore and narrative is so well written you could almost believe you were there. Stunning.
The_Hillman
Star Maker
Olaf Stapledon
Lacking both character (aside from the self-effacing ghost who narrates) and incident (unless you count descriptions of the evolution and slow collapse of entire species and civilisations), Star Maker is a Dantean tour of the possibilities of cosmic creation, culminating with an extended encounter and biography of the Creator itself -- the titular Star Maker. One of the most visionary, ambitious and influential explorations of the universe ever committed to paper, Stapledon's novel elevates SF to the level of a sacred text.
purserhallard
Coelestis
Paul Park
Coelestis is not a comfortable read. But it is one of those science fiction novels which can change the way you look at the world. And there are remarkably few of them.
ian_sales
Little, Big
John Crowley
This book is perfect in every respect. The story is rich and satisfying in every detail, the characters are unforgettable, and the language is so good that you want to read every sentence twice. I always keep an extra copy in the house, because when it gets borrowed, it tends never to come back (but that's OK).
Adele
Bug Jack Barron
Norman Spinrad
Experimental, funny and achingly prescient. Set the blueprint for cyberpunk and given all the fuss it kicked up over Arts Council funding, now seems oddly relevant all over again.
DrTum84
StarMaker
Olaf Stapledon
Hard to adequately describe the majesty of this book. Vast breadth and depth. I'd use the phrases 'mind blowing' or 'mind expanding' if they weren't such cliches. Hopefully someone else can do more justice to it in their recommendation, but all I can say is you come away from it with a different perspective on the universe.
AkaSomethingElse
Neverness
David Zindell
I'm amazed that Zindell is not more popular than he is. First, a misconception. This book is described as hard SF - I don't agree. Sure, it deals with complex mathematical concepts, the far-future evolution of humanity...but it does so in a poetic, mythic way. It also covers philospophy, religion...This is a SF Odyssey, it is Homeric in its ambition, and it has quite the most beautiful prose I have ever read in a SF novel. Each chapter seemed to me a novella in its scope and depth when I read it. This is an epic quest of a book.
TokenGesture
The Stainless Steel Rat
Harry Harrison
It is purely fun and wacky. Relatively soft but with hard elements. It gives a glimpse into one of our many possible futures and problems we may face in the future. The characters are nicely fitted into stereotypes and work well together and the stories are outlandish enough to keep interest but they're not too much.
DeGriz
Ubik
Philip K Dick
Classic PKD. Deranged paranoia, mind-bending ideas and lots of humour. This last point is crucial as all the Hollywood adaptations of Dick have lack his wit and irony. Indeed, don't think any film version of Dick has really captured his tone properly.
Laszlo Kovacs
Schismatrix
Bruce Sterling
Gritty, satirical, thrilling, terrifying, mindblowing... I could throw adjectives at this book for the rest of my life and make every one of them stick. Schismatrix not only helped birth what we now think of as the "New Space Opera" (e.g. Iain M Banks, Alastair Reynolds), but was arguably the first novel to imagine a plausible posthuman solar system, riven by ideologies and wild economics, teeming with conflict and graft, and packed with moments of pure sensawunda. Best of all, apart from the handful of short stories set in the same fictional universe, Sterling never felt the need to cash in on the critical success of Schismatrix with sequels; the end result is a novel that still reads as fresh and powerful to this day, more than a quarter of a century after its initial publication.
@PaulGrahamRaven
We
Yevgeny Zamyatin
While not as evidently prescient as Huxley or Orwell, Zamyatin explores a potential extrapolation of the Soviet ideal. Some may call it a reductio ad absurdum but ultimately it highlights the dangers of the worship of technology, the establishment of systems and rules and progress - while it is full of allusions to the early Soviet state, it has a universal message which is certainly interesting - furthermore, its relatively inconclusive ending evades traditional dystopian SF tropes of the revolution or regime change per se.
R042
The Player of Games
Iain M Banks
A very accessible book by which to begin reading Banks, an author whose core franchise/setting appears impenetrable. While its plot can be considered a simple adventure or mystery, Banks' real strength is in realising a genuinely alien futuristic society which at the same time uses elements of the contemporary world, at times exaggerated, in unfamiliar or extreme ways. On a purely superficial level, the detail with which Banks describes the society depicted, and the impossibly complex alien games which form the core of the plot, ignite the imagination in a way only the best SF does.
R042
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
Philip K. Dick
'He writes about drugs doesn't he' a lecturer annoyingly once said to me. Well the answer is yes sometimes and particularly in this book albeit some unknown space drug. But like the genre of sci-fi itself Dick uses such concepts as vehicles for what I would see as Dicks’ big idea. Put very simply he recognises that when something or anything is looked at more closely reality and consciousness will change ultimately meaning that both are unstable. In Dicks books this manifests itself firstly in paranoia and then to transcendence. I recognise this as something very human and very real, the cracks in our reality are always there and beckoning us to investigate; it’s why we know the earth to be spherical and not flat. With Dick the journey to transcendence or new forms of understanding can be a very stressful one for his protagonists.
dazdazza
Battle Royale
Koushun Takami
While some might consider this novel a pulp horror twist on Lord of the Flies, it is given a new dimension if read with knowledge of Japanese contemporary history and perceptions of young people. It plays on fears of juvenile delinquency and student violence, which is a common theme across popular culture (youth gangs and violent schools feature prominently, another example being the recent film Confessions) and then mixes it with ideas of how willing anyone is to kill for self defence or self-promotion. A challenging and interesting book best read with some understanding of the culture within which it was written (although the film adaptation is also of high quality).
R042
Foundation
Issac Azimov
The cleverest Sci-Fi book i've ever read. A classicand the reason that Azimov deserves his moniker of the father of Science Fiction.
Simian
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Douglas Adams
This book features on every 'Best of' list at some time or other and there's a good reason: it is a hilariously perfect and lovingly absurd journey of a simple human being through the wild riot that is existence. So much of science fiction focuses on heavy subject matter without a drip of humor. Adams wants us to laugh at it all, the pretentiousness and the craziness and never forget our towel.
dijeratic
The Forever War
Joe Haldeman
War as a constant theme, messed up with embryonic sleeps through hyper speed jumps across the universe, to fight in a ship that is now 10 years out of date. Multi-platform emotional relationships and an unknown foe. What's not to like?
wearethedx16
Neuromancer
William Gibson
The aliens will need to know what humanity was like (even if only to recreate us as a digital slave race in their virtual reality matrix), and if any single author grasps the state of our technological society today it is William Gibson. I was 14 when I first read Neuromancer, one of the first generation to grow up hooked in to the computer-generated realities that Gibson so presciently explores. For me and for millions of others who live in the modern reality of computers and the internet, William Gibson's imagined future is closer to the truth of now than any work of realist literature.
Damien G Walter
Vurt
Jeff Noon
If you liked Neiromancer, you'll probably like this. Good cyberpunk vibe to it and some literary pretentions , going with a wellpaced, nicely written, occasionally twisted little book.
lawrencegillies
Argonautica
Apollonius Rhodius
It has survived a damn sight longer than most 'real' scfi novels ever will. And it's a great yarn.
BillyMills
Sentimental Agents of the Volyen Empire
Doris Lessing
It's got everything - essentially it's about Imperialism and Rhetoric, but it has many lessons and much wisdom for those interested in learning about Imperialism, especially the modern-day form of 'Aid' and 'helping the natives' - but then justifications for Imperialism have usually been wrapped up in fluffy-feel-good 'humanitarian' terms
Hu Bris
More Than Human
Theodore Sturgeon
A good SF novel should be, above all things, a good novel. Sturgeon, a great short-story writer, uses the genre to explore what it is to be human, and how we can strive to be more. It is a novel of discovery, but also a novel of compassion and hope. It's also a cracking good read!
Twelvetrees
Perdido Street Station
China Mieville
Despite some dubious plot points Perdido Street Station features one of the most mesmerising and terrifying monsters I've ever come across. Described with a stunning, fluid, dreamlike intensity, in a wonderfully rendered world, the Slake Moths made Perdido Street Station the most memorable sf novel I've read.
mr.riff
The Algebraist
Iain M. Banks
Iain M. Banks novels are great because you have to think quite hard to understand them while you're reading them. I normally read pretty fast, but I have to slow down to read an Iain M. Banks. Which is appropriate for The Algebraist because he created a whole species of creatures, The Dwellers, that are 'slow'. They live for aeons, on gas giants, and little things like having a conversation can go on for centuries for them. When I read this book I thought that was the most wonderful idea, that we can't communicate with some entities because we're simply on a different time scale. The fun of reading Iain M. Banks novels is that somehow he manages to think of these things, that once you've got your head round make perfect sense but you might never have thought of yourself.
JudeNicho
Foundation series (or any book about Robotics)
Isaac Asimov
The Laws of Robotics have been one of the guiding ethical codes of my life - and should be for any good person, I believe. I was very surprised that not a single person mentioned Asimov as their favourite, despite him having such a wide repertoire.
ASMorgan
Lost Dorsai
Gordon R. Dickson
This is a strange little novelette in the middle of Dickson's epic "Dorsai" series. It tells the tale of a pacifist Dorsai who like all Dorsai is in the military, but whose weapon is the bagpipes. Surrounded in a fortress by hordes of clansmen on a Spanish speaking planet, he uses music to insult and infuriate the hordes and sacrifice himself to win the battle. His honour and courage and the creativity of the cultural values described make this story one my favorites of all time.
Mainer7
The forever War
Joe Haldeman
Ridley Scott is working up the film project now. Superb book, though if you have seen Starship Troopers the film it can spoil it a bit.
WIllB42
Its scary, funny and unusually for PKD its got lots of heart
trickydicky
The Stars My Destination
Alfred Bester
Gully Foyle is a refreshing bastard of a hero. He's agressive, selfish and mean and deserves everything he gets... only he ends up dishing out just deserts to his enemies anyway. Very cool book (goes a little freaky at the end)
wearethedx16
Chocky
John Wyndham
A beautifully simple idea (a child with an invisible friend) that as the book progresses becomes more intriguing and more dangerous at the same time. Also - it's an easy read that can encourage youngsters to take up SF.
phil west
Ender's Game
Orson Scott Card
Brilliant short story about the exploitation of a young gaming genius by the military, published originally in 1977. Unfortunately got expanded into a series of novels, but the original is a chillling political parable, which has gained resonance in the era of child soldiers and xbox
rosaa
Because it grows page by page into an awesom book
Asimov
Us
Evgenij Zamjatin
it's a great book. precursor 0f 1984. not new but still a kick in the stomach
tommasik
Jurassic Park
Michael Crichton
Not only does it have dinosaurs, humour, adventure and a loss of control of the environment in which the protagonists find themselves, but unlike the film version it examines the importance of chaos theory which is what makes it SF for me. Two more choices in no order of priority: Rendezvous with Rama - Arthur C Clark The Gates - John Connolly (The LHC opens the gates to hell) for younger readers ( and me!)
milinovak
Still fresh though first published in 1948
PsyBorg
Hard-boiled Wonderland and the End of the World
Haruki Murakami
Murakami is our greatest living writer, and whilst most of his books have flights of fancy that could loosely align them with SF, this is his full-blown masterpiece.
DanHolloway
Stranger In A Strange Land
Robert A. Heinlein
Discovered it when I was 11 or 12, in the adult section of the local public library. It opened me up to the world of "what if" that has remained to this day. I was hooked on Science Fiction since. Mike V. Smith is human, only he was born on Mars, and raised there. That has caused him to think a bit differently, and use more of his brain than the rest of us do. When the full version of the book was finally released, I also bought a copy of it. Using it as a way to look at life, and how we can treat one another, as opposed to how we do responded to daily life, remains fascinating. It does not cease to teach. I have given copies of it away, as gifts, to whomever asks "Why do you like to read that junk, anyway?" Somehow, it seems to answer their questions.
Josh
I, Robot
Isaac Asimov
Asimov's robot stories not only present a coherent, imaginative vision of the future, but also give us an insight into the ways in which he and others during his lifetime thought about and presented the future. Not only that, but he writes excellent prose and the stories he conceived are always clever and illuminate the human condition. I wish very much that he was alive today to see the innovations that are happening now.
fluoronaut
Stranger in a Strange Land
Heinlin?
It's an SF story that's really all about humanity, including man's inhumanity to man.
Belsane
Anathem
Neal Stephenson
It's really the history of philosophy disguised as SF (but don't let that put you off)
Versace
The all-time classic of SF
Versace
Solaris
Stanislaw Lem
I would recomend this book because it deals with exactly what science fiction means to discuss: the unknown. Lem's best novel is about epistemology, and the our absolute ignorance of what lies beyond the bounds of the earth, and how utterly unprepared we are to encounter it.
bonnequin
Vurt
Jeff Noon
Very very difficult to describe - but it's simply brilliant. It's wildly imaginative, frightening - psychedelic, even. A great, simple story (boy searches for lost sister) set in a future Britain seemingly viewed through early 90s ecstasy-flavoured optimism.
Thatlotnextdoor
Lord of Light
Roger Zelazny
Gods and monsters, budhism v hinduism v christianity in a fight to the finish, the worst pun ever recorded, and a joy in humanity in all of its many aspects and attributes. And yes, it's SF, not fantasy.
mooneym
Dhalgren
Samuel R Delany
I used to re-read this book every couple of years; it's long, confusing at times, but has a wonderful circular narrative that invites further exploration. It's also got a fabulous sense of place (even though the city of Bellona is fictional). Like early McEwan stories, Delany brilliantly captures a sense of urban ennui and although there are elements of hard sci-fi in the book, they are kept in the background, so that the characters are allowed to come through - something quite rare is SF. I also concur with the support for Tiger, Tiger: a thrilling ride.
David Bowman
Flow My Tears The Policeman Said
Philip K Dick
Find it pretty remarkable that such a list would completely omit any of Dick's work. Many of his books are of a high enough standard to be chosen, but 'Flow My Tears The Policeman Said' is one of his best.
American Gods
Neil Gaiman
Not really SF, but a world where gods actually exist counts as imaginative fiction to me. A haunting modern mythic saga.
Versace
The Eye of the World
Robert Jordan
The first and best of the epic series which ultimately became too convuluted. Characters innocent and undeveloped, I wish I could read this for the first time again.
earl
Foundation
Isaac Asimov
The book that kicked off the 'Foundation' saga. The dead hand of Hari Seldon and his new science, the mathematics of psycho-history unfold against a backdrop of the whole galaxy. Asimov was just so full of ideas and happily his characters were full and real people I cared about - he was THE giant of Sci-Fi and 'Foundation' one of dozens I could have chosen.
thesistersofmercy
The Songs of Distant Earth
Arthur C Clarke
This novel is heartbreakingly good in it's evocation of the inhuman distances of space & time between worlds. Morally ambiguous love-story combined with grounded, 'realistic' sci-fi - i cannot believe no has turned this into a film yet....
brett78
A Wrinkle in Time
Madeleine L'Engle
I read it as a child and it has never left me. I believe it leads a young mind to explore "the other" in a different way.
Alexguy
Babel-17
Samuel R. Delaney
Most science fiction, it has been said, is driven by violent conflict; Babel-17 avoids that, having an idea - an untranslatable language - and unpacking it, unfolding out from there. It packs in interesting and human characters, stylish writing, fascinating concepts and ideas, a manic outpouring of intelligent thought, and a great plot, managing to, even now, 45 years after its original publication, be thought-provoking and boundary-pushing.
DanielFranklin
Under The Skin
Michel Faber
Utterly gripping. I love the language and the way the book draws you into an "alien" perspective by the assumption that this perspective is "normal".
KL
Anathem
Neal Stephenson
Much like Jostein Gaarder's 'Sophie's World,' or indeed most of Stephenson's other writing, 'Anathem' is a lesson in science and philosophy wrapped in narrative. In this case, the narrative is sprawling, believable and dramatic, although the middle section feels like a lecture, the purpose of which only becomes apparent towards the end of this weighty novel. The world Stephenson creates is rich and believable, a parallel universe in which science and philosophy are restricted to an odd, codified monastic system - at least until a global crisis places the monks centre stage. Massive, but unmissable.
Wendell Stamps
Foundation
Isaac Asimov
It was one of the first sf novels I read when I was a kid and it blew my mind. The basic idea of taking current trends, creatively extrapolating them into the future and weaving personal as well as social stories from them just stunned me. It got me interested in bridging the divide between maths/physics and the 'ologies'. And my eldest son is called Isaac.
ds
The Gap series
Stephen R Donaldson
The aliens are fascinating but it's all about the characters and getting inside the heads of flawed, damaged, normal human beings!
paganuspaul
Legend
David Gemmell
Not really sci-fi, more fantasy, still a great book to read that gives the world a cracking character - Druss, the Legend of the title. Displays some of the better gamut of human characteristics, without being overly poncy.
tomBstone
Tik Tok
John Sladek
Dark, satirical, laugh out loud funny, ridiculous and scathing. The book follows robot Tik Tok as he realises that he does not have to follow the Asimov laws when he kills a young innocent blind girl just for fun. He soon gets a taste for murder and gets very good at it. Farcical in places with a whole raft of ridiculous characters it draws parallels with the slave trade and the fight for equality. His murderous exploits and cool, calm cunning takes him although way to the top at the White House, his aim: to get his hands on the big war stuff! The novel also takes swipes at celebrity culture, religion, mob mentality and pretty much everything else. It's one of those goto books when a friend asks for a recommendation.
Petecabanna
War of the Worlds
HG Wells
A book that was way ahead of its time, predicting flying machines and total war. Plus it is a great read and adventure story. You believe what you are reading really happended as Martians invide Surrey and London in the late Victorian era. It also created a sub genre of its own the "Alien Invasion" story. A classic novel that stands above all others.
Marky Bunny
Ender's game
Orson Scott Card
Read this, and it's sequels, 20 years ago. Could not put the book down. Finished it in 2 days. Still totally abosrbs me today. Great detailed story about a lonely, little boy. Also fascinating on the military life of Battle School and the Earth's attitude to alien races.
SF Reader
Fall of Hyprion
Dan Simmons
Not just this book but the whole series. Benchmark sci fi novel and whats important is the prose, the ideas expunded in the books and the fact that all my sci fi hating friends read the series on reccomendation and were completely converted.
ddvx220
Amazing book. Incredible vision. Lazurus Long - how I wish to be him!
Everlast
Ringworld
Larry Niven
I was twelve when I read Ringworld, my first adult Science Fiction novel. It sparked a life long love of SF. The central concept of the Ringworld (a constructed habitat that is a ring around a star) is vividly brought to life. The story moves at a pace and the aliens very well imagined - especially the Pearson's Puppeteer. This book is a prime example of why SF will always be a literary form with TV and film being very much the poor relations. I still have that battered second hand copy I read first over thirty years ago and have reread several times since.
Robert Fraser
The Martian Chronicles
Ray Bradbury
Becasue it's a collection of haunting short stories about what would happen when humans got to Mars, each filled with twists, turns and pathos. Like the Martians who defend themselves by changing their appearance to look like humans, to the last human left on the planet after the rest have gone back to Earth. Plus, like all good Sci Fi, it's not really about space, but about humanity.
spleenteam
The Legion of Space
Jack Williamson
As a young boy this book fed my imagination for sci-fi. Having been originally written in the 30s the vivid pictures he paints of far away worlds with bizarre creatures in a swashbuckling story were far ahead of its time. fantastic, something every boy should read!!!
ClayGate
A Canticle for Leibowitz
Walter M Miller
As you say if current human civilization was unexpectedly destroyed, I'd like this to survive as a warning of how it could all happen again.
JohnDear
Golden Witchbreed
Mary Gentle
A distant star: a group of scientists sent to examine its primitive society. An ambassador given permission to roam. The discovery that the society is not really primitive and pre-industrial. The gradual realization that the society is post-atomic and that the re-discovery of machinery and science has been banned post the disaster ... Mary Gentle's book is in itself a voyage of discovery in which the reader starts as a comfortable alien observer and ends as a very uncomfortable but involved critic of a world that wobbles between utopia and dystopia.
ElMu
Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy
Douglas Adams
Very handy for hitchhikers and the best read. Introduces millions of people to to British humour and the SF genre every year. Great advert for SF and also very funny.
Marvin
WASP
Eric Frank Russell
A fantastic book that should be read by anyone planning to join the secret service as a subversive officer! It's easy to read, a great story that keeps you hooked. The characters are great and you really root for the hero.
Lawek75
To your scattered bodies go
Philip Jose Farmer
A man wakes up naked to find he has been resurrected along with every other human who ever lived during the history of earth. Their new home is a riverplanet, they are all 25, they don't age, they can't die, and it is all a big social and spiritual project, created by an alien race. This book and the ones that follow are staggering conceptually. They mix history, politics, pyschology, religion, and everyday life in a sublime cocktail. One of the few Sci-Fi books that you read in which that you know you are also a character. For those that go the distance with the whole Riverworld series, the final installment 'Gods of the Riverworld' cranks up the hypothetical social situations to mind boggling levels. Computers that play your whole life back to you, so you can come to terms with your wasted time, evil deeds, poor posture. A super computer that can build rooms a hundred miles wide, and produce anything from human history at request.
peejoco
Dune
Frank Herbert
A cornerstone of the sci-fy genre. Read how Paul Atriedes uncovers the secrets of Arrakis and the Fremen people. Follow Paul's journey into a dangerous world where unlocking the power of the spice melange and it's keepers transforms him into the most powerful being in the galaxy. Set in an epic universe filled with wierd and wonderul creatures, monsters and alien races. A must read for any sci-fy nut.
leto
The Reality Dysfunction
Peter F. Hamilton
Despite not having the easiest of openings (you really have to force yourself to get past the first few pages), this really is a superb opening to a wonderful Sci-Fi trilogy. There are some great ideas, some excellent characters and some wonderful speculation on humanities future, but most of all it's a cracking story, and the main plot sideswipes you from left-field when you get to it as it was (for me, at least) totally unexpected. Cannot recommend this enough
silentbazz
Body of Glass
Marge Piercy
Imaginative, well written. I really like the way the author describes a data world, and interweaves this with a broader narrative, which includes a comparison between the plight of a Jewish community in Prague during the 16th-century and the futuristic community of the future. Splendid stuff
RobNichols
Malazan Book of the Fallen
Steven Erikson
A series of epic sci-fi/fantasy books, the level of detail and development of the history, theology and politics, not to mention flora and fauna of the setting is extraordinary.
ChrisC
The Star My Destination
Alfred Bester
So much SciFi work is seen as being written by people whose only talent was a good imagination. Alfred Bester was one a new age of writers who wrote engaging stories that happened to be along a SciFi theme. In The Stars My Destination, Bester creates one of the most memorable characters in SciFi history. Gully Foyle is reborn on the Nomad, but is alive to revenge only, in a plot which takes us through a world where instantaneous travel with the power of the human mind is possible. His journey to discover who he is can only be compared to the greats of SciFi writing. A definite must read.
SciFi_Reader
Altered Carbon
Richard Morgan
It challenges the concept of self and individuality. It is unremittingly, violently captivating throughout and it introduces the coolest hotel ever imagined.
petesmif
The Diamond Age aka Young Lady's illustrated Primer
Neal Stephenson
Its simply sublime, beautiful written, and would be an epic if it was on screen.
sn0wcr45h
Simply the best portrayal of a cyber and social future.
trdickso
The mote in God's eye
Larry Niven
Wildly imaginative, interesting characters, very funny.
longfields
Gormenghast Triology
Mervyn peake
This fantasy doesn't include any aliens, space ships, or magic, but it's in its' own weird universe. A very Dickensian gothic tale. I agree about William Gibson.
mikedow
Cosmic Banditos
A. C. Weisbecker
The tale is a great romp of the imagination with an insight into some physics. A science based equivalent to philosophy of 'The Truth Gang' by Tibor Fischer, another great read.
Andrew Farrow
The Moon is a Harsh Mistress
Robert A. Heinlein
It is a completely worked out version of a believable future. It does not require the 'suspension of disbelief' normal to SF. And it is a great adventure story!
lazarus
Now wait for last year
Philip K Dick
Accessible, rip-roaring, thought provoking, good story
oatcake
Very human story of the more-than-humans living amongst us
oatcake
Consider Plebas
Iain M Banks
The enormous scale and technical details of the science fiction element of the story are breath taking whilst the story still holds the reader close to the characters of the core individuals in the story.
Carl Pheasant
Lies Inc
Philip K Dick
As with all Dick's books, it explores his twin fascinations: what is human? What is real? The human side is handled with his usual tender melancholy, while the metaphysical investigations are ramped up and up as the protaganist, teleported to a colony planet where all is not as it seems, dissolves, with the aid of an LSD tipped dart, into a nightmare where reality itself seems to deconstruct.
Quixotic Flux
Tscahi: Planet of adventure
Jack Vance
Wonderful language and weird world building. The protagonist - Adam Reith - a stranded earthman has many adventures, encountering the various inhabitants of Tschai, a much fought over planet. Not quite a picaresque as Reith is too honest but some of his associates are less so. Charming and lovely books and, let us not forget, anyone who can title one of them (vol 2) Servants of the Wankh is worthy of deep respect (even if he didn't know what it means to english ears haha)
Pen or PPG
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
Philip K Dick
Do yoursel a favour : read it and see
oatcake
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
Philip K Dick
Do yoursel a favour : read it and see,it will open your mind
oatcake
The Player of Games
Iain M Banks
The Player of Games does more than tell an exciting and engaging tale. In the empire of Azad, where the books action takes place, Iain M Banks creates a civilization which reflects the worst excesses of our own, despite its alien nature. Using the empire of Azad themes of one cultures interference in another are explored as the benign, peaceful Culture displays the lengths it will go to push a cruel empire closer to its own philosophy. The Player of Games is an excellent showcase for Iain M Banks powerful imagination. The story revolves around a man playing a board game. Admittedly it's a vast, complex board game central to the lives of those who play it, but it's essentially just a big, complicated chess set. This sounds like rather dull stuff to relate to the reader, but the authors descriptions of the game are never less than completely involving and genuinely exciting.
SoMuchForSubtlety
The futurological congress
Stanislaw Lem
There is a popular misconception that Douglas Adams was responsible for bringing humour into Sci-Fi. But before him there was already the brilliant Stanislaw Lem, whose humour can be often anarchic and deeply satirical. This is a good example of his satirical humour at its most razor sharp. If the idea of Sci-Fi combined with Swiftean satire sounds appealing then this book is definitely for you
vascopereira
To Your Scattered Bodies Go
Phil Farmer
Beautifully written; all about hate and love.
mediumcool
Use of Weapons
Iain M. Banks
I'm using UoW as my choice but really any of Banks' culture novels fit the bill. Banks' stands astride 21st century science fiction as a giant. He not only manages to excel in world building, The Culture has to be one of the greatest realised sci-fi universes in print, but also manages something that virtually all other sci-fi authors fail at; the evolution of psychology over time. The inhabitants of Banks' worlds are existentially flawed and carry with them a melancholy created by pitting emotional psychology against the vast backdrop and advanced science they have foisted upon them. The scale of his stories could leave the protagonists dwarfed by the spectacle but they end up dovetailing perfectly into the situations thought up by Banks by allowing us to connect to the madness of existance, whether they're human or alien. Each of his new novels are events in the genre and allow their readers to conduct thought experiments of what it would be like to exist in such a reality (surely the goal of any sci-fi?)
virgopunk
Ringworld
Larry Niven
I read it as a teenager and the sheer scale of the technological achievement of building the Ring has stayed with me - even though I cant remember much of the details of the story today! Totally influenced and encouraged me to pursue my dream of working in the building industry (which I don't regret, even today)
inthetrade
In Viriconium
M John Harrison
Atmospheric blend of fantasy and 1890s decadence, with a consumptive, sexually ambiguous heroine whom I'd love to see Tilda Swinton play!
Silverwhistle
The Dispossessed
U K Le Guin
It realistically sets out an anarchist society from an anthropological background; it's a hard life but it actually works!
billthecat
Hitchhikers Guide to the Galazy
Douglas Adams
It has great humour & pathos in its story. It gives a great insight into human traits through the characters Arthur & Trillian, their interactions with others on their journeys and their interactions with each other. AND it also provides the alien's perspective on humanity! Humour, sadness, love, despair, hope, the ability to muddle on & make the best of a situation, thriving despite adversity; the book has it all & all of it is what makes us human.
The Great Raymondo
1984
George Orwell
Not just the best SF. But best novel Ive ever read. Impossible to explain its importance so briefly. But it is the most important artistic contribution I can think of, of any genre/medium. Art irrelevant? SF escapist pap? Orwell lays it out. It is appropriated by literary fiction like most great SF.
isiah
Anathem
Neal Stephenson
It's a thousand pages of wonder and awe at how mindboggling complex the universe is and the joy and fascination there is in trying to understand it with just the human brain. This is how physics and philosophy should be taught - at the same time and with multi-dimensional spaceships.
hebdencroft
The Gap Cycle
Stephen R Donaldson
An Epic Story, with a dark plot. Donaldson creates a very beleiveable universe. As Soon as I finished the 1st book, I was online ordering the remaining 4 stories
Tonyd71
That Hideous Strength
C.S.Lewis
This is the third book in C.S.Lewis's science fiction trilogy. It combines themes of mythology, allegory and religion with some great characters and moments of true horror. It's a great story that keeps you gripped all the way through.
@nostalgia4books
The Dispossessed
Ursula Le Guin
This book is about the simple acts of kindness that can make immense and profound differences to the future. The main character is Shevik: physicist and great scientist who is nearly close to ending up with a great scientific theory that he knows will change the world forever. He makes a difficult decision to travel to the neighbouring planet of Urras to try and use their expertise to piece it together. The novel weaves around in time: Shevik's present and past are explored: his strength is buoyed by the love he finds from the woman he loves, but also the limitations of living in a real communist world where there aren't enough resources for the people, are both explored. Back on Urras, Shevik begins to realise he is becoming a small pawn in a powerful government's game and has to reconcile himself with the fact that he may never have been able to go home in the first place and may never go home now. At its centre is Shevik: complicated, resilient, brave and fiercely intelligent. It remains one of the best characters I can remember in any book - at the end the final twist of the twin narratives meets into one of the best endings I have read in any book.
Fear Nothing
Dean Koontz
It's a different kind of science fiction that allows the reader to be an active creator of the "other timely" world introduced by Koontz. It's not about zombies or aliens or space but it does represent something maybe even more bone-chilling: the answer to the question "what if?"
LittlechurchBee
Nights Dawn Trilogy
Peter F Hamilton
The epic scope of the book, showing the terrifying yet exciting possibilities of the human race as an multi planetary starship faring bunch of brilliently flawed individuals, and organsiations.
Alliya
A really rare find these days as I think it is out of print.
Lemmys Feet
The Player of Games
Iain M Banks
Witty and engaging, it draws parralels with life on earth in a profound and imaginative alien galaxy.
sparkclarke
Last and First Men
Olaf W Stapledon
'Last and First Men' documents mankinds evolution, written by a historian billions of years in the future. First published in 1930, the book documents the many highs and lows of man's struggle for survival. The book contains the first mention of genetic engineering in a sci fi novel, a compelling and truly eye-opening read.
andybagg
Perdido Street Station
China Mieville
So maybe it is the outer fringes of SF where myth and fantasy meets "steam punk" but it does have futuristic dimensions albeit in a retro kinda way. It is the way the characters seem unbelievable yet real which gets me (in all of his books by the way) and sucks me in to a reading time vortex - as all good books should
squidsin
The Martian Chronicles
Ray Bradbury
Bradbury's Mars keeps shifting its identity, becoming a symbol of the dreams and fears of America itself. No attempt is made at scientific accuracy (this Mars is hot, for example), and the stories reflect the Cold War era in which they were written. Bradbury could overwrite, but he keeps this tendency under control here, and the book has a haunting resonance.
FrogC
Excession
Iain M Banks
It has the fastest start I can recollect any book having, The Affront are hilarious and the Culture ships superb. I also appreciate that the nature of the excession is never defined.
Outboundcargo
Red Mars
Kim Stanley Robinson
Hard sci-fi at its best. The attention to detail and depth of knowledge of the author make this a compelling and inspirational book to read.
oneshot
The Sparrow
Mary Doria Russell
This is a strange, compelling and beautifully written story. I'd defy anyone from the most hard-nosed SF aficionado on up not to enjoy reading it.
mccp
Riddley Walker
Russell Hoban
If can get into the language, you'll enter a plausible yet mythical world where you'll get your first knowin from the eyes of a dog and learn the secrets of the master chaynjis.
solomonrobson
Any Culture book
Ian M Banks
Can't believe that none of these magnificent books were chosen. Some better than others, but all full of wonderful prose, deep imagination, gripping stories and interesting characters.
Vex
The Body Snatchers
Jack Finney
One of the few books I've read in one sitting. I also enjoyed The Possessors by John Christopher, which was made into a good TV mini series by the BBC.
Edamame
On Wings Of Song
Thomas M. Disch
Perhaps the masterpiece of a CRIMINALLY underappreciated writer, this novel oscillating between Bildungsroman and Swiftian satire simultaneously celebrates and satirizes the human aspiration to trascendence (through love,sex, religion and above all art) . Set in a wonderfully imagined dystopic America, it's very bleak but also savagely funny, always brilliant, and ultimately heartbreaking.
mg71
More Than Human
Theodore Sturgeon
This book is a positive, hopeful contemplation of mankind's possible next step. How we might evolve into something better than we are now. The first hint of this next evolutionary step is not evidenced by those we conventionally think of as brighter, stronger or more beautiful, but by the supposed freaks and invalids that just might come together in some way to become, collectively, something...more than human.
Fried Egg
The Body Snatchers
Jack Finney
One of the few books I've read in one sitting. I also enjoyed The Possessors by John Christopher, which was made into a good TV mini series by the BBC.
Edamame
Ringworld
Larry Niven
Ringworld is SF on a grand scale in many respects. Set far into the future, it is scientifically well researched and utterly believable, with "alien" characters that are lifelike and convincing: the story is entertaining yet the concept is original and thought-provoking. A fantastic novel, one of many well-written books by Larry Niven.
Simon99
Just because its oneof the greatest sci-fi books ever.
hooner
Ringworld
Larry Niven
The sheer scope of the imagination: the predatory Kzin and the cowardly puppeteer. The gradual unfolding of the driving force of the novel: all the time you are thinking it is the major characters and the incredible world while in reality it is the minor character and her luck. My son and I discussed it for days.
Aetrus
The World of Tiers
Philip Jose Farmer
Farmer is woefully under-rated, and really only known for his Riverworld series, but the World of Tiers is, I think, his masterwork. It contains so much of why I read SF - it has terrific characters, it's overflowing with ideas, it has marvellous set pieces and it engenders a sense of awe and wonder at the possibilities of our universe (or, rather, the multiverse). If I had the money I'd personally bankroll a film of the books, now that we have the technology to do justice to them.
Rotwatcher
The love affair between Lazarus Long and Dora Brandon - but much more.
weejonnie
The Infernal Desire Machines of Doctor Hoffman
Angela Carter
Although not usually classified as Science Fiction, Carter's early novel certainly echoes the themes and styles of the genre. After all, what could be more sci-fi than a plot in which our hero must struggle against a mad scientist, in order to restore a world of order and 'reality'? The surrealist form of the novel and it's passionate portrayal of female sexuality (which is quite unusual for a genre largely dominated by men) makes it, for me, all the more interesting. But, first and foremost, it is Carter's unforgettable language that puts the Infernal Desire Machines.... at the top of my list - vivid and imaginative, she writes like no other.
1246879
Time Enough for Love
Robert Heinlein
A book about an unbelievably old man and the wisdom that he has learned throughout the years. Shows the way we grapple with the big questions. Not without problems, but has incredibly high peaks.
pdefor
The Man Who Fell To Earth
Walter Tevis
The story of an alien who comes to earth to in a quest to save his planet, not ours but is destroyed when he becomes all-too-human. The style is nicely understated, the plot, tech and characters believable and the story is full of gentle ironies. A terrific read.
eggdeng
The City and the City
China Mieville
Hyperion
Dan Simmons
Gripping story,fascinating,immaculately drawn characters living in believable world(s). This book,and it's sequel,"Fall of Hyperion",are masterworks,in my opinion. I was so caught up in these books that they seemed more real than fiction to me,and this feeling holds up with repeated readings.
Chimerine
The Diamond Age: Or, A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer
Neal Stephenson
The story got it all: believable protagonist, imaginative story and a view of the future that in it's premises goes far beyond the stereotypical Cyberpunk setting. Compared to his earlier novel "Snow Crash", Stephenson move further away from "Neuromancer" and into the future. And that's where I like my Sci-Fi: without too many ties to the present day, far enough away so the author can develop his/her ideas uninhibited.
Patrick G.
UBIK
Philip K Dick
To my mind, Dick is the greatest writer of the 20th Century full stop. Never afraid to tackle the big questions, eg what does it mean to be human? Or, as in this case, what exactly is the nature of reality?
Akropolis
Use of Weapons
Iain M Banks
Banks' love of the genre shines out of every word. He has all the usual suspects in the Space Opera toy box, but he shows them to us through the eyes of a spoilt man-child who wants to play with them as much as we do. And finally we get the twist, probably Banks' finest, that makes us immediately turn back to page 1 and read it all again in a completely different context. Genius.
Pete23
Blood Music
Greg Bear
A bonkers, mad book, the story of Dr Frankenstein taken to a grey-goo-fuelled extreme. As the character's life disintegrates under the power of his creation, the narrative expands and fragments. The structure mimics the plot, sliding deliriously out of control until the reader ends up somewhere quite other than where they expected to.
olly1889
Floating Worlds
Cecelia Holland
People need to be reminded of its existence; 'Dune,' 'Left Hand...' and 'Stars My...' seem to be doing okay on this score. Painted with a broader brush than LeGuin's with whose work this one is often compared, it scores through the thought given to its societies and the extraordinary fairness with which it examines the personalities of some truly loathesome characters, particularly the brute like, emotionally retarded Saba and the self loathing vampire beureaucrat Tanuojin, the latter finally emerging as one of the most tragic and pitiable characters in Twentieth Century fiction. From what I've read of her historical fiction, it's also a tragedy that she's not produced more SF, which she would appear to do far better.
Richard Bruce Clay
the man in the high castle
philip k dick
This book has so much soul in it. I return to it constantly as a benchmark of how good a book can be when it presumes it has intelligent and sensitive readers. This book also has one of the most pervasive scents, and evocative moods I have read in sci-fi. It's a joy, and a book I consistently recommend/impose on victims who I presume need further education in the wonder of people reimagining the future of humanity.
poppy
The Diamond Age
Neal Stephenson
Whilst I love the William Gibson's, especially his co-written (with Bruce Sterling) "The Difference Engine", and will always have a soft spot for Philip K. Dick and Ursula le Guin, and happily hoovered up William Harrison's "Rollerball" and Walter Tevis' "The Man Who Fell To Earth" when I was a kid (too young to get into see the films), the book that grabbed me at the time and has stated with me his Neal Stephenson's "The Diamond Age". I'm not a mad fan of gleaming rocket ships. or distant other worlds. What I do love are either counter-factuals (and here's a nod to Kingsley Amis' "The Alteration" - is that SF?) or off-beam future earths. "The Diamond Age" is a, personally, fascinating look into a oddl retro-future. Not a pill-for-lunch or a personal-jet pack in sight. Lovely.
The Southvillain
The Watch Below
James White
What happens in this book could happen to any of us today. The ending is set far in the future, but the book is reassuring about man's ability to adapt now, today, to a new life anywhere on earth (in this case, at the bottom of the ocean). I found it compeletly believable and beautiful in its detail.
Buntyfox
The Player of Games
Iain M. Banks
The ultimate in political intrigue and dystopian commentary, all wrapped up in Banks' wonderfully realised Culture. Ostensibly about a man invited to play in a tournament of glorified intergalactic Risk, and yet the depth of the social observations, set alongside the super-cool tech, and written with razor-sharp wit, makes it so much more than this. If you only ever read one Iain M. Banks book then it should be this one; and if you ever read this one you'll certainly want to read the rest.
Copper_Green
The Sykaos Papers
E.P. Thompson
Extra terrestrial humanoid lands on earth, is captured and kept in an institute where he develops friendship with one of the doctors. Book is written in the form of journal entries and newspaper articles as we see a naive outsider's look at our culture and how his attitudes and preconceptions change as he is influenced by ours. A mightily written account of an outsider attempting to come to terms with his new surroundings.
StanOnTheRun
the man in the high castle
philip k dick
The best single book by SF's greatest writer.
oldsimon
The Mars trilogy
Kim Stanley Robinson
Actually there are three books in the trilogy and they effortlessly combine technology, the spirit of pioneers, rebellion, and political and philosophical issues that arise when mankind invades and irrevocably alters an environment. The whole series is so believable that it drags you in and makes you want to explore the character of each hero and anti-hero as they come in and out of focus as events unfold.
Northumbria
Flatland
Edwin Abbott Abbott
an interesting introduction to the perception of dimensions beloved of physicists, mathematicians and computer scientists. And a satire of the class system too!
commenttnemmoc
Rendez-vous with Rama
Arthur C. Clarke
Just exciting, if counterintuitive, science and a fantastic journey of discovery for the team sent up there to check that mysterious object (Rama) out. This book is too good not to imagine (hope?) that someday this fiction will become reality.
starstuff
Dune
Frank Herbert
Herbert managed to create a genuinely 'alternative' and unique view of the far, far future, a consistent universe which didn't rely on the common tropes of science fiction. Like many of Herbert's books, Dune (and its many, surprisingly good sequels) balance precariously on the edge of pretension - and sometimes fall off, but one of the common themes of science fiction* is about dealing with the biggest questions, and if an author's reach sometimes exceeds their grasp, at least they reached. There's also a great adventure story in there too. I loved it the first time I read it when I was about 12, and loved it the last time I read it, aged 35. * it's just one of them, of course
Fridgebadger
I, Robot
Isaac Azimov
Azimov - the man who invented the word 'robotics'. He also gives us the three laws of robotics. His robot stories are a huge influence on the way modern sci-fi sees artifical intellegence.
GJ Smith
Hothead
Simon Ings
It is a very convincing insight into how the world will be in the near future combined with a grand space opera style plot about danger from outer space
brjcf
An orchestral movement for the space opera genre
anomie
Swan Song
Robert R. McCammon
A typical good versus evil, post-apocalyptic novel. The world finally succumbed to nuclear war. As a result of this final act of paranoid hatred between humans, the ultimate in evil is created. He/It goes up against the ultimate in good, a young girl named Swan, who has the power to give life back to the earth. I found this a well written SF/horror with some really well described characters living in a post-nuclear war world.
tbonetone
Excession
Iain M Banks
It's very hard to choose one particular book from Ian M Banks' Culture series because those I have read have all been outstanding. Excession stands out in my memory because of the intensity of the story and the amazing concepts that fill Bank's universe such as the Culture's Minds and the artificially intelligent space ships.
Tronboy
Plantetary
Warren Ellis
Incorporates everything from tarzan to sherlock holmes to dracula to wonder woman, all within a world in which our understanding of the physical universe, macro and micro alike, get both explained and questioned in equal measures. Truly visionary and splendidly realised.
Thehinger
grerg egan
permutation city
As with all of his first books, Egan pushes his brilliant ideas to the limit of imagination and then pushes them again in mind boggoling areas and then does it again and again. A fantastic ride. The stories are also well constructed and engrossing. The best hard science fiction in my opinion.
tone-wreck
Lord of Light
Roger Zelazny
Because you'll never read anything like it again. It's original, beautifully written, imaginative and highly thoughtful. Really outstanding and the reason I became an SF fan in the first place. Cheers!
AsAboveSoBelow
Old Man's War
John Scalzi
Fresh, exciting, unexpected. A great story with all of the needed ingredients of action, intrigue, suspense and science
rgally
The Algebraist
Iain M. Banks
This is my favourite Iain M Banks book by light years. I love his "Culture" series of novels, but "The Algebraist" story is his most complete. A complex and exciting novel based in 4034 A.D. the story describes the journey of Fassin Taak as he looks for a mathematical transform that may give the location of an ancient and long lost system of wormholes, thus enabling mankind to travel between systems at faster than light speeds. Cruel warlords, invasion forces, friendships lost and remade, beautifully described worlds and a compelling detective story all go to make this book a must read for any science fiction fan.
SBQ
Pavane
Keith Roberts
Although I'd concur with the greatness of Neuromancer, Pavane and its sister novel Kiteworld are an exciting mix of historical and futuristic thinking from a, now, relatively unsung British writer. Perhaps it doesn't have the global ambition of the Gibson novels but it creates a logical coherent vision of an alternative Britain that is very intriguing.
Polymorph
(The meaning and future of human) life, (intelligent life in) the universe, and everything.
etorisky
Shockwave Rider
John Brunner
Before there was Cyberpunk, there was Shockwave Rider. Before there was an internet, there was Shockwave Rider. Back in the 70s, this was the book that told us the direction. When everyone was still going on about space travel, this told us what was really going to change our world. As far as I am concerned, Neuromancer (which i also like) is simply fan fiction for this vision.
Tarnover Number 6
Mars Trilogy
Kim Stanley Robinson
The scale and detail of this book are without compare. Realistic enough to keep you grounded yet the descriptions and scope of events are so vast that you're hooked and kept interested through the 3 books.
DurhamA
Rendezvous with Rama
Arthur C. Clarke
This is a very accessible novel that I would recommend to someone who has little experience with the genre. The story is somewhat conventional (beginning, middle, end) but manages to include a considerable amount of discovery and mystery.
xraydon
The Invincible
Stanislaw Lem
If defines what something truly 'alien' is - not some dude with two arms, two legs, one head and a load of prosthetic makeup, but alien.
Orion
The Squares of the City
John Brunner
Read it and find out.
nick-brown
The Lensman books
EE Doc Smith
EE Doc Smith's Lensman series of novels is fantastic. Don't read them out of sequence or you will get confused. Triplanetary First Lensman Galactic Patrol Grey Lensman Second Stage Lensman Children of The Lens Masters Of The Vortex Dragon Lensman Lensman From Rigel Z Lensman
Red Lenin
Nights Dawn trillogy
Peter F Hamilton
Not a classic as such. However a brilliantly formulated and pieced together epic, which is assured to keep you engrossed for a couple of months at least. (depending on how fast you read)
username84
The Player of Games
Iain M Banks
It has everything - Banks' Culture novels all share a great setting, but out of all of them The Player of Games just delivers that bit extra in character, adventure, epic grandeur, and a sophisticated plot that resonates on so many levels.
Kerome
A compelling glance into the future for our technological, alienated, schizoid species.
fformat
Limbo
Bernard Wolfe
If you think that cyberpunk was invented in the 1980s, then you really need to read this book. Combines both a vicious, futuristic war yarn and the bleeding edge of trippy, Burroughs-style SF.
Fat Celt
We can build you
Philip K. Dick
Abraham Lincoln is revived as an android as part of a crazy scheme to re-enact the US Civil War for entertainment only to be hijacked by big business and a darkly disturbed creator - All contribute to this tale in which the author explores his familiar themes of the nature of reality and what makes us truly human.
lonepilgrim
The Foundation Series
Isaac Asimov
Fantastic series of books. Originally just one book - Foundation, which became three books (3,4 & 5) Prelude to Foundation Forward the Foundation Foundation Foundation and Empire Second Foundation Foundation's Edge Foundation and Earth
Red Lenin
Excession
Iain M. Banks
It does what Asimov tried to do but never quite succeeded, despite his many achievements: it has artificial intelligences far more fascinating than the human and other naturally evolved characters, as well as being a space opera to end all space operas and a terrific entertainment. The humans end up being almost the rather indulged and very much patronised pets of the AIs. Speaking of pets, David Brin's Startide Rising deserves a mention. And, for the entire body of his work up to the moment, the great Greg Egan: no one makes you think about and doubt existence, including, first of all, that of your own self, like he does.
Gegenbeispiel
The Fall of Hyperion
Dan Simmons
Better than the first volume, Hyperion, this book has a great, dramatic story, fine characters, plenty of time-twisting and some wonderful ideas about AIs, human evolution, religion and What It All Means. It's not "cool" in the way Neurmancer or The Quantum Thief are, nor is it hard SF like Pushing Ice. It's not gruesome and funny like Iain M Banks (I would nominate all the Culture novels as second choice) but it is epic, thought-provoking and a little bit scary (the Shrike).
thammond65
The Chanur novels
C. J. Cherryh
Few authors can tell a story from the view of a non human character as convincingly as C. J. Cherryh can. Her worlds are well developed and it is fun to read her books. Also recommended reading: her Foreigner books.
Kilminster
Surface Detail
Iain M Banks
Mr Banks' science fiction is always absolutely brilliant. The scope and size of the settings in which the plot is set is so much more than other writers. I enjoy them all, Surface Detail, being the latest developed The Culture concept further, full of dark humour and brain expanding vastness of it all.
stevetyphoon
Consider Phlebas
Ian Banks
Consider Phlebas is sf at it's best. Awesome in it's scope, speculative in it's ideas, plausible and at the same time beyond what we have thought before. Huge things in space, sentient machines, a fantastic society and a main character that is on the wrong side in a conflict makes great reading and hopefully some thinking from the reader.
Morat
Original, thought-provoking and well plotted, not ruined by exposition.
WoollyMindedLiberal
His Masters Voice
Stanislaw Lem
It illustrates the utter futility of projects like SETI - even if we did receive a message from the stars, could we ever agree what it meant. And imagine the religious upheaval it would cause if there was any claim that there is no God.
Orion
Altered Carbon
Richard Morgan
I picked it up by accident from the library and just though, "oh well, I'll read it anyway?" - its mix of cutting edge SF and almost noir-ish story as well as being both brutally gritty and very compelling made me unable to put it down. It's hero, takeshi kovacs is very much a person who just seems to caught up in incredibly volatile and deadly situations, and he comes through them purely cos he's prepared to do whatever is necessary to survive in an outrageously coldblooded manner while still retaining enough depth of character and humanity to be sympathetic. I've read everything that Morgan's written since - several times - and I can't recommend this book highly enough.
MrBardolph
The plot was fucking amaaaazing.
Stevie Wonder
The I Inside
Alan Dean Foster
Well written and plotted - lots of strands - androids, repressed memories, ambiguous aliens, action sequences with sudden unexpected abilities, with in depth character development, and open ended. Would make a great blockbuster film !
ptink
Woman on the edge of time
Marge Piercy
Seventies utopian and dystopian ideas. Aged a bit, but deals with a lot of issues that never occurred to the boys
HappyOldWoman
The Protector
Larry Niven
It's fun. The author has given himself permission to let his imagination wander. We all need to give ourselves permission to let our imagination wander. That's the nub of it.
A Love supreme
Fiasco
Stanislaw Lem
Suppose we do get off this rock and into inter-stellar space (e.g. between the stars). What if we did find an inhabited world, because we were following the signals received by SETI, say. Would we even recognize the aliens as living creatures when we encountered them?
Orion
I, Rimbot
Isaac Assimove
The sheer amount of cock, even for the sci-fi genre, is spafftacular. I watched the film first, which didn't have nearly as much cock. By God, I love the cock in the book.
RickyDawkins
Solomon's Angel
Robin Oram
First it's very funny, the author has a real eye for an unexpected gag. But it's also got a serious side. It's a mix of science fiction and fantasy about a world that is like the real world except that all religions and superstations are true. Four people go on a quest to find the soul of a dead magician that has been trapped on a computer. The characters are warm and believable book is quite thought provoking. It keeps you completely off balance the whole way through. Just when you think you know what is going on something shifts and you find out that nothing is what you thought it was. I like that especially as I realized at the end that one of the main themes is how apparently orderly systems arise out of chaotic situations. I always think it's the sign of a good book that however many times I read it I always find something new to think about and to laugh at.
Mr G
The Gaean Trilogy: Titan, Wizard and Demon
John Varley
Well, it's a trilogy not a single book and, next only to Olaf Stapledon's works, the most satisfying and simply enjoyable SF I have read. What I like about it is that it mixes science fiction with a good old-fashioned adventure story involving likable people. And it is brilliantly conceived and told.
Swami Pete
The Player of games
Iain M banks
A voyage into the science fiction future does not always have to be scientific. Banks excels in his nonchalant creativity, placing his main character, who is world class at his own past time of playing games, into the hands of 'special circumstances' an organisation run by super minds to put right the wrongs of the universe... As an avid reader of what is know as 'the Culture series' I recommend 'Player' as the entry book to Banks's universe, this book, if you like it, will lead to all the others, 5 or 6 at the last count. All different, but fascinating, exciting, sexy and above all optimistic about very advanced humanoid civilization, although the culture is categorically not simply us in the future.
Morat
Old Testament, New Testamnet and Quran
Dog
This trilogy has been the most influential of all science fiction books. Although they are three books, I see them as one long book, broken into three parts because of the nature in which they were purported to be written by a single divine force working through human agents. So even the manner of the writing is surreal and cosmological. They each present a model of creation and a divine/natural order. They are filled with dictates regarding proper conduct. The stories document the twisted behaviors of leaders, wars of conquest, socio-political struggles, and moral themes. Among the chief features is the sado-masochistic relationship that the god in these books has with his people. I found the sacrifice of Jephthah's daughter to be exemplary of the kind of brutal gamesmanship between the two parties. Additionally, divine imperatives include the extermination of entire peoples and failures to carry these out to their fullest extent results in punishments. Though often boring and filled with cryptic platitudes, these books are worth reading, if only to look into the psychological space that they have created in billions of fans all over the planet.
Maradonut86
Shadow of the Torturer
Gene Wolfe
This, with its three sequels, is a magnificent work of linguistic and mythic imagination, deeply resonant and rewarding.
The Pondonome
Altered Carbon
Richard Morgan
A brilliant fusion of a noir detective story set in a detailed and believable future world, its pace is relentless and like all good books leaves the reader wishing for more pages to turn.
teddychris
The Fifth Head of Cerberus
Gene Wolfe
Three interwoven novellas. An excellent introduction to the pleasures of reading Gene Wolfe, before tackling The Shadow of the Torturer. Well worth seeking out, since other writers are to Wolfe as ketchup is to bordelaise.
The Pondonome
Foundation
Isaac Azimov
I love the idea of maths as a predictive tool. Also the twist where one character is not what they seem.
chez_25
An early post-apocalyptic novel and an excellent comment on how quickly society can collapse.
Talisen
4 books, in the UK called "The Saga of the Exiles"
Julian May
This series has everything: time travel, magic, beings from folklore, such as elves, ogres, etc, modern technologies, future developments, politics, alien intelligent species, crime, punishment, ethics and morality, all set against a backdrop of reasoning about the nature of life, of religions, of the concept of god(s), the infinite and the cosmos, seasoned with a delightful sense of irony and wit...a series of 7 books altogether, tho i prefer the 4 that make up the Saga of the Exiles...
goddess 2
Foundation
Isaac Asimov
The Foundation series, most epsecially the first book in the series, has a beautiful vision of a galactic empire, doomed by probability to fail, and the preparations for what will replace it. It's stuck with me for years, and I still lend my copy to friends on a regular basis.
danieljh
Out Of The Silent Planet
C.S. Lewis
This book was simply written with a theological angle, however just read literally it was very resonating for three connected ways of seeing things that are indelible to my reading and appreciation of this story: 1. The translation of what the human says and how it is heard by the aliens.2. A human seeing the appearance of two different aliens, before realizing they are actually humans. and 3. Earth is a silent planet in a Universe full of communication.
Affirmative
The Hitchhikers Guide To The Galaxy
Douglas Adams
42, obviously! "It has the words DON'T PANIC inscribed in large friendly letters on its cover." I states that ; There is a theory which states that if ever anyone discovers exactly what the Universe is for and why it is here, it will instantly disappear and be replaced by something even more bizarre and inexplicable. There is another theory which states that this has already happened. It is quite simply the best book ever written. I grew up on this book, with my dad reading me excerpts for bedtime stories! Sit down with a Pan Galactic Gargle Blaster and enjoy! For those not in the know, it's like having your brains smashed out by a slice of lemon wrapped round a large gold brick.
weesuzib
Foundation
Isaac Asimov
I read this when I was in my early 20's when it was instrumental in my becoming a life long Sci-Fi fan. I re-read it in my 50's and enjoyed it just as much. I introduced it to the book club I belong to and they enjoyed it despite the fact that they would not normally read Science Fiction.
PennyP
Day of the Triffids
John Wydnham
Read this a few years ago now and the images it created while reading it have since stuck in my mind. Its a classic because it remains a terrifying novel to date.
mrsbrispie
Brave New World
Aldous Huxley
A book that simply defines everything that good sci-fi should be: thought-provoking, relevant whilst retaining a healthy dose of the unknown, perceptive in its understanding of trends in society at the time and in the future and, most importantly, pushing the limitations on human imagination. Brave New World is, ahead of other classics such as 1984, the one sci-fi novel that everyone can recognise in our own cultural infatuation with indulgence and social structure.
PurpleAndroid
2001: A Space Oddysey
Arthur C. Clarke
It is an epic that joins the distant past to the near future. It is hopeful, as expressed in the "Star Child" (I cannot even think about that image without getting major goosebumps) yet it contains a warning to mankind about its own folly. It is at least somewhat prescient in how HAL 9000 is portrayed. And it is a great story as well as a great film. It is exciting and even breathtaking. Furthermore, the film made brilliant use of a classical score with Richard Strauss' Also Sprach Zarathustra (more goosebumps) and Johann Strauss' The Blue Danube, both electrifying compositions. And everyone thought the apes were real (they were not), while Planet of the Apes merely WISHES it could claim the same.
Tim Anthony
The Fifth Head of Cerberus
Gene Wolfe
The spellbinding quality of Wolfe's prose by itself qualifies this as an all-time SF great, as a book we can all point to when someone accuses SF of not being literature. But there's so much more happening here. Twin alien worlds, decadent, decaying French colonies, and an aboriginal, shapeshifting race that seems to have vanished like a dream. Three narrators, but somewhere in the twists and turns of their narratives, we lose them and find we're holding someone else's hand. I've read this book ten times now and I'm still finding new things to love about it.
Tony Ellis
behold the man
michael moorcock
I read this when I was a young angst ridden sixteen year old and fell in love with it. It's a great little story of going back in a time machine to the days of christ in search of a meaning to life... more fantasy than fiction.
hayden
The Kraken Wakes
John Wyndham
Excellent riff on the alien invasion sub-genre with aliens we never actually meet. Add political and social satire and a mildly unreliable narrator and you've got it made. Foresaw the dangers of the polar cap melting as well!
Sangrail
Feersum endjinn
Ian M Banks
I love the multilayered approach and the phonetic spelling, and then the main protagonist is such a nice kid!
vbigfish
Excession
Iain M Banks
One of the great space operas. Some critics have said it's too complicated. it's not complicated, it's deep. The richest most complete creation in the whole genre. all other SF seems contrite and poorly conceived by comparison.
greattouchforabigman
The Forever War
Joe Haldeman
Comparisons with the contemporary Vietnam War aside, the book was quite simply un-put-down-able! A great story of grunt soldiers training and fighting aliens over a possible misunderstanding with the added concept that the great distances they need to travel to the war zone means the Earth they know goes through changes they could not have foreseen. Classic ending.
Londonclanger
Day of the Triffids
John Wyndham
it's got the lot - it is engrossing, sad, funny, good and bad - it's brilliant and I recommend it to everyone in the World.
fatpaddy100
Cloud Atlas
David Mitchell
This is one of those novels that non sci-fi fans can read without having to think that they are reading a sci-fi story. In other words it is happy to be called 'speculative fiction'. It is funny, witty, insightful, harrowing and shocking and utterly gripping from the start to the finish. This book displays the broad spectrum of humanity from our best to just how low and evil we can stoop. It moves through time from the past to an awesomely realised post apocalyptic future and back again showing a playful and excellent grasps of multiple literary styles along the way. This was the book I gave my girlfriend who is not a fan of sci-fi as the one example of this genre that she agreed she would read, mainly just to keep me quiet. She adored it.
Max von Seibold
Day of the Triffids
John Wyndham
it's got the lot - it is engrossing, sad, funny, good and bad - it's brilliant and I recommend it to everyone in the World.
fatpaddy100
Wild Cards series
George R R Martin
Science based alternative Earth where an alien virus kills 90% of infected and turns 9 of the 10 survivors into deformed jokers and 1 into a super powered ace. Aliens, an outbreak, superheroes/villains, adult storylines and a mirror of history either accurate or changed for their purposes. 22 years and 21 books later you can't fail but to read and be consumed by the detailed world Martin and his co-writers have created.
Halo572
The Handmaid's Tale
Margaret Atwood
Well written, extremely good plotting and characterisation, and has elements which stay with you for years after reading it (which is the whole point, isn't it?)
icklewickle
Starship Troopers
Robert A.Heinlen
A novel which focuses on how a military-run government would look. Also gives a good description of uber-cool space suits and fighting aliens
Thejackyyy
Really makes you think about how OUR world works by looking at another.
Pc83103
Look to Windward
Iain M. Banks
Am almost completely realised universe, very smart and incisive. I found the contrast between the connections of the culture through neural laces and the inhabitants of Yoleus to be very thought provoking, as it brought up a host of questions about the causes and effects of instant information through the internet. Also damned funny.
apriori
The Chrysalids
John Wyndham
I first read this book as a pre teen and found it an atypical examination of prejudice and the fear that inspires it. It is however, a very enjoyable, well written read. I have read it in every subsequent decade of my life and found no less enjoyable. I would recomend it for young and old alike. By far my favorite John Wyndham book.
Petra
All books of the Robotic series together with the Foundation Series
ISAAC ASIMOV
The Iron Dream
Norman Spinrad
Alternate history squared, Spinrad posits a world where Hitler went to the US in the late 1920s and became a science fiction writer of the golden age. His greatest story, Lord of the Swastika, is the novel within the novel, and it’s a retelling of the Third Reich in an SF setting. It’s all there, the mythical ideology, militarism, master race, subhumans, genocide, only the Nazis are the good guys. A spoiler proof story and not actually a very good one, but the shock is realizing how close so much SF comes to it. They’re fascistic power fantasies with impossibly virtuous male heroes, pure black villains deserving extermination, end-to-end violence, women completely written out, etc. Spinrad includes an academic article criticizing HItler on a literary basis to help you process the experience. Everyone should read this before Ender’s Game.
John Lawless
All books of the Robotic series together with the Foundation Series
ISAAC ASIMOV
tHEY ARE A fantastic TOUR DE FORCE IN SF LITERATURE.
Noronha.
It has everything, hard Sci-Fi ideas, fantasy politics, religion, philosophy, romance...
Bob
Excession
Iain M Banks
Sprawling SF on a vast scale, violent and hilarious in equal measure, Banks' Culture Novels are peerless, and this is one of his best.
The Pope
citizen of the ga;laxy
robert heinlein
Even non-sf fans like this. Classic story of the slave from nowhere, uneducated & ignorent, who through luck & his own pluck, is educated, becomes moral, regains his own true position and dedicates his life to ending slavery! Heinlein probably created more libertarians with this book than Hyeck!
americanlibrarylady
Only Forward
Michael Marshall Smith
The first of Smiths books and the first one I had read, picked up at random from a newsagents. It could be argued that this is SF/Horror but for me it is firmly in the SF category. I was in my early/mid teens and it was one of those books that change your way of thinking. From the first page you are hooked by the vivid imagery and shocking storyline. It was a lesson in how you can put wild imagination onto the page and let it run away with itself.
Sizzler
Matter
Iain M Banks
Despite it's complex concepts the vivid imagery and flowing dialogue reall lets you enter the Culture world for the first time with a great understanidng for me the best Sci fi book ever written.
Schmicko
Best of the 'culture' novels. Games at multiple levels, very black and very entertaining.
thurdman
Rendevous with Rama
Arthur C Clarke
There was just something about this book and all the thought that author Clarke put into it that made it stand out for me. There was no wild imaginings just simple and logical prediction. The only thing that was a little hard to believe was the physical size of Rama. Given the cost and complexity of building the ISS, one has to wonder how long and how much it took to be built and sent on it's way. A super read though.
Joolsaitch
The Mythidria CHronicles: RIse of the Nightmare
William H. Cash
Bill is a pal of mine for starters. He was working on this book years before I met him. He let me read his rough draft when it was done and after that, I hope he will write more. I've downloaded his ebook and it's even better finished. He said that it's the kind of story he wantes to read about. He's shared it with some other people I work with and everybody loves it. I think he had his brother make a video, but I'm not sure. He was talking about it. Bill can draw, too. I'm friends with him on facebook, and his characters are really cool so now you can actually see what his characters look like as he sees them. I would recommend this book even if Bill wasn't my friend, it's that good.
[email protected]
Dune
Frank Herbert
I thought it was too obvious, but apparently not, based upon the comments below. Dune, along with Stranger in a Strange Land, catapulted sci fi out of the "golden age", and re-defined the genre. These two books are to sci-fi what the Beatles were to rock. Everything after was different.
Jeff T. Boston USA
Body of Glass (He/She and It)
Marge Piercy
This novel is set in a post environmental holocaust future with both a dystopia and a Utopia. It presents beautifully drawn characters in a technological wonderland with a hellishly corporate backdrop. The novel revolves around Shira and her quest to be reunited with her son - taken from her by the company she used to work for. In her quest she is joined by a wonderful cyborg named Yod and the novel tells of their relationship and brings into question what it is to be human. The story is interspersed with the tale of the Golem in Prague which brings the questions around what is life into a longer history and gives it weight. As a science fiction novel it is so frighteningly possible - and in the not very distant future - but its real power is that we can already see how close we are to becoming a world in which corporations control private lives. There's some really wonderful moments like when Shira and co hack into the company's computer system using their minds, but flying in the shapes of birds, and when Shira is trying to teach Yod to understand the beauty of roses. I don't want to give anything else away as there are also unseen twists. Plus there are kittens!
rosemaryhell
Light
M John Harrison
weirdly it was a book i didn't like for its first three quarters. Too dense, too pretentious, no likable characters and then for the last quarter...boom, it all made sense, kind of. Suddenly transformed to profound, disturbing, beautiful and lyrical. As someone else on this thread says, "Quite unlike anything else i've read".
thevurt
Diaspora
Greg Egan
Start with the creation of a mind then follow it on a post-human diaspora through the multiverse.
rkmspence
Brain Wave
Poul Anderson
Over 2 generations ahead of its time - Still a contemporary science fiction novel of the highest quality - the central tenet still stands the ravages of time as a truly inspiring and though provoking possibility. An amazing gem.
sethndavid
Slaughterhouse 5
Kurt Vonnegut
Not sure if it's SF, biography, satire, or a combination of all these and more, but it's a genius little book which I read over 20 years ago for the first time; I re-read it ocassionally, and it's still fresh to me.
The Kernel
Uplift Trilogy
David Brind
An amazing series detailing the interactions between a number of species includinfg humans on a grandiose scale. A must read for any true lover of SF
HALTAN
Diaspora
Greg Egan
When the author tries to explain what a twelve dimensional planet might look like in an alternative universe it boggles my poor little four dimensional mind, but in that giddy, vertigionous way Stephen Hawking sometimes managed in a Brief History of Time. Except theres no spaceships, aliens, virtual realities in Hawkings book, which makes this book quite a lot better. Diapsora is a novel of big ideas. From the birth of a (gender neutral) new mind in a virtual reality where most of humanity live in the near future (2795 AD) to exploration of the galaxy and on to other universes of increasing multidimensional complexity to the ultimate fate of our species and others, all in a pursuit of a mystery - how does the universe (hmm, multiverse really) work? How can we survive its indifferent violence? And where are the mysterious species who left microscopic clues behind in the structure of an alien planet warning of galaxy wide catastrophe? As the book progresses the relative importance of these questions and answers change. What happens when the answers are complete? Are they ever? It does take a while to get going particularly if you're not familiar with 'hard sci-fi' but there are no 'cheats' used in traditional sci fi. No transporters, FTL travel and the intelligent aliens are so utterly unlike the 'human' heroes they need several layers of 'relay-team' interpreters even to communicate. I look forward to the day mind wipes become more widely available so I can read it again for the first time.
Gunboat Diplomat
Ender's Game
Orson Scott Card
Like the best science fiction, it portrayed a plausible world growing out of our present - and the central figure is a believable human being doing currently-unbelievable things who grows, over the course of the book. And totally gratuitously, it led to a number of sequels as rich and believable, in their way, as the first in the series was itself.
fojo
World of Ptavvs
Larry Niven
Larry Niven is mainly know for his Ringworld series books. Generally his books are set in "known space" - a universe not too distant in the future - or close parallels to this creation. In "World of Ptavvs", Larry brings an alien known in "known space" as being extinct for millions of years to the present day. The alien (a Slaver) had been in stasis and is unintentionally released and then sets about trying to enslave the earth. Fortunately Larry Greenberg, who had been trying to reach the alien telepathically whilst in stasis, is here to save the day. Without giving too much away, humans are related to the Slaver race, meaning of course that the World of the Ptavvs is earth. Some Slavers that have lost all their family (rather than committing suicide) will decide to protect the whole Slaver species. If only Larry knew someone like that to protect earth from this Slaver.... What I like about the book is that the complete story spans from years into past and future. Space Opera it is not as the books are far too easy to read (a couple hours to read this book) but none-the-less Larry Niven creates a rich and compelling universe.
smicken
Well written, wll thought out, great plot develpoment, and all around awesome!!!!
Left Hand of Darkness
Ursula Laguinn
This book so beautifully demonstrates the point that what falls between two opposing, hard-held points of view is truth
gail robinson
High Rise
JG Ballard
Not science fiction by the contemporary definition. This novel deals with what has been coined "inner space" rather than the more outer-space oriented, Le Guinesque fantasies. JG Ballard was a prominent figure of the new wave of science fiction: a collective of novelists who emerged in the 1960s and were mostly concerned with the birth of the space age and the atom bomb, for example. This was a time when events of the so-called real world began to seem stranger than fiction. As a result, novelists of this era began to write about dystopian near-futures rather than settings vastly remote in time and distance. . . High Rise deals with the effects of the man-made, physical landscape, in this case an east London aparment block - on the physcology of the tenants. The rigidly defined social structure, too-easy access to amenities and desire of the tenants to resign from their lives as mindless functionaries, sets in motion a descent into a microcosmic catastrophe. Ballard's ruthless imagination is on show here in all its glory. This book changed my life.
Dick Smith
Valis
Philip k. Dick
Strictly not Sci-Fi, but a theological meditation on perception, sanity and counterculture. One of my favourite books, up there with Camus and Satre in my opinion. The protaginist is a man undergoing a nervous breakdown who interprets his psychosis as religious revelations. Astoundingly well-written, profound and funny. Refutes the view of science fiction as 'Cowboys and Indians in Space.'
FabianRothschilde
Mission Earth
L Ron Hubbard
The author is a bit of a nutter, but the Mission Earth books are an excellent read. And, the hero grows up a little
District9
The Iron Dream
Norman Spinrad
Eurasia (including Britain) has been conquered by Bolshevism. Only the Empire of Japan and its valiant ally the Bushido-spouting USA stand fast against the Stalinist hordes. All because Adolf Hitler emigrated to New York in 1924 to become a science-fiction writer. That's the framing story. The bulk of Spinrad's novel Iron Dream is actually a novel-within-a-novel called Lord Of The Swastika written by, wait for it, Adolf Hitler sometime in the 1950s. LOTS won the Hugo award and established Hitler as a preeminent voice on the American pulp scene. LOTS tells of a mythologized Germany ("Heldon")in a future post-nuclear world that rose up to defeat the evil mutant forces of Zind and their humanity-destroying rulers the Dominators.
notathome
Dune
Hebert
Dune is a brilliant story from beginning to end that is pure prophecy when viewed post 9/11. The only reason it's not more popular is because it's too real in many respects. It lacks that warm and fuzzy Hollywood-like ending needed for today's pop culture. Still, it's a brilliant series of books. I recommend them all.
Michael Boh, LA, USA
Shikasta
Doris Lessing
Like all great science fiction Shikasta and its four companion volumes has a serious philosphical core; It is beautifully written, and is a cracking read.It is plausible and utopic, offering a glimpse of a future of equality and sexual freedom with humankind and nature in balance, while pointing at the frailties of current reality and pertinently criticising organised religion, ideology, and colonialism. Lessing's imagination runs riot, and the fourth volume, although slim, has one of the finest takes on survival in a hostile environment I have ever read. Inspiring.
thegoodterrorist
The Chronicles of Amber
Roger Zelazny
One of the most compelling (compendium of five) book(s). Fast paced, excellently written and many thought provoking ideas playing merry hell with history, time, space and logic. Not to mention a great cliffhanger ending
RonJB
THE MAN IN THE HIGH CASTLE
PHILIP K . DICK
A WELL DETAİLED wHAT İF NOVEL
ERDEM
The Sentinel
Arthur C Clarke
This is not a book, it is a short story, a very short story, but it was the inspiration for Clarke And Kubrick's collaborative epic 2001. It sums up humanities constant desire to discover 'someone else, out there. We are so lonely, like a kid who has lost it's mom. So much SF is devoted to our quest for contact, but the original short sums up the anticipation so well.
We Can Remember it For you Wholesale
Philip K Dick
This collection of short stories is full of wit humour and dystopian futures. Book bindings that rewrite books, aliens infiltrating society as four foot high VW mechanics and faulty time travellers taking part in their own autopsy and ticker tape parade. This book is the most imaginative i have ever read and i'm overwhelmed by its brilliance whenever I read it. I have laughed, cried (almost) and felt almost every emotion in between and if one person reads it because of me i shall be happy.
nofx
1984
George Orwell
ALTHOUGH THE MEDIA IN THE YEAR 1984 WOULD HAVE US BELIEVE THAT THE WORLD ENVISIONED BY ORWELL WASN'T AT ALL LIKE THAT WE ARE NOW EXPERIENCING. IT SURE WAS AND IS TO THIS DAY ! NEW SPEAK ANYONE ?
mauriceeric
We Can Remember it For you Wholesale
Philip K Dick
This collection of short stories is full of wit humour and dystopian futures. Book bindings that rewrite books, aliens infiltrating society as four foot high VW mechanics and faulty time travellers taking part in their own autopsy and ticker tape parade. This book is the most imaginative i have ever read and i'm overwhelmed by its brilliance whenever I read it. I have laughed, cried (almost) and felt almost every emotion in between and if one person reads it because of me i shall be happy.
nofx
I'd just like to put in a moan about the way bookshops display Sci-Fi - they integrate it into Fantasy. I've nothing against fairies, elves and goblins, but this genre tends to look backwards to times when knights were armed and everyone else was nervous. Sci-fi generally looks forward to the future with technology or societies or takes alternative universes and extrapolates. So why do bookshops display them together? Do they have no concept of either genre? Moan of the day over.
Janeira
Neuromancer
William Gibson
Prophetic. Serves up visual imagery of technological advances that we have now attained or on the way to achieving. Corporate pervasiveness in holographic advertising projected anywhere, futuristic ways of engaging with celebrity idols, cosmetic surgery making people look like an amalgamation of famous stars, old technology lying around in scrap heaps in amongst hi-tech wonderment. Its all happening. And who could forget the way Razor girl introduces herself to Case after hes just had in effect an organ transplant? Truly unbeatable.
mollyMillions
Hyperion/The Fall of Hyperion
Dan Simmons
"Hyperion" is, to the best of my knowledge, the first SF novel that must be considered a literary masterpiece, which is to say, canonical as literary fiction. In mho, it marks the emergence of contemporary SF as Literature. And because Dan Simmons wrote such a beautiful novel back in 1989, a generation of SF writers has emerged to compose a species of fiction unprecedented in the history of Literature, a species that thenceforth redefined the idea of the SF novel. That may be overstating the case, but the purity and overpowering poetical sensibility of Simmon's writing cannot be disputed. And in no way to diminish the achievements of Gene Wolfe and Robert Silverberg - the grandfathers of literary SF - but I thihnk that Simmons was the first novelist to deliberately embrace the so-called literary canon and weave it into a profound and beautiful SF tapestry. "Hyperion" and "The Fall of Hyperion" constitute a single novel ("The Hyperion Cantos"), and taken as a single story it is a breathtaking affirmation of the imaginative storyteller's art and craft. But it is not simply a story well told, it is SF. And that means it is about ideas. "Hyperion" and its sequel are ideas cloaked in literature. They are, in point of fact, novels that provoke wonder - which is exactly what science fiction has always been about.
Lucius
Time Out Of Joint
Philip k Dick
very intriguing plot - a man who plays crosswords everyday, living in a small town California, USA. Unknown to him or us early on in the story is that he is in fact helping the military intercept missiles fired at earth from rebels on a moon base. The film, Truman Show, staring Jim Carey is loosely based on this si-Fi novel. Great little book!
Artymart
A great, rich novel masquerading as a fantasy/SF story.
unclebob
The Forever War
Joe Haldeman
'Nam in space with promiscuous mixed sex space marine grunts fighting the Taurans. Wry observations on the military and humanity from the returning soldiers isolated from society by the effects of relativity on time caused by near to light speed travel. A great ending. A pacy read, sexy and like all good SF wrong on lots of details but contains many truths about mankind.
Rondohatoff
the peace war
vernor vinge
In a near-future world where technological progress has been frozen by the all powerful peace authority, renegade scientists discover the secret of the bobbles used to cloak weapons, bases and even cities and turn the technology to their own advantage to bring down the peace authority.
buzz
Ringworld
Larry Niven
future societies! even more than the tech, the aliens, the alien conspiracies, I like Niven's world as it's based on how our society might develop based upon just a few technology tools like organ transplantation, mechanical (vs psychic) teleportation, interstellar travel, rejuvenation and the society shaping events of war, alien inventions, alien manipulation, etc.
Centauri
Startide Rising
David Brin
At the local library when I was 17, I discovered the Uplift Saga. Starting with book 2. Star Tide Rising. I loved its exploration of conciousness with the idea of spreading sapience to other animals on earth - dolphins and chimps. I found it very positive about humanity as alien hordes threatened to destroy human cultures or humanity itself. I've not read many sci fi where despite flaws you get drawn into such a pro humanity narrative. The setting was enjoyable, marooned on a water world with a crew of dolphins. I can easily imagine from his writings that such a place must exist. I would recommend the rest of saga but for me startide rising stood out.
heroicsteve
The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
Douglas Adams
It completely changed my view on life, the universe and everything - literally: the absurdity and hilarious nonsense of being alive
maro22
Ubik
Philip K. Dick
As madly inventive as anything Dick wrote. From memory it has space travel, timeslips, psychics AND anti-psychics, half dead souls feeding off one another's life force in vats, inexplicable kinks in the nature of reality - but it's also tightly, economically constructed, which some of his books aren't. Plus it's hands down the scariest book I've ever read.
Ed B
Spook Country
William Gibson
Because it is one of the best novels I've read in the past four years, and I don't just mean SF. It's based, when? tomorrow? the day after? It doesn't really matter it is so on the button that you just know that this is how things will be. Cyberpunks lost in the cities of the future with exactly the same angst and doubts that we here on earth suffer today. Gibson is at the height of the game in SF I simple can't think of anyone, with the exception of Michael Faber and his Under the Skin that comes anywhere near.
Pace cadet
The Drowned World
J.G. Ballard
In a world heating up and regressing back to an ancient state, a man who lives in the lagoons above a flooded London struggles with the dying remains of old-world society and instead of heading north to safety decides to head south, towards the heat and towards the primal chaos the world is descending into. This is J.G. Ballard's second novel and possibly the clearest examples of his highly metaphorical science fiction novels. In The Drowned World we start see the J.G. Ballard use his objective, unemotional style that is a characteristic of his early short stories in a novel.
fragmad
The Dispossessed
Ursula le Guin
Sci fi at its worst is nothing more than cheap thrills - an update on the penny dreadful. At its best it offers nothing less than new stages on which to explore the nature of humanity. Le Guin's novel is at the best end of SF. It doesn't really matter that the setting is on some mythical planets; what is important is the people in the story, their struggles to make sense of life and society, their sufferings and their joys. It is a deeply human book. Le Guin has a gift for looking beneath surface inessentials, even those connected with gender, and seeing through to the real. Finally, although this obviously won't appeal to all, it is the most faithful and gripping account of the process of scientific discovery I have ever read. A lovely, memorable book, not just a good SF book but a great novel as well.
roundthings
Frankenstein
Mary Shelley
Frankenstein is the seminal novel that deals with the human condition versus the unknown. Shelley takes us on a finely detailed journey among science and what can be created from it even from back in the recesses of the imagination. I first read Frankenstein when I was 12. Shelley created a story where I hadn't felt such flow of sympathy between the creator and the monster. It compelled me to think of my own existence in an unsure world. What better way to start a SF journey such as with Frankenstein's monster's thirst for knowledge and acceptance in a society that only saw terror in the unknown.
JacqValencia
Russian precursor to Brave New World and 1984, which are probably on everyone's list.
James
His Master's Voice
Stanislaw Lem
His Master's Voice is one of the purest, most philosophical and accomplished SF novels I've ever read.
lyserge
Dhalgren
Samuel R Delany
I'd recommend people read this because it's either, as Theodore Sturgeon said, "a literary landmark" or, as P K Dick claimed, "trash". Folk should read it and decide for themselves. Me? I'm with Sturgeon.
nogger
Raising the Stones
Sheri Tepper
A compelling, complex speculative fictional work. One of the best examples of its genre combining nuanced social commentary and interplay of dystopian and utopian imagination.
dls
Lays the foundation for this incredible series.
Renault
House of Suns
Alastair Reynolds
Great ships, great robots and a knock-out plot from an author who takes general relativity seriously enough to work through its mind-scrambling implications
Richard Lea
ho Fell to Earth
Walter Tevis
This is "The Day the Earth Stood Still" meets "The Days of Wine and Roses". It proclaims the glories of science, technology and industry while at the same time reminding us of the poignancy of our own personal fragilities. That, I think, is the real experience of us all in the 21st Century, sci-fi aside. This novel speaks with a poet's voice, as well. Read this, then read HG Wells' "The Food of the Gods" --out loud!
pgm3
Day of the Triffids
John Wyndham
As relevant now as it was when written in the 1950's. The themes of genetic engineering and mutations in crops were way ahead of their time. A very British apocalypse, the first encounters of the man-eating plants are on Hampstead Heath. The rest of the book, often described as a 'cosy catastrophe', winds it's way through an eerily empty London and the English countryside. The now common theme of a motley band of survivors combing vacated cities for food and water has been copied endlessley. Alex Garland admitted that the first 20mins of 28 Days Later was an 'exact replica' of the opening chapters of Day of the Triffids. Read it now if you haven't. Read it again if you have.
Dexxxx
Dune
Frank Herbert
Published in 1965; he was one of the founding fathers of Sci-Fi and helped lift the status of the genre from tacky cliche invasions, to a really rewarding choice of literature.
JohnHoldsKnee
Great meditation on being human, memory, guilt.
TMonk
Quarantine
Greg Egan
Egan's book opens with an investigator looking into an odd abduction and takes us through a world where any ability(TM) can be uploaded into the narrator's head. The investigation leads him to a bizarre experiment with quantum physics--and the discovery that loyalty, too, can be installed in the human brain. Egan plays with the idea of the quantum wave with deftness and assurance, and the way round the loyalty chip is a marvellous but logical twist in the tale.
DebbieUK
A wizard of Earthsea
Ursula K. Leguin
To continue along your lines, if all the fantasy books should burn in a cataclysm tomorrow, one which I would like to survive is "A wizard of Earthsea". A book which teaches you something about human nature is a wise book. Sparrowhawk, an indisputably intelligent young man falls victim to his own vanity, causing great tragedy to himself as well others, and then goes trough great difficulties to make amends. Despite being a fantasy (and the world is something you've never experienced before, nor will you experience it after), it is relevant, especially today, when a handful of young man and women (admittedly less often) have so much power bestowed upon them (think Gates, the Google owners, then Zuckerberg). On the bookshelf of my mind, it sits together with Mann, Beckett, Dostojevski, and Shakespeare. Unfortunately, today it is less know than many over-marketed, multi volume rainforest destroyers.
Farandbeyond
Vector Prime
R.A. Salvatore
This book kicks off one of the greatest SF story arcs of all time. Throw in the death of a beloved character in the Star wars Universe and the fultiliy of the events in the book....wow.
bmarch1
The Sirens of Titan
Kurt Vonnegut
What's different and great about The Sirens of Titan is that it's one of the few sci-fi novels to posit cock-up theory as the main driver for universal history, as it takes a sweeping, entertaining romp through the universe. As Dougas Adams observed, its seemingly casual throwaway style is in fact the result of very tight writing. Oh, and it's very very funny.
Brodav
Technically SF as set in a postulated future (as seen from 1932), and very funny.
Mithalwen
Raising the Stones
Sherri Tepper
It's a complex story with themes of religious fanaticism and patriarchy By the end there are, perhaps, as many questions raised as answered. But for me, it is the strength of the women. Their stories, lives and sacrifices.
Pengwyn
Day of the Triffids
John Whyndham
Thought provoking about how Society works and human foibles - incredibly prescient (I fear) as Climate Change begins. But all the while, truly gripping as a straightforward adventure
rowingrob
Heliconia trilogy
Brian W. Aldiss
I would recommend this book as it covers a one-year period in the time-frame of the planet Heliconia, a period of some several hundred Earth years, and presents a fine analogy of the rise and fall of a human civilisation that in the end cannot help, due to a major seasonal change, fall victim to the weather itself and the rulers of the planet become those whom the humans enslaved and trod upon during the hot portion of the year. All the while, the planet is being observed from space by scientists who must endure their own evolution. I found the series to be well imagined and well written and have read it twice in the last 25 years, or so.
Taltos1667
The Midwich Cuckoos
John Windham
John Windham was in the happy position of being able to write good prose whilst at the same time being a terrific ideas man. The story about a group of weird children born into a rural English village after some rum doings asks big questions about competition, survival and who really is in control. It was made into a fairly solid horror film called Village of the Damned and the Hollywood remake wasn't too bad either.
Tess
Cthulhu Mythos
HP Lovecraft
I know, it's not exactly SF but it's not even only an horror setting. There's the fear of unknown, the cosmic terror, the deep space and alien stars... brilliant!
Demo
Against a Dark Background
Iain M Banks
Gets right into the action without long-winded delving into the minutia of the fictional society's functioning; no moralizing on the superiority of the fictional society; doesn't rely on technology that wouldn't be available given current scientific understanding; fully-fleshed characters, especially female characters, the protagonist in particular; imaginative mirror society quirks
fixedgod
Valis
pkd
mad writing from almost crazy guy. A good antidote to the typical space warrior sub-teen crap ...
Equinephillia
Project Anastrophe
George Karnikis
With the Fukushima nuclear explosions it is more important to read this book today. "In this Sci Fi novel one finds relevancy to our time. We live in a time of possible nuclear war. Oil and other pollutants have caused irreversible damage to our ecosystem. "Project Anastrophe" shows how much worse it could be, and offers hope."
Concerned
The Steps of the Sun
Walter Tevis
This is great grown up and very prophetic sci-fi, written by a newly sober Walter Tevis (The Hustler, Man who fell to Earth etc) in the early 80s. Basically its the story of a bored and literally impotent millionaire as he stumbles through an energy starved future where the US can no longer afford to light its skycrapers and China is the number 1 economic power (thanks to a strangely familiar form of capitalism, dressed in communist clothes). It is so unbelieveably prophetic (one of the key characters is a charming, well educated and articulate former Black president) but the focus for Teavis is less on technology and more on political and economics, and people (okay he still has something called the USSR bouncing around in the early 2000s but he was an author, not Mystic Meg). There's also some wonderful stuff when Tevis' protagonist takes a trip to a very alien world to cure his boredom and lose weight (read the book and it will make sense) and accidently cures his impotence (yes really!). Tevis also manages to create real characters you can believe in with real personal problems, and that's not something you always get (done well anyway) in sci-fi or speculative fiction. I'd recommend it to buy but its long out of print. I bought my tatty 2nd hand copy from a New York state library, via the tinternet. Regards FF
Frank Frenz
Dirk Gently's Holistic Detective Agency
Douglas Adams.
Neither the radio or TV versions have done any justice at all to this great, great book. Not only is every bit as funny as you'd expect for Adams, it also has one of the most fabulously cryptic plots you could hope for. I first read it a couyple of times in my late teens and enjoyed it enormously but it was three years later before it's true brilliance dazzled me. I sat in a university tutorial listening to the tale of Coleridge dreaming up Kubla Khan in a laudanum haze but being disturbed by the man from Porlock, before he could set it down. I gasped and embarrassed myself in front of my tutor as the penny dropped regarding one of the finer points of the plot of DG. I made my way home, ignored my course work and the godawful "two part prelude" I was supposed to be reading and launched into Dirk Gently once again. Adams was not only one of the funniest writers about, he also managed to examine ideas and science with a skill and a level of understanding that is often not appreciated. I delight in this book still and reread it regularly. It is a masterpiece and I wish somebody would make a proper film of it and not bugger it up.
hrhpod
got the lot:- time travel political intrigue dystopian facistic state soscial collapse
trax
Ark and Flood
Stephen Baxter
2 book series following the slow flooding of Earth and the eventual collapse of civilisation, with the survivors launched onto a mission to a distant solar system but the steady failure of relationships during the long voyage causes a number of factions to appear, meanwhile on earth the fianl taking to the waters for the remaining population and their slow transformation to semi-aquatic life.
trax
The Player of Games
Iain M. Banks
The first Banks book I read, this is a stunning introduction to the universe of the Culture, his egalitarian, post-scarcity society. The book follows the journey of Morat Jernau Gurgeh, a cynical, arrogant, and brilliant game player to an imperialistic civilisation rife with inequality, sexual slavery and the brutal application of power. It's filled with Banks trademark witty dialogue, discomfiting themes and vivid, brilliant imagination. A classic.
DanMHarris
The Colour Out of Space
H. P. Lovecraft
I read it when I was a child. At that time Carl Sagan's Cosmos was on TV and I was hooked on science divulgation. Lovecraft's descriptions of a meteorite's odd substance that feed on live, disseminate and has an indefinable color triggered my imagination (and populated some nightmares).
Ramiro
The Left Hand of Darkness
Ursula K Le Guin
It is a very imaginative, yet credible, tale of a lone human's impressions of two opposed alien civilizations. The portrayal of the human and non-human characters involved is extremely well done, and novel is thought-provoking throughout.
Allium
Engine Summer
John Crowley
Though the story is set in a post-apocalypse America, it breaks with the 'traditional' disaster scenarios usually portrayed. Instead there is a beautiful child-like quality to it, enhanced by the sufi-like 'the end is the beginning' conclusion.
thatloosecannon
Cryptonomicon
Neal Stephenson
I'd picked up Stephenson's "Baroque Cycle" trilogy before finding Cryptonomicon and was instantly swept away by the astonishing depth and breadth Stephenson achieved while still keeping me turning the pages as fast as I could. After finishing those first three books I felt completely bereft of Stephenson's world and went out to get Cryptonomicon as soon as possible. Told in two time periods and with multiple protagonists (not to mention graceful and fascinating infodumps on cryptology, mathematics, early computing, financial systems, corporate law...the list goes on), you would have thought the narrative would be confusing and sketchy, but Stephenson pulls it off with amazing aplomb and skill. Each characters is thoroughly drawn, each landscape evoked in vivid colour, and all the while it remains brilliant fun. This is a first rate example of the alternate history branch of science fiction.
whatwedoissecret
Brave New World
Aldous Huxley
Brave New World is perhaps the most terrifying and relevant dystopian novel written. Social engineering and a mass produced society is counterpointed by the 'savages' outside, whilst stuck in the middle is John a reject from both societies.
SyntheticMan
Solaris
Stanisław Lem
Written fantastically, keeping the reader on the edge. Its suspense kept me going, amazing Sc-fi from the 60s
Garveyc
The Left Hand of Darkness
Ursula Le Guin
I choose this because it is a brilliantly non-sf, sf book. There are no guns, no super technologies, no obvious male heroes, no wars, etc.There is a spaceship but we never see it. All these cliches seem to be shunned as examples of very male-centric sf writing. The novel deals with themes of gender, sexuality, politics, religion and more. The inhabitants of the planet Gethen are entirely androgynous and visited by a male from the distant, more technically advanced planet Earth who tries to understand them. The author seems to suggest that the duality inherent in the human race could be at he heart of negatives such as war (Gethen has never known one) as well as positives such as technological progress. I'll admit to not being a massiv fan of SF. This impressed because it is undoubtedly science fiction yet it drops nearly all of the conventions.
ewandme
Moby Dick
Herman Melville
A ship setting off to visit an alien world, unseen by most humans. A narrator pondering his place withing his homeworld and his own society and speculating on the lives, motives and drives of the giant, unknowable, half unseen aliens he encounters, all explained in enthralling terms to an audience as unfamiliar with whaling as most modern readers are with the surface of Europa.
Tim Cunion
Blew me away when I first read it and still holds up when I re-read
fearful symmetry
The Stainless Steel Rat
Harry Harrison
A highlight from the pulp age, and pre-Hitchhiker sf humour. A Rat book was the first book I borrowed from the 'big' ie adult library and started a life-long love of sf
Night's Dawn Trilogy (The Reality Dysfunction,
Peter F. Hamilton
This trilogy is epic science-fiction at its best. Hamilton covers may characters and planets in a brilliant adventure through space, with the fate of the galaxy hanging in the balance. As ever, Hamilton's books are sci-fi marvels, and I can safely say Night's Dawn is the best trilogy I have read, of any genre.
AAM
Lavondyss
Robert Holdstock
I was going to suggest Dan Simmons masterpiece Hyperion but the article states I don't have to be quite that strict in my definition of what constitutes 'sf'. So Robert Holdstock's Lavondyss it is. A brilliant haunting and deeply distubing take on rural myths, Jungian philosophy,complete with gorgeous prose that fits into some sort of celtic myth cycle. Never read anything quite like it.
Nearly Headless Ned
Eifelheim
Michael Flynn
I don't normally read SF, but the combination of medieval Germany and first contact, interwoven with physics, religion, and the multiverse was too hard to resist. Eifelheim is a beautiful read, elegant and extremely moving. I've not read anything in the last five years that I've loved as much.
Donna McKinnon/Canada
Engine Summer
John Crowley
Here's a book that's entirely SF but that actually improves if read as literature.It isn't just about content or form, but the sensibility, the connections it makes and the respect it has for the reader and our ability to work out the whole story from an incomplete account by a damaged but heroic first-person narrator. It's about narrative, and it's a bildungsroman set in a world we can only know from that whole working-out-the-rules game and about a young man we can only know from knowing that world. It's very sixties: the author wrote the first draft, then learned how to do SF, then rewrote it in the late 70s once it was so out-of-synch with the times as to be entirely itself. Imagine 'In Watermelon Sugar' written by an adult. Imagine the future bits of 'Cloud Atlas' by someone who knew what he was doing. Imagine 'The Road' made to seem almost beguiling until you figure out what is going to happen after the book ends. It's not about the obvious 'props' (spaceships, robots, time-paradoxes), it's about making words work differently. This is the form of writing that amplifies what the mainstream can do, and 1979 was almost the last time we were allowd to read books this without any stigma. Thanks a bunch, Mr Lucas.
Tat Wood
Ender's Game
Orson Scott Card
My family belong to a rather "literary" book club whose selection tended to consist of anything from the "top 20" in most high street bookshops. I suggested my sister set them Ender's Game to take them "out of the box" to try a different genre. The experiment was a success - and I was even asked to lend out the sequels... So my recommendation is based on it being a good read and one that can represent the genre and be an introduction to "non-believers" :D
acorn01
A brilliant, mature, creative novel in verse. Amazing feat.
st-angeleno
Feersum Endjinn
Iain M Banks
Banks created a dark, gothic and beautiful world (not part of the Culture scenario) that reviews the long term use of our technologies and political systems in similar ways to the near/mid-term predictions of Gibson and others. It's a modern Diaspar, rich in detail and adventure but also, wonderfully, humour, which so much SF leaves out. The characters are unusually well drawn (even for Banks) and the narrative multi-layered and satisfying.
Peepee
A Fire Upon The Deep
Vernor Vinge
A Hugo winning classic space opera, with varied and well thought out aliens and an interesting premise about how transcended cultures interact with more primitive ones. Even though it was published 20 years ago it remains extremely fresh while some more modern books feel dated.
HirO
Hello Summer, Goodbye
Michael G Coney
This takes a well-worn piece of SF furniture and gives it an elegant, very English, reworking. It could look to the unwary like a straightforward teenage boy's account of coming-of-age and his relationship witha girl his parents thought was beneath their station but it's much more piquant and subtle than this. The society described is treacherously similar to pre-War England (specifically the West Country) but the force of change isn't politics or war but astrophysics. Our narrator survives, but what it costs him to be able to tell us this is left unsaid. If the details that aren't like a mangled 'Five Go To Smuggler's Cove' are put together in the right way the reader can anticipate some of the ending but the curt last line confused inattentive reviewers. Coney makes a lived-in world and its passing is made more painful than some real societies in less well-written autobiographies. I've noticed that a lot of people who loved this book thought they were the only one who'd ever read it, but I'll recommend it to strangers anyway. (There was a belated sequel that spelled everything out for the less nimble reader but nobody likes that as much).
Tat Wood
The Martian Chronicles
Ray Bradbury
While some people have said this book is NOT science fiction, i feel its a seminal group of short stories in the general direction of SF.
LaBowe
I Am Legend
Richard Mattheson
Despite only being a short novel, It manages to deliver the most crushing sense of isolation you could possibly feel - the kind you must feel when you are the last man alive on earth, and everyone else wants to drain you dry. The passages of Robert Neville sat drinking whisky alone in the dark listening to classical music - as the haunting vampires are particularly effective. A dark - (almost black) sense of humour and an incredible explanation for the usually unexplained scientific aspects of a vampiric post apocalyptic world, combined with my personal favourite ending twist to any book I've ever read. I'll leave it for you to discover the desperation that can occur in one man when he is so alone , but I THOROUGHLY recommend this epic novella.
TheChuzzle
War of the worlds
HG Wells
I love the period that this book is set in. No super technology, well, on the human's part anyway. The fact that the main character walks everywhere and get's his information from the newspaper or by word of mouth is interesting. No mobile phones, no internet etc... The descriptions of the horror and violence make the reader use his or her imagination...you're not spoon fed gory details. It's not gung ho in anyway any your actually able to digest what's going on. The parallel theme of man facing total anhilation and only having Victorian thinking to comombat it is very refreshing.
Artpunx
It isn't a simple good vs evil sci-fi book. Very strange novel indeed.
LightCreatedByAir
Stars In My Pockets Like Grains of Sand
Samuel R Delany
This is the mutant love-child of Henry James and Theodore Sturgeon. Sex, murder, species... these are trivial matters on the galactic scale but library membership is worth going to war over. Instead of neologisms with lots of apostrophes we have words such as 'job', 'she', 'family' reallocated to things we almost, nearly, if-I-hold-my-breath-and-screw-up-my-eyes comprehend. In 1984 it was bewildering (and it's the first half of a pair, the second of which was never even published)but with the advent of wikipedia the idea of 'Cultural Fugue' and 'General Information' as a covert system of control are more graspable. (In the opening section some kind of ultimate Kindle is used as a tool of slavery, and people have books chained to themselves as fetishistic signs). The novel's focus is a simple question: what if falling in love risked not just killing everyone you knew but unravelling entire worlds? The usual space-opera stuff is happening off-stage, but in front of us is a meditation on 'the drunkenness of things being various'. And after what can be described as nail-biting climax there is an epistemological moment at the end if this first book that other writers would have made into whole trilogies. The second half might have been a let-down, or simply spiralled into Foucauldian angst. The book we have is a treasure, although -seriously - not for everyone.
Tat Wood
Elvissey
Jack Womack
A visceral, speed-freak tale of capitalism run amok, the viral power of language, penance and redemption of the American soul, and the apotheosis of Elvis.
Aaron K
The Stars My Destination
Alfred Bester
It's a great epic crammed into a couple of hundred pages, full of ideas, excitement and dark humour.
Chris88
More Than Human
Theodore Sturgeon
It's more inner than outer space but, as you'd expect of Sturgeon (and indeed the whole SF genre) it gets your mind pondering the big stuff....
Bex
The Alchemical marriage of Alistair Crompton
Robert Sheckley
You know that thing of 'where do you get those crazy ideas?' SF authors get asked? If anyone had dosed Douglas Adams with Sodium Pentathol he would have said 'Robert Sheckley'. 'The Alchemical Marriage...' is the most complete novel this ace short-story writer managed to produce: he just had too much going on for anything like a coherent plot most of the time. Even then, this has about as simple a framing device as you can get: someone who had his personality split into the mediaeval Four Humours wants to be whole again and so chases down the other people made by splitting his original personality, putting each bit in a new body and giving them jobs on different planets. (Yes, that old stand-by). That's a tent-pole from which to hang a string of bizarre situations. Adams took more than just plot-details - check out, for example, 'Ask A Foolish Question' - he took a sensibility that came from the 50s 'Galaxy' Magazine stable, and which Sheckley pushed to its limit; a sardonic look at SF's inherited grab-bag of plots and props form a generation of writers who grew up on 'Astounding Science Fiction' and 'The New Yorker'. He was poised precisely between Robert Heinlein and James Thurber. Not all of it has aged well but this book will give you an idea of whether you want to go into his back-catalogue.
Tat Wood
A book that veers between black humour, sexual escapades and the poignanacy of growing old.
tedooboy
Where Late the Sweet Birds Sang
Kate Wilhelm
This 35-year-old novel about human clones surviving the end of civilisation won a Hugo award in 1977 and somehow seems to become more resonant with the passing of time. Wilhelm is an elegant and versatile, and prolific, writer. I grew up borrowing her and husband Damon Knight's books from my local library, but with our bookshops swamped with franchised doorstops, she never seems to get the attention she deserves. My second nomination would be Damon Knight's The Man in the Tree
HolyhosesRob
A Door Into Ocean
Joan Slonczewski
Most SF, let's be honest, borrows its toys from other SF under a fair-use policy; the best definition of 'Hard' SF opposes it to 'easy' (which is basically collage). Hard SF builds worlds from scratch using only fresh ingredients. Here, marine biology is used to take on two of 60s SF's sacred cows, Frank Herbert and Ursula le Guin, to patiently say 'no, this is what it would really be like'. In one key sequence the characters describe a form of passive resistance using an analogy taken from their 'handicraft' of DNA synthesis - a clued-up reader might spot that it's the rather arcane phenomenon of quantum tunnelling described as Quaker lesbian fish-people would see it. Sadly, this book is handy for the uninspiring off-the-shelf university courses of feminist utopias. It's better than that. It assumes you're familiar with old-time SF standbys and are ready to see them slyly mocked (so the Heinlein-style Ol'timer really IS old, and we ought to have figured out why earlier). It gets a bit earnest at times but it avoids easy answers and wish-fulfillment. A must for anyone who thought 'Avatar' was worth all that money.
Tat Wood
Ender's Game
Orson Scott Card
This is an entertaining story with something to say about leadership. It's also accessible to most ages - my 9 year-old just read it and Ender's Shadow.
tj66
Dhalgren
Samuel Delany
This book continues to haunt me after one read 3 years ago. Great writing, plot twists, strangeness, characters. The imagery is vivid in my mind's eye. I would recommend this book to anyone who reads scifi.
oneshoe
Rite of Passage
Alexei Panshin
Not only is this book a fascinating tale about a very interesting main character, it is a sugar-coated crash course in ethics and philosophy. I first read this book when I was not too much older than the main character. The thoughts and concepts I encountered in it helped me expand my own boundaries as much as Mia does, and I've always been grateful for it. In my opinion, this book should be a mandatory part of every high school reading curriculum. Although published in 1968, it hasn't lost a shred of relevancy to today's society, and I was immensely pleased when Rite of Passage was reprinted in 2007. When you need some strengthening meat and potatoes on your TBR plate to counteract a surfeit of cotton candy, reach for this book. You won't be sorry. Neuromancer? Give me a break. It is getting so that stuff called science fiction is so intellectually shallow it is not worth paying attention to anymore. Gibson didn't know squat about computers when he wrote that. Try The Two Faces of Tomorrow by James P. Hogan. Hyperion is not even science fiction. And they gave the Hugo to a Harry Potter book in 2001. The world is coming to an end. LOL
psikeyhackr
Hyperion
Dan Simmons
Simmons stories are almost always something different, yet they still manage to feel familiar at the same time. I will have to keep my 9 year-old away from this one for a bit longer though.
tj66
A Canticle for Leibowitz
Walter M. Miller Jr.
I've always had a thing for the postapocalyptic genre, as it enables an author to mediate on three major, interlocking SF issues: 1) what it means to be human, even when humanity's faux-teleological progress has been incinerated; 2) how culture (incl. technology, art, politics and religion) functions or can function; and 3) how people deal with the most extreme of circumstances (very few people around, mutations, little food, no societal stability, etc.). No novel I know of has done this better than "A Canticle for Leibowitz," which spans hundreds of years, but keeps to a small, personal scale while beautifully, eloquently showing the interactions of institutions, governments, science and religion. People coping with a by-gone world with all they have, even if all they have are myths and fear. A masterful piece of literature, an amazing feat of SF.
CCQA (the Netherlands)
Golem 100
Alfred Bester
The closest you will ever come to 'reading' a trip on psychotropic substances. It is a uniquely dark and twisted black comedy set in the 22nd Century. The Golem 100, a hundred handed multi-dimensional creature, is inadvertently summoned to earth by a group of women who have been performing half-hearted demonic séances using a variety of themes from many religious sects. The Golem 100 embarks on a career of chaos and murder hotly being pursued by the books ‘heroes’ Gretchen Nunn,Blaise Shima and Subadar Ind'dni. Like Anthony Burgesses ‘A Clockwork Orange’ there is a language barrier for the reader to overcome, but once you grasp the ‘future speak’ it adds to the depth of the world you have entered. Bester also switches from text to pictures throughout the novel, this unique edge creates a disturbing and unsettling atmosphere for the reader, but builds up the tension exquisitely Your final barrier is to find yourself a copy! The darn thing is currently out of print…e-bay and amazon might be the place to go!
jp67
The Stars my Destination (Tiger, Tiger)
Alfred Bester
Shakespeare in space and time.
Cheryl
My favorite SF author at his finest.
bobboisen
The Disposessed
Ursula K LeGuin
A simple idea about how people might shape societies told in an elegant story. It makes science and politics seem human and interesting. Which is quite an acheivement, at least as far as politics is concerned. Also I like that it is kind of downbeat.
Acmeist
Little, Big
John Crowley
More fantasy than science fiction but a totally engrossing tale of a New England family's relationship with the Faery kingdom. Very literary with hints of Lewis Carroll, Shakespeare, and Sufi poetry. Nominated for various awards including Nebula, Hugo, BSFA and Locus.
nogger
Flowers for Algernon
Daniel Keyes
A beautiful, fable-like story about the questionable (dangerous) approach of science manipulating human beings to supposedly advance them. Touching, heart-breaking, convincing and poignant. Wonderful.
bobbygw
Picnic on Paradise
Joanna Russ
A brilliant interpretation of telepathy in an advanced alien species; it's a wonderful, beautifully written story about the complexities of communication and understanding.
bobbygw
The Moon is a Harsh Mistress
Robert Heinlein
Sometimes the only way to get the bastards to pay attention is to chuck a rock or two at them. Secondly, I learned to speak (grok) 'computer' many years ago. Oops, that's two books.
mfrump
Hyperion
Dan Simmons
This drags you in and has you embroiled in the story from the start. It's one of those multiple tale formats with the characters int he book telling how they ended up on the quest. A complex picture builds - a mixture of sci fi, future tech and mythology. It's the kind of book I would have avoided but once I started it I was sucked into the story and devoured the trilogy.
pinkpostit
Hyperion
Dan Simmons
This drags you in and has you embroiled in the story from the start. It's one of those multiple tale formats with the characters int he book telling how they ended up on the quest. A complex picture builds - a mixture of sci fi, future tech and mythology. It's the kind of book I would have avoided but once I started it I was sucked into the story and devoured the trilogy.
pinkpostit
Hyperion
Dan Simmons
This drags you in and has you immersed in the story from the start. It's one of those multiple tale formats with the characters in the book telling how they ended up on the quest to kill the Shrike. The what? It's a terrifying merciless executioner that moves through multiple dimensions creating echos through the past and present. A complex picture builds - a mixture of sci fi, future tech and mythology. I loved the concepts in it - regeneration machines, man vs machine, neural internet connection, traveling between worlds through tamed wormholes and in particular building houses with rooms in different worlds especially the loo in the middle of a lake in a deserted planet.
pinkpostit
The Sirens of Titan
Kurt Vonnegut
Ultimately very humbling and staggering book, as not only is the self-centered reader quite unimportant in the larger scheme of things, so is all of the human story.
readitat14
The Female Man
Joanna Russ
A radical take on sexuality, and the roles of men and women; this early sf text challenged presumptions and sexual stereotypes through its three female characters. Wonderful, and it remains insipring and thought-provoking.
bobbygw
Read at age 12, this book made me a lifetime fan of SF.
TRJ713
"The Book of the New Sun"
Gene Wolfe
epic, deeply complex, truely fantastical and amazing use of language SF's "Lord of the Rings"
metasolaris
Consider Phlebas
Iain M. Banks
I found myself in a conversation trying to remember the title of a brilliant film I'd seen...........turns out I was thinking of a scene from this book, which I'd read five years previously. I re-read it and it was still a fantastic, despondent glory.
Toadjuggler
1984
george orwell
This book opened y eyes, when i was a teen, to what politics really are: a eternall battle to maintain the status quo, and people, to politicians, don't really matter
rafaelluppi
The Stars My Destination
Alfred Bester
has all the elements required of a good sci-fi, but was so early in the genre as to set the standard that others attempted to follow. (also known as "Tiger Tiger")
69dec
Brilliant satire, a great read
JohnArmstrong
Lord of Light
Roger Zelazny
Counted a New Wave writer by some, Roger Zelazny scavenged plots and characters from medieval romances and world mythology, mashed them through a pulp filter in the style of Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler and Ross MacDonald, added the zip and self-mocking outrageousness of the mid-1960s Marvel superhero comics, and injected the resulting narrative with sprays of impressionistic stream of consciousness description that put you fully in the sensory experience of the protagonist. Like his equally eccentric contemporary, R. A. Lafferty, when Zelazny was on, it all worked astonishingly, and even when he was off, it was a fascinating experiment. In Lord of Light he was definitely on. On a planet settled by colonists from Earth, the powerful and privileged from the original starship crew have hoarded the most advanced technology for their own benefit, giving themselves virtual immortality and god-like powers while their fellow humans slip into a new dark age. The new superhumans take on the names and attributes of gods and goddesses from the Hindu pantheon, so what better way for a disaffected member of the original clique to stir up rebellion than to resurrect Buddhism? Along the way he has to deal with demons (native energy-based lifeforms), assassins, former friends and lovers among what are now his enemies, the awful experience of being ripped from Nirvana and pulled back into a physical incarnation, and a competing rebel army of zombies directed by a Christian crew member. There are moments when the rococo prose nearly topples into total confusion, places where Zelazny's sentimental streak gets out of control, and snatches of grandiose dialogue that could use an extra shot of the (always present) Zelazny irony to avoid being silly. But there's also more humor and a more humane and thoughtful hero than in most of Zelazny's other novels. Lord of Light managed to be postmodern before more than a handful of people were using that term, and it managed be a ripping good adventure to boot.
Paul Connelly
Against the Day
Thomas Pynchon
Steam-punk or alternate history or whatever you want to call it, Pynchon’s 2006 novel is an incredibly rich SF pastiche. The plot is impossible to summarize but, simply (!), we’re taken along for the ride as the burgeoning scientific era impinges on the hundreds of intertwined characters, the world readies itself for doom, and we can do nothing but watch in horror with the Chums from their balloon. The quality of the writing lifts this into a realm of its own; nobody else can handle sentences like Pynchon and retain the warmth and humour he is constantly able to muster, even when writing complicated pages of ‘math-fi’. This was published less than five years ago, so, once the dust settles look for this to be considered one of the greats. In Pynchon’s own words: “Let the reader decide, let the reader beware. Good luck”.
Sergius
Hyperion Cantos
Dan Simmons
The Hyperion Cantos. released as two books due to the publisher not wanting to take a chance on a Huge book from a relative unknown new comer (Ironic since telephone books has since become the norm) This is Writing on a Grand Scale. The Space Opera Book to start and End all. Due to the foolish publication, many readers viewed the ending to Hyperion as one judges the end of books, not knowing that the next book is no sequel. But the remaining part of one book. A Terrible Decision that at the time cheapened what should have gone down as the Greatest Single Volume of SF ever constructed. And not one that made some people go "WTF" at the end. Truly Amazing Stuff that may start slow for some but don't be fooled, it does more with a 1000 pages then most do with a career. His consequent Hyperion books were more bloated and less story driven, much like whats considered the finer SF being writing today. Reynolds "Revelation Space is a Homage to this book.
midas68
Riddley Walker
Russell Hoban
This book is what SF is for, or should be for: huge invention, a story for the ages - literally - and a whole new language to tell it in
Boole
Perdido Street Station
China Mieville
An almost overpowering mix of politics, language and invention barely constrained in a thrilling plot. Every second page has an idea thrown in for local colour that other authors would build entire novels around.
MrKip
The Black Cloud
fred hoyle
both beautiful and devastating, the simple fact that the events could be science truth, and the honest and cutting representation of careerist humans alongside our fragility and smallness within the wider universe is utterly compelling
hanayama
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
Phillip K Dick
Dune
Frank Herbert
Well were do I start it took me somewhere that not even David Lynch,H R Giger could not replicate in its imagination.Its a classic story of conflict and family set in a world of intergalactic spacing guilds and mile long worm.
Quizzard
The Centauri Device
M John Harrison
It's a reworking of Space Opera that broke away from the previous heroic poses and opened up the genre to more thoughtful writing.
GB Steve
The Road
Cormac MacCarthy
I'm sure I'll be one of scores of readers name-dropping the book. But it was what every genre-besting SF novel should be - the kind of inexplicably haunting tale that burrows into your dreams.
elliereplies
Lord of Light
Roger Zelazny
The interaction between elites, technology, and religion, and how elites use technology and religion to maintain their position.
johnnyninefingers
The Müller-Fokker Effect
John Sladek
One of the few SF novels with real humour, sharp satire. I think Sladek may have been channeling great unread mainstream author William Gaddis, but that's no bad thing.
Boole
Dhalgren
Samuel Delany
Having been a Speculative Fiction addict, once I read this meditation on myth, identity, sexual politics, etc. I stopped reading SF. Nothing else comes close (except maybe Delany's 'Triton').
st.nick
Wonderful to read, great plot and believable characters,
Shecat
We
Yevgeny Zamyatin
The book without which 1984 would not have been. And although Orwell refined and elaborated on the concept to produce a better book, that We was written before the death of Lenin makes it truly, remarkably precient. Orwell had TVs that watch you back, Zamyatin, writing before television had been invented had glass buildings.
stephenwelsh
Other Days, Other Eyes
Bob Shaw
Bob Shaw 'invented' slow glass, a crystalline material that retains light waves and gradually transmits it to the viewer, with the time delay being dependant upon the thickness of the pane. Too many other sf writers would have spun out this radical new concept into at least two trilogies. Shaw examines all the possibilities in one admirably compact novel (incorporating three 'sidelight' short stories), while at the same time managing to construct a warmly human narrative.
Ulsterfan
It's a classic that's very readable. And still one of the best SciFi books around.
David Greybeard
Ubik
Philip K Dick
Ubik (1969) is a great novel because it provides page-turning entertainment as a straight SF/mystery story whilst also asking some pretty big existential questions: How do we know what's real? How do we know we're really alive? Who is really in control of our world? Central to the novel is the idea of "half-life", a virtual-reality world inhabited by the semi-dead; people whose brains are artificially kept alive whilst their dead bodies are held in cryogenic store. Living people can communicate with half-lifers via telephone - a simple but brilliant idea. But, with all the weird goings-on, are the "living people" really alive themselves? Who's alive and who's dead? Amidst all this confusion is the consumer product that keeps cropping up - in TV adverts, on posters, in radio commercials - the mysterious spray-can cure-all known as "Ubik". Ubik is the ultimate restorative substance - and maybe the only thing that can save our hero from the tide of entropy. Dick never spells out exactly what Ubik is suppose to be - a metaphor for God? For hope? For humanity? Reader, you decide - because ultimately, Dick seems to suggest, none of us can know with any certainty the answers to these big questions.
MikeAlx
Deathbird Stories
Harlan Ellison
This is a short story collection, one of many by Ellison, but this is the first one I read and it knocked me for six with it's tone and imaginative breadth. This was speculative fiction, not classic sci-fi. The first story in the book, "The Whimper of Whipped Dogs", made me angry. I disliked Ellison straight away for the negative slant of the story, the lack of faith in humanity, the loss of hope. I couldn't forget about it though, couldn't stop thiking about his ideas, they needed to be confronted and understood. After reading the rest of the stories in this collection my opinion did a vast 180 and Ellison became one of my favourite authors. He doesn't seem to get too much mention in science fiction discourse but he was one of the leading lights of the New Wave in the 60s, editing the "Dangerous Visions" anthology which helped define that era. "Deathbird Stories" is essential Ellison reading but he had many other short story collections out there which are equally worthy of attention.
birds
I Am Legend
Richard Matheson
It has vampires, it has a strange virus, it has the collapse of society and the beginnings of something new and strange. But, like all the best SF (in my opinion) it uses its genre trappings to explore something very very human.
John H
More than Human
Theodore Sturgeon
because instead of being about alien worlds, wars or invasions it is about our evolution and the capacity of human beings to change, develop and become....better
peter flack
Neuromancer
William Gibson
As good as anything ever written in the genre. Ranks with all of the greats authors out there. Really more of a work of literature.
john lee
Dancers at the End Of Time
michael moorcock
Its a SF book but not in the traditional sense. Its written in the style and genre of the traditional victorian early SF writters such as H G Wells but with a very modern sensability. It is worthy of mention for the simple reason that it is often over looked but is simple and whimsical. It crosses genres but remains within SF. Why it hasnt been made in to a film is understandable but sad as the story is elegant and timeless. It is the only book on my shelf that I re read on a regular basis
PureedGerbil
Dune
Frank Herbert
Epic in scope, light on technology; the story of feuding family. A feudal system written across a galaxy.
Martin Veart
Revelation Space
Alastair Reynolds
Have to agree with Chojinalpha - any of the modern hard space opera Brit author like Alastair Reynolds would be my recomendation.
Paul R
NOIR
K W Jeter
I suspect this one may be missed by others. Like all extraordinary books this both defines and annihilates a genre simultaneously. A dark brooding future dystopia; Bladerunner crossed with Tiger, Tiger except on stronger drugs. A noir thriller where the 'hero' is a serial killer who sees the world as a 1940's noir film. Incredible set pieces and hallucinogenic passages mixed with dark humour and extreme violence? Whats not to recommend?
alivee2011
Engine Summer
John Crowley
John Crowley's Engine Summer is science fiction's great secret masterpiece. A novel about the centrality of storytelling to the human experience, Engine Summer also boasts the tightest fit between a book's title and its contents that I have ever encountered. The novel itself IS an engine summer. Quiet, lyrically subtle, strangely undemonstrative, this is a book that sneaks up on you, slowly building its intertwinements of theme and character and richly varied detail up to an ending that's both devastating and inspiring, and the greatest denouement I know of. If you get it, it will blow you away; if you don't (and about half its readers fail to), you'll wonder what the hell I'm talking about. I said it was science fiction's secret masterpiece? Make that 20th century English literature's secret masterpiece.
Ron Drummond
Lord of Light
Roger Zelazny
Sci fi + Indian myth. Finishes a close race ahead of The Day of the Triffids and A Caniticle for Leibowitz.
quaziluffy
This Perfect Day
Ira Levin
Highly imaginative novel. It depicts the mere hollowness and vulnerability of dictatorship (technological, ideological, religious, etc.)
Farz
Camp Concentration
Thomas M Disch
A beautifully-written disquisition on intelligence, imprisonment and power relationships that concludes with a brilliant coup de theatre. Disch was also a poet and his use of language is extraordinary for someone writing in the genre. But this should not distract from the pure pleasure of watching his plot unfold and blind us with brilliance at the end.
keithyd
Elvissey
Jack Womack
Jack's work is incredible... William Gibson's favorite living author, he created a frightening and credible dystopia with wit, humor and outlandish bravura. His stuff is outta print now but you can Amazon it. Do!
Austin D H Ivers
Tales of pilot Pirx
Stanislaw Lem
Lem, despite of his Central European handicap is out there alongside Asimov, AC Clark, Bester and others.
Tops Pops
The Tripods
Samuel Youd under the pseudonym John Christopher
One of the best SF thrillers ever with compelling adventure story filled with action and suspense. I read it when i was a kid and loved it and reread many times. The white mountains, the first in the series is just perfect.
Armenotti
The Boat of a Million Years
Poul Anderson
From the dark recesses of time to the far future, Highlander-esque individuals that are immortal do their best to live in a world that won't accept them and would kill them if the truth were known. Fascinating characters in in impossible situations and a wonderful survey of human history as if the reader were present makes for a superb novel.
John Ottinger III
Her Smoke Rose Up Forever
James Tiptree Jr. (Alice Sheldon)
This is a collection of short stories written by the incisive, ruthless mind and warm, human heart of Alice Sheldon who wrote as James Tiptree Jr. (named after the marmalade manufacturer). It contains some of the most thought provoking and moving tales and takes you on incredible imaginitive leaps - for me the essence of SF.
Justina Robson
The Man in the High Castle
Phillip K Dick
A superb alternative history of the Cold War and America with wonderfully realised characters, as well as all the usual sci-fi trappings. Explores everything from consumerism to the nature of reality itself.
LHRT
Oryx & Crake
Margaret Atwood
It's got all the elements of a great science fiction book; dystopia, post-apocalypse, genetic engineering etc. But the outcomes of this fiction are so steeped in realities that are already surrounding us, that the possibilities of Atwood's speculation become frighteningly plausible. The writing itself is beautiful and elegant. The characters are fully fledged psychological beings, that are not there to merely serve the plot. Their emotional burdens are believable and ring true. While The Handmaid's Tale has already cemented itself as not only Atwood's finest work, but as a seminal piece of modern speculative fiction, given a few more years Oryx & Crake deserves to catch up both in esteem and appreciation.
dijn737
The Mars Series
Kim Stanley Robinson
Also his Antartica and The Years of Rice and Salt. Ecologically sound, socialogically and psychologically fascinating. loved many of the recommendations - LeGuin, Foundation Series, Olaf Stapledon.
hammerct1
Hard science fiction mixed with psychedelic visuals. Both clear cut and incredibly hazy. The best.
jslater
Startide Rising
David Brin
David's Uplift series, at least the first three books, showcased both the audacious arrogance of humanity as a whole, but the inclusiveness of people working together in a community. While I feel the series devolved, Startide Rising captured the poetry of life that I hadn't found in science fiction until then, nor later.
Paul
Stone
Adam Roberts
Because it centres around a prisoner talking to a rock but the story he tells is amazing!
Gav Reads
Maul
Tricia Sullivan
no such thing as best SF novel as genre entirely fluid and changing and one generations best is the next's stoge (and we - generalized we - desperately need to learn to distinguish between what we like and what is good, and what we dislike and what is bad.) But Maul... brutal, challenging, unforgiving... Worth reading simply because it proves SF can shock, be relevant and make readers uncomfortable rather than comforting them. I can think of a dozen other books published in the last ten years as good as most things listed so far (but I'll spare you the soapbox)
JonCG
The Gap Series
Stephen Donaldson
An epic space opera. Politics, war and a believable alien menace, form the backdrop for characters carved from stone. Every arc deserves and demands your attention. Great entertainment. 5 books in the series but worth a mention.
thegapinto...
It's brilliant and funny and unforgetable.
Kat Warren
The Foreigner Series
C J Cherryh
This series of novels - now 12 of them published - explores alien/human interaction with an intensity I have not seen elsewhere in the genre. The writing has improved as the series progresses and while they may become repetitive in scenarios, each new book in the series throws new light on the humanoid but not human species that the hero has to understand to survive. Cherryh would be the author I would send to front any future meeting with an alien species.
stephenrb
Chasm City
Alastair Reynolds
A great world, loads of action and more plot twist than you can shake a stick at. Couldn't put it down.
Neuromancer
William Gibson
Everything from character names (Wintermute, Case, Lady 3Jane) to the way he only implies the momentous world events that have made the world what it is make Neuromancer a book you can't shake. Exactly one other novel has the staying power for me of Gibson's dystopic masterpiece - Infinite Jest.
iembalm
Neverness
David Zindell
It builds a world that entrances and saddens when the book comes to an end. And then gladdens when you are told there is a following three part sequel. And then saddens again because after this great start in writing SF, he follows a similar story line but in a fantasy series that does not measure up. I wish he would return to spaceships and discard magical amulets.
honey
Inverted World
Christopher Priest
Priest's Inverted World captivated me with its premise -- a city on wheels that has to keep moving to get away from a very strong gravitational field. It has steampunk, mathematical, physical, and sociological elements, just to name a few. It's a beautiful work on a thought experiment that poses a very intriguing question -- what if our planet isn't at all spherical as we perceive it to be?
KyusiReader
hyperion's cantos
Dan Simmons
SF often adress to some geek generation, adults who refuse to grow up totally but this one is for me the first modern sf to speak directly to the human being. Simmons create a entire universe with its own laws of physics and spirituality. This saga consist in four books, each of them the direct followers of the previous one even if some hundreds years separate the first cycle of the second. There is philosophy, space fights, ground fights, poetry, romance, hope and despair... I can't sum the story up because it will be like sum the ancient and the new testament up...But I can tell you you will not be desapointedif you appreciated Asimov's Foundation, you will love Simmon's Hyperion Cantos
Atropos
Options
Robert Sheckley
Sheckley beat Douglas Adams to the punch by adding satirical humour to SF. Options is a funny book, the story of a man journeying across a planet to find a part for his damaged spaceship, accompanied by a robot guide programmed for a different planet - the robot's desperation as events diverge from its expectations and it seeks to rationalise them are great fun. But the book also becomes a kind of postmodern commentary on the very art of writing fiction - as events get more surreal, like Alice in Wonderland, the author, like the robot, seems to lose control of events - even introducing a new hero to try to resolve the story. I find the book hilarious, as surreal as a Monty Python movie, and yet underpinned by a curious sadness and, yes, desperation. I've never read anything quite like it, and it cheers me up like nothing else, yet it's always laughter through tears. If it was by Flann O'Brien and called At Two Swim Birds it would already be hailed as a classic! Alas...
dowland
Ender's game
Orson Scott Card
Amazing fall into a world where ethics are all but forgotten for the greater good. The depth of the characters' psychology is impressive and the fate awaiting the hero could not let anyone untouched. The strongest part of this book is probably that there is no vilain. We understand the actions of everyone. We might have acted differently, or stood by watching and hope, but we cannot think them monsters. Even when they are harsh towards a little boy to the point of breaking is mind forever. Even when an entire civilization is wiped out of the universe. We get it.
Skilgannon
Well it started the discworld...what more do you need?
Manoknok
Encounter with Tiber
Buzz Aldrin and John Barnes
A book with one of the most poignant endings I've ever read, but also packed full of the technical detail and ideas that make for great hard SF. In the two parallel narratives we see a very human quest for the stars set against the story of the alien race struggling with its own very human problem, racism. The human story brings Aldrin's insights and knowledge to the fore, to the point that readers new to SF may find the technical bits hard going, but the alien story brings it all back down to earth, albeit on another planet. Wish I could write more about how well that ending works but that would spoil the whole thing - lose yourself in the details and ideas first and just let it crop up on you.
Stumpysheep
Earth
David Brin
Let's face it, David Brin hasn't got the best reputation as an SF author. The Postman will now be forever associated with Kevin Costner and the Uplift Saga, despite some moments of genius, manages to turn the entire (and long) final book into an anti-climax. But I'm recommending Earth as much for my personal connection with it as for the quality of writing. This is a book with Gaia theory at its core (along with a mini black hole) and some of the ideas are even more resonant now than when it was first published - for example the opening gambit that the poor nations of the world have got pissed off with capitalist bankers and nuked Switzerland. Although it's not without its flaws this book came along when I was discovering Gaia and environmentalism and so will forever have a place in my heart.
Stumpysheep
Transcendent
Stephen Baxter
Coalescent opened the Destiny's Children series with critical acclaim, but I'm nominating Transcendent for having one of the best opening lines of any book: "The girl from the future told me the sky is full of dying worlds".
Stumpysheep
The Drought
J.G.Ballard
For his evocative style of writing. His descriptions are in some sense other worldly in a way that draws the reader in and gives great depth to the estrangement the reader feels.It is a near future world that is thus utterly believable, that could, if mankind is not careful, happen to us.
JOL
Forever War
Joe Haldeman
Brilliant yarn but also a dark comment on the Vietnam experience. Turned me into a SF fan
Spotty
Fremder
Russell Hoban
This book is a masterpiece - it is a flawed masterpiece, with a lame ending that is quite unworthy of what goes before, but it is nonetheless a masterpiece for its presentation of: * Flicker drive (with a direct quotation from Hoban's The Medusa Frequency) * Pythia (cf. Oedipus) * The government building in the shape of an Aztec temple * The girl with whom Fremder falls into a relationship * Chopin in 2052 (or thereabouts) * Izzy and his sister and what they (and we) discover * The Fourth Galaxy (actually, Hoban tells me that he didn't mean 'galaxy', but who cares!?) * A vision of a crippled Earth, both from in the depths (when he goes to buy non-specific Whisky) and from up high But the best thing of these is the whole genesis of the flicker implant Any offers of an alternative ending from any reader...?
apsley88
Riddley Walker
Russell Hoban
It cuts to the core of what it means to be a human, wandering and wondering.
sheepshank
For its depiction of a future where the tories get their way.
Pickup
Zoe's War
John Scalzi
The Old Man's War series are my most lent SF books and Scalzi's writing, although darker, deserves the comparisons made to the great Douglas Adams. I could pick any of four books in the series but went for Zoe's War as Scalzi took on the brave task of re-writing the whole story from the perspective of the narrator's adopted daughter. The tightly written plots of the first three mean that there is very little left unexplained, but Scalzi somehow manages to make everything seem fresh. Douglas would surely approve.
Stumpysheep
We3
Grant Morrison
Not only is it a beautfiul book thanks to Frank Quietlys art but the way the animals communicate is extremly well done.
Bobbyskizza
The Man in the High Castle
Philip K Dick
Because in this book, nothing (and no one) is what it seems to be on the surface. And like the best of his books, Dick manages to hold together the stories of small personal lives with catastrophic upheaval.
Allez45
The Three Stigmata of Palmer Eldritch
Philip K Dick
It's way ahead of its time in predicting shared, virtual realities. It masterfully plays tricks with the reader over and over again until you just submit and laugh at how ingenious it is.
ChewZ
The Cyberiad
Stanislaw Lem
It is witty, funny, sweet and captivating, yet tells us, in the middle of all the fun and otherworldliness about ourselves, and our planet, our lives. You can read it at fifteen, and you can read it at fifty, with equal joy. A great book.
BirdArvid
pattern recognition
william gibson
His characters are always compelling and his writing, though sometimes difficult to follow is always well chosen. The story came together in a moving conclusion. I read it three times and would like to read it again. The next two in this series were good, too.
dora
Tiger, Tiger
Alfred Bester
As fresh and imaginative as the day it was written. The prose is crisp with some wonderful imagery. The anti-hero protagonist is one of the best characters in science fiction.
RossWarren
1984
Orwell
I read it when little and it provides a sci-fi sociology that is ever-present. I also liked the Asimov trilogy but it is far removed from recent science developments. I am reading the Diamond Age by Neal Stephenson which takes sci-fi to new heights.
Camp Concentration
Thomas M. Disch
Sheer show-boating audacity, from the punning title through to a first-person narrative that makes 'Flowers For Algeron' look like a school essay, this story of political prisoners deliberately infected with a terminal strain of syphilis makes more points than a syringe factory. Disch, who was also an acclaimed poet, was one of the finest writers in the field and he wasn't afraid to prove it.
Jim Steel
Use Of Weapons
Iain M Banks
Banks is wildly imaginative in all his books. Reading them I always feel a childlike sense of wonder at the breadth of imagination realised and a very adult sense of voyeurism at its strange but familiar moral seediness. Of the sci-fi books I've read, only Use Of Weapons actually makes me viscerally respond when I think back upon it: what feels like the lower reaches of my heart are choked by an unvocalised "f*ck".
whoeverunder
Ender's Game
Orson Scott Card
Back when I was reading SF this book completely captured my imagination. There's something very real about its premise, that the military would take a child and make a killing machine out of him.
AngryPancho
Dune
Frank Herbert
Again, it's been a long time since I've read SF, but back when I did, I found it easy to become immersed in the series. Mr Herbert has a knack for making political machinations accessible to young people.
AngryPancho
2001: A Space Odyssey
Arthur C. Clarke
Its association with Stanley Kubrick's film (which is arguably the 20th century's greatest work of Art) makes Clarke's novel the one indispensible classic work of popular SF literature.
Pigasus Press
Reality Dysfunction
Peter F Hamilton
Easily my favourite book ... great characters ... great ideas - example affinity bonding - just loved it! This was recommended as someone else's favourite book ... read all of his books also enjoyed the nano flower and mispent youth - also recommend Saga of the Exiles by Julian May
porkpiemickjen
The Hitchhikers Guide To The Galaxy
Douglas Adams
Douglas Adams was my introduction to science fiction. Through him I discovered Heinlein, Clarke and all the other Sci-Fi masters by seeking out books in the same section of the library as this silly book with the alien making a face. 30 years later he remains one of my favorite authors.
rjweeks70
The Man in the High Castle
Phlip K Dick
A scanner darkly
Philip Dick
Because is one of the most important novels of the XX century, not only in SF. A sort of post-apochalyptic "Voyage au bout de la nuit"...
aedo67
I, ROBOT
Isaac Asimov
A deceptively simple collection of short stories, but at the same time an epochal refutation of the old Frankenstein myth -- why wouldn't the creator of a sentient artificial man engineer it to avoid being destroyed by it? And what kind of world would it be with a race of human "masters" and robot "slaves" when the "slaves" are designed to obey the masters? What then would it mean to be human? Isn't that the ultimate question that all great science fiction asks? If that's the case, then I, ROBOT belongs on any list of the best works of science fiction ever written.
RBBernstein
Halting State
Charles Stross
Set in a not-too distant future Edinburgh and crossing genres with its Detective 'Who Done it', MMORPG story & Essay on human behaviour, this books shows a very strong reflection of todays world. Mr. Stross (or Charlie to those that know him), weaves these very different stories in a bewildering and yet strange engrossing narrative (which also includes some very wicked in-jokes to those in the know), to a conclusion at which feels satisfying but also deeply distrubing in in which it compels you to reread just to make absloutely sure that you have understood properly. Thoroughly enjoyable.
Fenland
The Left Hand of Darkness
Ursula Le Guin
Strange & Familiar; Action & Contemplation; Soft Science & Deep Interpersonal Relations; Genre Structure & Literary Language; From a Woman to Men
korchant
Black Man
Richard Morgan
Fast paced, unpleasant in places with good character development. A typical Morgan anti-hero in Carl Marsalis and weirdly resonant with me as I work with severely autistic young adults. The science appears believable, though I'm not the sort to check it against actual science facts. No daft spaceships, no Star Trek do-goodery, no amazing aliens used to escape plot twists. Just humans being their usual dysfunctional, looking out for number one, self.
Datters
They Rediscovery of Man
Cordwainer Smith
This is like no other fiction I have read. It is Romance literature, poetic and myth-making. The collection of loosely related stories tell of humanity's future, from a time just after WW2 through to AD 13,582. But we come at this history more through allegory, myth and legend, than expository fact. There are great technological leaps such as the Habermans (dead space captains), and planoforming ships with their pinlighting defences (a partnership between telepathically connected humans and cats) to help propel the history and still greater characters, such as Lord Jestocost, Lost C'Mell, Helen America and her love Mr Grey no-more. There is the unusual narrative style of the stories, the learn-ed word play and intriguing story titles (Golden the Ship Was - Oh! Oh! Oh!, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard). But most of all, when you finally put the book down, there is this haunting feeling that even though you have met so many and witnessed so much, you know you have only scratched the surface of this brilliantly realized universe.
LordDog
| Fred Hoyle |
What did Sir John Harrington design and have installed in his house in 1589 ? His was the first , certainly in England. | Article Abstracts: #60 (Special Section: Hard Science Fiction)
David N. Samuelson
Modes of Extrapolation: The Formulas of Hard Science Fiction
As long as science fiction has had a coherent existence, writers and critics have debated its relevance to science. From Jules Verne and H.G. Wells, through Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell, Jr., to Gregory Benford and J.G. Ballard, SF's "hardness'' has been both help and hindrance to popular and critical appreciation. In the last half-century, the label "hard SF'' has been applied to tales in which scientific theories and technological applications get a significant share of attention. Both friends and foes of hard SF acknowledge that it bears some relationship to science, pure or applied, though they do not agree on the worth of that core. Neither camp claims scientific "hardness'' as a guarantee of literary quality, and some detractors of hard SF derive the label from "hard to read,'' because it is badly written. Some essays from the 1983 Eaton Conference on SF and fantasy, collected in Hard Science Fiction, approach the controversy from a post-structuralist position, denying any claims of science to have a unique corner on truth. SF writers argued for scientific content and accuracy; literature professors discounted them, seeing "hardness'' as mere rhetoric.
Rhetorical features of science do help characterize hard SF, since it uses scientific findings and theories as measures of reality. Accurate but unobtrusive science may not define the subgenre, but neither does a rhetoric of hardness without scientific substance. In the best examples, the two interact positively, demanding reader sensitivity to both as indicators of quality. Writing and reading hard SF require a mind set that thrives on "hypotheticals,'' fantastic assumptions with theoretical justification in science, a seemingly paradoxical yoking of fantasies to the oxen of science and technology.
If agreement fails on what constitutes hard SF, confusion reigns about who writes it. Some Eaton contributors emphasized Stanislaw Lem, C.S. Lewis, William Morris and the 17th century geologist, Thomas Burnet, none of whom qualify in my view. Hard SF has never existed in large quantities. Without some technical education, it is difficult to write, and most scientists do not write fiction. In SF's formative years, Verne, Wells, Gernsback and E.E. "Doc'' Smith at least had technical training. During the "Golden Age,'' SF magazines published scientific puzzle stories and tales invoking the vast universe. Few writers, however, wrote hard SF before the '50s. The major body of evidence is less than 50 years old, and more people seem to be writing it now than ever before.
Authors who write hard SF regularly include Poul Anderson, Greg Bear, Gregory Benford, Arthur C. Clarke, Hal Clement, Robert L. Forward, Larry Niven, Paul Preuss, Charles Sheffield, and Vernor Vinge. More occasional visitors include Brian W. Aldiss, Isaac Asimov, Ben Bova, David Brin, John Brunner, Michael Crichton, Gordon R. Dickson, Harry Harrison, Robert A. Heinlein, Frank Herbert, Fred Hoyle, Frederik Pohl, Jerry Pournelle, Carl Sagan, and George Zebrowski. Besides the classic and basically unclassifiable Olaf Stapledon, the essays following propose Stephen Baxter and John Cramer; other plausible newcomers include Roger McBride Allen, Michael Kube-McDowell, Michael McCollum, Allen Steele, and John Stith.
Whomever we include or exclude, hard SF is a largely Anglo-American and masculine production. Stories of nuts-and-bolts technological SF from the Soviet Union, reported by historians, are largely untranslated; similar American stories seldom escape the pages of Analog, known to its detractors as "the magazine with rivets.'' From Michelangelo to Le Corbusier, Continental Europeans have embraced large architectural designs, but unearthly engineering projects seem to excite mainly Americans, flushed perhaps with the successes and failures of our national design of continually changing social engineering. C.J. Cherryh may be the only woman to find writing hard SF congenial, but backgrounds in science inform the fiction of Vonda McIntyre, Pamela Sargent, and Joan Slonczewski. Doris Lessing, author of a half-dozen intellectual "space fantasies,'' respects hard SF, though she lacks the technical education to write it herself.
Hard SF could not have spread without a growing receptive audience. Required science classes in high school and college, news media reporting, and simply living with technology have made readers progressively more conversant with issues involving science. The broadening of SF itself correspondingly increased the number of readers comprising a potential audience for the hard stuff. Although of varying hardness, novels by Asimov, Clarke, Crichton, Heinlein, Herbert, and Sagan even became best-sellers, a measure of popularity undreamed in the Golden Age.
Hard SF has influence beyond its numbers, moreover, flavoring other writers' work, adding elements to the stew, as well as setting limits to speculation. A prolific fictional inventor, Samuel R. Delany recognizes the need to rationalize changes, even if only by implication. The work of Philip K. Dick reverberates with technological change, dissolving the borders between humans and machines, illusion and reality. Ursula K. Le Guin, rarely an exponent of hard SF, felt obliged to rationalize "mindspeech'' and to recognize light as a speed limit. Not just a variety of SF, hard SF is also a direction or tendency.
Defenders of hard SF often pose two contradictory arguments: that it is at the core of the entire genre, and that it is always in danger of being abandoned. The latter is certainly on shaky historical grounds and the sense that SF must always be returned to a hard core may well be Golden Age nostalgia. The innocence of early SF is lost, to be sure, but the belief that the past was better is particularly inappropriate for this branch of SF. Compared with its predecessors, the hard SF of the past decade or so makes this as close to a Golden Age as we have ever had.
My humanistic training makes me uncomfortable with the idea of historical "improvement'' in the arts, except in an artist's apprenticeship. The discomfort increases when I seem to be granting real existence over time to a group of works united by a rhetorical abstraction, and taking a deterministic predictive stance. It seems to me, however, that both external historical forces and its own inner dynamic produce an ideal of hard SF continually in the making. Perhaps never realized in the past or present, this "ideal type'' is always hoped for in the future. In the history of hard SF, this may be the future.
Barely recognizing the existence of hard SF, however, let alone its generating power, scholars and critics largely fail to deal with either the science or the rhetoric. Relatively ignorant of science, most of us are uncomfortable with it. Those who study SF prefer to deal with Delany and Dick, Le Guin and Lem, whose fictions are more congenial to literary concerns with subtle and plurisignifying characterization, structure, and style. It is perhaps no coincidence that literary critics, as specialists under fire both from outside and inside their own discipline, also favor SF which at least implies the decline of Western civilization. While I share many of their interests, I see attempts to restrict SF to these unrepresentative examples as reductionist and short-sighted.
Picking the flowers that smell sweetest inevitably severs them from their roots, ignoring not only the soil but also the fertilizers that enabled them to grow and blossom. Hard SF does not lack semiotic interest, but its codes and conventions differ from those most of us as critics are trained to understand and appreciate. Style tends to be more direct and limited in signification, characterization more deterministic, standards of judgment for behavior more relativistic.
The Star Trek universe is a simple test case known and loved by millions. Its narrative structures may be less subtle than those of the scientific problems and the physical universe within its stories. Examples show rational thought and technological civilization persisting into a future, and puzzles being solved in an hour or two of screen time. Both premises, which suffuse much of hard SF, may be unbelievably naive and ethnocentric, but they are not universal. Aldiss, Benford, Bear, and Pohl show literary sophistication in their fiction, even as they raise our eyes from the decline of the West to humanity's fragile hold on survival, its glimmers of intelligence and self-understanding.
Considering how uncongenial most literary people find science, the Eaton Conference was a reasonable start. Continuing debate in print, however, has largely bypassed hard SF. As the accompanying bibliography makes clear, titles seldom mention it by name. Under "hard SF,'' Hal Hall's 1987 reference bibliography lists only Bainbridge and Dalziell, Bridgstock, and Benford's ``real world'' essay. Norman Spinrad, mentioning hard SF by name, sees it as potentially solving the genre's identity crisis. By taking science seriously, not just as a source of images, James Gunn's scholarly efforts have even earned some critics' enmity, as Pierce points out in this symposium.
Other SF writers�Anderson, Asimov, Clarke, Clement, Lem, Pournelle and Niven, Preuss�have written about writing hard SF. John Barnes recently explained his use of forecasting, and Paul Park discussed science in his novels. Benford has written on various elements of hard SF, including narrative voice, aliens, and the transcendent "vision'' of science, while fending off ``regressive'' tendencies in fantasy and utopia. Other secondary materials�including John J. Pierce's 3-volume thematic history of SF�discuss examples and exponents of hard SF, largely assuming its value. Recent books about Asimov, Clarke, Clement, Verne and Wells also highlight the science in their fiction.
The matter of hard SF is inseparable from the role in SF of science. Samuelson's 1962 thesis and Westfahl's dissertation trace interest in the subject back to the 1920s and 1930s, while scholars in the last two decades have produced books on the presence in SF of physics, linguistics, robots, and computers, as well as the "cyberpunk'' fad. There were even two "coffee-table'' books on the subject. Close Encounters? Science and Science Fiction has a good short sketch of the science in SF, while The Science in Science Fiction at least takes a stab at being a reference volume.
Some of the best models available for analyzing hard SF, however, virtually ignore it as a subgenre. Bainbridge, Berger, Hirsch and Stableford explore the sociology of SF and Ray Lynn Anderson examines the rhetoric of science in Asimov, Clarke and Hoyle. Delany's theoretical work stresses codes and conventions involved in reading anything as SF, basically relegating science to a storehouse of images. Joanna Russ also argues SF's rhetorical need for scientific constraints. Albert W. Wendland grapples with SF's gradations from conceptual to perceptual world-building, while Gary K. Wolfe uses SF's icons to illuminate hard SF's central issue: encounter with the unknown. Countering Wolfe on the space station, Westfahl shows it typically standing for resistance rather than accommodation to the alien.
Like Wendland and Samuelson in their dissertations, Carl D. Malmgren argues that SF appropriates the world view of science; his typology goes further, moreover, scrutinizing variations in characters, societies, settings, even science itself, the last step allowing for him a theoretical place for science fantasy. Versions of the scientific world-view form points of departure for other critics. Robert Nadeau and Susan Strehle examine the role of physics in works by 20th century writers outside SF. Katherine N. Hayles specifically applies field theory and chaos theory to works by non-SF writers, although her more recent study mentions by name Dick and Lem, along with Italo Calvino and William Gibson. Novels by Aldiss, Delany, and Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., that nobody would call hard SF are Frank Sadler's examples in looking for influences of 20th century science on SF.
To such a relatively short and mostly oblique list, this special issue adds four essays. Gary Westfahl begins appropriately by exploring origins: when does the term ``hard science fiction'' emerge and what elements build reader perceptions of who writes it? John J. Pierce defends hard SF for its unique literary experience. A physicist and a practicing SF writer, Gregory Benford meditates on the scientific underpinnings of his most popular novel, Timescape. My own lengthy contribution is an excerpt from work in progress. In the context of scientific principles from which the distinctive formulaic nature of SF arises, it anatomizes an essential generic element specially emphasized in hard SF: extrapolation.
The definitive study of hard SF has yet to be written; it may not even be possible until SF is no longer written. The cutting edge is always somewhere between the known and the unknown, the proven and the unproven, like the ``fantastic'' in Tzvetan Todorov's conception, always threatening to resolve into the mundane or the marvelous. Scientific and technological progress make mere reportage out of SF "hypotheticals.'' Short-lived theories make once bright ideas only "alternate history.'' Assuming science continues to progress in its approximations of reality, the nucleus that is hard SF always moves out of grasp. Constantly decentering the entire field, hard SF shifts the periphery, sparking ideas in SF that may be less scientifically rigorous but often is more artistically satisfying.
As long as science and technology bring changes, writers will try to capture and bottle it in stories. We scholars and critics can only eat and drink what is put before us, not create it before its time. We can, and I think should, however, encourage writers to try out new recipes, knowing a few gourmets will put them to the test.
On Hard Science Fiction: A Bibliography
This list of secondary citations for the introduction includes numerous essays by Benford, Slusser and Westfahl and others tracing the science in SF debate over the decades. For other references, see bibliographies in Samuelson 1962, Westfahl 1986 and entries (sometimes misleading) on "science in literature'' and "scientists'' in Hal Hall, comp., Science Fiction and Fantasy Reference Index, 1878-1975, 2 v. (Detroit: Gale, 1987).
Anderson, Poul. "The Creation of Imaginary Worlds: The World Builder's Handbook and Pocket Companion.'' Bretnor 1974, 235-58.
�����. "How to Build a Planet.'' 1966. Knight, 205-14.
�����. "Nebula Award Science Fiction, 1965-1970: The Science.'' Nebula Award Stories Seven. Ed. Lloyd Biggle, Jr. NY: Harper, 1973. 213-21.
�����. "Science Fiction and Science, 1: Reality, Fiction, and Points Between.'' Destinies 1.1:292-308, Nov-Dec 1978.
�����. "Science Fiction and Science, 2: The Hardness of Hard Science Fiction.'' Destinies 1.2:248-62, Jan-Feb 1979.
�����. "Science Fiction and Science, 3: On Imaginary Science.'' Destinies 1.3:304-20, Apr-June 1979.
�����. "Science Fiction and Science 4: The Science Fiction in Science.'' Destinies 1.4: 304-20, Aug-Sept 1979.
�����. "Science Fiction and Science 5: Science Fiction and Reason.'' Destinies 1.5: Oct-Dec 1979.
Anderson, Ray Lynn. "Persuasive Functions of Science Fiction: A Study in the Rhetoric of Science.'' Dissertation, U Minn., 1968 [Asimov, Clarke, Hoyle].
Asimov, Isaac. Asimov on Science Fiction. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1981.
Bainbridge, William Sims. Dimensions of Science Fiction. Cambridge, MA, & London: Harvard UP, 1986.
�����, and Murray Dalziell. "The Shape of Science Fiction as Perceived by Fans.'' SFS 5:165-71, #15, July 1978.
�����. The Spaceflight Revolution: A Sociological Study. NY: Wiley, 1976.
Barnes, John. "How to Build a Future.'' Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact, 110: 150-75, March 1990.
Benford, Gregory. "Aliens and Knowability: A Scientist's Perspective.'' Bridges to Science Fiction. Ed. George E. Slusser, George R. Guffey, and Mark Rose. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1980. 53-63.
�����. ``The Awe and the Aweful.'' Analog Yearbook. Ed. Ben Bova. NY: Ace, 1978. 13-21.
�����. ``Effing the Ineffable.'' Aliens: The Anthropology of Science Fiction. Ed. George Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1987. 13-25.
�����. ``Fantasy as Pollution.'' The Patchin Review 3:5-9, January 1982.
�����. ``Hard? Science? Fiction?'' [book reviews]. Amazing Stories 62:52-60, July 1987.
�����. ``Hard Science Fiction in the Real World.'' Science Fiction Review 13:29-34, February 1985.
�����. ``Imagining the Real.'' The Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction 84:47-59, January 1993.
�����. ``In the Wave's Wake.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 30:5-9, March 1984.
�����. ``Journey to the Genre's Core.'' Vector 121:22-23, August 1984.
�����. ``Journey to the Genre's Core: A Reply to Damon Knight.'' Science Fiction Review 13:32, August 1984.
�����. ``Pascal's Terror.'' Mindscapes: The Geographies of Imagined Worlds. Ed. George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1989. 271-77.
�����. ``Profession of Science Fiction, 22: A String of Days.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 21:5-17, February 1981.
�����. ``Putting Science into Science Fiction.'' Writer 96:7-10, July 1983.
�����. ``Reactionary Utopias.'' Storm Warnings: Science Fiction Confronts the Future. Eds. George E. Slusser, Colin Greenland, and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1987. 73-83.
�����. ``Science and Science Fiction.'' Science Fiction: The Academic Awakening. Ed. Willis McNelly. Shreveport, LA: CEA, 1974. 30-34.
�����. ``Science, Science Fiction, and All That. . . .'' Algol 13:29-31, Winter 1976. [abridged ``Science and SF''].
�����. ``Science Fiction, Rhetoric, and Realities: Words to the Critic.'' Fiction 2000: Cyberpunk and the Future of Narrative. Ed. George Slusser and Tom Shippey Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. 223-29.
�����. ``Style, Substance, and Other Illusions.'' Styles of Creation: Aesthetic Technique and the Creation of Fictional Worlds. Ed. George Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. 47-57.
�����. ``Teaching Physics with Science Fiction.'' Fan Plus 1:13-14, January 1980.
�����. ``The Time-Word Path: Building Science Fiction.'' Algol 15:31-33, Summer/Fall 1978.
�����. ``Why is There So Little Science in Literature?'' Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine 6:43-50, February 15, 1982.
����� (interviewed). Across the Wounded Galaxies: Interviews with Contemporary American Science Fiction Writers. Ed. Larry McCaffery. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1990. 3-30.
Berger, Albert. ``The Magic That Works: John W. Campbell, Jr. and the American Response to Technology.'' Journal of Popular Culture 5:867-943, Spring 1972. [Adapted from M.A. thesis, 1972.]
�����. The Magic That Works: John W. Campbell and the American Response to Technology. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo Press, 1993. [Expansion and revision of previous item.]
�����. "Nuclear Energy: Science Fiction's Metaphor of Power.'' SFS 6:121-28, #18, July 1979.
�����. "Science Fiction Critiques of the American Space Program, 1945-1958.'' SFS 5:99-109, #15, July 1978.
�����. "Science Fiction and the Ideology of Change in America, 1935-1975.'' Dissertation, Northern Illinois, 1978.
Blish, James. "The Science in Science Fiction.'' The Tale That Wags the God. Ed. Cy Chauvin. 1971. Chicago: Advent, 1987.
Bova, Ben. Through Eyes of Wonder: Science Fiction and Science. Reading, MA.: Addison-Wesley, 1975.
Bretnor, Reginald, ed. The Craft of Science Fiction. NY: Harper, 1976.
�����. Science Fiction: Its Meaning and Its Future. 1953. Chicago: Advent, 1979.
�����. Science Fiction: Today and Tomorrow. NY: Harper, 1974
Bridgstock, Martin. "A Psychological Approach to 'Hard' Science Fiction.'' SFS 10: 50-57, #29, March 1983.
Browning, Gavin. "Scientism in Science Fiction.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 33:24-36, Spring 1985.
Campbell, John W., Jr. ``The Science of Science-Fiction.'' Atlantic Monthly, 181:97-98, May 1948.
�����. "The Science of Science-Fiction Writing.'' Of Worlds Beyond: The Science of Science-Fiction Writing. Ed. Lloyd Arthur Eschbach. 1947. Chicago: Advent, 1964. 89-101.
�����. "The Place of Science Fiction.'' Bretnor 1953, 3-22.
Clareson, Thomas D. "The Scientist as Hero in American Science Fiction, 1880-1920.'' Extrapolation 7:18-28, December 1965.
Clarke, Arthur C. Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible. 1962. Rev. [4th] ed. NY: Holt Rinehart Winston, 1984. [Has "Chart of the Future,'' 253.]
�����. "Science Fiction: Preparation for the Age of Space.'' Bretnor 1953, 197-220.
Clement, Hal. "The Creation of Imaginary Beings.'' Bretnor 1974, 259-77.
�����. "Hard Sciences and Tough Technologies.'' Bretnor 1976, 37-52.
�����. "Whirligig World.'' Astounding Science Fiction, 51:102-14, June 1953. [regularly reprinted with Ballantine paperback editions of Mission of Gravity]
Conklin, Groff. "Science in Science Fiction.'' Science Illustrated 1:44-45+109, July 1946.
Cramer, Kathryn. "Science Fiction and the Adventures of the Spherical Cow.'' New York Review of Science Fiction, 1:1+3-5, September 1988.
De Camp, L. Sprague. Science Fiction Handbook. NY: Heritage House, 1953 [includes early list of SF writers with scientific or technical training].
Delany, Samuel R. The American Shore: Meditations on a Tale of Science Fiction by Thomas M. Disch�``Angouleme.'' Elizabethtown, NY: Dragon Press, 1977.
�����. The Jewel-Hinged Jaw: Notes on the Language of Science Fiction. Elizabethtown, NY: Dragon Press, 1977.
�����. Starboard Wine: More Notes on the Language of Science Fiction. Pleasantville, NY: Dragon Press, 1984.
Erlich, Richard D., and Thomas P. Dunn, eds. Clockwork Worlds: Mechanized Environments in SF. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1983.
�����. The Mechanical God: Machines in Science Fiction. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1982.
Evans, Arthur B. Jules Verne Rediscovered: Didacticism and the Scientific Novel. NY: Greenwood, 1988.
Geffe, Philip F., et al. "Scientists in Science Fiction: A Debate.'' 1966-67. Knight. 175-96.
Stephen L. Gillett, Stephen L. "On Building an Earth-like Planet.'' Analog Science Fiction/Science Fact 109:90-107, July 1989.
Goswami, Amit and Maggie. The Cosmic Dancers: Exploring the Physics of Science Fiction. NY: Harper, 1983.
Gunn, James, ed. The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. NY: Viking, 1988.
Hassler, Donald M. Hal Clement (Starmont Reader's Guide #11). Mercer Island, WA: Starmont, 1982.
�����. Isaac Asimov (Starmont Reader's Guide #40). Mercer Island, WA: Starmont, 1985.
Herbert, Frank. "Men on Other Planets.''
Hayles, N. Katherine. Chaos Bound: Orderly Disorder in Contemporary Literature and Science. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1990.
�����. The Cosmic Web: Scientific Field Models and Literary Strategies in the Twentieth Century. Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 1984.
�����, ed. Chaos and Order: Complex Dynamics in Literature and Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Roslyn D. Haynes, Roslyn D. H.G. Wells: Discoverer of the Future. NY: NYUP, 1980.
Hirsch, Walter. "Science Fiction: 1926-1950: A Content Analysis.'' Dissertation, Northwestern, 1957.
�����. "The Imagination of the Scientist in Science Fiction.'' American Journal of Sociology, 43:506-12, March 1958.
Hollow, John. Against the Night, the Stars: The Science Fiction of Arthur C. Clarke, rev. ed. Athens: Ohio UP, 1987.
Huntington, John. Rationalizing Genius: Ideological Strategies in the Classic American Science Fiction Short Story. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 1989.
Isaacs, Leonard. Darwin to Double Helix: The Biological Theme in Science Fiction. London: Butterworth's, 1977.
Jameson, Frederic. "Shifting Context of Science-Fiction Theory'' [incl. review of Slusser and Rabkin, Hard Science Fiction]. SFS 14:241-47, #42, July 1987.
Knight, Damon. Turning Points: Essays on the Art of Science Fiction. NY; Harper, 1977.
Kostolevsky, Joseph. "Science, Yes�Fiction Maybe.'' Antioch Review 12:236-40, June 1953.
Kuttner, Henry. "Science in Science Fiction.'' Science-Fiction Advertiser 2:3-6, January 1953.
Lambourne, Robert, Michael Shallis, and Michael Shortland, Close Encounters? Science and Science Fiction. Bristol, England: Adam Hilger, 1991.
Lear, John. "Let's Put Some Science in Science Fiction.'' Popular Science Monthly 164:135-37+244-48, August 1964.
Lem, Stanislaw. Microworlds: Writings on Science Fiction and Fantasy. Various translators. San Diego: Harcourt, 1984.
�����. Phantastik und Futurologie, 2 vols. Trans. Beate Sorge and Wiktor Szacki (1), Edda Werfel (2). Frankfurt a. M.: Insel, 1977, 1980. [Polish edition, Fantastyka i futurologia, 1964, 1970; some sections may be found in Microworlds].
Lessing, Doris. "Preface,'' The Sirian Experiments. NY: Knopf, 1980. vii-ix.
Malmgren, Carl. Worlds Apart: Narratology of Science Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1991.
Meyers, Walter E. Aliens and Linguists: Language Study and Science Fiction. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980.
Joseph D. Miller, Joseph D. "Neuroscience Fiction: The Roman � Synaptic Cleft.'' Mindscapes: The Geographies of Imagined Worlds. Ed. George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1989. 195-207.
Moore, Patrick. "To Other Worlds.'' Listener 69:865-66, May 23, 1963.
Muller, H.J. "Science Fiction as an Escape.'' The Humanist 17:333-46, November-December 1957.
Nadeau, Robert. Readings for the New Book of Nature: Physics and Metaphysics in the Modern Novel. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1981.
Nichols, Peter, David Langford, and Brian Stableford. The Science in Science Fiction. NY: Knopf 1983.
Park, Paul. "The Shadow of Hard Science Fiction.'' NY Review of Science Fiction 38:1+3-4, October 1991.
Parker, Helen N.. Biological Themes in Science Fiction. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1984 [1977 dissertation].
Pierce, John J. A STUDY IN IMAGINATION AND EVOLUTION, 3 v.: Foundations of Science Fiction, Great Themes of Science Fiction, When World Views Collide. NY & Westport, CN: Greenwood Press. 1987-89.
Pierce, John R. "Science and Literature.'' Science 20:431-34, April 1951.
Porush, David. The Soft Machine: Cybernetic Fiction. NY: Methuen, 1985.
Pournelle, Jerry, and Larry Niven. "Building The Mote in God's Eye.'' Galaxy 37:92-113, January 1976.
Preuss, Paul. "It Takes Guts to Build a Universe.'' Locus 14:8+14, February 1981.
Rheingold, Howard. Virtual Reality. NY: Simon and Schuster, 1991.
Robinson, Guy S. "Science in Science Fiction: Hypertravel.'' Listener 70:976-77. December 17, 1964.
Russ, Joanna. "SF and Technology as Mystification.'' SFS 5:250-60, #16, November 1978.
�����. "Speculations: The Subjunctivity of Science Fiction.'' Extrapolation 15:51-59, December 1973.
�����. "Towards an Aesthetic of Science Fiction.'' SFS 2:112-10, #6, July 1975.
Sadler, Frank. The Unified Ring: Narrative Art and the Science-Fiction Novel. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1984 [1974 dissertation].
Samuelson, David N. "Books'' [review of Slusser and Rabkin, Hard Science Fiction]. Extrapolation 27:4 (Winter 1986), 357-60.
�����. "Science Fiction and the Two Cultures: A Study in the Theory and Criticism of Contemporary Science Fiction with Reference to the Cultural Division Between the Sciences and the Humanities.'' [B.A.] Honors Thesis, Drew, 1962.
�����. Visions of Tomorrow: Six Journeys from Inner to Outer Space. NY: Arno 1974 [1969 dissertation].
Schmidt, Stanley. "The Science in Science Fiction.'' Many Fictions, Many Worlds: Theme and Form in Science Fiction. Ed. Thomas D. Clareson, Kent, OH: Kent State UP, 1977.
Slusser, George E. "The Frankenstein Barrier.'' Fiction 2000: Cyberpunk and the Future of Narrative. Ed. George Slusser and Tom Shippey. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. pp. 46-71.
�����. "Reflections on Style in Science Fiction.'' Styles of Creation: Aesthetic Technique and the Creation of Fictional Worlds. Ed. George Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. 3-23.
����� and George Guffey. "Literature and Science.'' Interrelations of Literature. Ed. Jean-Pierre Barricelli. NY: Modern Language Association, 1982. 176-204.
����� and Eric S. Rabkin, eds. Hard Science Fiction. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1986.
Spinrad, Norman. "The Rubber Sciences.'' Bretnor 1976. 54-69.
�����. Science Fiction and the Real World. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1990 [``Modes of Content'' (3 essays), 91-135].
Stableford, Brian. The Sociology of Science Fiction. San Bernardino, CA: Borgo, 1987.
Strehle, Susan. Fiction in The Quantum Universe. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992.
Taylor, John R. "Scientific Thought in Science Fiction.'' Science Fiction at Large. Ed. Peter Nicholls. NY: Harper, 1976. 57-72.
Voller. Jack G. "Universal Mindscape: The Gaia Hypothesis in Science Fiction.'' Mindscapes: The Geographies of Imagined Worlds. Ed. George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1989. 136-54.
Warrick, Patricia S. The Cybernetic Imagination in Science Fiction. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1980 [1979 dissertation].
Wendland, Albert W. Science, Myth, and the Creation of Alien Worlds. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Research Press, 1985 [1979 dissertation].
Westfahl, Gary. "'A Convenient Analog System': John W. Campbell, Jr.'s Theory of Science Fiction.''' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 54:52-70, Spring 1992 [adapted from 1986 dissertation].
�����. "'Dictatorial, Authoritarian, Uncooperative': The Case Against John W. Campbell, Jr.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 56:36-61, Autumn 1992.
�����. "An Idea of Significant Import: Hugo Gernsback's Theory of Science Fiction.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction, 48:26-50, Spring 1990. [Adapted from 1986 dissertation].
�����. "Islands in the Sky: Space Stations in the Universe of Science Fiction.'' Mindscapes: The Geographies of Imagined Worlds. Ed. George E. Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1989. 211-25.
�����. "The Mote in Gernsback's Eye; A History of the Idea of Science Fiction.'' Dissertation, UC Riverside, 1986.
�����. "On the True History of Science Fiction.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 47:5-27, Winter/Spring 1990 [adapted from 1986 dissertation].
�����."'Small Worlds and Strange Themes': The Iconography of the Space Station in Science Fiction.'' Foundation: The Review of Science Fiction 51:38-63, Spring 1991.
�����. "Words of Wishdom: The Neologisms of Science Fiction.'' Styles of Creation: Aesthetic Technique and the Creation of Fictional Worlds. Ed. George Slusser and Eric S. Rabkin. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1992. 224-44.
Williams, Norma. "Science in Science Fiction.'' Australian Science Fiction Review 5:10-13, December 1965.
Williams, W.T. "Science in Science Fiction: Alien Biology.'' Listener (December 24, 1964), 1001-4.
Wolfe, Gary. The Known and the Unknown: The Iconography of Science Fiction. Kent, OH: Kent State UP, 1979.
John J. Pierce
The Literary Experience of Hard Science Fiction
The air of the Nebula was, as always, stained blood-red. A corner of his mind tried to measure the redness�was it deeper than last shift?�while his eyes flicked around the objects scattered through the Nebula above and below him. The clouds were like handfuls of grayish cloth sprinkled through miles of air. Stars fell among and through the clouds in a slow, endless rain that tumbled down to the Core. The light of the mile-wide spheres cast shifting shadows over the clouds, the scattered trees, the huge blurs that might be whales. Here and there he saw a tiny flash that marked the end of a star's brief existence. (Baxter �1:10)
Rees lives in a universe where the gravitational constant is a billion times that of the universe we know. Only, he doesn't know that, any more than he knows why time is measured in shifts�one legacy of a starship that came to grief in this strange cosmos, leaving the crew and the passengers and their descendants to eke out an existence in what is, by Earthly standards, a living hell. We ourselves would never want to live there, but we are fascinated by what it would be like to live there. Rees' universe doesn't exist, but Stephen Baxter convinces us, in Raft (1992), that it could.
Is this hard science fiction? Absolutely!
Is it literature? Well, that opens a whole can of worms!
Hard SF isn't the prevailing literary fashion, even within `"genre SF''�that body of fiction published as `"science fiction'' in magazines and specialty book lines. On the one hand, Star Trek spin-offs, Dragonrider novels, and the like head the best-seller lists. On the other, the most critically-admired works are from the `"metaphorical'' school of Stanislaw Lem, Philip K. Dick, and, perhaps, even Ursula K. Le Guin. Whatever else can be said of a work like Raft, it is safe to predict that it will never show up in any literary canon �"conservative'' or "radical''�any more than it will be a runaway commercial success.
Hard SF will always be a minority taste. When Robert A. Heinlein started writing SF for the `"slick'' magazines after World War II, he realized from the outset that he would have to minimize the science to reach a wider audience (10).1 When he finally did reach a mass book-reading audience, it was with Stranger in a Strange Land (1961), which stressed social and religious satire�Heinlein himself denied that it was SF at all (260). Frank Herbert's Dune (1965) doubtless caught up non-SF readers more for its Great Thoughts than for its ecology�as demonstrated by the sequels it spawned. Even Isaac Asimov, when he hit the best-seller lists with a series of belated Foundation/Robot novels, stressed social issues rather than hard science. Hard SF may become the stepchild of its own genre: it simply isn't the best way to make a living. Ask Stephen Baxter�or even Hal Clement.
Hard SF also seems to remain a stepchild of SF scholarship. Some critics, it seems, not only don't want to read hard SF, but don't want to read about it. Robert A. Collins, for example, faulted James Gunn's The New Encyclopedia of Science Fiction, for, among other things, a bias toward hard SF: in particular, he was irritated by Poul Anderson's "Alien Worlds'' entry because it failed to discuss the "'metaphorical uses' [of created worlds], which interest me more than the so-called 'scientific' ones.'' Collins cites Michael Bishop's "Rogue Tomato''2 as the kind of SF that should have been covered under "Alien Worlds'' (12).
Although Collins may rightly believe that metaphorical SF was slighted in the Gunn encyclopedia, it is hard SF that is slighted elsewhere. David G. Hartwell, in his introduction to The World Treasury of Science Fiction, felt it necessary to defend an esthetic that once was taken for granted by genre- SF writers and fans:
I do not, of course, deny the metaphorical level of SF texts. I simply state the obvious, which somehow seems to have been lost in several decades of critical discussion: in a work of science fiction, the reader must grant the premise that whatever is stated as the case is literal and true. For instance, in Gerard Klein's ``Valley of Echoes,'' the reader must believe that we are two hundred years in the future, exploring the planet Mars, not merely in some surreal landscape that embodies a metaphor for the human condition. (xvii-xviii)
As Hartwell granted, this esthetic is limited almost entirely to American SF; elsewhere in the world, the kind of fiction exemplified by the Golden Age at John W. Campbell's Astounding seems to have been taken "as some kind of joke or as a repository of imagery to be used for purposes other than SF'' (xvii). Of course, Hartwell's memory may be selective. Was there ever really any hard science in the work of A.E. van Vogt, a major contributor to Astounding? We have all heard or read anecdotes about what passed for science in much of the earlier genre SF at Hugo Gernsback's Amazing Stories. Perhaps there has always been hard SF and soft SF, and the debate between them goes back at least as far as the differences between H.G. Wells and Jules Verne.3
Still, we all know what kind of genre SF Hartwell is talking about, and we also know that it hasn't travelled well abroad. Yet attitudes may be changing. Lem's most recent SF novel, Fiasco, is certainly closer to hard SF than any of his previous work (perhaps something was lost in their translation, but are we really to believe in the mimoids composed of neutrinos in Solaris, or the mix of oxygen and methane in the atmosphere of the world his astronauts visit in The Invincible?), even as it also retains the satirical edge of Lem's previous work. In its cosmic vision and its speculation on the evolution of advanced civilizations past our understanding, Fiasco has much the same feel as such contemporary American hard SF as Gregory Benford's Across the Sea of Suns and Great Sky River.
Benford, indeed, has raised the literary status of hard SF. But, paradoxically, he has not necessarily led us to appreciate the esthetic of hard SF as such. We could argue that in Timescape, for example, the appeal is not so much the scientific invention�a means of sending messages into the past in order to alter history and thus prevent a disaster in the present�as the characterization of scientists and the politics of science. Against Infinity involves the transforming of Ganymede, but the center of the novel is a retelling of William Faulkner's "The Bear,'' in which the alien called Aleph serves a metaphorical function. In The Artifact, the mini black hole is the maguffin for an international suspense thriller. Do we admire Great Sky River more as hard SF or as a heroic saga writ large?
Benford's novels are all hard SF, of course, but they are other things as well. Can hard SF be literature if it is not also these other things? Is there a literary experience characteristic of hard SF in and of itself?
We are all familiar with arguments to the contrary. We have even come to cringe at the mention of Hugo Gernsback, who, as Brian W. Aldiss once put it, reduced SF to "stories built like diagrams, and made clear like diagrams, and stripped of atmosphere and sensibility'' (211). We can only chuckle at much of the hard SF of the Golden Age: for example, George O. Smith's Venus Equilateral stories, with their outdated technology (gigantic vacuum tubes and the like) inspiring rapture in cardboard characters. Nor do we have to look to the past for the embarrassments of hard SF: Robert L. Forward's Martian Rainbow is a recent case in point. We don't expect War and Peace from Forward, surely, but here he proves he can't even write a good techno-thriller. The politics of the novel (a general setting himself up as religious overlord of Earth) are so crude that we are reminded of Ray Cummings' Tarrano the Conqueror (1930)�those of us who can remember back that far! Forward fills his narrative with chunks of scientific exposition, until it resembles a lumpy porridge. And because he can't make his story work with the actual possibilities of terraforming Mars, he brings in a deus ex machina (literally: magical robots left by aliens of Christmas past). On the evidence of Martian Rainbow, we might well conclude that Forward should have stuck to writing technical articles, and that there is no point to discussing the art of hard SF because there simply isn't any.
Why discuss Forward at all, if he is such a poor writer? We have all seen much better hard-SF novels about Mars, such as Allen Steele's The Labyrinth of Night (which is also a much better political thriller, and even a far better tale of magical aliens). Because Forward is also the author of Dragon's Egg, a novel that won the praise of, among others, Frank Herbert, Hal Clement, and Isaac Asimov as an example of hard SF at its best, he is thus a test case.4 If Dragon's Egg is really hard SF at its best, and Martian Rainbow is hard SF at its worst, what's the difference? Its no use pretending that the human side Dragon's Egg is any better. It isn't: Forward's astronauts therein are cut from the same cardboard as those generals, scientists, and technicians in Martian Rainbow. We simply don't notice them, because they aren't the story; the story is the cheela, the creatures Forward makes us believe could actually live on the surface of a neutron star.
Like any number of hard-SF novels, Dragon's Egg includes an appendix in which the author explains the scientific basis for his literary invention. It is all very speculative science, of course, but science itself is based on speculation: theories are advanced and then tested against reality. We have no way of testing Forward's theory against reality, but we trust him as both scientist and hard-SF writer not to knowingly contradict the known possibilities of the universe we inhabit. If Dragon's Egg were a fictionalized essay like its appendix, however, would we read it in the same way we actually read it as a novel? Make no mistake about it: if we appreciate Dragon's Egg at all, we appreciate it as a literary exercise�and this in spite of its obvious literary faults. (Forward is said by Lester del Rey to have needed considerable editorial help in order to produce an acceptable manuscript.)5
When we read scientific articles or textbooks, we are like Sergeant Friday on Dragnet: we want "Just the facts, ma'am.'' We get more than just facts, to be sure, from the more imaginative writers of science like Stephen Hawking or Stephen Jay Gould (Forward isn't in their league, either). When we read SF, however, we are still reading fiction, and expect the imaginative experience of reading fiction. C.S. Lewis, in An Experiment in Criticism (1961), even suggested that literature should be judged by how it is read, and though his judgments are no more infallible than those of any other critic, he is (to my mind, at least) right on the mark as to how we experience literature.
In science fiction we experience the creative imagination of the author�a particular kind of imagination. It is not necessarily, certainly not entirely, the metaphorical imagination of Jorge Luis Borges or Italo Calvino. Neither is it necessarily, and certainly not entirely, that of the "cognitive estrangement'' that has figured in so much critical discussion of SF since Darko Suvin advanced the theory some twenty years ago. There is nothing wrong with either kind of imagination, or the kinds of works that express it, or the kinds of criticism that interpret them. It is plain to see that Philip K.'s transformation into a giant tomato, in Bishop's "Rogue Tomato,'' is a metaphorical device. We don't need to be told that both the Bureaucracy and the Forest it seeks to exploit, in Arkady and Boris Strugatsky's The Snail on the Slope (1980), are estranging devices, intended to make us see our own world in a new light. But what are the cheela supposed to represent? According to the theory that metaphors are the essence of literature, they must represent something, or what good are they?
No doubt we could find something if we tried hard enough. In The New York Review of Science Fiction, Damien Broderick argues that the seemingly incomprehensible aliens of Philip Mann's The Eye of the Queen "resemble a child's idea of human adults,'' while the more comprehensible alien invaders of Larry Niven and Jerry Pournelle's Footfall are metaphors for the Soviets (1). But for true aficionados of hard SF, such explanations diminish their reading experience rather than enhancing it. If those aliens in Footfall exist only for the sake of a tired allegory about the Cold War, they hardly seem worth the trouble Niven and Pournelle have taken in creating them. SF critics certainly mean well in advancing such interpretations; they are, in fact, often praising SF in the only way they know how. One recalls the legal arguments about the redeeming social values of sexually explicit works: Fanny Hill is thus given a Significance that would baffle John Cleland; it can't be just good erotica.
The literal reading of SF seems to have few defenders, but one of them is no less than Samuel R. Delany, whose argument, though surely familiar to all of us, bears repeating here:
Such sentences as "His world exploded,'' or "She turned on her left side,'' as they subsume the proper technological discourse (of economics and cosmology in one; of switching circuitry and prosthetic surgery in the other), leave the banality of the emotionally muzzy metaphor, abandon the triviality of insomniac tossings, and, through the labyrinth of technical possibility, become possible images of the impossible. (Triton 337)
Delany denies that SF is true literature: "Literature's philosophical arguments tend to be about the subject, the human consciousness, rather than about the way the real world functions. Science fiction is a critique of the object rather than a critique of the subject�or of the subject in terms of the object'' ("Teaching to Learn'' 74). Yet he also argues that "the science-fictional enterprise is richer than the enterprise of mundane fiction'' (Triton 340), and he clearly means richer in a literary sense.
Delany may not have read Dragon's Egg, and he might not care for it any more than other critics sensitive to literary style, which he regards as inseparable from content (The Jewel-Hinged Jaw 35ff).6 Nevertheless, Forward's novel conforms to his theory that the essence of SF is the "technological discourse'' that enables the SF writer to create "possible images of the impossible.'' By outlining the entire evolution of life on his neutron star (the Cheela begin as plants, using crystal-supported canopies extending above the hot crust as the basis of heat engines to supply their food/energy needs), Forward sets up a memorable scene later in the novel. It develops that the cheela, in extreme circumstances, can revert to the plant stage�and that this even has a rejuvenating effect. Swift-Killer, a warrior explorer, discovers this by accident; and planetary dictator Soother-of-All-Clans later seeks to extend her life�and power�by going through such a metamorphosis deliberately. But she is too old and too sedentary; she has too little muscle tissue to draw on to build a crystalline structure for her canopy. Nevertheless, things seem to be going well�at first.
Then it happened. The tip of one of the weakened spikes broke as it attempted to tighten the skin. Soother's-First was horrified to see a jagged point of dragon crystal sticking up out of the torn fold of skin. The skin held for a while, and the scientists attempted to build a mound up against the side of the body to support the damaged section, but before the support could be arranged, an adjoining spike gave way under the unequal tension, and in a rapid series of sharp cracks and loud crashes, the remainder of the twelve-pointed skeleton broke and fell to the crust. (381)7
We do not particularly like Soother, yet Forward has done his work so well that she seems real to us, and we feel a genuine terror at her fate. This is in spite of the fact that Forward's prose, here and elsewhere in Dragon's Egg, is not distinguished: nobody can mistake it for that of a Delany or a Zelazny, or even that of better hard-SF writers like Benford.
What is going on here? We are participating in a literary experience, but it isn't the kind of literary experience we have been taught to appreciate. What befalls Soother is a terrifying event, rather than a metaphor, and the feelings it evokes are those of a literal event. Cognition, as Suvin calls it, is certainly involved: it is the novum (again as Suvin calls it) that allows us to accept the reality of the scene. Yet we do not feel estranged from that reality; instead, we feel caught up and even entranced by it. That is what always happens in the best hard science fiction, and a better term for the esthetic effect of hard SF may be cognitive engagement. Forward uses the novum to engage us in a fascinating new reality, rather than to estrange us from a familiar one, and it is a distinctly literary reality that he creates. We do not read Dragon's Egg as we would a technical paper: whatever faults we may find with his clumsy style and characterization, we can still admire Forward as the creator of a unique fiction. It is precisely because Martian Rainbow offers nothing so unique (anyone writing hard SF about Mars must, of necessity, cover much the same scientific ground), and because Forward makes the error of trying to write the kind of human and political drama for which his limited talents in no way suit him, that we cannot forgive the same faults in that novel.
We find the same esthetic in other examples of hard SF that do not aspire to be literary in the prevailing sense. In John E. Stith's Redshift Rendezvous (1990), the human side of the plot is pure cornball, and Stith's characters as such are nothing to write home about. Yet we are caught up in a story that could take place only in the fascinating reality of a subspace where the speed of light is so low we can actually see the illumination spread to the far corners of the starship cargo hold when the lights are switched on. We trust Stith to have worked out all the logical consequences of his invented reality, but when we read his novel it is the literary experience of that reality we are looking for. The same principle applies to Baxter's Raft, in which we share the experiences of a hero who is at one point exiled to a labor camp on the hulk of a dead star: in Baxter's invented universe it is possible to live and work�albeit not very comfortably�on such a world. Neither Redshift Rendezvous nor Raft offers any significant psychological insight, political message, or metaphor about the human condition. Neither is "literature'' as usually recognized. Yet each of these is a highly literary work in its own way.
Clement's Mission of Gravity is rightly recognized as one of the classics of hard SF. Yet Clement wrote a sequel, Star Light, which was quickly forgotten. The science was just as good in the second novel, but Clement was unable to recreate the literary excitement of the first. The reason is pretty obvious: the world Clement offers in Star Light is simply a dull world�and a dull world makes for a dull story. All sorts of amazing things happen on Mesklin, but practically nothing could happen of Dhrawn. The difference between the two worlds, and the stories they inspire, is the result of a literary rather than a scientific failure. Yet even a fairly conventional world can be redeemed by the literary excitement of hard SF. Rosemary Kirstein's The Steerswoman (1989), for example, is set on what seems at first a generic fantasy world of wizards and dragons. In the course of the story, however, we realize that the "wizards'' are really just ordinary men using the secrets of science, as in Fritz Leiber's classic Gather, Darkness (1950), to awe the masses and that the "dragons'' are only natural creatures. In the sequel, The Outskirter's Secret (1992), we learn that this world is threatened with disaster: something has gone wrong with what we can understand is a long-range terraforming project. But the protagonists in the story can't read the clues as we do, because they don't know the science we do: can they and will they discover the truth in time, and will they be able to do anything about it? We experience suspense, an element as old as fiction�but it is a suspense that derives entirely from our knowledge of science.
Hard science fiction may be a quite limited literary form, but the fact that it can create its own kind of literary experience�even when it has no other claim to literary value�shows that it is a valid literary form, and worthy of respect in its own right. Were it given this respect, we might have the experience of more works that, like Dragon's Egg, succeed as hard SF, however much they may be lacking in other virtues. We would still have Benford, in any case, but we might not be frustrated by lesser talents overreaching themselves: for example, John Cramer in Twistor (1990). This is simply an old-fashioned adventure story that takes too long to get going, seemingly because Cramer (doubtless having read Benford) thinks he has to devote the first half of the novel to academic politics and the like�which he just can't do as well as Benford�to be taken seriously.
We should try to remember that art, like gold, is where we find it�not necessarily where we look for it.
NOTES
1. In 1947-48 Heinlein published four space-adventure stories in The Saturday Evening Post, the biggest of the big slicks and the best-paying magazine market, as well as a few in other magazines that paid better than the genre pulps. The Post had earlier published an occasional SF story by such writers as Rudyard Kipling or Steven Vincent Ben�t, but Heinlein was the first writer from the SF community to appear in its pages.
2. First published in 1975, this story appears in several anthologies as well as in Bishop's Blooded on Arachne (NY: Pocket Books, 1983).
3. An oft-told story; see, for example, Norman and Jeanne Mackenzie, H.G. Wells: A Biography (Simon & Schuster, 1973), 117.
4. Dust-jacket blurbs on the Ballantine/Del Rey hardcover edition, NY, 1980.
5. Personal conversation with Lester del Rey, based on his knowledge of the handling of Forward's novel at Del Rey books.
6. Delany's argument that style and content are the same thing may seem unanswerable. A writer must choose the right words, and each word contributes to the meaning of the text. Only, how does the writer know which are the right words, unless there is some conception (content) of the work that comes before the words? Dorothy Sayers, in The Mind of the Maker, has an intriguing theory about the process of writing that seems to bear on this question (she makes an analogy to the Holy Trinity, in which the Father is the original conception of the work, the Son the finished work, and the Holy Ghost the intermediary). But without getting into arcane theories, consider this: Is there, or is there not, any content in common between two translations of the Bible in different styles?
7. Chapters in Dragon's Egg aren't numbered, but the quote is from one titled "Interaction,'' which is the sixth, and in the fourth subchapter thereof ("Time 14:28: 11 GMT Monday 20 June 2050'').
WORKS CITED
Aldiss, Brian W. Billion Year Spree. NY: Doubleday, 1973; Schocken Books, 1974. Same pagination.
Baxter, Stephen. Raft. NY: Roc, 1992.
Broderick, Damien. ``Reading SF as a Mega-text.'' New York Review of Science Fiction 47:1,8-11, July 1992.
Collins, Robert A. Editor's note. SFRA Newsletter 163:11-12, Dec. 1988.
Delany, Samuel R. The Jewel-Hinged Jaw: Notes on the Language of Science Fiction. Elizabethtown, NY: Dragon Press, 1977.
�����. "Teaching to Learn.'' Unsigned interview. Locus, 361:5,74-75, Feb. 1991.
�����. Triton. NY; Bantam Books, 1976.
Forward, Robert L. Dragon's Egg. NY: Ballantine/Del Rey, 1988.
Hartwell, David. The World Treasury of Science Fiction. Boston: Little, Brown, 1989.
Heinlein, Robert A. Grumbles from the Grave. NY: Ballantine/Del Rey, 1990.
Gregory Benford
Time and Timescape
Shortly after finishing my doctoral thesis in 1967, I began doing research at the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, and resumed my hobby of writing fiction. It had never occurred to me to intertwine the two. Yet as I read recent papers on tachyons, hypothetical faster-than-light particles, I realized that they plainly had a science-fictional feel. In a stroke, my rigorous habits of thought as a physicist mingled with my speculative, artistic aspects. It was my first experience with how hard SF could emerge from the experience of "doing'' science.
In Newton's worldview, time ticked off in an absolute way, and space was measured by a rigid universal framework. This image ruled until the late nineteenth century. H.G. Wells, always a quick study, caught the shifting winds and jury-rigged a new analogy which equated time with space�made it a fourth dimension, which a traveller could navigate.
Einstein shattered immutable time, combining space and time into a single continuum. The velocity of an observer served to rotate time into space, so that events which seemed simultaneous to one person would not look so to another who moved with a different speed. None of this was readily apparent to us, because we all move very much slower than light, which is thought to be the ultimate speed limit.
That limit separated two realms which could never interpenetrate, because approaching the barrier from lower speeds took ever-greater energy. Nothing precluded particles moving faster than light if they started out that way. The light barrier was weirdly symmetric, too. Particles moving infinitely fast have zero energy, just like particles with no velocity on our side of the barrier. Infinity mirrors zero.
Einstein's theory allowed these eerie faster-than-light particles, as he himself knew. Nobody paid much attention to their theoretical possibility until the early 1960s, however, when Gerald Feinberg introduced the name "tachyons'' ("fast ones'' in Greek); by contrast, ordinary matter such as us is made of slow ones, "tardyons.'' The last time I saw Gerry (he died in 1992) he reminded me that the idea had appealed to him because of James Blish's story, "Beep'' (1954; later expanded into The Quincunx of Time, 1973). That tale concerns a faster-than-light communicator (a "Dirac transmitter,'' which he used in later fiction). It works fine, except that the engineers can't eliminate a beep at the end of each message. It turns out that, stretched out, that beep contains all messages from all future times�because, as Blish knew, anything which travels faster than light can be used to send messages backward in time.
Demonstrating this demands space-time diagrams and a fair amount of physics. You can see it qualitatively by noting that a tachyon covers more space than time in its trajectory, so in a sense it has a net debit in its favor�"time to burn.'' Several physicists had confronted directly a problem Gerry left for others�the familiar grandfather's paradox.
Most physicists believed then (and still do) that this paradox rules out tachyons or any other such backward-in-time trick. Some tried to maintain that tachyons could still exist; as Richard Feynman pointed out, a particle traveling backward in time can be redefined as its own antiparticle (made of anti-matter) moving forward in time. This "reinterpretation principle'' would set everything right: apparently anti-causal events would merely be reinterpreted by other observers as perfectly normal events.
This seemed to me a bold finesse from an empty hand. When this ploy appeared in the scientific literature I discussed it with two friends and we wrote a quick paper refuting it. Published in Physical Review D in 1970 (p. 263) under the title "The Tachyonic Anti-Telephone''�see, even in dry old Phys Rev you can have fun with titles, if you try�it remains the only scientific paper I have written without a single equation in it; the argument was logical, not really technical.
We argued that notions like cause and effect could not be so easily made relative. The Feynman argument worked for one particle but not if you used two or more. With a minimum of two, whoever sent a signal could sign it, clearly establishing the origin.
We regarded the whole thing as rather amusing, so we discussed an example in which Shakespeare sends his newest work backward to Francis Bacon. At the time Bacon was a leading contender for the "true'' Shakespeare among those who thought that a mere country boy could not have penned such masterpieces. "If Shakespeare types out Hamlet on his tachyon transmitter, Bacon receives the transmission at some earlier time. But no amount of reinterpretation will make Bacon the author of Hamlet. It is Shakespeare, not Bacon, who exercises control over the content of the message.''
He can simply sign it, after all. Behind all the mathematics in the earlier papers lurked this simple, fatal idea.
Still, I rather liked tachyons. My two coauthors were David Book and William Newcomb. Newcomb was the grandson of the famous Simon Newcomb, an astronomer who wrote the infamous paper showing why airplanes could not fly. When he happened to mention this over a beer, my alarm bells went off. Was I signing onto a similar blinkered perspective, to be cited with ridicule generations later?
So I mulled the matter over, with one eye cocked at the steady stream of papers about time. Could tachyons actually exist? I was urged on by a report from Australia in 1972 that two experimenters had observed a tachyon. Their particle detectors, carried aloft in a balloon to catch cosmic rays, had found that a single event occurred at about 2.5 times light speed. I read their paper with astonishment. Dozens of papers followed, proposing theories for tachyons. Other experimenters tried to duplicate the Australian results�and failed. In the twenty years since, nobody has seen any such event, and statistically they should have. The Australian data was probably wrong.
Still, I wondered how tachyons�which Einstein's special theory of relativity clearly allowed�could fit into the world as we knew it. I essayed an approach in a novelette in Epoch, an anthology of the mid-1970s. Then over five years I wrote a novel, Timescape (published 1980), exploring the simplest situation I could imagine�discovery of tachyons, and the first attempts to probe their properties and use. Rather than the convenient Wellsian traveler, I used scientists as I knew them, warts and all, doing what they would�trying to use the new discovery to communicate something they cared about.
But how to deal with the paradox? I had always rather liked another theory which resolved the multiple-outcome property of conventional quantum mechanics. This interpretation of quantum events supposes that when a given particle, say, passes through a hole in a wall, it can go in several directions. The wave-like property of matter says that the same experiment, repeated many times, will give a pattern of impacts on a far screen. The density of impacts corresponds to the probability that a single particle would follow that trajectory and make that impression. But a single particle's trajectory can't be predicted precisely�we can only get the probability distribution.
Enter a fresh view, due to Hugh Everett of Princeton in the 1950s. Everett said that all the possible outcomes predicted by the probability analysis of quantum mechanics are separately real. This means that every time a particle passes through a hole, the entire universe splits into many possible outcomes.
Envision separable worlds peeling off from every microscopic event. In our world, the particle smacks into the wall and that specific outcome defines our world forever more. Other worlds simultaneously appear, with a slightly different impact point. Every event generates great handfuls of other worlds�a cosmic plentitude of astronomical extravagance. I've often wondered whether Everett was influenced by such SF stories as Murray Leinster's "Sidewise in Time'' (1934). Certainly he influenced later SF writers, including the Larry Niven of "All the Myriad Ways'' (1963).
The Everett view was fun to think about, and logically defensible, but nobody really believed it. But I found it handy. (Writers are magpies.) I said in my novel that the Everett interpretation didn't really apply to every event. Instead, I reserved the Everett picture for only those events which produced a causal paradox. If a physicist sent a tachyon backward in time and it had no grandfather-killing effects, no problem. If it did, though, then the universe split into as many versions as it took to cover all the possibilities. So you could indeed send some grandfather-killing message (or anything else that made a paradox), and grandfather would die. But not in the universe you were doomed to inhabit. Instead, another universe would appear, unknown to you, in which dear old grandfather died, alas, and you never happened at all. No paradox, since the tachyon which killed gramps came from another universe, from another you.
This seemed nifty enough to furnish a solution to my novel, but I did not take it seriously enough to actually work up a formal quantum field theory. I published the novel and was astonished at its success. I thought it was quirky, somewhat self-indulgent and, in its fascination with how it feels to do science, obviously destined for a small audience. Yet this rather private novel has been my most successful. It has been cited in several books about causal problems and some scientific papers. Quite pleasant for a hard SF writer.
Meanwhile, the problem of time continued. Einstein's special relativity applies to regions of space-time which are "flat'' in the sense that gravity is not significant. Except for introducing the finite speed of light, the theory feels Newtonian. George Bernard Shaw, in a tongue-in-cheek toast to Einstein, put it this way:
Newton was able to combine a prodigious mental faculty with the credulities and delusions that would disgrace a rabbit. As an Englishman, he postulated a rectilinear universe because the English always use the word ``square'' to denote honesty, truthfulness, in short: rectitude.
Einstein's general theory stitches together small regions of locally flat spacetime into a quilt of truly warped structure. Powerfully curved spacetime plays hob with causality. One of Einstein's close friends, Kurt G�del, produced a model (from Einstein's field theory) for a universe which spins so fast that time and space get radically twisted. Zipping around such a universe can return you to the place and time of your departure. The mathematics, coming from the famous author of G�del's Proof in mathematical logic, was impeccable.
Could this happen? Many hoped not. With a sign of relief they noted that there is no evidence that our universe rotates. So G�del's case simply doesn't apply here.
But then in the 1960s several theorists showed that local rotation of stressed spacetime near black holes could do similar tricks. Spin a black hole fast enough and the rotation offsets the gravitational attraction, effectively stripping the guts of the hole bare. The bowels of the beast are not pretty, with exotic zones such as negative spacetime. From such regions a traveler could do as Wells' did, slipping backwards in time. Worse, he might reach a naked singularity, where all physical things (mass, density, gravitational attraction) became indefinitely large.
Mathematics cannot handle singularities, so mathematicians would rather that they be decently clothed. No one has been able to produce suitable garments except by the lo-and-behold method. When I last discussed this with Stephen Hawking, in 1989, he admitted that he suspected that we could merely invoke the clothing of singularities as a rule, beyond proof.
Of course, he pointed out, to explain why we don't see time travelers as everyday visitors, notice the requirements. To make a reasonable time machine with a rotating black hole would take just about the mass of a small galaxy. Generally, time travel seemed to require vast public works projects.
Since then there have been other ideas, such as making quantum "wormholes'' stable and large�all quite large orders. So we now have several ideas of how to make such a machine, though we can't afford one right now.
But why should this matter? If a time machine is ever built, in principle we should be receiving visitors now. Yet we haven't seen any. Why?
An adroit answer provided by Larry Niven supposes that there is nothing at all illogical about time travel, but we must remember that causality still works going forward in time. Every paradox-producing message or traveler sent back will change the conditions back at the origin of the time machine. * Remember Ray Bradbury's "A Sound of Thunder'' (1952), in which a dinosaur-hunting expedition bagged its quarry, but accidentally trampled a butterfly with a boot�a striking image. They returned to find the politics and language of their era had shifted.
Imagine that people keep using such a time machine until an equilibrium sets in between past changes and future reactions. The simplest steady-state in which no changes occur is one in which no time machine exists any longer. Events conspire�say, science falls forever into disfavor, or humanity dies out�to make the time machine erase itself.
This "Niven's Law'' follows directly from a basic picture from wave mechanics. Suppose time signals behave like waves. Looping into the past and back to the future, a wave can interfere with itself. Picture ocean waves intersecting, making chop and froth as they cancel here, reinforce there.
Quantum mechanically, even particles can act like waves, so it makes sense to speak of time loops as channels for the propagation of waves of probability. The wave amplitude gives the probability that a particle will exist. A loop which brings a wave back to exactly cancel itself means that the entire process cannot occur�probability zero at the very beginning, where the trip starts.
This picture actually comes from the history of quantum mechanics. One can predict the energy levels of hydrogen by thinking of its electron as a wave propagating around a circle, its orbit about the nucleus. Only certain wavelengths of the wave will fit on the orbital circumference. This quantizing condition yields the values of energy the electron must have.
Several scientific papers have explored this interest in quantum effects as the key to time travel�a welcome change from the gargantuan gravity machines I've already mentioned. In Timescape I tried to finesse the paradoxes by combining special relativity (tachyons) and quantum mechanics. Then the fashion in time machines had shifted to general relativity (Frank Tipler's rotating cylinders, as used by Poul Anderson in The Avatar [1978]), and then to quantum mechanics (wormholes). What about uniting general relativity and quantum mechanics�a much harder job.
Imagine my surprise when in November of 1992 I came upon a paper in Physical Review D, where our old tachyon paper had appeared. Titled somewhat forbiddingly `"Quantum Mechanics Near Closed Timelike Lines,'' it constructs a theory for effects in highly curved space-time which contains causal loops�"closed timelike lines,'' in the jargon. It was written by David Deutsch, who has been studying these matters for a decade at Oxford (not Cambridge, the site of the experiments in Timescape).
"Contrary to what has usually been assumed,'' Deutsch says, ``there is no reason in what we know of fundamental physics why closed timelike lines should not exist.'' In twenty pages of quantum logic calculations, he shows that no obstacle to free will or even grandfather murder really exists.
It's all done with the Everett interpretation. In quantum cosmology there is no single history of space-time. Instead, all possible histories happen simultaneously. For the vast preponderance of cases, this doesn't matter�the ontological bloat of an infinitude of worlds has no observable consequences. It's just a way of talking about quantum mechanics.
Not so for time machines. Then a quantum description requires a set of `"classical'' (ordinary) space-times which are similar to each other�except in the important history of the paradox-loop. The causal loop links all the multiple histories.
Think of unending sheets stacked on end and next to each other, like the pages in this magazine. Timelines flow up them. A causal loop snakes through these sheets, so the parallel universes become one. If the grandson goes back in time, he crosses to another time-sheet. There he shoots granddad, and lives thereafter in that universe. His granddad lived as before and had grandchildren, one of whom disappears, period.
Quantum mechanics always furnishes as many linked universes as there would be conflicting outcomes; it's quite economical. In this view, "it is only ever an approximation to speak of things happening 'in a universe'. In reality the 'universes' form part of a larger object...which, according to quantum theory, is the real arena in which things happen.'' Cosmic stuff, indeed.
Just now, writing this three months after Deutsch's paper appeared, I opened Timescape and tracked down my old thinking. "When a loop was set up, the universe split into two new universes.... The grandson reappeared in a second universe, having traveled back in time, where he shot his grandfather and lived out his life, passing through the years which were forever altered by his act. No one in either universe thought the world was paradoxical.''
I framed my fictional theory this way because it seemed at least a plausible escape hatch from the genuine problems of time machines, using quantum logic. But my deeper motivation was to capture the eerie sense of having altered the past, the age-old dream . . . but for someone else.
If you know this, then such an act is the ultimate altruism: you cannot then benefit in any way from usefully adjusting the past (or suffer, either). Someone exactly like you does benefit (yes, a twin; and I wonder how much my being an identical twin has led to my interest in these ideas)�but you will never see him, and cannot know this except in theory. Most of all, I was struck in writing the closing pages of the novel with that glimpse of vistas unknown, whole universes beyond our grasp, times untouched. To me that is the essential SF impulse. Much critical attention paid the book (such as Susan Stone-Blackburn's, who contributed a critical summary to the new Bantam edition of the novel) lauds its characterization, perhaps because the scientific content and metaphors are less obvious and not traditional.
To me, though, beyond the book's puzzles and plots lurks its central driver: a sense of unchanging immensity, the timescape glimpsed with the flitting attention of a mortal being. This touches on the often-invoked emotions behind much hard SF�awe and thinly veiled transcendence. They are the core passions of Clarke and Stapledon.
In most of my writing I do try to portray humans as they really are, because I am uncomfortably aware that real science is done by people with dirt under their fingernails. In hard SF there is an inevitable tension between conventional short-focus realism and the impact of the larger landscape (humanity foregrounded against the universe) that is central to hard SF's ideology and affect.
The usual hard SF protagonist is an Everyman, who believes in reason and his/her ability to fathom the unknown. Hard SF is not about ironic distance or individual failure, though that may play a part in a particular hard SF work. Still less is it about the symptoms of narrative exhaustion which some term post-modern�pastiche, borrowing, self-aware recycling of genre materials, and the rearrangement of conceptual deck chairs on a cultural Titanic. Titles like Mission of Gravity, Gateway, and Childhood's End are about the great ol' up and out.
It was quite strange to read Deutsch's neatly couched arguments in Physical Review D. There is a certain wrenching sensation in having anticipated the qualitative aspects�not the thickets of equations; Deutsch's quantum logic calculations I find quite daunting�of a theory which seems to open the way to actual use of time machines, if we should ever devise them.
Will we? Perhaps. But hard SF is not about exactly predicting the future. It is about the beauty of a small, reasoning reed, which can see past its own mortality and wonder at the vistas beyond. Its essential drama lies in that huge leap of scale.
23 February 1993
* Larry Niven, "The Theory and Practice of Time Travel,'' All the Myriad Ways (NY: Ballantine, 1971), 110-23.
Claire Sponsler
Beyond the Ruins: The Geopolitics of Urban Decay and Cybernetic Play1
For better or for worse, "cyberpunk'' no longer needs much introduction. Used as commonly and casually as its cousins "cyborg'' and "postmodernism,'' "cyberpunk'' has become a widely accepted term for describing a specific kind of cultural production found in music, film, and fiction in 1980s America.2 A fusion of high-tech and punk counterculture characterized by a self-conscious stylistic and ideological rebelliousness, cyberpunk can perhaps best be defined as a reinterpretation of human (and especially male) experience in a media-dominated, information-saturated, post-industrial age. Debate now centers less on what cyberpunk is than on what its value has been, with opinions ranging from Istvan Csicsery-Ronay's sardonic criticism of cyberpunk as ``the vanguard white male art of the age'' (267) to Veronica Hollinger's sympathetic reading of cyberpunk as an exploration of post-humanist subjectivity.3
In spite of cyberpunk's dominance within SF during the 1980s, the consensus among both SF writers and critics is that cyberpunk as a movement is essentially over. Many of the central core of cyberpunk authors, including William Gibson, Rudy Rucker, Lewis Shiner, John Shirley, and Bruce Sterling, have turned to other projects. At the same time, although cyberpunk is still being written here and there, it is difficult to detect anything like a coherent group of second-generation cyberpunk writers. Nevertheless, however pass� it may be as a self-conscious literary movement, cyberpunk continues to exert considerable influence on science-fiction writers, though in diffuse and often contradictory ways.4 At one extreme, cyberpunk has begun to function as an excluded "Other'' against which many writers shape their fiction. Such is the case with such popular writers as Kim Stanley Robinson, Sheri Tepper, Connie Willis, and Pat Murphy, who, consciously or unconsciously, write against the grain of cyberpunk and in some cases seemingly in direct opposition to it. At the other extreme stand writers like George Alec Effinger, K.W. Jeter, Pat Cadigan, and Emma Bull, who persist in finding the themes and images of cyberpunk vital imaginative terrain, however clich�d, or downright repugnant, those themes and images may now appear to others.
While Effinger, Jeter, Cadigan, and Bull, who admittedly are in the minority among current SF writers, might be considered as representing no more than the last gasp of a dying sub-genre, it seems suggestive that in their work the cyberpunk sensibility has found a dynamic afterlife. Although no new movement with the same kind of shared vision and unified goals has replaced cyberpunk, given the ever-growing fragmentation of our postmodern world any such shared vision in SF, or in any other cultural arena, is perhaps an out-dated possibility.5 Instead, cyberpunk now seems to represent a storehouse of themes and images that are open to recycling in works that are not, strictly speaking, cyberpunk. Just as punk music has faded from the current music scene, but lingers on in modified form in industrial dance music, so cyberpunk has been productively reappropriated by recent science-fiction writing that is to all appearances not explicitly classifiable as part of the genre of cyberpunk.
In light of this dispersion of cyberpunk themes and images across the field of recent SF, I would like to look again at one of the chief claims made about cyberpunk, especially by advocates like Sterling. It is frequently argued that cyberpunk's most significant contribution has been its development of a new dystopian realism that takes a long, hard look at the near-future. As with so much of what is said about cyberpunk, this claim both is and isn't true. Science-fiction writers have long felt a social responsibility to imagine better futures, but as Andrew Ross observes, "this sense of utopian responsibility was slowly eroded in the Cold War period by the dominant dystopian and fatalistic visions of nuclear annihilation'' (142). The New Wave movement of the 1960s and the work in the 1970s of writers such as Ursula Le Guin, Marge Piercy, Joanna Russ, Samuel Delany, and Suzy McKee Charnas opened space for new kinds of critical utopian writing, but the genre of (primarily feminist) utopian writing gradually dissolved in the 1980s, in part under the pressure of its own self-criticism and in part for political reasons (see, for example, Peter Fitting's discussion ["Decline'']. At the same time, SF's tradition of dystopian near-futures found in the work of writers such as John Brunner, Philip Dick, Cyril Kornbluth, and Frederik Pohl also began to lose oppositional power, and hence effectiveness as a critique of the present, as images of a bleak, eco-dystopian future became, as Ross puts it, "the 'official' look of the future in popular culture'' (144) played out in the 1970s in innumerable films, television shows, and works of fiction. This is the moment when cyberpunk enters. Inspired by punk culture's anti-utopian "no-future'' look, cyberpunk saw itself as, among other things, accurately depicting a realistic near-future earth. Rejecting what it viewed as the out-dated and now rather quaint fascination of traditional science fiction with aliens, outer space, and far-future millennia, cyberpunk claimed to present us instead with a world that is recognizably our own, one that seems to be lying in wait for us just around the corner. Cyberpunk, it was said, was not concerned with utopian imaginings of a distant future. Nor (though this was said less often) was cyberpunk particularly concerned with critiques of the present in the guise of dystopian near-futures (as were Brunner et al.). Instead, cyberpunk promised a long, cold look at the future soon to be upon us.6
One way cyberpunk has tried to stake out its difference from its predecessors is by spurning nuclear annihilation as a grounding device for its narrative representations of the future. In a recent New York Times op-ed piece entitled "Get the Bomb Off my Back,'' Bruce Sterling, echoing his earlier contention that one of the salient features of cyberpunk is "its boredom with the Apocalypse'' (Introduction to Burning Chrome xi), argues that SF writers in general are no longer preoccupied with the notion of a nuclear holocaust. According to Sterling, cyberpunk in particular has abandoned this long-familiar topos, seeking instead to come to terms with a different, more realistic future. In spite of the obvious appeal of Sterling's claim, with its promise of liberating us from one of the deepest anxieties clouding our collective unconscious, the geopolitics of most cyberpunk stories appear nearly as post-apocalyptic as the SF classics of the Cold War era. Granted that the near-future cyberpunk postulates has come about through technological developments (though surprisingly often with the help of nuclear or natural agents such as an atomic war or an earthquake), the physical settings of most cyberpunk stories nonetheless look strikingly like the setting of any post-holocaust story: blighted, rubble-strewn, broken-down cityscapes; vast terrains of decay, bleakness, and the detritus of civilization; and the nearly complete absence of a benign or beautiful nature. This is a topography familiar to us from innumerable 1980s tech-noir films like Robocop, Blade Runner, Total Recall, or The Terminator, in which destitute urban landscapes littered with abandoned factories, barbed wire fences, and burnt-out buildings provide the ominous background against which the action takes place. Deny it though Sterling might try, cyberpunk typically operates with the assumption that some kind of catastrophe has occurred that has led to much the same kind of eco-wasteland as did the bomb in earlier generations of SF stories. Cyberpunk, in other words, seems to be just as dependent on the aesthetics of disaster as was an earlier generation of SF stories.
There is a difference, however. The distinction�and this may be what Sterling is aiming at�lies in cyberpunk's attitude towards both its apocalypses and their outcomes. As Martha Bartter has pointed out, early post-holocaust science fiction usually presented atomic war both "as obvious disaster and as secret salvation'' (148) that performed an act of urban renewal by razing inhumane cities and providing a place (albeit a hostile one) where select groups could come together as communities and flourish. These stories tended to recreate either the frontier or the village as the ideal human setting, finding in preindustrial forms of social interaction appealing myths for resolving the crises of twentieth-century urban industrialism. In either case, the external world was cast as a hostile and threatening place, inimical to human survival, but acting as a catalyst for social betterment.
Cyberpunk, in contrast, attaches zero value to its apocalypses: they are neither good nor evil, they simply are (or rather have been, since they invariably occur at some time before the story opens). The destructive event, whether nuclear war or natural or man-made disaster, that results in an altered landscape takes place out of sight at some point before the narration begins and has little moral or epistemological impact. The typical cyberpunk reaction to these off-stage cataclysms is in fact profound indifference. In the quintessential cyberpunk novel, Gibson's Neuromancer, for example, the Sprawl�a huge, sprawling, urban zone that stretches down the eastern sea-board of the US�is in some unexplained way the product of rampant urban growth that is set against the desolation of the central and western regions of the United States, which have by some unexplained means been turned into the howling wasteland that we see in Mona Lisa Overdrive. All our attention is focused on the bustling Sprawl and diverted away from both the wastelands and what might have caused them. In Gibson's work, and in other cyberpunk stories, disaster is taken for granted; it is a kind of white noise in the background, humming behind all the action.
Simultaneously with this neutralizing of the apocalypse as a critical event in human history, cyberpunk transforms the negative space of the external environment into a positive zone. Still ruined, it is now converted into a site where interesting things happen and where humans flourish, as the throbbing vitality of Gibson's Sprawl and Chiba City demonstrate. The decayed urban zone provides cyberpunk with a playground where outlaws and outsiders can seize the main chance, adapting and surviving in a ruined cityscape, ultimately discovering an escape to the most important zone of possibility�the new frontier of cyberspace.
In the remainder of this essay, I would like to look at the way cyberpunk's geopolitics has been taken up by three recent SF works�K.W. Jeter's Farewell Horizontal, Emma Bull's Bone Dance, and Pat Cadigan's Synners. (Of the three, Synners fits most easily under the rubric of cyberpunk, while the other two are instances of the adoption of particular cyberpunk themes and images within stories that are not themselves explicitly cyberpunk.) My method will be to read these three novels against three post-holocaust stories in order to show not only how cyberpunk and cyberpunk-inspired writings have been unable, despite Sterling's manifesto, to break entirely with earlier representations of human action within a post-apocalyptic environment, but also, and more importantly, how the decayed yet vitalized cityscape of cyberpunk does differ from the physical worlds of post-holocaust SF. At the end of the essay, I will briefly consider some of the implications of the dispersion of this particular feature of cyberpunk�its geopolitics� across other fictional and cultural fields.
In traditional post-holocaust stories such as Pat Frank's Alas, Babylon (1959), Walter M. Miller, Jr.'s A Canticle for Leibowitz (1959), or even Russell Hoban's Riddley Walker (1980), the nuclear landscape always seems filled with a sense of radical emergency. Paranoia, mutants, xenophobia, fear of the disappearance or mutation of the body (and the consequent disintegration of the self), and despair about the hopelessness of post-atomic rubble mark these stories, even when they celebrate human ingenuity.7 As Jeff Porter has suggested, these stories often find themselves ``limited to narrow choices between dispossession and revival,'' between fatalism and survivalism. Whichever path they take, traditional post-apocalyptic narratives play out their human struggles within a hostile and alienating ecology, an ecology that to a large extent defines their limited choices.
Alas, Babylon, set in central Florida, chronicles the efforts of a small band of survivors under the leadership of Randy Bragg, a former liberal lawyer, to build a self-sufficient community out of the ruins of civilization produced by a nuclear war that is taking place as the story is being told. Frank's narrative is a striking example of nuclear disaster viewed as urban renewal and of human survival as a kind of social Darwinism. Nuclear disaster is seen in the novel as a neo-Deluge, a quasi-natural event, that wipes the earth clean of the effects of human civilization. As one of the characters remarks:
Nature is proving Darwin's law of natural selection. The defective bee, unable to cope with its environment, is rejected by nature before birth. I think this will be true of man. It is said that nature is cruel. I don't think so. Nature is just, and even merciful. By natural selection, nature will attempt to undo what man has done. (�9:194)
Frank wastes little time describing the destruction that is occurring as a result of the nuclear war, concentrating instead on the efforts of Bragg's valiant band to rebuild a community. Though horrifying desolation surrounds them and all of the major cities of Florida have been destroyed, the suggestively named Fort Repose remains isolated from the atomic debris, a safe haven of pastoralism in the midst of ``the end of civilization as we know it'' (�5:109). Though word comes through on the radio that ``Washington has been atomized'' (�6:127), this is of little concern to the residents of Fort Repose who are more worried about how to cope with the loss of electricity, clean drinking water, and other comforts of middle-class existence. In fact, the obliteration of cities everywhere is seen less as a disaster than as a chance to start over, to make a new and better beginning. The librarian at Fort Repose muses that ``it was strange...that it should require a holocaust to make her own life worth living'' (�8:167). In Frank's story, the environment is divided into two distinct spaces: the bombed or contaminated zones of former cities and the unscathed rural and suburban outposts. In the former, humans have been wiped out, seemingly with good riddance; in the latter, they have been handed the opportunity to build new and better lives based on what are seen in the novel as simpler, more natural values. Crucially, however, outposts such as Fort Repose can only be imagined against the background of widespread destruction, against a landscape inhospitable to humans, against a holocaust that burns a clean space for the rebuilding of a better humanity (seen in Alas, Babylon as a kind of idealized, middle-class, suburban lifestyle).
A Canticle for Leibowitz inhabits the space left unexamined by Frank, the blasted nuclear landscape hostile to human life. In Miller's story no pastoral pockets of humanity escape unscathed and equipped to refashion a purer version of suburban life. Miller's story opens in a wind-swept desert, over which lone pilgrims (like Brother Francis) wander avoiding robbers, howling wolves, and scattered populations of monsters. Shimmering noon-day heat beats down on once great highways now reduced to mere tracks through the desert. Mounds of rubble mark the sites of former buildings from which stones have been plundered to build new habitations (such as the abbey). Brother Francis' discovery of a Fallout Shelter in which he finds the Memorabilia demonstrates the novel's typical attitude toward the ruins: "The ruins above ground had been reduced to archaeological ambiguity by generations of scavengers, but this underground ruin had been touched by no hand but the hand of impersonal disaster. The place seemed haunted by the presences of another age'' (�2:29). In the midst of a harsh, blasted landscape, the ruins of former cities take on a mystical feel, infused with the breath of a lost civilization that Brother Francis and the other surviving monks devote their lives to resurrecting and rebuilding, trying to discover in the remnants and rubble of the past answers for the future.
The environment is full of brooding evil, threatening human endurance on every side. Survivors huddle together in scattered enclaves where their existence is marked by perpetual labor and the struggle for survival. The desert is vast and ominous; the remnants of humanity must struggle mightily to survive. Tellingly, the search for knowledge that ultimately succeeds in Miller's book results in another holocaust, millions of corpses, and "new ruins'' (�29:318). In Canticle, the quest to rebuild human civilization ultimately fails and there is, finally, no escape from the hostile environment except to leave earth for an alien planet, as some of the survivors do in the end. Terra, the natural habitat of humankind, proves by humankind's own doing permanently inhospitalis.
In Riddley Walker, a powerfully complex and richly imagined post-holocaust story, the feel of the setting is remarkably similar to that of Canticle, though we are now in rainy England rather than the arid southwest USA. Killer dogs roam in packs, green rot grows on the rubble of former civilizations, Riddley's people dig for old iron at Widders Dump and talk about lost cleverness, boats in the air, and pictures on the wind. In Hoban's novel, a hunting-gathering culture living in shelters made of "baskit and gunge with a thatch roof'' (�12:101) clings to half-forgotten, garbled remnants of a pre-holocaust world and searches for both a language and a meaning lost with the bomb's blast in the Bad Time. The bomb's aftershocks have included the destruction of most of the artifacts of civilization and the death of most people. In Riddley's words: "Every 1 knows about Bad Time and what come after. Bad Time 1st and bad times after. Not many come thru it a live'' (�1:2).
This post-bomb world is a ruined, more primitive than pastoral, scene that has been literally bombed back to the dark ages. People shelter in woods and small enclaves as best they can, foraging for food. The continual rain is the dominant symbol of a hostile nature, as Riddley makes clear: "Raining agen it wer nex morning. Theres rains and rains. This 1 wer coming down in a way as took the hart and hoap out of you'' (�11:71). Riddley's quest, his journey to Canterbury in search of answers, "connexions,'' and the "Littl Shyning Man,'' takes him through broken buildings and broken machines littering the countryside, but leads him to no real answers and no real knowledge. He remains alienated from his surroundings, which offer him no help in his quest but rather threaten him at every turn with physical danger and, just as importantly, inescapably depressing bleakness. Hoban envisions a post-apocalyptic landscape in which any rebuilding of civilization seems an impossibility and in which the best humans can do is endure.
I hope my all too brief discussion of these three novels gives some sense of the range and variety of post-holocaust SF, as well as a feel for their standard geopolitics. In these stories, the physical world, destroyed by the atomic bomb's blast, is hostile and forbidding, a no-man's land where humans must struggle to survive, but where struggle can be a purifying experience. The physical world here is unfriendly, unyielding, and unforgiving. Most of all, as the product of humanity's vile and destructive behavior, the physical world must be battled against in the re-building of a better society; it is no partner in the reconstruction of civilization, however much it may provide the impetus for such reconstruction.
In contrast the typical cyberpunk or cyberpunk-inspired setting, though resembling the blasted landscapes of post-holocaust stories, has a rather different feel. Cyberpunk rewrites the typical post-holocaust narrative movement from pessimism to optimism back to pessimism so compellingly played out in Canticle�the assumption that the worst will happen, linked to belief that good can come of it, followed by fear (or certainty) that the worst will happen again. In cyberpunk angst and ambivalence are replaced by acceptance of the ruined state of the landscape; destruction of the natural environment and decay of the urban zone are givens that are not lamented but rather accepted. There is no reflection on the past that caused the apocalypse and little on the future that lies beyond it. More importantly, the clich� of a pre-technological future nostalgically modelled on an idealized version of the past is foreign to cyberpunk, which inhabits not an anti- but a resolutely and genuinely post-industrial future.
Farewell Horizontal (1989) is K. W. Jeter's most obviously mainstream SF novel, yet, crucially, it is infused by a cyberpunk-inspired treatment of setting. Ny Axxter, a free-lance graffix artist who implants biofoil ikons into the chests of Neanderthalish gang members, leaves the safety of life "on the horizontal'' to attempt life "on the vertical'' on the outside of Cylinder, a building that constitutes his known world. Inside Cylinder live the horizontal dwellers, the factory drudges and the privileged, wealthy few. Outside live the outlaws, the freelancers, the warrior gangs such as the Havoc Mass and the Grievous Amalgam. Outside, on the vertical, people ride motorcycles across cable networks and wear microchip implants that let them plug into dimples in Cylinder's surface, tapping into the computerized economic and information net, Ask & Receive.
The milieu Jeter imagines here, the physical world represented in its entirety by Cylinder, would at first glance seem far removed from cyberpunk's deteriorated near-future urban environment. We learn that at some indefinite time in the past, some sort of nuclear holocaust took place that resulted in the sealing off of certain sectors of Cylinder and, we can imagine, in the isolation of those humans who now live in or on Cylinder. There is nothing beyond, beneath, or above Cylinder except air and clouds, and no speculation, until the very end of the novel, by any of the characters, about what lies beyond Cylinder. In the post-war world of Jeter's novel, what an architect would call the "built-environment'' swallows up the whole terrain. There is no natural world, no habitat, no living space beyond Cylinder except for the clouds, the air, freefall, the zone of the gas angels�there are no trees, no mountains, no oceans, not even any cities, only the building, which becomes in its solitude the quintessential representation of urban and rural life simultaneously, an entire city (or even nation) on and within one monumental structure.
Life on Cylinder is divided into two distinct locales. For the outsiders sleeping in slings and tents lashed to the wall, riding their motorcycles up and down the wall, life is dangerous: "Vertical was tough. Anybody could fall off the wall. One way or another; either the big step, right down into the cloud barrier below, or...back the other way, inwall to the horizontal'' (�1: 24). Yet, life on the outside is preferable to life on the horizontal, which is viewed as unending subjugation of the individual mind and body to the demands of machines and production. As Axxter remarks:
Sleeping next to some plastics extrusion machine for four hours...and then punching out widgets for the next twenty, over and over, until there was nothing left in your head except the platonic ideal of a widget. You might as well be a widget then; the transformation into object would be complete. (�8:125)
To live on the inside is to give up on being fully human. To live on the inside is to participate in a blue-collar version of the kind of mindless, conformist existence lived by Gibson's sararimen, who are, like Jeter's "widgets,'' mere cogs in the corporate machine.
In spite of its dangers, the outside of Cylinder is, like Gibson's Night City, an outlaw zone of possibilities for those who dare to live there, and especially for those who probe and question the forces that control it. Similarly, as in Neuromancer, or better yet, in Count Zero where Bobby begins his adventures and his transformation into a console cowboy by venturing outside of his narrowly circumscribed and blinkered life in a vast high-rise housing project and exploring the subversive activities and hidden life taking place all around him, not to interrogate the environment is seen as a failure of the imagination and of adaptation. As one character complains to Axxter, trying to urge him to take risks and explore his environment: "'Like this building, cylinder itself.... You live in it, or on it, but you never think about it. It's obviously constructed, a thing put together, but you never wonder why, or by whom''' (�14:205).
In Farewell Horizonal, as in the more explicitly cyberpunk stories of Shirley, Rucker, Gibson, and Sterling, the people who live on the margins, independently, by their wits and in defiance of official forces, are seen as living up to their fullest potential. With the help of the gas angels, who float freely around Cylinder buoyed by large gas-filled sacs on their backs, Axxter in the end exposes a conspiracy involving the warrior gangs in cahoots with both the media-information service and the corporate powers. In a scenario familiar to us from countless cyberpunk stories, the underdog ultimately triumphs, finds meaning for his own life, and undermines the power of repressive and malevolent authorities. For Jeter, there is nothing alienating or hostile about the environment except when humans unthinkingly surrender themselves to it, trading their freedom for security. Even though Cylinder, as the totality of the landscape in Farewell Horizontal, seems at first glance far removed from cyberpunk's decayed urban landscapes, in the end it amounts to much the same thing. Axxter's final plunge off of Cylinder into the clouds at the close of the novel can be read as penetration into cyberpunk's ultimate zone of possibility�the non-corporeal reality of cyberspace. In this sense, Cylinder functions as a pared-down, stylized, abstract, and even symbolic version of cyberpunk's typical urban ruins. Cylinder may not look the same as Gibson's Sprawl, but it feels the same.
The setting of Emma Bull's Bone Dance (1991), though different in many ways and drawing more obviously on the cyberpunk model, represents a similar kind of ruined cityscape full of potential. Located in a Louisiana town vaguely resembling Hong Kong, the City is a collage of gleaming highrises for the rich and powerful; streets teeming with bicycle cabs, food hawkers, junk stalls, and grill carts; and stately abandoned buildings where the marginalized such as the protagonist Sparrow live. Importantly, Bull's landscape, like Jeter's, is not particularly threatening, but rather replete with opportunities for those who know how to move through it, find hidden resources, and adapt to its conditions. Bull's description of where Sparrow lives offers a glimpse of this emphasis on clever adaptation and resourcefulness:
Home was a corner of the seventh floor.... The back stairs were nearly rotted away.... The lobby elevator was ruined.... I was the only tenant above the third floor, because I was the only one who knew where the service elevator was, and that it worked. (�2.1:52)
Tapping into stolen electricity, living a hidden life out of the eye of the authorities, Sparrow carries on his/her business. Significantly, Sparrow and others like him/her live an expansive, not a constricted, existence that is enabled, not hindered, by the ruined cityscape. In Bull's story, as in Farewell Horizontal, the protagonists are free from restraints, go wherever they wish to go, cross forbidden zones, and through their ability to live on the fringes finally possess more power than the so-called powerful.
In Bone Dance, as in many cyberpunk stories, physical space is, however, ultimately less important than mental space. Like the cyberspace of Gibson's works or Sterling's "net,'' this mental space counters, and represents an evasion of, the ruined physical world. Sparrow, we learn, is a cheval, a neutered human deliberately constructed to survive the war that has taken place before the novel opens and provide a bodily shell for Voodoo Horsemen to inhabit. At the end of the story, in a mental battle of two minds within one body that privileges interior mental space over exterior physical environment, s/he must fight off a Horseman who wishes to possess the body Sparrow now inhabits. In this mental battle it is made abundantly clear that whatever impact the external environment has on human life, it pales in comparison with the significance of interior space. Mind matters much more than body here.
Like Bone Dance, Pat Cadigan's Synners (1991) is a post-paranoia novel that plays with the disappearance of the body, derives pleasure from debris, and goes even farther in making interior space more central than exterior space, perhaps not surprisingly given that it is securely within the genre of cyberpunk. Most cyberpunk stories invest urgency in virtual reality�whether in cyberspace or, in the case of Cadigan's novel, the net. Through this emphasis on virtual reality, the sense of emergency associated with traditional holocaust science fiction's quest for survival in a hostile environment is exorcised in the creation of a new, more important, interior space. Typically, the attitude towards external reality is nonchalant, off-hand, accepting. This nonchalance comes across vividly in Synners in Cadigan's description of the Mimosa, the Manhattan-Hermosa strip that was
part of the old postquake land of the lost. [Gina] wasn't old enough to remember the Big One.... The kids who shanked it on the Mimosa didn't remember the quake, either. For all they knew, the old Manhattan Pier and Hermosa Pier and Fisherman's Wharf had always stretched out over dry sand, just to shelter the space cases who squatted under them. (�2:7)
Once again, some sort of holocaust has wrecked buildings, homes, and various urban structures, but once again all the destruction seems unimportant. There is no longing here for a pre-holocaust landscape, but rather acceptance of the present situation. There is no sense that the present debris is blighted, but rather that it has a function, serving as a usable and hospitable habitat for those who can adjust to it and modify it to their needs.
Stealing data, working for the media-conglomerate Diversifications making videos, tapping into the traffic and information net, Gridlid, Gabe, Sam, Virtual Mark, and Gina typify the characters who can succeed on the fringes, a part of the electronic and social underground. Just as compelling, however, are the computer simulations like Art Fish, who along with a dematerialized Virtual Mark ultimately takes over the net, and Gabe's interactive virtual-reality creations, Marly and Caritha, with whom he has exciting virtual adventures. External reality matters less and less as the net and virtual reality become more real. As one character says, "'We're not in our natural habitat anymore. We've become denizens of the net''' (�32:386). Physical space gives way to virtual space, dissolving the body into the realm of data. In Cadigan's novel, the embodied and the disembodied, the synthesized humans, the simulated humans, and the human humans, all ultimately become equivalent. Crucially, this meshing of humans and computer simulations in cyberspace affords an alternative way of envisioning human response to a post-apocalyptic environment and represents the logical conclusion of cyberpunk's treatment of urban ruins.
In these stories that adopt the geopolitics of cyberpunk, we encounter what are essentially nuclear landscapes without the crisis (the struggle for survival) and the climax (the bomb). Indeed, crisis and climax are largely irrelevant to cyberpunk (an irony given that 1980s Reaganite America saw the resurgence of the most intense moments between the Soviet Union and the US since the Cuban missile crisis). Instead, in Pynchonesque fashion, cyberpunk regards the zone, the decayed cityscape, as a place of possibilities, a carnivalesque realm where anything goes and where there are no rules, only boundaries that can be easily transgressed. Stripped of the modernist ethical values that dominated Cold War SF, cyberpunk and the recent SF that takes up its stance have wholeheartedly endorsed Baudrillard's observation that "the triumph of simulation is as fascinating as catastrophe'' (Fatal Strategies 74). Whereas in earlier science fiction humans had, with few exceptions, to journey to outer space to find such a zone of possibility, in cyberpunk this zone is here, in the cyberspace of the data net and the human mind, and entry into that zone is encouraged, not hampered, by a milieu of urban decay.
In other words, while in earlier post-holocaust stories the ruined landscape was a sign of alienation, a locale inhospitable to humans that had to be fought against in order to accomplish anything good, in the cyberpunk sensibility the landscape and the alienation are converted into positive values. Part of the cyberpunk story is in fact about becoming at home with alienation, staged in a landscape of decay. The typical protagonists of the cyberpunk world are quintessentially alienated individuals, but their alienation is refigured as positive since they are alienated against a banal, corrupt, and homogenizing post-industrial society; correspondingly, the physical milieu they inhabit, wrecked though it is, offers them a playground of creative possibilities. Indeed, these protagonists could agree with Baudrillard that "We are no longer in the drama of alienation, we are in the ecstasy of communication'' (Fatal Strategies 67). In cyberpunk and in many of the stories that pirate its themes and images we see an exuberant playing out of this shift from alienation to ecstasy. Faced with "a world completely rotten with wealth, power, senility, indifference, puritanism and mental hygiene, poverty and waste, technological futility and aimless violence'' (America 23), which is how Baudrillard describes contemporary America, the cyberpunk sensibility has reacted with acceptance�and even excitement� rather than despair.
Another way of viewing the cyberpunk-inspired attitude towards blighted landscapes and its privileging of virtual space is as a response to what the architectural critic Kenneth Frampton describes as our contemporary urban "Megalopolitan development�the freestanding high-rise and the serpentine freeway.... a b�rolandschaft cityscape: the victory of universal civilization over locally inflected culture'' (17. While Frampton would propose ways of reshaping the "universal placelessness'' (24) of the alienating cityscapes we have inherited as a result of modernist architectural practices, uncontrolled population growth, ecological despoliation, and the rampant spread of capital and technology, cyberpunk takes another route. Embracing the seemingly alienating environs of late twentieth-century urban life, cyberpunk finds in them resources that lead, crucially, to the new space of virtual reality.
An acceptance of the decay of the physical world�especially the urban environment�seen not as a frightening specter but simply as home, the place where we live (Cylinder, the City, the Mimosa), coupled with a fascination with simulated, interior space�the world of cyberspace or virtual reality�may be one of the enduring themes of cyberpunk. It is this at-homeness in urban ruin as well as this privileging of imagined over real space that marks cyberpunk as different from earlier generations of science fiction, rather than, as Sterling claims, simply the refusal to employ such topoi of traditional SF as the nuclear holocaust.
How should we then react to the tendency of recent SF stories such as these to adopt a cyberpunk-like geopolitics? One response might well be to deplore this tendency, since from one perspective cyberpunk's attitude towards the external world can seem distressingly apolitical and apathetic, representing in fact a typical 1980s evasion of responsibility (this has been argued, for example, by critics like Ross and Fitting ["Lessons'']). In this view, cyberpunk can be blamed for accepting the worst ecological trends of our present life as the status quo and passively acquiescing to continued environmental destruction. Cyberspace, in this view, is projected as a fantasy realm of rebellious escape that derives its glamour from its contrast with the decadently decayed physical world around it. SF that takes up the cyberpunk attitude towards decay would be, of course, equally implicated in these escapist fantasies. As Ross puts it: "the cybernetic countercultures of the nineties are already being formed around the folklore of technology�mythical feats of survivalism and resistance in a data-rich world of virtual environments and posthuman bodies'' (88). Cyberpunk's complacency towards eco-disaster can be seen as a pessimistic assessment of where we are headed coupled with an optimism about continued human survival: the physical environment may be blasted, cyberpunk says, but that doesn't really matter since we can always escape into cyberspace. In this reading, cyberpunk offers an eerie echo of earlier post-holocaust stories with their survivalist mentality and their search for a new frontier.
It is possible, however, to see the geopolitics of cyberpunk in a more positive light and in a way that accentuates its difference from earlier post-holocaust stories without denying what it shares with them. A useful way of formulating this difference is as part of a larger cultural shift from modernism to postmodernism. As Brian McHale argues in his Postmodernist Fiction, one of the ways in which postmodernism differs from modernism is in its replacement of the modernist preoccupation with questions of epistemology with a new ontological imperative. Cyberpunk's geopolitics corresponds well with the ontological imperative at work in postmodern fiction, especially fiction inspired by Thomas Pynchon. In Gravity's Rainbow, for example, the collapse of the Third Reich is set in an occupied Germany that, as McHale describes it, sounds very like the zones of Neuromancer: "former national boundaries have been obliterated, the armies of victorious Allies are jockeying for position, entire displaced nations are on the move, spies, black-marketeers, and free-lance adventurers dodge back and forth across the ruined landscape'' (45). For McHale, what it interesting about this description is not its historical accuracy, but rather the way the collapse of regimes and national boundaries'' becomes "the outward and visible sign of the collapse of ontological boundaries'' (45); Pynchon's zone becomes for McHale paradigmatic of "the heterotopian space of postmodernist writing'' (45). From this perspective, cyberpunk's zones can be similarly seen as having primarily an ontological function.
Although cyberpunk has internalized the idea of nuclear war, perhaps as we all have, it has turned nuclear war's most familiar metaphor�the wasteland�not into a pretext for a searching scrutiny into the formative features of our culture, but into a new strategy for pursuing unfamiliar post-industrial modes of being. In the eighties, environmental disasters like acid rain, Chernobyl, Three-Mile Island, Bhopal, global warming, Love Canal, ozone depletion, and so on, confronted the public with images of the future in slow decay, images that not surprisingly found themselves linked in the popular imagination to fears of nuclear annihilation. Both sets of images led to the same future�one of diminishing possibilities or of outright obliteration. The position of human beings in this future was one of displacement� crowds hurrying from sites of disaster and lone survivors wandering in the wilderness. Cyberpunk's genius was to put a new slant on these scenes of displacement, ordinarily a condition of oppression or alienation, but now reformulated as the breeding ground for a new mode of being. For cyberpunk, displacement is not a form of alienation as it is in Cold War SF or in most modernist fiction in general, but a strategic move toward a new ontology of computer domains, a state of being defined by the weightlessness of data and the disembodiment of digital nonspace. Willed, voluntary displacement into a ruined urban cityscape of the kind found in cyberpunk, rather than flight from ruin, helps prepare the way for an ontology of digitally defined realities.
Cyberpunk proposes, then, a relationship between the pleasure of debris and the disappearance of the body. Ruined cities become a metaphor for the disintegration of the body as well as a way of valuing cyberspace, which is, after all, an escape from the constraints of the physical world. Internalizing nuclear war, as Baudrillard often says, is part of the transition to post-industrial, cybernetic disembodiment. The ruined city is for this reason the appropriate place to leave the body behind; operating as a kind of cemetery space, the urban ruins of cyberpunk signify a transfer of interest from physical exterior to electronic interior. Inhabiting a ruined environment becomes an objective correlative to entering a disembodied space (cyberspace).
Although it must be admitted that cyberpunk's complacency about eco-disaster remains troubling, as does its refusal to use its dystopian near-futures as a way of critiquing the present, that is not the whole story. The continued appeal of cyberpunk's geopolitics�and its value�lies precisely in cyberpunk's attempt to use the physical world as a metaphorical bridge to emerging technologies and the post-industrial world in which they participate. Though SF may eventually be able to move "beyond the ruins'' once those new technologies are fully with us, for the present, still exploratory moment, cyberpunk's destroyed yet vital cityscapes provide a useful way of mapping what lies in store.
NOTES
1. This article is a revised version of "Beyond the Ruins: Urban Decay and Cybernetic Play,'' a paper delivered at the March 1992 meeting of the International Association for the Fantastic in the Arts held in Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
2. For a useful, often overlooked, survey of cyberpunk in popular culture, particularly in music, see Mark Dery's "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Cybers'' and "Cyberpunk: Musical Visions of a Frightening Future,'' both published in Keyboard.
3. Within recent SF criticism, the trend is towards less sympathetic readings of cyberpunk, such as, for example, Nicola Nixon's "Cyberpunk: Preparing the Ground for Revolution or Keeping the Boys Satisfied?'' in which she argues that cyberpunk is "in the end, not radical at all,'' but rather with its "slickness and apparent subversiveness conceal[s] a complicity with 1980s conservatism'' (231).
4. It is worth noting that cyberpunk continues to capture the interest of critics as well, in equally diffuse and contradictory ways, with the term "cyberpunk'' turning up not just in SF studies but in film criticism, studies of science and technology, and cultural studies in general. Critics tend to fall into one of two camps: those who see cyberpunk as a conservative, even reactionary movement spawned by the Reaganite 1980s, and those who see it as a ground-breaking investigation of new technologies and their impact on human identities and behaviors. Samuel Delany's question in the title of a recent essay�"Is Cyberpunk a Good Thing or a Bad Thing?''�seems to be the driving force behind much recent criticism of cyberpunk.
5. It is also debatable to what extent the original cyberpunk writers constituted a coherent movement. Gibson for years has insisted that "cyberpunk'' is a mislabeling that lumps together some very different writers, and Darko Suvin may be correct in seeing cyberpunk more as a marketing tool used by "a couple of expert PRmen (most prominently Sterling himself)'' (50). Still, enough shared features exist for critics to have little difficulty talking meaningfully about cyberpunk as a distinctive sub-genre of SF.
6. Despite cyberpunk's claims, it seems most accurate to say that cyberpunk differs from both its utopian- and dystopian-minded predecessors in imagining a new dystopian realism essentially empty of cultural critique. Hence, cyberpunk's claim for the newness of its imagined future is for this reason only partially accurate-cyberpunk does take a dystopian look at the near-future, but that look is less long and hard (and critical) than it usually admits.
7. For the full range of the different types of post-holocaust SF, which lack of space forces me to gloss over, see Paul Brians' detailed survey of the depiction of nuclear war in science fiction between 1945 and 1959. Brians finds most of these post-WWII attempts to deal with the reality of the bomb "neither scientifically accurate nor artistically satisfying'' (253).
WORKS CITED
Bartter, Martha A. "Nuclear Holocaust as Urban Renewal.'' SFS 13:148-58, #39, July 1986.
Baudrillard, Jean. America. Trans. Chris Turner. London & NY: Verso, 1988.
�����. Fatal Strategies. Ed. Jim Fleming. Trans. Philip Beitchman. NY: Autonomedia, 1990.
Brians, Paul. "Nuclear War in Science Fiction, 1945-59.'' SFS 11:253-63, #34, November 1984.
Bull, Emma. Bone Dance. NY: Ace, 1991.
Cadigan, Pat. Synners. NY: Bantam, 1991.
Csicsery-Ronay, Istvan, Jr. "Cyberpunk and Neuromanticism.'' Mississippi Review 16: 266-78, 1988.
Delany, Samuel. "Is Cyberpunk a Good Thing or a Bad Thing?'' Mississippi Review 16:28-35, 1988.
Dery, Mark. "Beneath the Valley of the Ultra-Cybers.'' Keyboard January 1992: 69-83.
�����. "Cyberpunk: Musical Visions of a Frightening Future.'' Keyboard May 1989: 75-81.
Fitting, Peter. "The Decline of the Feminist Utopian Novel.'' Border/Lines 7/8:17-19, Spring 1987.
�����. "The Lessons of Cyberpunk.'' Technoculture. Ed. Constance Penley and Andrew Ross. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991.
Frampton, Kenneth. "Towards a Critical Regionalism: Six Points for an Architecture of Resistance.'' The Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Ed. Hal Foster. Seattle: Bay Press, 1983. 16-30.
Frank, Pat. Alas, Babylon. 1959. NY: Bantam, 1960.
Hoban, Russell. Riddley Walker. NY: Summit, 1980.
Hollinger, Veronica. "Cybernetic Deconstructions: Cyberpunk and Postmodernism.'' Mosaic 23:29-44, 1990.
Jeter, K.W. Farewell Horizontal. NY: Signet, 1989.
McHale, Brian. Postmodernist Fiction. NY: Methuen, 1987.
Miller, Walter M., Jr. A Canticle for Leibowitz. NY: Harper and Row, 1959.
Nixon, Nicola. "Cyberpunk: Preparing the Ground for Revolution or Keeping the Boys Satisfied?'' SFS 19:219-35, #57, July 1992.
Porter, Jeff. "Narrating the End: Fables of Survival in the Nuclear Age.'' Journal of American Culture (forthcoming).
Ross, Andrew. Strange Weather: Culture, Science and Technology in the Age of Limits. NY: Verso, 1991.
Sterling, Bruce. "Get the Bomb Off my Back.'' NY Times, 13 October 1991, sec. 4: 15.
�����. Introduction. William Gibson. Burning Chrome. 1986; NY: Ace, 1987. ix-xii.
Suvin, Darko. "On Gibson and Cyberpunk SF.'' Foundation 46:40-51, Fall 1989.
Susan Stone-Blackburn
Consciousness Evolution and Early Telepathic Tales
SF critics shape our collective sense of SF traditions by deciding what matters�not only in canon formation, but also in our perspective on the canonized works. In the short history of SF criticism, there has been little attention paid to science-fictional presentations of psychic powers, which focus on wonders of the mind rather than material wonders. The neglect is partly because critics have been interested in other things, but partly also because of widespread conviction among us that nothing matters�nothing
is real�except the material universe. Faster-than-light technology, having been rationalized by earlier writers, is largely accepted in SF worlds, but most critics continue to regard ESP as puerile wish fulfillment. When consensus reality is limited to things, any futuristic technology appears more credible than futuristic powers of mind, even if both violate currently accepted scientific theory.
As a group, SF critics share a conviction of the value of SF, which puts us on the margins of the academic community. On the other side of campus, parapsychologists are similarly marginalized. The most interesting, and arguably the most important work in any field is on the margins, but credibility depends on a firm connection to something acknowledged as safely central to the discipline. Work at the intersection of two margins�like SF and parapsychology�is risky. SF critics have generally regarded science- fictional speculation about psychic powers as immaterial or foolish, trivial or even pernicious to the extent that it hampers our efforts to establish academic credibility for the study of SF. Nevertheless, the subject deserves attention. "No other single theme within the science fiction world has been as controversial as ESP,'' Larry Niven observes in The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction (204), and this alone seems an excellent reason to subject the theme to serious scrutiny.
When critical attention has been focused on telepathy in SF, the conventional or metaphorical functions of telepathy have most often been emphasized.1 Science-fictional depiction of human psychic powers is most problematic for SF scholars when spiritual and scientific discourses are blended. There is resistance to granting such texts a central place in the genre because the origins of such stories are associated with religion and magic, and the SF tradition is positioned against both, identifying its territory as the theoretically explicable and rational, not the irrational or supernatural. It is the way in which a locus of these competing discourses can be traced in the depiction of human psychic powers throughout the history of SF that interests me.
Considerable instability of descriptive terminology for the subject has been inevitable, both because of tensions between the competing discourses and because of the lack of serious attention to the subject in SF scholarship. Though I have used "psychic powers,'' to this point because of its venerability in SF circles, I prefer the term "psi,'' because it is more economical, more current, and less wedded to the notion that "power'' is the main attraction of paranormal abilities. It is the term commonly used now in parapsychological discourse to encompass both ESP (extrasensory perception�telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition) and PK (psychokinesis). "Psionics,'' associated with electronics, is appropriate for only a subset of the pertinent SF. "Psi'' also has the merit of lending itself to a more economical term for my subject than "science fiction that depicts psychic powers.'' "Psience fiction'' appeals to me for its whimsy as well as its economy. ("Psi fiction'' is even more economical and perhaps more likely to suit strictly solemn SF scholars, but it leaves room for `mainstream' fiction that depicts psi, like Patrick White's Voss).2
Most SF theory resists a serious study of psience fiction; either it is openly hostile to conceptions of psi or its mappings are opaque to matters of interest in psience fiction, which speculates about the nature of mind, not about the material universe. There have been exceptions. David Ketterer reminded us in New Worlds for Old of Samuel Delany's assertion that "virtually all the classics of speculative fiction are mystical'' (18) and created an SF typology that makes room for the philosophically-oriented SF that extrapolates from what we know "in the context of our vaster ignorance'' and offers a radically new perspective on humankind (17, 38). A more recent study that provides a useful theoretical framework is Carl Malmgren's Worlds Apart, which gives considerable attention to SF that critiques prevailing scientific assumptions and methods, challenging "natural'' law. In his analysis of science fantasy, published earlier in SFS, Malmgren defends a subgenre that has been generally scorned by SF critics on precisely the ground that piques my interest in psience fiction: "By reversing natural law or empirical fact, science fantasy questions their absoluteness and givenness; by asserting the primacy of an invented and counternatural world, it questions the nature of reality; by taking on the principles and conventions and facts which we take for granted, it tends to broach ultimate philosophical questions.... But most of all, because it stands poised between two opposing ways of conceiving the world, it addresses itself to the question of epistemology'' ("Towards a Definition...'' 274).
A study of psi in SF immediately evokes such questions: Are there legitimate avenues of knowledge other than the five senses and logic? What implications does the fact that psi has been neither proved nor disproved have for an SF typology that distinguishes the fantastic from "realistic'' SF, and distinguishes extrapolative SF from analogical? If some people's experience includes events such as telepathic communication or precognitive dreams, and others' experience does not, is it appropriate to define reality in terms of the more limited experience? (Pondering such questions tempts me to think that "hard'' science should have been called "easy,'' because it has developed by limiting itself to what can be physically measured.)
I think in terms of four types of psience fiction, which correspond quite closely to the four types Peter Lowentrout outlined in a groundbreaking article on metaphysical psi fiction, "Psi Fi: The Domestication of Psi in Science Fiction.'' My first type defends the reality or at least the possibility of psi and grounds psi in some aspect of current scientific thought that may, on further investigation, provide psi with scientific respectability. The second also accepts psi's credibility, but it advances a counterscientific theory that amounts to a critique of scientific philosophy and methodology. The third simply uses what has become conventional in SF as means to another end, as a device. The fourth employs psi principally as metaphor without much concern for theorizing it. The cognitive component of the first two categories particularly interests me, especially when they are combined in a text in which the scientific and metaphysical discourses interact.
I discuss early examples of such fiction here to demonstrate that psience fiction has been an essential part of SF since the middle of the 19th century, though critics have often divided it from "real'' SF and classed it as supernatural fantasy or even considered it just an aberration of the Golden Age attributable to the influence of John W. Campbell, Jr. At every stage of its development SF has included texts in which the discourses of science and metaphysics intersect in the depiction of psi.
Psience fiction was born of a conjunction between popular and scientific interest in the psychic phenomena associated with mesmerism, later called hypnotism, and the equally widespread interest in the theory of evolution. The combination added up to speculation about consciousness evolution, which is what much psi fiction is. If mind is real, then consciousness evolution is no more far-fetched than physical evolution and powers of mind no more far-fetched than technological powers. In his l894 Lowell Lectures, titled The Ascent of Man in response to Darwin's The Descent of Man, Henry Drummond suggested that humanity is evolving towards spirituality and that "telepathy is theoretically the next stage in the Evolution of Language'' (234). Darwin may have demolished confidence in humanity as a product of divine creation, but he also provided a basis for belief that humanity was on its way to something better. We may not have been created halfway between beasts and angels, but perhaps we were halfway on an evolutionary path that would bring us to a more perfect form of communication than speech. Drummond's statement illustrates a resistance to separation of moral or ethical concerns from the scientific view of human development which also characterizes early psience fiction.
Thought transference is the psi phenomenon that figures most frequently in SF through the last third of the 19th century. It is also the one that the Society for Psychical Research, founded in 1882 by a group that uneasily combined spiritualists and Cambridge scholars, settled on as its most promising line of inquiry (Inglis 370). This was because many of the most surprising revelations produced by people in a trance state, whether they were mediums or subjects of hypnotists, could be accounted for by thought transference�or telepathy, a term introduced about 1886 by classicist F.W.H. Myers, a founding member of the SPR (S. Braude 7; Drummond 234).
The two factions of the SPR expressed the same tension between scientific and spiritual impulses that characterizes early psience fiction. What SPR spiritualists and scholars had in common was resistance to religious orthodoxy and a preference for an empirically-based approach to knowledge. Historian Ann Braude says that "for those no longer convinced by the 'evidences' of Christianity, Spiritualism provided 'scientific' evidence of religious truth. Initially, it required people to believe nothing. Rather, it asked them to become `investigators,' to observe 'demonstrations' of the truth of Spiritualism produced under 'test conditions' in the seance room'' (4). However, the primacy of the spiritualists' desire to demonstrate the existence of life after death separated them from the scholars, and from the earliest days of the SPR, when Cambridge professor Henry Sidgwick became its first president, the scholars dominated the society. Its declared purpose was to make "an organized and systematic attempt to investigate the large group of phenomena designated by such terms as mesmeric, psychical, and spiritualistic,''3 and its voluminous publications document most of the early work in parapsychology. Intellectual tensions between society factions led to the mass resignation of most of the spiritualists in 1887 (McClenon 7).
Though determined rationalists have long struggled to create a convincing boundary between the occult and the scientific, the boundary is problematic. There have always been respected scientists and philosophers�as well as writers of fiction�who have ventured serious exploration of the other side of rationalism. The New Age movement that emerged in the late 1960's is just the most recent phase in "a persistent tradition that...blossomed heartily as a product of 18th-century scientific enlightenment.... As science has grown, so has the metaphysical/occult community. Metaphysicians rejoiced in science's critique of Christianity, celebrated its dominant ideas of natural law and evolution, and from scientific affirmations, built a new alternative spiritual vision capable of interacting, and even contributing, to the fullness (from the occultists' viewpoint) of scientific knowledge'' (Mellon et al. 3-4). So it is not surprising that psi was embedded in SF when it emerged as a distinct genre in the 19th century.
In his introduction to The Science Fiction of Edgar Allan Poe, Harold Beaver also alludes to this intimate relationship between the psychic and scientific. He describes the early 19th century as a time when technological marvels abounded, with a parallel boom in psychic marvels. "Into the vacuum left by Descartes and Newton flooded every form of transcendentalism.... Had not natural forces been harnessed? So too would supernatural .... Mysticism, spiritualism, hypnotism, mesmeric trances, galvanic resuscitation, phrenology, flourished'' (ix).
The reported phenomena were of great interest to Poe, whose aim, Beaver says, was to be "the comprehensive theorist, and seer, of the electromagnetic age'' (viii). Mesmerists were healers who theorized a link between the invisible action of magnetism and the invisible connection between mesmerist and patient. Poe wrote three stories about mesmerism in 1843-44: "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains,'' "Mesmeric Revelation,'' and "The Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar,'' taking details of mesmeric processes and effects from Townshend's Facts in Mesmerism (Lind 1086). The precise, detailed descriptions of his detached narrators add credibility to Poe's weird tales, which combine scientific and gothic elements. "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains'' tells of "a very distinct and strongly marked rapport, or magnetic relation'' (100) between doctor and patient. The doctor can put his patient to sleep at will, for instance, even when the patient is unaware of his presence. The patient returns from a walk in the mountains with a strange story of having suddenly entered another life and died there. He was experiencing the death of a friend of his doctor's twenty years earlier, about which the doctor was writing at home as his patient was experiencing it in the mountains. Telepathy is certainly a factor in this story, though there are complications unaccounted for by simple telepathy. No theory is advanced for telepathy in "A Tale of the Ragged Mountains,'' but "Mesmeric Revelation'' supplies the rationale. Its mesmerist-narrator explains that in mesmeric trance the external sense organs are repressed and unknown channels of keenly refined perception enhanced. There are gradations of matter, with the finer pervading the grosser. Our sense organs are adapted to the grosser matter which forms the body, but in the trance, the finer grade of external things is perceived directly. Stuart Levine observes in Edgar Poe: Seer and Craftsman that there was no real conflict for Poe between the scientific outlook and the mystical, because he felt that mysticism was literally true and founded on physical fact (135).
The more remarkable effects of mesmerism�telepathy and clairvoyance� were verified by some members of the scientific community and dismissed by others, widely published in popular journals, discussed and speculated about. This made mesmerism an ideal subject for SF, not only because it invited speculation about characteristics of human beings and the nature of their relationship to each other and their world, but because it posed a challenge to the scientific establishment. As Bruce Franklin rightly asserts, the most important SF is "the literature which, growing with science, evaluates it and relates it meaningfully to the rest of existence'' (96). Franklin doubtless means the rest of material existence, but Beaver points out that Poe evaluates "scientific method and technological achievement, by confronting both with a vision of life...in its widest spiritual dimensions'' (xiv). He keeps the material and the spiritual, the rational and the "magical,'' tied firmly together.
Poe's touch of telepathy is not placed in the context of consciousness evolution, but the first novel of psience fiction, Bulwer-Lytton's The Coming Race (1871), connects evolution and telepathy. Bulwer-Lytton, who engaged in extensive investigation of the occult, believed, like Poe, that the 'supernatural' would prove to be natural. The narrator of "The Haunted and the Haunters,'' one of his occult stories, tells the reader, "My theory is that the Supernatural is the Impossible, and that what is called supernatural is only a something in the laws of nature of which we have hitherto been ignorant'' (249). Events support the narrator's conviction that there is a living human agency responsible for the bizarre events he experiences, just as a mesmerist is responsible for the experiences of his patient. "Constitutional peculiarities'' would be the key to the event. And, supposing it is true that a mesmerized patient can respond to the will or passes of a mesmeriser a hundred miles distant,'' the response must be "occasioned by a material fluid�call it Electric, call it Odic, call it what you will'' (249). This story is occult fiction, and its human agent has magical powers, but its relationship to Bulwer-Lytton's SF novel is significant. Enthusiasm for The Coming Race and its substantial influence on subsequent SF are attributable to the fact that it presents its psi powers not as magical or supernatural but in terms of biological evolution and in conjunction with novel developments in technology and social organization. Its psi powers have a technological component, which makes them more tolerable to those who regard the depiction of extraordinary psychic powers as puerile but are fascinated by the depiction of extraordinary weapons.
By 1871, the impact of Darwin's theory of evolution was being generally felt, which inspired speculation about potential evolutionary development of humans as well as controversy over our origins. Of course Origin of the Species provoked resistance from vitalists for whom Darwin's purely mechanistic account of evolution seemed deficient. The Coming Race reflects contemporary interest in evolution of variant species, but it leaves room for vitalism.
The central novelty in The Coming Race is vril, an "all-permeating `fluid' (�9:39) which, "applied scientifically through vril conductors,'' allows the Vril-ya to exercise influence over human minds, animals and plants (�7:32). The narrator is told that "all the faculties of the mind could be quickened to a degree unknown in the waking state, by trance or vision, in which the thoughts of one brain could be transmitted to another and knowledge be thus rapidly interchanged.'' His reply refers to the views of Lytton's contemporaries�and ours: that though stories are told of such practices, they have fallen into contempt because of impostures, the lack of systematic knowledge or practical application of observed effects, and their tendency to produce superstitions among the credulous (�7:32). But the Vril-ya have passed that stage and gained scientific control of this power, under which are grouped such forces as electricity and magnetism. Faraday's theory of correlation among various forces of matter is cited to support the idea that vril is that ``unity in natural energic agencies'' (�7:31).
In addition to being a means of telepathy and inducer of various states of consciousness, vril is a healing agency, but SF critics have generally been more interested in other effects of vril, which controls the weather, powers the wings that enable the Vril-ya to fly, provides their light, runs their vehicles and other machinery, and can reduce either animate or inanimate matter to dust "like a flash of lightning'' (�9:39).
The term "vril'' has been associated with virility (Wolff, 333) and will (Clymer v). The operation of vril depends on technological and biological factors, and on a psychic component. Bulwer-Lytton often calls his vril mechanism a "wand,'' though he introduces it by the more scientific word "conductor'' and also calls it ``staff,'' which belongs less obviously to either the magical or the scientific discourse. The psychic component is evident in that the power of the vril staff is "proportioned to the amount of certain Vril properties in the wearer, in affinity or rapport, with the purposes to be effected. Some were more potent to destroy, others to heal etc. Much also depended on the calm and steadiness of volition in the manipulator'' (�16: 82). There is a hereditary factor in the acquisition of effective constitutional temperament, so that "a female infant of four years belonging to the Vril-ya races can accomplish feats with the wand placed for the first time in her hand, which a life spent in its practice would not enable [one of another race] to achieve'' (�16:82). The Vril-ya hand has a nerve that is absent in others, which developed slowly over generations, "commencing in the early achievements and increasing with the continuous exercise of the Vril power'' (�16:85). This is a conception of evolution more vitalist than mechanical; it both supports Lytton's conception of magic (or psi) as natural and gives the human will a part to play in the direction of evolution.
Written near the end of his life, The Coming Race is in a sense the culmination of Bulwer-Lytton's portrayals of occult powers, now presented as scientifically advanced. The style of the novel is not at all Gothic but rather clinically descriptive, with touches of humor. In this form, and divorced from association with Bulwer-Lytton's occult fiction by its anonymous publication, the depiction of psi powers was apparently not perceived as a serious offense against rationality. It may seem to belong in the category of psi with a scientific rationale, but a close look at its connection with Bulwer-Lytton's occult fiction makes placement in the counter-scientific category equally justifiable.
Critical interest in The Coming Race has been so resolutely divorced from its basis in psi that most commentators don't even mention the telepathic or healing aspects of vril or its association with magical control of others. They have simply treated it as futuristic technology, interesting for its enormous destructive capacity and forecasting of atomic bombs and lasers. But Edward Bellamy's 1889 story "To Whom This May Come'' is unequivocally about telepathy, a trailblazer in its exploration of effects telepathy might have on society, and in its suggestion that under special conditions, evolution might distill ancient and genuine but sporadic and unreliable human psi abilities into universal and reliable ones. (In SF history, of course, Bellamy figures primarily for Looking Backward, which is not psience fiction.)
Bellamy's shipwrecked narrator finds himself among a telepathic race evolved from persecuted soothsayers and magicians who were shipped with their families to Ceylon three centuries before the time of Jesus and wrecked on an uninhabited island. Though superstition credited them with supernatural powers, they "were merely persons of special gifts in the way of hypnotizing, mind-reading, thought transference, and such arts'' (279). The evolution of their descendants, speeded by breeding to improve the race's powers, "was a case simply of a slight acceleration, from special causes, of the course of universal human evolution, which in time was destined to lead to the disuse of speech and the substitution of direct mental vision on the part of all races'' (279).
Mind reading, against which there are no barriers, creates a utopia. The knowledge that one's thoughts are overlooked by others acts as a check on unkind thoughts. From the impossibility of concealment follows mental health. Justice follows necessarily from knowing the whole person. The joy of being truly understood enhances friendship greatly. Appearance is relatively unimportant, since they see beyond the surface to each other's minds and hearts, and the ideal mate is easy to find. The chief benefit is self-knowledge, from the many reflections of oneself one sees in the minds of others. Death holds no fear, because their lives are "so largely spiritual that the idea of an existence wholly so...suggests to them a state only slightly more refined than they already know'' (291). Bellamy portrays evolution as progress towards complete telepathic communication with attendant im-provement in morality affecting personal and social relationships. I place the story in my first category, scientific cognition, but the choice does depend on one's opinion of the credibility of magicians' and prophets' psychic talents.
In Bellamy's story, the relationship between technological progress and psychic progress is not an issue, but Albert Bigelow Paine's 1901 novel The Great White Way suggests an inverse relationship, a common theme in later psi fiction. The Great White Way is primarily a novel of adventure, discovery, and romance. The telepathic inhabitants of Antarctica are introduced only in the last third of the novel, largely for the contrast between the adventurers' progressive, capitalist American society and the Antarctic society of graceful, poetic telepaths who are roused from their peaceful existence to violent defense against the threat of technological/capitalistic progress.
Central to Paine's treatment of telepathy is Ferratoni, whose technical function is to provide a wireless telephone to maintain contact between those who remain on the ship at the edge of the Antarctic continent and those who venture on to the South pole. Hardly a stereotypical technician, his character note is ethereal sensitivity, and he explains the theory of his communication device in terms of the harmonic vibrations of music. Telepathic ability, which he develops, he likewise relates to harmonic vibrations which are characteristic of thought, life, and soul, as well as sound. "The Great Truth'' which links them all (�6:53) is similar to the idea that Bulwer-Lytton took from Faraday, but Paine presents it in terms not of power, but of harmony. "The vibrations of the thought awaken in the mind of another their echo, and men are made to know, and may answer, without words.''
Ferratoni's lifelong attention to vibrations accounts both for his techtological ability with electricity and wireless telegraphy and for his attunement to others' thoughts. His telepathic ability is not a gift but "a scientific attainment acquired by patient and gradual steps'' (�20:180). He is the only one among the company who is able to communicate with the Antarctic people, though his mental chords are not quite attuned to theirs�it is "a poor connection'' (�28:237). The natives' own development of telepathy is attributed to the long polar night, which "binds them in closer sympathy'' (�29:243). Anger appears to disrupt the harmony needed for mental communication (�34:287). Those few Antarcticans who entirely lack the ability of "silent speech'' lack the ear for tune and melody as well (�31:256).
Paine gives little attention to effects of telepathy on society, though he follows Bellamy in noting that ``concealment, ever the first step toward sorrow, is impossible'' (�29:244) and that "in a land where there can be no concealment, crime must languish'' (�31:255). He also mentions that death is not feared, because "the disembodied intelligence still vibrates to many of those clothed in the physical life'' before it passes out of range (255). In The Great White Way telepathy is chiefly the sign of a direction of development opposite to ours. The Antarcticans don't care for technology. They have no monetary system. Their basic wants are supplied, and they chiefly value beauty. The novel has been described as "a vehicle for an attack upon modern materialism'' (Barron 70), but the narrator's appreciation of the Antarctican society is heavily qualified by his uneasiness about the drawbacks of a lotus-land. The novel is not so much an attack on materialism as a rather uncertain intimation of its limits.
Darwinian evolution provides no room for choice. Paine, however, shows consciousness evolution in rather a different light. The harmonies are there, and people do or do not tune into them, depending on talent, values, and experience. When a whole society tunes in instead of out, there is a marked difference from the direction our society has taken.
All these psi fictions have both scientific and counterscientific aspects. From Bulwer-Lytton's on, they suggest that deliberate assistance of consciousness evolution is possible. Acknowledging the centrality of scientific thought to our culture, they resist its limits, critiquing science itself by affirming the reality of mind as an active force in our world. They show that psience fiction has long been an integral and significant part of SF, which thrives on the unknown at the margins of science. To separate the psi story from "real'' SF is to falsify SF's history. To turn critical attention to psience fiction, past and present, is to encourage the study of SF not only as the fiction that explores the implications of scientific discovery but also as the fiction that explores the limitations of scientific discourse.
NOTES
1. Walter Meyers, for instance, in Aliens and Linguists, treats telepathy as a device for communication with aliens, and Eric Rabkin in "Cowboys and Telepaths'' treats it as a metaphor for alienation.
2. I am indebted to Janis Svilpis, R.D. Mullen, and Istvan Csisery-Ronay for suggestions that helped me to formulate my observations on the connections between the language and the problems posed for SF scholars by texts that treat psychic phenomena.
3. Quoted from SPR, 1882:3-6 by McClenon (6).
WORKS CITED
Barron, Neil. Anatomy of Wonder: Science Fiction. NY: R.R. Bowker, 1976.
Beaver, Harold, ed. The Science Fiction of Edgar Allan Poe. Penguin, 1976.
Bellamy, Edward. "To Whom This May Come.'' Franklin, q.v.
Braude, Ann. Radical Spirits; Spiritualism and Women's Rights in Nineteenth-Century America. Boston: Beacon Press, 1989.
Braude, Stephen E. ESP and Psycho-kinesis, A Philosophical Examination. Philadelphia: Temple UP, 1979.
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. The Coming Race. 1871. Quakerstown, PA: Philosophical Publishing, 1973.
Bulwer-Lytton, Edward. `"The Haunted and the Haunters,'' The Works of Edward Bulwer Lytton, Vol. VII. NY: Peter Fenelon Collier, n.d.
Clymer, Emerson M. Foreword to The Coming Race by Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Quakerstown, PA: Philosophical Publishing, 1973.
Drummond, Henry. The Ascent of Man. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1894.
Franklin, H. Bruce. Future Perfect; American Science Fiction of the Nineteenth Century. 1966. Rev. ed. NY: Oxford UP, 1978.
Inglis, Brian. Natural and Supernatural: A History of the Paranormal from Earliest Times to 1914. London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1977.
Ketterer, David. New Worlds for Old. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1974.
Levine, Stuart. Edgar Poe: Seer and Craftsman. Florida: Everett/Edwards, 1972.
Lind, Sidney E. "Poe and Mesmerism,'' PMLA 62: 1077-94, 1947.
Lowentrout, Peter. "Psi Fi: The Domestication of Psi in Science Fiction,'' Extrapolation 30:388-400, Winter 1989.
Malmgren, Carl. Worlds Apart: Narratology of Science Fiction. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1991.
�����. "Towards a Definition of Science Fantasy,'' SFS 15:259-81, #46, Nov. 1988.
McClenon, James. Deviant Science; The Case of Parapsychology. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1984.
Melton, J. Gordon, Jerome Clark, and Aidan A. Kelly, New Age Almanac. NY: Visible Ink Press, 1991.
Meyers, Walter E. Aliens and Linguists. Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1980.
Niven, Larry. "Telepathy, Psionics and ESP.'' The Visual Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. Ed. Brian Ash. NY: Harmony Books, 1977.
Paine, Albert Bigelow. 1901. The Great White Way. NY: Arno, 1975.
Poe, Edgar Allan. The Science Fiction of Edgar Allan Poe. Ed. Harold Beaver. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1976.
Rabkin, Eric S. "Cowboys and Telepaths,'' Fantasy Review 96:17-19, Nov. 1986.
Wolff, Robert Lee. Strange Stories and Other Explorations in Victorian Fiction. Boston: Gambit, 1971.
Gary Westfahl
"The Closely Reasoned Technological Story": The Critical History of Hard Science Fiction
Abstract.--Several commentators in the 1950s visibly searched for a way to describe SF that was especially attentive to science. P. Schuyler Miller, book reviewer for Astounding/Analog, first used the term "hard science fiction" in November 1957 and used it more frequently in the 1960s. By the mid-1960s, other commentators were also using the term. Early references involved a relatively small number of writers who emphasized scientific accuracy and explanation, but in the 1970s and 1980s, the term expanded to include numerous writers not originally associated with hard SF. Hal Clement's "Whirligig World" states that the primary goal of hard science fiction is avoiding scientific errors and suggests four strategies for doing so. Two of these --using "gobbledygook" and speculating in areas where scientific knowledge is limited--are rejected; the other two lead to forms of hard SF: microcosmic hard SF, cautious predictions of near-future technology like Arthur C. Clarke's A Fall of Moondust, and macrocosmic hard sf, extravagant visions of alien environments like Larry Niven's Ringworld. When the characteristics of hard SF are understood, it is clear that while the principles behind hard SF were first articulated by Hugo Gernsback and John W. Campbell Jr, few if any writers before 1950 meet the standards of hard SF. Instead, hard SF should be seen as a development of the 1950s and 1960s, suggesting that versions of science-fiction history treating the 1930s and 1940s as eras of science-dominated SF may need to be rethought. Overall, examining the critical history of hard SF is valuable because it provides solid grounds for firmly and usefully establishing the parameters of hard SF.
| i don't know |
Who is the Vice President of the USA ? | Vice President Joe Biden | whitehouse.gov
Vice President Joe Biden
Other Advisory Boards
Vice President Joe Biden
Joseph Robinette Biden, Jr., represented Delaware for 36 years in the U.S. Senate before becoming the 47th and current Vice President of the United States.
Download Hi-res (1256 KB)
Joseph Robinette Biden, Jr., was born November 20, 1942, in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the first of four siblings. In 1953, the Biden family moved from Pennsylvania to Claymont, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Delaware and Syracuse Law School and served on the New Castle County Council. Then, at age 29, he became one of the youngest people ever elected to the United States Senate.
Just weeks after the election, tragedy struck the Biden family when Biden's wife, Neilia and their one-year-old daughter, Naomi, were killed and their two young sons critically injured in an auto accident. Vice President Biden was sworn in to the U.S. Senate at his sons' hospital bedside and began commuting to Washington every day by train, a practice he maintained throughout his career in the Senate.
In 1977, Vice President Biden married Jill Jacobs. Jill Biden, who holds a Ph.D. in Education, is a life-long educator and currently teaches at a community college in Northern Virginia. The Vice President’s son, Beau (1969-2015), was Delaware's Attorney General from 2007-2015 and a Major in the 261st Signal Brigade of the Delaware National Guard. He was deployed to Iraq in 2008-2009. The Vice President’s other son, Hunter, is an attorney who manages a private equity firm in Washington, D.C. and is Chairman of the World Food Program USA. And his daughter Ashley is a social worker and is Executive Director of the Delaware Center for Justice. Vice President Biden has five grandchildren: Naomi, Finnegan, Roberta Mabel ("Maisy"), Natalie, and Robert Hunter.
As a Senator from Delaware for 36 years, Vice President Biden established himself as a leader in facing some of our nation's most important domestic and international challenges. As Chairman or Ranking Member of the Senate Judiciary Committee for 17 years, then-Senator Biden was widely recognized for his work on criminal justice issues, including the landmark 1994 Crime Law and the Violence Against Women Act. As Chairman or Ranking Member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for 12 years, then-Senator Biden played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy. He has been at the forefront of issues and legislation related to terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, post-Cold War Europe, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia.
Now, as the 47th Vice President of the United States, Joe Biden has continued his leadership on important issues facing the nation. The Vice President was tasked with implementing and overseeing the $840 billion stimulus package in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act , which has helped to rebuild our economy and lay the foundation for a sustainable economic future. The Vice President also leads the Ready to Work Initiative , the Administration’s key effort to identify opportunities to improve our nation’s workforce skills and training systems to help better prepare American workers for the jobs of a 21st century economy.
The Vice President has continued to draw upon his years in the United States Senate to work with Congress on key issues including the 2013 reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act. As a longtime advocate against sexual assault and domestic violence, the Vice President appointed the first-ever White House Advisor on Violence Against Women . The Vice President has also been tasked with convening sessions of the President’s Cabinet and leading interagency efforts, particularly to reduce gun violence and raise the living standards of middle class Americans in his role as Chair of the Middle Class Task Force . Vice President Biden has traveled to 48 states as part of the Administration’s continuing efforts to focus key priorities such as college affordability and American manufacturing growth.
With decades of foreign policy experience in the United States Senate, include serving as Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Vice President Biden advises President Obama on international issues. The Vice President has been a leading architect of the U.S. strategic vision of a Europe whole, free and at peace. During his time in the Senate, the Vice President led the effort to enlarge NATO to include the former Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern and Central Europe after the collapse of the Iron Curtain. The Vice President’s speech at the Munich Security Conference in February 2015 laid out a vision for how to revitalize NATO, strengthen democratic institutions in Europe, prioritize investments to bolster energy security, and grow trade and investment ties across the Atlantic. The Vice President has been leading the administration’s effort to support a sovereign, democratic Ukraine, visiting the country three times in 2014. In the Middle East, the Vice President has been deeply involved in shaping U.S. policy toward Iraq, visiting the country several times. He has met with the leaders from around the Middle East and has championed Israel’s security. The Vice President has also played an active role in supporting the Administration’s rebalance to the Asia-Pacific. He has developed deep relationships with the region’s leaders, demonstrating U.S. commitment to high-level, face-to-face diplomacy. Vice President Biden is the Administration’s point person for diplomacy within the Western Hemisphere. He has worked to realize his vision of a Hemisphere that is “middle class, secure, and democratic, from Canada to Chile and everywhere in between.” In this capacity, the Vice President has led the Administration’s regional efforts to address economic, social, governance, and citizen security challenges.
Contact the Vice President
Follow the Office of the Vice President on Twitter, @VP , Instagram, @VP , and on Medium, @ VPOTUS
| Joe Biden |
To which family of instruments does the hi-hat belong ? | Vice President Joe Biden | whitehouse.gov
Vice President Joe Biden
Other Advisory Boards
Vice President Joe Biden
Joseph Robinette Biden, Jr., represented Delaware for 36 years in the U.S. Senate before becoming the 47th and current Vice President of the United States.
Download Hi-res (1256 KB)
Joseph Robinette Biden, Jr., was born November 20, 1942, in Scranton, Pennsylvania, the first of four siblings. In 1953, the Biden family moved from Pennsylvania to Claymont, Delaware. He graduated from the University of Delaware and Syracuse Law School and served on the New Castle County Council. Then, at age 29, he became one of the youngest people ever elected to the United States Senate.
Just weeks after the election, tragedy struck the Biden family when Biden's wife, Neilia and their one-year-old daughter, Naomi, were killed and their two young sons critically injured in an auto accident. Vice President Biden was sworn in to the U.S. Senate at his sons' hospital bedside and began commuting to Washington every day by train, a practice he maintained throughout his career in the Senate.
In 1977, Vice President Biden married Jill Jacobs. Jill Biden, who holds a Ph.D. in Education, is a life-long educator and currently teaches at a community college in Northern Virginia. The Vice President’s son, Beau (1969-2015), was Delaware's Attorney General from 2007-2015 and a Major in the 261st Signal Brigade of the Delaware National Guard. He was deployed to Iraq in 2008-2009. The Vice President’s other son, Hunter, is an attorney who manages a private equity firm in Washington, D.C. and is Chairman of the World Food Program USA. And his daughter Ashley is a social worker and is Executive Director of the Delaware Center for Justice. Vice President Biden has five grandchildren: Naomi, Finnegan, Roberta Mabel ("Maisy"), Natalie, and Robert Hunter.
As a Senator from Delaware for 36 years, Vice President Biden established himself as a leader in facing some of our nation's most important domestic and international challenges. As Chairman or Ranking Member of the Senate Judiciary Committee for 17 years, then-Senator Biden was widely recognized for his work on criminal justice issues, including the landmark 1994 Crime Law and the Violence Against Women Act. As Chairman or Ranking Member of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee for 12 years, then-Senator Biden played a pivotal role in shaping U.S. foreign policy. He has been at the forefront of issues and legislation related to terrorism, weapons of mass destruction, post-Cold War Europe, the Middle East, and Southwest Asia.
Now, as the 47th Vice President of the United States, Joe Biden has continued his leadership on important issues facing the nation. The Vice President was tasked with implementing and overseeing the $840 billion stimulus package in the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act , which has helped to rebuild our economy and lay the foundation for a sustainable economic future. The Vice President also leads the Ready to Work Initiative , the Administration’s key effort to identify opportunities to improve our nation’s workforce skills and training systems to help better prepare American workers for the jobs of a 21st century economy.
The Vice President has continued to draw upon his years in the United States Senate to work with Congress on key issues including the 2013 reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act. As a longtime advocate against sexual assault and domestic violence, the Vice President appointed the first-ever White House Advisor on Violence Against Women . The Vice President has also been tasked with convening sessions of the President’s Cabinet and leading interagency efforts, particularly to reduce gun violence and raise the living standards of middle class Americans in his role as Chair of the Middle Class Task Force . Vice President Biden has traveled to 48 states as part of the Administration’s continuing efforts to focus key priorities such as college affordability and American manufacturing growth.
With decades of foreign policy experience in the United States Senate, include serving as Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, Vice President Biden advises President Obama on international issues. The Vice President has been a leading architect of the U.S. strategic vision of a Europe whole, free and at peace. During his time in the Senate, the Vice President led the effort to enlarge NATO to include the former Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern and Central Europe after the collapse of the Iron Curtain. The Vice President’s speech at the Munich Security Conference in February 2015 laid out a vision for how to revitalize NATO, strengthen democratic institutions in Europe, prioritize investments to bolster energy security, and grow trade and investment ties across the Atlantic. The Vice President has been leading the administration’s effort to support a sovereign, democratic Ukraine, visiting the country three times in 2014. In the Middle East, the Vice President has been deeply involved in shaping U.S. policy toward Iraq, visiting the country several times. He has met with the leaders from around the Middle East and has championed Israel’s security. The Vice President has also played an active role in supporting the Administration’s rebalance to the Asia-Pacific. He has developed deep relationships with the region’s leaders, demonstrating U.S. commitment to high-level, face-to-face diplomacy. Vice President Biden is the Administration’s point person for diplomacy within the Western Hemisphere. He has worked to realize his vision of a Hemisphere that is “middle class, secure, and democratic, from Canada to Chile and everywhere in between.” In this capacity, the Vice President has led the Administration’s regional efforts to address economic, social, governance, and citizen security challenges.
Contact the Vice President
Follow the Office of the Vice President on Twitter, @VP , Instagram, @VP , and on Medium, @ VPOTUS
| i don't know |
In which English couny are the towns of Grantham and Skegness ? | Lincolnshire Market Towns - Lincolnshire.org
Lincolnshire Market Towns
"Lincolnshire has many delightful market towns that still have vibrant markets. "
Photo by David Wright
From Alford, Horncastle and Louth in the glorious Lincolnshire Wolds, to Stamford and Market Deeping in the south, Lincolnshire’s market towns are many and varied.
Being an agricultural county supplying over 40% of the country’s fresh vegetables, Lincolnshire’s market towns can boast thriving markets selling the freshest of produce.
Look out for the famous Lincolnshire Poacher Cheese , Lincolnshire Sausage and Lincolnshire Plumbread !
Alford
Alford is a delightful market town located at the edge of the beautiful Lincolnshire Wolds (a Designated Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty) and just over 10 miles from the Lincolnshire coast.
Famous landmarks include Alford Manor House -the largest thatched manor house in England and now owned by English Heritage – and Alford Windmill, one of the country’s last surviving 5-sail windmills.
Alford Market
Only available during Summer months
Boston
Boston is a small market town and inland port with a fascinating history, including links to Pilgrim Fathers who founded America.
The parish church of St Botolph’s, more commonly known as the ‘Boston Stump’, has one of the country’s tallest towers. At over 272 ft/83 m high, The Boston Stump has fantastic views across the county (weather permitting!) – you can even see as far as Lincoln Cathedral on a clear day.
Boston Market
Bourne
Bourne is an historic market town in southern Lincolnshire, renown for its waterways and woodlands. Nearby Bourne Woods (located at the western edge of the town) has 400 acres of glorious woodland – just perfect for exploring on foot or by bike.
The word ‘Bourne’ is Anglo-Saxon for stream – indeed, the town of Bourne is famous for the purity of its drinking water, got from underground natural springs.
Bourne Market
Car park behind Corn Exchange building
Caistor
Caistor is a pretty Georgian/Victorian market town at edge of Lincolnshire Wolds and on the Viking Way. With 56 Grade II Listed buildings, 2 Grade I Listed buildings and 2 medieval fishponds (situated to the north of Navigation Lane), Caistor is an architectural dream.
Caistor has a vibrant Arts and Heritage Centre at Plough Hill.
Caistor Market
Gainsborough
Gainsborough is a thriving market town in the east of the county. The impressive Gainsborough Old Hall in the town centre is one of England’s best preserved medieval manor houses.
Marshall’s Yard in Gainsborough is a very popular shopping centre and has one of the country’s largest Laura Ashley stores located in it.
Gainsborough
Grantham
Grantham is a prosperous market town in South Lincolnshire. The parish church of St Wulframs has the tallest medieval church spire in England.
Grantham is the birthplace of Sir Isaac Newton and Margaret Thatcher. Woolsthorpe Manor (home of sir Isaac Newton), Belvoir Castle and Easton Walled Gardens are nearby.
Grantham Market
Wide Westgate, Narrow Westgate, Market Place
Where:
Welby Street (just off Wide Westgate)
Horncastle
Horncastle is a quaint market town in the Lincolnshire Wolds famous for its many antique shops – with over 30 of them dotted about the town centre, it is a haven for antique lovers and bargain hunters.
In Roman times, Horncastle was called Banovallum, meaning Wall on the River Bain. Parts of the Roman wall are still to be found in the town – indeed the best preserved part can be found in the town’s library, where the wall forms part of a major display.
Horncastle Market
| The Lincolnshire |
In which English couny are the towns of Reading and Maidenhead ? | Lincolnshire Map - Road Map of Lincolnshire
Lincolnshire Map
Lincolnshire map, showing the county of Lincolnshire and the main towns and villages of the county in Eastern England.
Interactive Road Map of Lincolnshire England
Lincolnshire Map: Interactive Google map of Lincolnshire, the second largest county in England, United Kingdom . Visible on this Lincolnshire map are the city of Lincoln , Grimsby, Cleethorpes, Gainsborough, Louth, Mablethorpe, Skegness , Market Rasen, Horncastle, Boston, Spalding, Sleaford, Grantham and Stamford.
The second largest county in England, Lincolnshire has an area of 2,686 square miles and a population of around 1 million, it is located in the east of England, and has a coastline on the Wash, the North Sea and the Humber estuary, it borders the counties of Nottinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Norfolk , Rutland, South Yorkshire, Leicestershire, Northamptonshire (for just twenty yards), and the East Riding of Yorkshire, its main towns include Lincoln, Boston , Grimsby, Scunthorpe, Grantham , Skegness, Spalding, Louth, Cleethorpes, Stamford, Sleaford , Brigg, Bourne, Mablethorpe and Gainsborough.
Lincolnshire is divided into 9 districts, Lincoln, Boston, South Kesteven, North Kesteven, NE Lincolnshire, North Licolnshire, South Holland, East Lindsey and West Lindsey.
A predominantly agricultural county, Lincolnshire was formed from the ancient Kingdom of Lindsey and the Danelaw borough of Stamford, and was originally called Lindsey.
The largest town in the county is Grimsby and the county town is Lincoln.
Lincolnshire Attractions: Among the most popular attractions in Lincolnshire are Lincoln Castle, Lincoln Cathedral, Grimsthorpe Castle, Tattershall Castle, Bourne Abbey, Bolingbroke Castle, Gibraltar Point, Donna Nook, and Stow Minster. Child friendly attractions include the Jungle Zoo Cleethorpes, Fun Farm Lincoln, and Panda’s Palace Skegness.
The Lincolnshire Wolds are a 216 square mile range of low hills within the county, and are designated an area of outstanding natural beauty, between the Wold and the sea are large areas of marshland which has been reclaimed from the sea over the last 1,000 years, behind the coastal towns runs a strip of rich grazing land.
We hope you found this Lincolnshire map and guide useful.
Lincolnshire Towns and Villages:
Lincoln: The county town of Lincolnshire , and also a cathedral city, Lincoln has a population of around 85,000 (city), and a history going back to the 1st century BC, when it was the site of an Iron Age settlement. Lincoln Map .
Boston: A town and port in the county of Lincolnshire in eastern England, Boston has a population of around 58,000 and a history going back to Saxon times, when it grew up around a monastery founded by St Botolph. Boston Lincolnshire Map .
Skegness: A town and parish in the county of Lincolnshire in eastern England, Skegness has a population of around 19,000 and is a popular seaside town which was the location of the first Butlins Holiday Camp which opened its doors for business in 1936. Skegness Lincolnshire Map .
Grantham: A large town with a population of around 35,000, Grantham was originally a Saxon settlement and grew prosperous through the wool trade. Its most famous landmark is the 13th century St Wulfrum's Church. Grantham Lincolnshire Map .
Sleaford: A market town in the North Kesteven district of Lincolnshire, Sleaford has a population of about 14,500, and boasts a church with one of the oldest stone spires in England.
| i don't know |
Give any year in the life of the Italian painter Michaelangelo. | Michelangelo Paintings | HowStuffWorks
Michelangelo Paintings
NEXT PAGENEXT
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475-1564) was perhaps more a sculptor at heart than he was a painter, and thus Vasari quoted him saying, "I cannot live under pressures from patrons, let alone paint."
It seems impossible that the artist responsible for the grand and glorious frescoes on the Sistine Chapel walls and ceiling often declared that he was not a painter. Imagine the wealth of talent an artist must possess to create such vivid and triumphant work. And consider that Michelangelo was working against his own will and under the weight of self-doubt -- only then can one truly begin to appreciate the unparalleled genius of Michelangelo, the painter.
Up Next
The Dead Artists Quiz
Describing himself as first and foremost a sculptor, Michelangelo often expressed regret that he had not dedicated his life fully to the art of sculpture. He even signed his letters and contracts "Michelangelo, the Sculptor."
The artist's dislike for painting is plainly illustrated in the fact that he found it to be opposed to his chosen art form. Even in his seventies, Michelangelo suggested to Benedetto Varchi, in response to Varchi's study of the relative merits of painting and sculpture, that "painting seems to me more to be held good the more it approaches sculpture, and sculpture to be held bad the more it approaches painting: and therefore I used to think that sculpture was the lantern to painting, and that between the one and the other was that difference which there is between the sun and the moon."
In spite of his dismissive attitude toward painting, Michelangelo proved to be a gifted painter of sacred art. In fact, he surpassed his contemporaries in expressive intensity and skill to become the reluctant visionary of Italian Renaissance painting.
This article explores some of Michelangelo's paintings, his methods and techniques, and the subjects of his art. Follow the links below to learn more.
Doni Madonna : This painting shows the sculptural quality to Michelangelo's paintings, the three-dimensional force that they possess. See Doni Madonna by Michelangelo.
Libyan Sibyl study : This study for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is one of the finest examples of Michelangelo's sketches for that work. Learn more here.
Crucifixion :(c. 1541): This drawing has many features in common with Michelangelo's sculptures, and as such reiterates the artist's comment about painting approaching sculpture. Get the details on Crucifixion on this page.
Crucifixion :(1540s-50s): Michelangelo became increasingly introspective in his art as he grew older. Crucifixion, and other works from this period, reflects his inner turmoil.
The first painting in this article is Doni Madonna, which is a Michelangelo tondi, rich in symbolism and visual depth. Go to the next page to learn more about this work. To learn more about Michelangelo, art history, and other famous artists, see:
| 1475 1564 |
Which President of the USA has twin daughters named Jenna and Barbara ? | Michelangelo Paintings | HowStuffWorks
Michelangelo Paintings
NEXT PAGENEXT
Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni (1475-1564) was perhaps more a sculptor at heart than he was a painter, and thus Vasari quoted him saying, "I cannot live under pressures from patrons, let alone paint."
It seems impossible that the artist responsible for the grand and glorious frescoes on the Sistine Chapel walls and ceiling often declared that he was not a painter. Imagine the wealth of talent an artist must possess to create such vivid and triumphant work. And consider that Michelangelo was working against his own will and under the weight of self-doubt -- only then can one truly begin to appreciate the unparalleled genius of Michelangelo, the painter.
Up Next
The Dead Artists Quiz
Describing himself as first and foremost a sculptor, Michelangelo often expressed regret that he had not dedicated his life fully to the art of sculpture. He even signed his letters and contracts "Michelangelo, the Sculptor."
The artist's dislike for painting is plainly illustrated in the fact that he found it to be opposed to his chosen art form. Even in his seventies, Michelangelo suggested to Benedetto Varchi, in response to Varchi's study of the relative merits of painting and sculpture, that "painting seems to me more to be held good the more it approaches sculpture, and sculpture to be held bad the more it approaches painting: and therefore I used to think that sculpture was the lantern to painting, and that between the one and the other was that difference which there is between the sun and the moon."
In spite of his dismissive attitude toward painting, Michelangelo proved to be a gifted painter of sacred art. In fact, he surpassed his contemporaries in expressive intensity and skill to become the reluctant visionary of Italian Renaissance painting.
This article explores some of Michelangelo's paintings, his methods and techniques, and the subjects of his art. Follow the links below to learn more.
Doni Madonna : This painting shows the sculptural quality to Michelangelo's paintings, the three-dimensional force that they possess. See Doni Madonna by Michelangelo.
Libyan Sibyl study : This study for the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel is one of the finest examples of Michelangelo's sketches for that work. Learn more here.
Crucifixion :(c. 1541): This drawing has many features in common with Michelangelo's sculptures, and as such reiterates the artist's comment about painting approaching sculpture. Get the details on Crucifixion on this page.
Crucifixion :(1540s-50s): Michelangelo became increasingly introspective in his art as he grew older. Crucifixion, and other works from this period, reflects his inner turmoil.
The first painting in this article is Doni Madonna, which is a Michelangelo tondi, rich in symbolism and visual depth. Go to the next page to learn more about this work. To learn more about Michelangelo, art history, and other famous artists, see:
| i don't know |
Even though he only lasted for three weeks, who succeeded Adolph Hitler as President of Germany in 1945 ? | Adolf Hitler - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!
Adolf Hitler
"Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see Hitler (disambiguation) .
Adolf Hitler
( April 20 , 1889 – April 30 , 1945 ) was Chancellor of Germany from 1933, and " Führer " (leader) of Germany from 1934 until his death. He was leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), better known as the Nazi Party.
Hitler gained power in a Germany facing crisis after World War I . Using propaganda and charismatic oratory, he was able to appeal to the economic need of the lower and middle classes, while sounding resonant chords of nationalism , anti-Semitism and anti-communism . With the establishment of a restructured economy, a rearmed military, and a totalitarian fascist dictatorship , Hitler pursued an aggressive foreign policy with the intention of expanding German Lebensraum ("living space"), which triggered World War II when Germany invaded Poland . At its greatest extent, Nazi Germany occupied most of Europe, but along with the other Axis Powers was eventually defeated by the Allies . By then, Hitler's racial policies had culminated in a genocide of approximately eleven million people, including about six million Jews , in what is now known as the Holocaust .
In the final days of the war, Hitler along with his new wife, Eva Braun , committed suicide in his underground bunker in Berlin , after the city was surrounded by the Russian army.
Contents
Childhood and heritage
Adolf Hitler as an infant.
Adolf Hitler was born on April 20 , 1889 at Braunau am Inn , Austria , a small town in Upper Austria , on the border with Germany . He was the third son and the fourth of six children of Alois Hitler (born Schicklgruber) (1837–1903), a minor customs official, and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907), his second cousin, and third wife. Because of the close kinship of the two, a papal dispensation had to be obtained before the marriage could take place. Of Alois and Klara's six children, only Adolf and his younger sister Paula reached adulthood. Alois Hitler also had a son, Alois Jr. , and a daughter, Angela , by his second wife.
Alois was born illegitimate and for the first thirty-nine years of his life bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber. In 1876, Alois began using the name of his stepfather , Johann Georg Hiedler , after visiting a priest responsible for birth registries and declaring that Georg was his father (Alois gave the impression that Georg was still alive but he was long dead). The name was variously spelled Hiedler, Huetler, Huettler and Hitler and probably changed to "Hitler" by a clerk. About the origin of the name there are two theories:
From German Hittler and similar, "one who lives in a hut", "shepherd".
From Slavic Hidlar and Hidlarcek.
Later, Adolf Hitler was accused by his political enemies of not rightfully being a Hitler, but a Schicklgruber. This was also exploited in Allied propaganda during World War II when pamphlets bearing the phrase "Heil Schicklgruber" were airdropped over German cities.[ citation needed ] Adolf was legally born a Hitler, however, and was also closely related to Hiedler through his maternal grandmother, Johanna Hiedler .
Hitler's given name, "Adolf", comes from the Old High German for "noble wolf" ("Adel"="nobility" + "wolf"). [1] Hence, not surprisingly, one of Hitler's self-given nicknames was Wolf or Herr Wolf — he began using this nickname in the early 1920s and was addressed by it only by intimates (as "Uncle Wolf" by the Wagners) up until the fall of the Third Reich. [2] By his closest family and relatives, Hitler was known simply as "Adi". The names of his various headquarters scattered throughout continental Europe ( Wolfsschanze in East Prussia , Wolfsschlucht in France , Werwolf in Ukraine , etc.) seem to reflect this.
As a boy, Hitler was whipped almost daily by his father. Years later he told his secretary, "I then resolved never again to cry when my father whipped me. A few days later I had the opportunity of putting my will to the test. My mother, frightened, took refuge in the front of the door. As for me, I counted silently the blows of the stick which lashed my rear end." [3]
Hitler was not sure who his paternal grandfather was, but it was probably either Johann Georg Hiedler or his brother Johann Nepomuk Hiedler . There have been rumours that Hitler was one-quarter Jewish [1] and that his paternal grandmother, Maria Schicklgruber , had become pregnant after working as a servant in a Jewish household in Graz . During the 1920s, the implications of these rumours along with his known family history were politically explosive, especially for the proponent of a racist ideology . Opponents tried to prove that Hitler, the leader of the anti-Semitic Nazi Party , had Jewish or Czech ancestors. Although these rumours were never confirmed, for Hitler they were reason enough to conceal his origins. Soviet propaganda insisted Hitler was a Jew, though more modern research tends to diminish the probability that he had Jewish ancestors. According to Robert G. L. Waite in The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, Hitler made it illegal for German women to work in Jewish households, and after the " Anschluss " (annexation) of Austria, Hitler had his father's hometown obliterated by turning it into an artillery practice area. Hitler seemed to fear that he was Jewish, and as Waite points out, this fact is more important than whether he actually was.
Because of Alois Hitler's profession, his family moved frequently, from Braunau to Passau , Lambach, Leonding , and Linz . As a young child, Hitler was reportedly a good student at the various elementary schools he attended; however, in sixth grade (1900–1), his first year of high school (Realschule) in Linz, he failed completely and had to repeat the grade. His teachers reported that he had "no desire to work."
Hitler later explained this educational slump as a kind of rebellion against his father Alois, who wanted the boy to follow him in a career as a customs official, although Adolf wanted to become a painter . This explanation is further supported by Hitler's later description of himself as a misunderstood artist. However, after Alois died on January 3 , 1903 , when Adolf was 13, Hitler's schoolwork did not improve. At the age of 16, Hitler left school with no qualifications .
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich
From 1905 onward, Hitler was able to live the life of a Bohemian on a fatherless child's pension and support from his mother. He was rejected twice by the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (1907 – 1908) due to "unfitness for painting", and was told his abilities lay rather in the field of architecture . His memoirs reflect a fascination with the subject:
"The purpose of my trip was to study the picture gallery in the Court Museum, but I had eyes for scarcely anything but the Museum itself. From morning until late at night, I ran from one object of interest to another, but it was always the buildings which held my primary interest." (Mein Kampf, Chapter II, paragraph 3).
Following the school rector's recommendation, he too became convinced this was the path to pursue, yet he lacked the proper academic preparation for architecture school:
"In a few days I myself knew that I should some day become an architect. To be sure, it was an incredibly hard road; for the studies I had neglected out of spite at the Realschule were sorely needed. One could not attend the Academy's architectural school without having attended the building school at the Technic, and the latter required a high-school degree. I had none of all this. The fulfillment of my artistic dream seemed physically impossible.''"(Mein Kampf, Chapter II, paragraph 5 & 6).
On December 21 , 1907 , his mother Klara died a painful death from breast cancer at the age of 47. Hitler gave his share of the orphans ' benefits to his younger sister Paula , but when he was 21 he inherited some money from an aunt. He worked as a struggling painter in Vienna, copying scenes from postcards and selling his paintings to merchants and tourists (there is evidence he produced over 2000 paintings and drawings before World War I). Several biographers have noted that a Jewish resident of the house named Hanisch helped him sell his postcards.[ citation needed ]
A watercolour by Adolf Hitler depicting Laon , France .
After the second refusal from the Academy of Arts, Hitler gradually ran out of money. By 1909, he sought refuge in a homeless shelter , and by the beginning of 1910 had settled permanently into a house for poor working men.
Hitler first became an active anti-Semite in Vienna, which had a large Jewish community, including many Orthodox Jews from Eastern Europe and where traditional religious prejudice mixed with recent racist theories. Hitler was influenced over time by the writings of the race ideologist and anti-Semite Lanz von Liebenfels and polemics from politicians such as Karl Lueger , founder of the Christian Social Party and mayor of Vienna , one of the most outrageous demagogues in history, and Georg Ritter von Schönerer , leader of the pan-Germanic Away from Rome! movement. He later wrote in his book Mein Kampf that his transition from opposing anti-Semitism on religious grounds to supporting it on racial grounds came from having seen an Orthodox Jew :
"There were very few Jews in Linz. In the course of centuries the Jews who lived there had become Europeanized in external appearance and were so much like other human beings that I even looked upon them as Germans. The reason why I did not then perceive the absurdity of such an illusion was that the only external mark which I recognized as distinguishing them from us was the practice of their strange religion. As I thought that they were persecuted on account of their faith my aversion to hearing remarks against them grew almost into a feeling of abhorrence. I did not in the least suspect that there could be such a thing as a systematic anti-Semitism.
Once, when passing through the inner City, I suddenly encountered a phenomenon in a long caftan and wearing black side-locks. My first thought was: Is this a Jew? They certainly did not have this appearance in Linz. I carefully watched the man stealthily and cautiously but the longer I gazed at the strange countenance and examined it feature by feature, the more the question shaped itself in my brain: Is this a German?"
(Mein Kampf, vol. 1, chap. 2: "Years of study and suffering in Vienna")
Hitler began to claim the Jews were natural enemies of what he called the Aryan race . He held them responsible for Austria's crisis. He also identified certain forms of Socialism and especially Bolshevism , which had many Jews among its leaders, as Jewish movements, merging his anti-Semitism with anti-Marxism. Blaming Germany's military defeat on the 1917 Revolutions[ citation needed ], he considered Jews the culprit of Imperial Germany's military defeat and subsequent economic problems as well.
Generalising from tumultuous scenes in the parliament of the multi-national Austria Monarchy , he developed a firm belief in the inferiority of the democratic parliamentary system , which formed the basis of his political views. However, according to August Kubizek , his close friend and roommate at the time, he was more interested in the operas of Richard Wagner than in politics .
A landscape painted by Adolf Hitler.
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich . He later wrote in Mein Kampf that he had always longed to live in a "real" German city. In Munich, he became more interested in architecture and the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain . Moving to Munich also helped him escape military service in Austria for a time, but the Austrian army later arrested him. After a physical exam (during which his height was measured at 173 cm, or 5 ft 8 in) and a contrite plea, he was deemed unfit for service and allowed to return to Munich. However, when Germany entered World War I in August 1914, he immediately petitioned King Ludwig III of Bavaria for permission to serve in a Bavarian regiment, this request was granted, and Adolf Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian army. [4]
World War I
Hitler saw active service in France and Belgium as a messenger for the regimental headquarters of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment (also called Regiment List after its first commander), which exposed him to enemy fire. Unlike his fellow soldiers, Hitler reportedly never complained about the food or hard conditions, preferring to talk about art or history. He also drew some cartoons and instructional drawings for the army newspaper. His behaviour as a soldier was considered somewhat sloppy, but his regular duties required taking dispatches to and from fighting areas and he was twice decorated for his performance of these duties. He received the Iron Cross , Second Class, in December 1914 and the Iron Cross, First Class, in August 1918, an honour rarely given to a Gefreiter . However, because of the perception of "a lack of leadership skills" on the part of some of the regimental staff, as well as (according to Kershaw) Hitler's unwillingness to leave regimental headquarters (which would have been likely in event of promotion), he was never promoted to Unteroffizier . Other historians, however, say that the reason he was not promoted is that he did not have German citizenship. His duty station at regimental headquarters, while often dangerous, gave Hitler time to pursue his artwork. During October 1916 in northern France, Hitler was wounded in the leg, but returned to the front in March 1917. He received the Wound Badge later that year, as his injury was the direct result of hostile fire. Sebastian Haffner , referring to Hitler's experience at the front, suggests he did have at least some understanding of the military.
On October 15 , 1918 , shortly before the end of the war, Hitler was admitted to a field hospital , temporarily blinded by a poison gas attack. The English psychologist David Lewis [5] and Bernhard Horstmann indicate the blindness may have been the result of a conversion disorder (then known as hysteria ). Hitler later said it was during this experience that he became convinced the purpose of his life was to "save Germany". Some scholars, notably Lucy Dawidowicz, [6] argue that an intention to exterminate Europe's Jews was fully formed in Hitler's mind at this time, though he probably hadn't thought through how it could be done.
Two passages in Mein Kampf mention the use of poison gas :
At the beginning of the Great War, or even during the War, if twelve or fifteen thousand of these Jews who were corrupting the nation had been forced to submit to poison-gas . . . then the millions of sacrifices made at the front would not have been in vain. (Volume 2, Chapter 15 "The Right to Self-Defence").
These tactics are based on an accurate estimation of human weakness and must lead to success, with almost mathematical certainty, unless the other side also learns how to fight poison gas with poison gas. The weaker natures must be told that here it is a case of to be or not to be. (Volume 1, Chapter 2 "Years of Study and Suffering in Vienna")
Hitler had long admired Germany, and during the war he had become a passionate German patriot , although he did not become a German citizen until 1932. He was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918 even while the German army still held enemy territory. Like many other German nationalists , Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende ("dagger-stab legend") which claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field", had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian leaders and Marxists back on the home front . These politicians were later dubbed the November Criminals .
The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of various territories, demilitarized the Rhineland and imposed other economically damaging sanctions. The treaty also declared Germany the culprit for all the horrors of the Great War, as a basis for later imposing not-yet-specified reparations on Germany (the amount was repeatedly revised under the Dawes Plan , the Young Plan , and the Hoover Moratorium ). Germans, however, perceived the treaty and especially the paragraph on the German guilt as a humiliation, not least as it was damaging in the extreme to their pride. For example, there was a nearly total demilitarisation of the armed forces, allowing Germany only 6 battleships, no submarines, no air force, an army of 100,000 without conscription and no armoured vehicles. The treaty was an important factor in both the social and political conditions encountered by Hitler and his National Socialist Party as they sought power. Hitler and his party used the signing of the treaty by the "November Criminals" as a reason to build up Germany so that it could never happen again. He also used the 'November Criminals' as scapegoats, although at the Paris peace conference, these politicians had had very little choice in the matter.
The early years of the Nazi Party
A copy of Adolf Hitler's forged DAP membership card. His actual membership number was 555 (the 55th member of the party - the 500 was added to make the group appear larger) but later the number was reduced to create the impression that Hitler was one of the founding members (Ian Kershaw Hubris). Hitler had wanted to create his own party, but was ordered by his superiors in the Reichswehr to infiltrate an existing one instead.
Hitler's entry into politics
Main article: Hitler's political beliefs
After World War I, Hitler remained in the army and returned to Munich, where he - in contrast to his later declarations - participated in the funeral march for the murdered Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner . [7] After the suppression of the Munich Soviet Republic , took part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department (Dept Ib/P) of the Bavarian Reichswehr Group, Headquarters 4 under Captain Karl Mayr . A key purpose of this group was to create a scapegoat [ citation needed ] for the outbreak of the war and Germany's defeat. The scapegoats were found in "international Jewry", communists, and politicians across the party spectrum, especially the parties of the Weimar Coalition , who were deemed " November Criminals "[ citation needed ].
In July 1919, Hitler was appointed a Verbindungsmann (police spy) of an Aufklärungskommando (Intelligence Commando) of the Reichswehr , for the purpose of influencing other soldiers toward similar ideas and was assigned to infiltrate a small party, the German Workers' Party (DAP), which was thought of to be a possibly socialist party (See: Adolf Hitler's inspection of the German Workers' Party ). During his inspection of the party , Hitler was impressed with Drexler 's anti-Semitic , nationalist , anti-capitalist and anti- Marxist ideas, which favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism and mutual solidarity of all members of society.
Here Hitler also met Dietrich Eckart , one of the early founders of the party and member of the occult Thule Society . [8] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him, teaching him how to dress and speak, and introducing him to a wide range of people. Hitler in return thanked Eckart by paying tribute to him in the second volume of Mein Kampf.
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and with his former superiors' continued encouragement began participating full time in the party's activities. By early 1921, Adolf Hitler was becoming highly effective at speaking in front of even larger crowds. In February, Hitler spoke before a crowd of nearly six thousand in Munich . To publicize the meeting, he sent out two truckloads of Party supporters to drive around with swastikas , cause a commotion and throw out leaflets , their first use of this tactic. Hitler gained notoriety outside of the Party for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles , rival politicians (including monarchists, nationalists and other non-internationalist socialists) and especially against Marxists and Jews.
The DAP was centered in Munich which had become a hotbed of German nationalists who included Army officers determined to crush Marxism and undermine or even overthrow the young German republic. Gradually they noticed Adolf Hitler and his growing movement as a vehicle to hitch themselves to. Hitler traveled to Berlin to visit nationalist groups during the summer of 1921 and in his absence there was an unexpected revolt among the DAP leadership in Munich.
The Party was run by an executive committee whose original members considered Hitler to be overbearing and even dictatorial . To weaken Hitler's position they formed an alliance with a group of socialists from Augsburg . Hitler rushed back to Munich and countered them by tendering his resignation from the Party on July 11 , 1921 . When they realized the loss of Hitler would effectively mean the end of the Party, he seized the moment and announced he would return on the condition that he was made chairman and given dictatorial powers. Infuriated committee members (including founder Anton Drexler ) held out at first. Meanwhile an anonymous pamphlet appeared entitled Adolf Hitler: Is he a traitor ?, attacking Hitler's lust for power and criticizing the violence-prone men around him. Hitler responded to its publication in a Munich newspaper by suing for libel and later won a small settlement.
The executive committee of the DAP eventually backed down and Hitler's demands were put to a vote of party members. Hitler received 543 votes for and only one against. At the next gathering on July 29 , 1921 , Adolf Hitler was introduced as Führer of the National Socialist Party, marking the first time this title was publicly used. Hitler changed the name of the party to the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP ).
Hitler's beer hall oratory , attacking Jews, social democrats , liberals , reactionary monarchists , capitalists and communists , began attracting adherents. Early followers included Rudolf Hess , the former air force pilot Hermann Göring , and the army captain Ernst Röhm , who became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organization , the SA , which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. Hitler also assimilated independent groups, such as the Nuremberg-based Deutsche Werkgemeinschaft, led by Julius Streicher , who now became Gauleiter of Franconia . Hitler also attracted the attention of local business interests, was accepted into influential circles of Munich society and became associated with wartime General Erich Ludendorff during this time.
The Beer Hall Putsch
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Encouraged by this early support, Hitler decided to use Ludendorff as a front in an attempt to seize power later known as the Beer Hall Putsch (and sometimes as the Hitler Putsch or Munich Putsch). The Nazi Party had copied the Italian Fascists in appearance and also had adopted some programmatical points and now, in the turbulent year 1923, Hitler wanted to emulate Mussolini 's " March on Rome " by staging his own "Campaign in Berlin". Hitler and Ludendorff obtained the clandestine support of Gustav von Kahr , Bavaria 's de facto ruler along with leading figures in the Reichswehr and the police. As political posters show, Ludendorff, Hitler and the heads of the Bavarian police and military planned on forming a new government.
However on November 8 , 1923 Kahr and the military withdrew their support during a meeting in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall outside of Munich. A surprised Hitler had them arrested and proceeded with the coup. Unknown to him, Kahr and the other detainees had been released on Ludendorff's orders after he obtained their word not to interfere. That night they prepared resistance measures against the coup and in the morning, when Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government as a start to their "March on Berlin", the army quickly dispersed them (Ludendorff was wounded and a few other Nazis were killed).
Hitler fled to the home of friends and contemplated suicide. He was soon arrested for high treason and appointed Alfred Rosenberg as temporary leader of the party but found himself in an environment somewhat receptive to his beliefs. During Hitler's trial, sympathetic magistrates allowed Hitler to turn his debacle into a propaganda stunt. He was given almost unlimited amounts of time to present his arguments to the court, and his popularity soared when he voiced basic nationalistic sentiments shared by some of the public. On April 1 , 1924 Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg prison for the crime of conspiracy to commit treason. Hitler received favoured treatment from the guards and had much fan mail from admirers . Hitler was released on December 20 , 1924 after the authorities decided that he was not a danger to the public. Including remand, he had served just over one year of his five-year sentence.
Mein Kampf
Main article: Mein Kampf
While at Landsberg he dictated his political book Mein Kampf (My Struggle) to his deputy Rudolf Hess . The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart , was both an autobiography and an exposition of his political ideology. It was published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926 respectively, selling about 240,000 copies between 1925 and 1934 alone. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies had been sold or distributed (every newly-wed couple, as well as front soldiers, received free copies).
Hitler spent years dodging taxes on the royalties of his book, and had accumulated a tax debt of about 405,500 Reichsmarks (6m euros in today's money) by the time he became chancellor (at which time his debt was waived). [9] [10]
The rebuilding of the party
At the time of Hitler's release, the political situation in Germany had calmed down, and the economy had improved, which hampered Hitler's opportunities for agitation. Though the Hitler Putsch had given Hitler some national prominence, his party's mainstay was still Munich.
Joseph Goebbels with Adolf Hitler at the Obersalzberg , possibly early 1944.
As Hitler was still banned from public speeches, he appointed Gregor Strasser , who in 1924 had been elected to the Reichstag , as Reichsorganisationsleiter, authorizing him to organise the party in northern Germany. Gregor, joined by his younger brother Otto and Joseph Goebbels , steered an increasingly independent course, emphasizing the socialist element in the party's programme. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Gauleiter Nord-West became an internal opposition, threatening Hitler's authority, but this faction was defeated at the Bamberg Conference (1926) , during which Goebbels joined Hitler.
After this encounter, Hitler centralized the party even more and asserted the Führerprinzip as the basic principle of party organization. Leaders were not elected by their group but were rather appointed by their superior and were answerable to them while demanding unquestioning obedience from their inferiors. Consistent with Hitler's disdain for democracy , all power and authority devolved from the top down.
A key element of Hitler's appeal was his ability to convey a sense of offended national pride caused by the Treaty of Versailles imposed on the defeated German Empire by the Western Allies. Germany had lost economically important territory in Europe along with its colonies and in admitting to sole responsibility for the war had agreed to pay a huge reparations bill totaling 132 billion marks . Most Germans bitterly resented these terms but early Nazi attempts to gain support by blaming these humiliations on "international Jewry" were not particularly successful with the electorate. The party learned quickly and soon a more subtle propaganda emerged, combining anti-Semitism with an attack on the failures of the " Weimar system" and the parties supporting it.
Having failed in overthrowing the Republic by a coup, Hitler now pursued the "strategy of legality": this meant formally adhering to the rules of the Weimar Republic until he had legally gained power and then transforming liberal democracy into a Nazi dictatorship. Some party members, especially in the paramilitary SA , opposed this strategy and Ernst Röhm ridiculed Hitler as "Adolphe Legalité".
The road to power
Main article: Hitler's rise to power
The Brüning administration
The political turning point for Hitler came when the Great Depression hit Germany in 1930. The Weimar Republic had never been firmly rooted and was openly opposed by right-wing conservatives (including monarchists), Communists and the Nazis. As the parties loyal to the democratic, parliamentary republic found themselves unable to agree on counter-measures, their Grand Coalition broke up and was replaced by a minority cabinet. The new Chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Roman Catholic Centre Party , lacking a majority in parliament, had to implement his measures through the President's emergency decrees. Tolerated by the majority of parties, the exception soon became the rule and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.
The Reichstag's initial opposition to Brüning's measures led to premature elections in September 1930. The republican parties lost their majority and their ability to resume the Grand Coalition, while the Nazis suddenly rose from relative obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote along with 107 seats in the Reichstag , becoming the second largest party in Germany.
Hitler emerges from the Brown House in Munich (headquarters of the Nazi party during the last days of the Weimar Republic) after a post-election meeting in 1930.
Brüning's measure of budget consolidation and financial austerity brought little economic improvement and was extremely unpopular. Under these circumstances, Hitler appealed to the bulk of German farmers , war veterans and the middle-class who had been hard-hit by both the inflation of the 1920s and the unemployment of the Depression. Hitler received little response from the urban working classes and traditionally Catholic regions.
Meanwhile, on September 18 , 1931 , Hitler's niece Geli Raubal was found dead in her bedroom in his Munich apartment (his half-sister Angela and her daughter Geli had been with him in Munich since 1929), an apparent suicide. Geli was 19 years younger than he was and had used his gun, drawing rumours of a relationship between the two. The event is viewed as having caused lasting turmoil for him.
In 1932, Hitler intended to run against the aging President Paul von Hindenburg in the scheduled presidential elections . Though Hitler had left Austria in 1913, he still had not acquired German citizenship and hence could not run for public office. In February, however, the state government of Brunswick , in which the Nazi Party participated, appointed Hitler to some minor administrative post and also gave him citizenship. The new German citizen ran against Hindenburg, who was supported by a broad range of reactionary nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, Republican and even social democratic parties, and against the Communist presidential candidate. His campaign was called "Hitler über Deutschland" (Hitler over Germany). The name had a double meaning.
Hitler over Germany. Political campaign by aircraft.
Besides an obvious reference to Hitler's dictatorial intentions, it also referred to the fact that Hitler was campaigning by aircraft. This was a brand new political tactic that allowed Hitler to speak in two cities in one day, which was practically unheard of at the time. Hitler came in second on both rounds, attaining more than 35% of the vote during the second one in April. Although he lost to Hindenburg, the election established Hitler as a realistic and fresh alternative in German politics.
The cabinets of Papen and Schleicher
President Hindenburg, influenced by the Camarilla , became increasingly estranged from Brüning and pushed his Chancellor to move the government in a decidedly authoritarian and right-wing direction. This culminated, in May 1932, with the resignation of the Brüning cabinet.
Hindenburg appointed the nobleman Franz von Papen as chancellor, heading a "Cabinet of Barons". Papen was bent on authoritarian rule and, since in the Reichstag only the conservative DNVP supported his administration, he immediately called for new elections in July. In these elections, the Nazis achieved their biggest success yet and won 230 seats.
The Nazis had become the largest party in the Reichstag without which no stable government could be formed. Papen tried to convince Hitler to become Vice-Chancellor and enter a new government with a parliamentary basis. Hitler however rejected this offer and put further pressure on Papen by entertaining parallel negotiations with the Centre Party , Papen's former party, which was bent on bringing down the renegade Papen. In both negotiations, Hitler demanded that he, as leader of the strongest party, must be Chancellor, but President Hindenburg consistently refused to appoint the "Bohemian private" to the Chancellorship.
After a vote of no-confidence in the Papen government, supported by 84% of the deputies, the new Reichstag was dissolved and new elections were called in November. This time, the Nazis lost some votes but still remained the largest party in the Reichstag.
After Papen failed to secure a majority, he proposed to dissolve the parliament again along with an indefinite postponement of elections. Hindenburg at first accepted this, but after General Kurt von Schleicher and the military withdrew their support, Hindenburg instead dismissed Papen and appointed Schleicher, who promised he could secure a majority government by negotiations with both the Social Democrats, the trade unions, and dissidents from the Nazi party under Gregor Strasser . In January 1933, however, Schleicher had to admit failure in these efforts and asked Hindenburg for emergency powers along with the same postponement of elections that he had opposed earlier, to which the President reacted by dismissing Schleicher.
Hitler's appointment as Chancellor
Meanwhile Papen, resentful because of his dismissal, tried to get his revenge on Schleicher by working toward the General's downfall, through forming an intrigue with the camarilla and Alfred Hugenberg , media mogul and chairman of the DNVP . Also involved were Hjalmar Schacht , Fritz Thyssen and other leading German businessmen. They financially supported the Nazi Party, which had been brought to the brink of bankruptcy by the cost of heavy campaigning. The businessmen also wrote letters to Hindenburg, urging him to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties" which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people." [11]
Finally, the President reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler Chancellor of a coalition government formed by the NSDAP and DNVP . Hitler and two other Nazi ministers ( Frick , Göring ) were to be contained by a framework of conservative cabinet ministers, most notably by Papen as Vice-Chancellor and by Hugenberg as Minister of Economics. Papen wanted to use Hitler as a figure-head, but the Nazis had gained key positions, most notably the Ministry of the Interior. On the morning of January 30 , 1933 , in Hindenburg's office, Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor during what some observers later described as a brief and simple ceremony.
Reichstag Fire and the March elections
Having become Chancellor, Hitler foiled all attempts by non- NSDAP parties to gain a majority in parliament and on that basis persuaded President Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag again. Elections were scheduled for early March, but on February 27 , 1933 , the Reichstag building was set on fire . Since a Dutch independent communist was found in the building, the fire was blamed on a Communist plot to which the government reacted with the Reichstag Fire Decree of February 28 , which suspended basic rights, including habeas corpus . Under the provisions of this decree, the German Communist Party and other groups were suppressed, and Communist functionaries and deputies were arrested, put to flight, or murdered. In the same month Hitler banned pornography, homosexual bars and bath-houses and groups that promoted "gay rights". [12] Campaigning continued, with the Nazis making use of paramilitary violence, anti-Communist hysteria, and the government's resources for propaganda. On election day, March 6 , the NSDAP increased its result to 43.9% of the vote, remaining the largest party, but its victory was marred by its failure to secure an absolute majority. Hitler had to maintain his coalition with the DNVP , as the coalition had a slim majority.
The "Day of Potsdam" and the Enabling Act
On 21 March , the new Reichstag was constituted itself with an impressive opening ceremony held at Potsdam's garrison church. This "Day of Potsdam" was staged to demonstrate reconciliation and union between the revolutionary Nazi movement and "Old Prussia" with its elites and virtues. Hitler himself appeared, not in Nazi uniform, but in a tail coat, and humbly greeted the aged President Hindenburg.
Because of the Nazis' failure to obtain a majority on their own, Hitler's government confronted the newly elected Reichstag with the Enabling Act that would have vested the cabinet with legislative powers for a period of four years. Though such a bill was not unprecedented, this act was different since it allowed for deviations from the constitution. As the bill required a two-thirds majority in order to pass, the government needed the support of other parties. The position of the Catholic Centre Party , at this point the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive: under the leadership of Ludwig Kaas , the party decided to vote for the Enabling Act. It did so in return for the government's oral guarantees regarding the Church 's liberty, the concordats signed by German states and the continued existence of the Centre Party itself.
On 23 March , the Reichstag assembled in a replacement building under extremely turbulent circumstances. Some SA men served as guards within while large groups outside the building shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving deputies. Kaas announced that the Centre would support the bill amid "concerns put aside.", while Social Democrat Otto Wels denounced the Act in his speech. At the end of the day, all parties except the Social Democrats voted in favour of the bill. The Enabling Act was dutifully renewed by the Reichstag every four years, even through World War II.
Removal of remaining limits
With this combination of legislative and executive power, Hitler's government further suppressed the remaining political opposition . The KPD and the SPD were banned, while all other political parties dissolved themselves. Labour unions were merged with employers' federations into an organisation under Nazi control and the autonomy of German state governments was abolished.
Adolf Hitler in Triumph of the Will .
Hitler also used the SA paramilitary to push Hugenberg into resigning and proceeded to politically isolate Vice Chancellor Papen. As the SA's demands for political and military power caused much anxiety among the populace in general and especially among the military, Hitler used allegations of a plot by the SA leader Ernst Röhm to purge the paramilitary force's leadership during the Night of the Long Knives . Opponents unconnected with the SA were also murdered , notably Gregor Strasser and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher .
Soon after, president Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 . Rather than holding new presidential elections, Hitler's cabinet passed a law proclaiming the presidency dormant and transferred the role and powers of the head of state to Hitler as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). Thereby Hitler also became supreme commander of the military, which then swore their military oath not to the state or the constitution but to Hitler personally. In a mid-August plebiscite , these acts found the approval of 90% of the electorate. Combining the highest offices in state, military and party in his hand, Hitler had attained supreme rule that could no longer be legally challenged.
The Third Reich
Main article: Nazi Germany
Photographs like the one on the cover of Heinrich Hoffmann 's book of photography were used to promote Hitler's populist- nationalist (Völkisch) image.
Having secured supreme political power, Hitler went on to gain their support by convincing most Germans he was their saviour from the Depression, the Communists , the Versailles Treaty , and the Jews , along with other "undesirable" minorities .
Economics and culture
Hitler oversaw one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement Germany had ever seen, mostly based on debt flotation and expansion of the military. Nazi policies toward women strongly encouraged them to stay at home to bear children and keep house. In a September 1934 speech to the National Socialist Women's Organization, Adolf Hitler argued that for the German woman her “world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home,” a policy which was reinforced by the bestowing of the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more babies, which resembled the Mother Heroaward of the Soviet Union under Stalin .. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Given this, claims that the German economy achieved near full employment are at least partly artifacts of propaganda from the era . Much of the financing for Hitler's reconstruction and rearmament came from currency manipulation by Hjalmar Schacht , including the clouded credits through the Mefo bills . The negative effects of this inflation were offset in later years by the acquisition of foreign gold from the treasuries of conquered nations.
Another popular photo theme was Hitler and his dog Blondi , here seen at the terrace of the Berghof .
Hitler also oversaw one of the largest infrastructure-improvement campaigns in German history, with the construction of dozens of dams , autobahns , railroads , and other civil works. Hitler's policies emphasised the importance of family life: men were the "breadwinners", while women's priorities were to lie in bringing up children and in household work. This revitalising of industry and infrastructure came at the expense of the overall standard of living, at least for those not affected by the chronic unemployment of the later Weimar Republic, since wages were slightly reduced in pre-World-War-II years, despite a 25% increase in the cost of living (Shirer 1959) .
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale, with Albert Speer becoming famous as the first architect of the Reich. While important as an Architect in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, Speer would prove much more effective as armaments minister during the last years of World War II. In 1936, Berlin hosted the summer Olympic games , which were opened by Hitler and choreographed to demonstrate Aryan superiority over all other races, achieving mixed results: most notably, African-American Jesse Owens won a Gold Medal , defeating "pure Aryan German athletes. Olympia , the movie about the games and other documentary propaganda films for the German Nazi Party were directed by Hitler's personal filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl .
Although Hitler made plans for a Breitspurbahn ( broad gauge railroad network), they were pre-empted by World War II. Had the railroad been built, its gauge would have been three metres, even wider than the old Great Western Railway of Britain.
Hitler contributed slightly to the design of the car that later became the Volkswagen Beetle , and charged Ferdinand Porsche with its design and construction. [13] Production was also deferred due to the war. (During the war, the Wolkswagenwerk factory produced military versions of the basic VW design, such as the Kugelwagen and the Schwimkugel ). After the war, the factory actually built the famous Volkswagen Beetle , although numerous German workers who had diligently bought savings stamps from the Strength Through Joy offices and pasted them into KDFstamp books didn't get their promised KDFWagens, because the Third Reich no longer existed. (People were allowed to trade their stamp books for a nontrivial discount on a new WV Beetle.[ citation needed ]
Rearmament and new alliances
Main articles: Axis Powers and Tripartite Treaty
Axis Powers signing with Saburo Kurusu ( Japan 's Ambassador to Germany), Galeazzo Ciano ( Italy 's Foreign Minister) and Adolf Hitler.
In March 1935, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by reintroducing conscription in Germany, building a massive military machine, including a new Navy ( Kriegsmarine ) and an Air Force ( Luftwaffe ). The enlistment of vast numbers of men and women in the new military seemed to solve unemployment problems, but seriously distorted the economy. For the first time in 20 years, Germany's armed forces were as strong as France 's.
In March 1936, Hitler again violated the Treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland . When Britain and France did nothing, he grew bolder. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when the military, led by General Francisco Franco , rebelled against the elected Popular Front government. Hitler sent troops to support Franco and Spain served as a testing ground for Germany's new forces and their methods, including the bombing of undefended towns such as Gernika in April 1937, prompting Pablo Picasso 's famous eponymous Guernica painting .
An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Galeazzo Ciano , foreign minister of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on October 25 , 1936 . Tripartite Treaty was then signed by Saburo Kurusu of Imperial Japan , Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Galeazzo Ciano of Fascist Italy in September 27 , 1940 and was later expanded to include Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria . They were collectively known as the Axis Powers . Then on November 5 , 1937 , at the Reich Chancellory , Adolf Hitler held a secret meeting and stated his plans for acquiring "living space" ( Lebensraum ) for the German people.
The Holocaust
Main article: Holocaust
One of the foundations of Hitler's and the NSDAP's social policies was the concept of racial hygiene . This was applied with varying degrees of rigourousness to different groups of society, but constituted in essence the same application of the brutal and crude concept of social Darwinism to all the different kinds of victims. Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, systematically killed about 11 million people, including about 6 million Jews [14] , in concentration camps , ghettos and mass executions , or through less systematic methods elsewhere. Besides being gassed to death, many also died of starvation and disease while working as slave labourers (sometimes benefiting private German companies in the process, because of the low cost of such labour). Along with Jews, non-Jewish Poles (over 3 million of whom died), alleged communists or political opposition, members of resistance groups, resisting Roman Catholics and Protestants , homosexuals , Roma , the physically handicapped and mentally retarded , Soviet prisoners of war , Jehovah's Witnesses , anti-Nazi clergy , trade unionists , and psychiatric patients were killed. This industrial-scale genocide in Europe is referred to as the Holocaust (the term is also used by some authors in a narrower sense, to refer specifically to the unprecedented destruction of European Jewry). One of the biggest and most important concentration camps is Auschwitz.
The massacres that led to the coining of the word " genocide " (the Endlösung der jüdischen Frage or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") were planned and ordered by leading Nazis, with Himmler playing a key role. While no specific order from Hitler authorizing the mass killing of the Jews has surfaced, there is documentation showing that he approved the Einsatzgruppen and the evidence also suggests that in the fall of 1941 Himmler and Hitler agreed in principle on mass extermination by gassing. During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet Heinz Linge and his military aide Otto Gunsche said Hitler had "pored over the first blueprints of gas chambers ."
To make for smoother cooperation in the implementation of this "Final Solution", the Wannsee conference was held near Berlin on January 20 , 1942 , with fifteen senior officials participating, led by Reinhard Heydrich and Adolf Eichmann . The records of this meeting provide the clearest evidence of planning for the Holocaust. On February 22 , Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".
World War II
Hitler with Romanian leader Ion Antonescu (far left).
On March 12 , 1938 , Hitler pressured his native Austria into unification with Germany (the Anschluss ) and made a triumphal entry into Vienna . Next, he intensified a crisis over the German-speaking Sudetenland districts of Czechoslovakia . This led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which authorized the annexation and immediate military occupation of these districts by Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was TIME magazine's Man of the Year for 1938. [15] British prime minister Neville Chamberlain hailed this agreement as "Peace in our time", but by giving way to Hitler's military demands Britain and France also left Czechoslovakia to Hitler's mercy.
Hitler ordered Germany's army to enter Prague on March 10 , 1939 and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate . After that, Hitler was claiming territories ceded to Poland under the Versailles Treaty . Britain had not been able to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for an alliance against Germany, and, on August 23 , 1939 , Hitler concluded a secret non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ) with Stalin on which it was likely agreed that the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany would partition Poland. On September 1 , Germany invaded the western portion of Poland. Britain and France, who had guaranteed assistance to Poland, declared war on Germany. Not long after this, on September 17 , Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.
After capturing western Poland by the end of September, Hitler built up his forces much further during the so-called Phony War . In April 1940, he ordered German forces to march into Denmark and Norway . In May 1940, Hitler ordered his forces to attack France , conquering the Netherlands , Luxembourg and Belgium in the process. France surrendered on June 22 , 1940 . This series of victories convinced his main ally, Benito Mussolini of Italy, to join the war on Hitler's side in May 1940.
Britain , whose defeated forces had evacuated France from the coastal town of Dunkirk , continued to fight alongside Canadian forces in the Battle of the Atlantic . After having his overtures for peace systematically rejected by the defiant British Government, now led by Winston Churchill , Hitler ordered bombing raids on the British Isles, leading to the Battle of Britain , a prelude of the planned German invasion. The attacks began by pounding the RAF airbases and the radar stations protecting South-East England. However, the Luftwaffe failed to defeat the RAF by the end of October 1940. Air superiority for the invasion, code-named Operation Sealion , could not be assured and Hitler ordered bombing raids to be carried out on British cities, including London and Coventry , mostly at night.
Path to defeat
Hitler with Großadmiral Erich Raeder .
On June 22 , 1941 , Hitler gave the signal for three million German troops to attack the Soviet Union , breaking the non-aggression pact he had concluded with Stalin less than two years earlier. This invasion, code-named Operation Barbarossa , seized huge amounts of territory, including the Baltic states, Belarus , and Ukraine , along with the encirclement and destruction of many Soviet forces. German forces, however, were stopped short of Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian winter and fierce Soviet resistance (see Battle of Moscow ), and the invasion failed to achieve the quick triumph over the Soviet Union which Hitler had anticipated.
Hitler's declaration of war against the United States on December 11 , 1941 four days after the Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , USA set him against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire ), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the USA ), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union ).
In May 1942, Reinhard Heydrich , one of the highest SS officers and one of Hitler's favorite subordinates, was assassinated by British-trained Czech operatives in Prague . Hitler reacted by ordering brutal reprisals, including the massacre of Lidice .
In late 1942, German forces under Feldmarschall Erwin Rommel were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein , thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East . In February 1943, the lengthy Battle of Stalingrad ended with the complete encirclement and destruction of the German 6th Army . Both defeats were turning points in the war, although the latter is more commonly considered primary. From this point on, the quality of Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated. Hitler's health was deteriorating too. His left hand started shaking uncontrollably. The biographer Ian Kershaw believes he suffered from Parkinson's disease . Other conditions that are suspected by some to have caused some (at least) of his symptoms are methamphetamine addiction and syphilis .
Italians overthrew Hitler's ally, Benito Mussolini , in 1943 after Operation Husky , an American and British invasion of Sicily . Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the eastern front . On June 6 , 1944 , the Western allied armies landed in northern France in what was the largest amphibious operation ever conducted, Operation Overlord . Realists in the German army knew defeat was inevitable and some officers plotted to remove Hitler from power. In July 1944 one of them, Claus von Stauffenberg , planted a bomb at Hitler's military headquarters in Rastenburg (the so-called July 20 Plot ), but Hitler narrowly escaped death. He ordered savage reprisals, resulting in the executions of more than 4,900 people [16] (sometimes by starvation in solitary confinement followed by slow strangulation ). The main resistance movement was destroyed although smaller isolated groups such as Die Rote Kapelle continued to operate.
Defeat and death
Cover of US newspaper The Stars and Stripes , May 1945.
By the end of 1944, the Red Army had driven the last German troops from Soviet territory and began entering Central Europe. The western allies were also rapidly advancing into Germany. The Germans had lost the war from a military perspective, but Hitler allowed no negotiation with the Allied forces, and as a consequence the German military forces continued to fight. Hitler's stubbornness and defiance of military realities also allowed the continued mass killing of Jews and others to continue. He even issued the Nero Decree on March 19 , 1945 , ordering the destruction of what remained of German industry, communications and transport. However, Albert Speer , who was in charge of that plan, did not carry it out. (The Morgenthau Plan for postwar Germany, promulgated by the Allies, aimed at a similar deindustrialization.)
In April 1945, Soviet forces were at the outskirts of Berlin . Hitler's closest lieutenants urged him to flee to Bavaria or Austria to make a last stand in the mountains, but he seemed determined to either live or die in the capital. SS leader Heinrich Himmler tried on his own to inform the Allies (through the Swedish diplomat Count Folke Bernadotte ) that Germany was prepared to discuss surrender terms. Meanwhile Hermann Göring sent a telegram from Bavaria in which he argued that since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, as Hitler's designated successor he should assume leadership of Germany. Hitler angrily reacted by dismissing both Himmler and Göring from all their offices and the party and declared them traitors.
After intense street-to-street combat , when Soviet troops were spotted within a block or two of the Reich Chancellory in the city centre, Hitler committed suicide in the Führerbunker on April 30 , 1945 by means of a self-delivered shot to the head (it is likely he simultaneously bit into a cyanide ampoule). Hitler's body and that of Eva Braun (his long-term mistress whom he had married the day before) were put in a bomb crater, partially burned with gasoline by Führerbunker aides and hastily buried in the Chancellory garden as Russian shells poured down and Red Army infantry continued to advance only two or three hundred metres away. He also had his dog Blondi poisoned around the same time.
When Russian forces reached the Chancellory, they found his body and an autopsy was performed using dental records (and German dental assistants who were familiar with them) to confirm the identification. To avoid any possibility of creating a potential shrine, the remains of Hitler and Braun were repeatedly moved, then secretly buried by SMERSH at their new headquarters in Magdeburg . In April 1970, when the facility was about to be turned over to the East German government, the remains were reportedly exhumed, thoroughly cremated , and the ashes finally dumped unceremoniously into the Elbe . According to the Russian Federal Security Service, a fragment of human skull stored in its archives and displayed to the public in a 2000 exhibition came from the remains of Hitler's body uncovered by the Red Army in Berlin, and is all that remains of Hitler; however, the authenticity of the skull has been challenged by many historians and researchers.
At the time of Hitler's death, most of Germany's infrastructure and major cities were in ruins and he had left explicit orders to complete the destruction. Millions of Germans were dead with millions more wounded or homeless. In his will , he dismissed other Nazi leaders and appointed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Goebbels as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide on 1 May 1945 . On 7 May 1945 , in Rheims , France, the German armed forces surrendered unconditionally to the Western Allies and on 8 May 1945 , in Berlin to the Soviet Union thus ending the war in Europe and with the creation of the Allied Control Council on 5 June 1945 , the Four Powers assumed "supreme authority with respect to Germany." Adolf Hitler's proclaimed Thousand Year Reich had lasted 12 years.
Legacy
Outside the building in Braunau am Inn where Adolf Hitler was born is a memorial stone warning of the horrors of World War II.
Since the defeat of Germany in World War II, Hitler, the Nazi Party and the results of Nazism have been regarded in most of the world as synonymous with evil . After Hitler's death, virtually all portrayals and characterizations of him rely heavily on condemnation.
The copyright of Hitler's book Mein Kampf in Europe is claimed by the Free State of Bavaria and will expire in 2015. Reproductions in Germany are generally authorized only for scholarly purposes and in heavily commented form. The situation is however unclear; Werner Maser (whom Theodor Heuss proposed to publish "Mein Kampf" as a weapon against Nazi Ideology) comments that intellectual property cannot be confiscated and so, it still would lie in the hands of Hitler's nephew, who, however, does not want to have anything to do with Hitler's legacy. This situation lead to contested trials, eg., in Poland and Sweden. "Mein Kampf", however,is published in the USA, as well as in other countries such as Turkey and Israel, by publishers with various political positions.
The display of swastikas or other Nazi symbols is prohibited in Germany and political extremists are generally under surveillance by the Verfassungsschutz , one of the federal or state-based offices for the protection of the constitution.
There have been instances of public figures referring to Hitler's legacy in neutral or favourable terms, particularly in South America , the Islamic World and parts of Asia. Future Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wrote favourably of Hitler in 1953. [17] Bal Thackeray , leader of the right-wing Shiv Sena party in the Indian state of the Maharashtra , declared in 1995 that he was an admirer of Hitler. [18] Much of the positive or neutral attitude towards Hitler may partly be because many of these countries were colonies of Allied Powers who were fighting Hitler-led Germany.
Main article: Adolf Hitler's religious beliefs
Adolf Hitler was brought up in his family's religion by his Roman Catholic parents, but as a school boy he began to reject the Church and Catholicism. After he had left home, he never attended Mass or received the Sacraments . However, he was never excommunicated , so he could be considered a Catholic in good standing until his death by suicide .
In later life, Hitler's religious beliefs present a discrepant picture: In public statements, he frequently spoke positively about the Christian heritage of German culture and belief in Christ. Hitler’s private statements, reported by his intimates, are more mixed, showing Hitler as a religious but also anti-Christian man. However, in contrast to other Nazi leaders, Hitler did not adhere to esoteric ideas, occultism , or neo-paganism , and ridiculed such beliefs in his book Mein Kampf . Rather, Hitler advocated a " Positive Christianity ", a belief system purged from what he objected to in traditional Christianity, and reinvented Jesus as a fighter against the Jews.[ citation needed ]
Hitler believed in a Social Darwinist struggle for survival between the different races, among which the "Aryan race" was supposed to be the torchbearers of civilization and the Jews as enemies of all civilization. Whether his anti-semitism was influenced by older Christian ideas remains disputed. Hitler also strongly believed that "Providence" was guiding him in this fight.
Among Christian denominations, Hitler favoured Protestantism, which was more open to such reinterpretations, but at the same time imitated some elements of Catholic church organization, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.
Health and sexuality
Main article: Adolf Hitler's medical health
Hitler's alleged health problems in his later years have long been the subject of debate, and he has variously been suggested to have suffered from irritable bowel syndrome , skin lesions , irregular heartbeat , tremors on the left side of his body, syphilis , Parkinson's disease and a strongly suggested addiction to methamphetamine .
Most of Hitler's biographers have characterized him as a vegetarian who abstained from eating meat, beginning in the early 1930s until his death (although his actual dietary habits appear inconsistent and are sometimes hotly disputed). There are reports of him disgusting his guests by giving them graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make them shun meat. A fear of cancer (which his mother died from) is the most widely cited reason, though many authors also assert Hitler had a profound and deep love of animals. He did consume dairy products and eggs, however. Martin Bormann constructed a large greenhouse close to the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden ) in order to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruits and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Personal photographs of Bormann's children tending the greenhouse survive and, by 2005, its foundations were among the only ruins visible in the area which were directly associated with Nazi leaders. For more information on this topic, see Vegetarianism of Adolf Hitler .
Hitler was also a fervent non-smoker and promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany. He reportedly promised a gold watch to any of his close associates who quit (and actually gave a few away). Several witness accounts relate that, immediately after his suicide was confirmed, many officers, aides, and secretaries in the Führerbunker lit cigarettes. [19] [20]
Contrary to popular accounts, there seems to be some evidence Hitler did not abstain entirely from alcohol . After the war, an interrogation in the USSR of his valet Heinz Linge could indicate that Hitler drank champagne now and then with Eva Braun .[ citation needed ]
Sexuality
Hitler presented himself to his public as a man without an intimate domestic life, dedicated to his political "mission". He is known to have had a fiancée, Mimi Reiter in the 1920s, and to have later had a mistress, Eva Braun. He had a close bond with his niece Geli Raubal, which many commentators have claimed was sexual. [21] All three women attempted suicide during their relationship with him, a fact which has led to speculation that Hitler may have had unusual sexual fetishes, though Reiter, the only one to survive the Nazi regime, denies this. [22] During the war and afterwards psychoanalysts offered numerous inconsistent psycho-sexual explanations of his pathology. More recently Lothar Machtan has argued in his book The Hidden Hitler that Hitler was homosexual.
Hitler's family
Main article: Hitler (disambiguation)
Paula Hitler, the last living member of Adolf Hitler's immediate family, died in 1960.
The most prominent, and longest-living direct descendants of Adolf Hitler's father, Alois, was Adolf's nephew William Patrick Hitler . With his wife Phyllis, he eventually moved to Long Island, New York and had four sons. None of William Hitler's children have yet had any children of their own.
Over the years various investigative reporters have attempted to track down other distant relatives of the Führer; many are now alleged to be living inconspicuous lives and have long since changed their last name.
Ernst Röhm , leader of the SA and internal critic, killed in the Night of the Long Knives (1934).
Albert Speer , Hitler's personal architect, Minister of armaments. Close friend to Hitler.
Paul Troost , famous architect who served before Speer.
Winifred Wagner , head of the Wagner family and close friend of Hitler's.
Miscellany
In order to meet Wikipedia's quality standards , this article's trivia section requires cleanup .
Content in the trivia section should be integrated into other appropriate areas of the article.
A nickname for Hitler used by German soldiers was Gröfaz, a derogatory and/or sarcastic abbreviation for Größter Feldherr aller Zeiten ("Greatest War Lord of all Time"), a title initially publicized by Nazi propaganda after the surprisingly quick fall of France . Nicknames by others were more disparaging. General George S. Patton referred to Hitler as "that paper-hanging son of a bitch!", after Hitler's habit of going over wall maps with his staff. Some within his staff called him "carpet eater", after seeing him fly into a rage so intense that it left him on the floor gripping the carpet with his teeth and fists.
Hitler did not like women to wear cosmetics , since they contained animal by-products, and frequently teased his mistress Eva Braun about her habit of wearing makeup. [23]
He almost never wore a uniform to social engagements, which he attended frequently whenever in Berlin during the 1930s. When he did wear uniforms, they were tailored and understated compared to those of other prominent Nazis who often wore elaborate uniforms with extensive decorations and medals.
According to the 2001 documentary The Tramp and the Dictator , the Charlie Chaplin parody/satire The Great Dictator was not only sent to Hitler, but an eyewitness confirmed he did see it, twice. [24] Chaplin has been quoted as saying, "I'd have given anything to know what he thought of it."
Hitler's favourite film is variously credited as being King Kong (1933) or The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935) and his favourite opera was Richard Wagner 's Rienzi , of which he claimed to have seen over 40 performances. [ citation needed ]
Hitler in various media
Video clips of Hitler at his mountain retreat in Berchtesgaden , Germany .
Problems seeing the videos? See media help .
Speeches and talk by Hitler
Main article: List of Adolf Hitler speeches
Hitler was a gifted orator who captivated many with his beating of the lectern and growling, emotional speech. Authentic though they may seem, Hitler's speeches were full of propaganda and rhetoric, used to touch a spot with his audience as a way to persuade them. While his early speeches were rather amateurish, over time Hitler perfected his delivery by rehearsing in front of mirrors and carefully choreographing his display of emotions with the message he was trying to convey. [25] [26]
Recording of Hitler in private conversation
Hitler visited Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim on his 75th birthday on the June 4 , 1942 . During the visit an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE , Thor Damen, recorded Hitler and Mannerheim in a private conversation, something which had to be done secretly as Hitler never allowed recordings of him off-guard. [2] Today the recording is the only known recording of Hitler not speaking in an official tone. The recording captures 11 and a half minutes of the two leaders in private conversation. [3] Hitler speaks in a slightly excited, but still intellectually detached manner during this talk (the speech has been compared to that of the working class). The majority of the recording is a monologue by Hitler. In the recording, Hitler admits to underestimating the Soviet Union's ability to conduct war (some English transcripts exist [4] [5] ).
Recording on the YLE Internet Archieve
Films
During Hitler's reign, he appeared in and was involved to varying degrees with a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl :
Olympia (1938).
Hitler was the central figure of the first three films, that focused on the party rallies of the respective years and are considered propaganda films, and features prominently in the Olympia film. Whether the latter is a propaganda film or a mere documentation is controversial, but it nonetheless perpetuated and spread the propagandistic message of the 1936 Olympic Games , depicting Nazi Germany as a prosperous and peaceful country.
IMDb: Adolf Hitler
Documentaries
The World at War (1974) is a famous Thames Television series which contains much information about Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, including an interview with his secretary, Traudl Junge .
Adolf Hitler's Last Days, from the BBC series "Secrets of World War II" tells the story about Hitler's last days during World War II.
Blind Spot: Hitler's Secretary (2002) is an exclusive 90 minute interview with Traudl Junge, Hitler's final trusted secretary. Made by Austrian Jewish director André Heller shortly before Junge's death from lung cancer, Junge recalls the last days in the Berlin bunker. Clips used in Downfall.
Dramatizations
Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973) is a movie depicting the days leading up to Adolf Hitler's death, starring Sir Alec Guinness.
The Bunker (1978) by James O'Donnell, describing the last days in the Führerbunker from 1945 - 01-17 to 1945 - 05-02 . Made into the TV movie The Bunker (1981), starring Anthony Hopkins.
Hitler: The Rise of Evil (2003) is a two-part TV series about the early years of Adolf Hitler and his rise to power (up to 1933). Stars Robert Carlyle .
Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004) is a German movie about the last days of Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich, starring Bruno Ganz . This film is partly based on the autobiography of Traudl Junge , a favorite secretary of Hitler's. In 2002 Junge said she felt great guilt for "...liking the greatest criminal ever to have lived."
Hans-Jürgen Syberberg 's Hitler - Ein Film aus Deutschland (Hitler, A Film From Germany), 1977. Originally presented on German television, this is a 7-hour work in 4 parts: The Grail; A German Dream; The End Of Winter's Tale; We, Children Of Hell. The director uses documentary clips, photographic backgrounds, puppets, theatrical stages, and other elements from almost all the visual arts, with the "actors" addressing directly the audience/camera, in order to approach and expand on this most taboo subject of European history of the 20th century.
Max is a 2002 Drama movie , that depicts a friendship between art dealer Max Rothman (who is Jewish) and a young Adolf Hitler as a failed painter in Vienna .
Further reading
Many books have been written about Adolf Hitler with his life and legacy thoroughly researched. See this list for an extensive annotated bibliography , containing also a list of works authored by Hitler.
See also
| Karl Dönitz |
Which film, released in 1969 and starring Dustin Hoffman is unique in the fact that it was the first X-rated film ever to win best picture Oscar ? | Adolf Hitler - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!
Adolf Hitler
"Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see Hitler (disambiguation) .
Adolf Hitler
( April 20 , 1889 – April 30 , 1945 ) was Chancellor of Germany from 1933, and " Führer " (leader) of Germany from 1934 until his death. He was leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), better known as the Nazi Party.
Hitler gained power in a Germany facing crisis after World War I . Using propaganda and charismatic oratory, he was able to appeal to the economic need of the lower and middle classes, while sounding resonant chords of nationalism , anti-Semitism and anti-communism . With the establishment of a restructured economy, a rearmed military, and a totalitarian fascist dictatorship , Hitler pursued an aggressive foreign policy with the intention of expanding German Lebensraum ("living space"), which triggered World War II when Germany invaded Poland . At its greatest extent, Nazi Germany occupied most of Europe, but along with the other Axis Powers was eventually defeated by the Allies . By then, Hitler's racial policies had culminated in a genocide of approximately eleven million people, including about six million Jews , in what is now known as the Holocaust .
In the final days of the war, Hitler along with his new wife, Eva Braun , committed suicide in his underground bunker in Berlin , after the city was surrounded by the Russian army.
Contents
Childhood and heritage
Adolf Hitler as an infant.
Adolf Hitler was born on April 20 , 1889 at Braunau am Inn , Austria , a small town in Upper Austria , on the border with Germany . He was the third son and the fourth of six children of Alois Hitler (born Schicklgruber) (1837–1903), a minor customs official, and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907), his second cousin, and third wife. Because of the close kinship of the two, a papal dispensation had to be obtained before the marriage could take place. Of Alois and Klara's six children, only Adolf and his younger sister Paula reached adulthood. Alois Hitler also had a son, Alois Jr. , and a daughter, Angela , by his second wife.
Alois was born illegitimate and for the first thirty-nine years of his life bore his mother's name, Schicklgruber. In 1876, Alois began using the name of his stepfather , Johann Georg Hiedler , after visiting a priest responsible for birth registries and declaring that Georg was his father (Alois gave the impression that Georg was still alive but he was long dead). The name was variously spelled Hiedler, Huetler, Huettler and Hitler and probably changed to "Hitler" by a clerk. About the origin of the name there are two theories:
From German Hittler and similar, "one who lives in a hut", "shepherd".
From Slavic Hidlar and Hidlarcek.
Later, Adolf Hitler was accused by his political enemies of not rightfully being a Hitler, but a Schicklgruber. This was also exploited in Allied propaganda during World War II when pamphlets bearing the phrase "Heil Schicklgruber" were airdropped over German cities.[ citation needed ] Adolf was legally born a Hitler, however, and was also closely related to Hiedler through his maternal grandmother, Johanna Hiedler .
Hitler's given name, "Adolf", comes from the Old High German for "noble wolf" ("Adel"="nobility" + "wolf"). [1] Hence, not surprisingly, one of Hitler's self-given nicknames was Wolf or Herr Wolf — he began using this nickname in the early 1920s and was addressed by it only by intimates (as "Uncle Wolf" by the Wagners) up until the fall of the Third Reich. [2] By his closest family and relatives, Hitler was known simply as "Adi". The names of his various headquarters scattered throughout continental Europe ( Wolfsschanze in East Prussia , Wolfsschlucht in France , Werwolf in Ukraine , etc.) seem to reflect this.
As a boy, Hitler was whipped almost daily by his father. Years later he told his secretary, "I then resolved never again to cry when my father whipped me. A few days later I had the opportunity of putting my will to the test. My mother, frightened, took refuge in the front of the door. As for me, I counted silently the blows of the stick which lashed my rear end." [3]
Hitler was not sure who his paternal grandfather was, but it was probably either Johann Georg Hiedler or his brother Johann Nepomuk Hiedler . There have been rumours that Hitler was one-quarter Jewish [1] and that his paternal grandmother, Maria Schicklgruber , had become pregnant after working as a servant in a Jewish household in Graz . During the 1920s, the implications of these rumours along with his known family history were politically explosive, especially for the proponent of a racist ideology . Opponents tried to prove that Hitler, the leader of the anti-Semitic Nazi Party , had Jewish or Czech ancestors. Although these rumours were never confirmed, for Hitler they were reason enough to conceal his origins. Soviet propaganda insisted Hitler was a Jew, though more modern research tends to diminish the probability that he had Jewish ancestors. According to Robert G. L. Waite in The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler, Hitler made it illegal for German women to work in Jewish households, and after the " Anschluss " (annexation) of Austria, Hitler had his father's hometown obliterated by turning it into an artillery practice area. Hitler seemed to fear that he was Jewish, and as Waite points out, this fact is more important than whether he actually was.
Because of Alois Hitler's profession, his family moved frequently, from Braunau to Passau , Lambach, Leonding , and Linz . As a young child, Hitler was reportedly a good student at the various elementary schools he attended; however, in sixth grade (1900–1), his first year of high school (Realschule) in Linz, he failed completely and had to repeat the grade. His teachers reported that he had "no desire to work."
Hitler later explained this educational slump as a kind of rebellion against his father Alois, who wanted the boy to follow him in a career as a customs official, although Adolf wanted to become a painter . This explanation is further supported by Hitler's later description of himself as a misunderstood artist. However, after Alois died on January 3 , 1903 , when Adolf was 13, Hitler's schoolwork did not improve. At the age of 16, Hitler left school with no qualifications .
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich
From 1905 onward, Hitler was able to live the life of a Bohemian on a fatherless child's pension and support from his mother. He was rejected twice by the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna (1907 – 1908) due to "unfitness for painting", and was told his abilities lay rather in the field of architecture . His memoirs reflect a fascination with the subject:
"The purpose of my trip was to study the picture gallery in the Court Museum, but I had eyes for scarcely anything but the Museum itself. From morning until late at night, I ran from one object of interest to another, but it was always the buildings which held my primary interest." (Mein Kampf, Chapter II, paragraph 3).
Following the school rector's recommendation, he too became convinced this was the path to pursue, yet he lacked the proper academic preparation for architecture school:
"In a few days I myself knew that I should some day become an architect. To be sure, it was an incredibly hard road; for the studies I had neglected out of spite at the Realschule were sorely needed. One could not attend the Academy's architectural school without having attended the building school at the Technic, and the latter required a high-school degree. I had none of all this. The fulfillment of my artistic dream seemed physically impossible.''"(Mein Kampf, Chapter II, paragraph 5 & 6).
On December 21 , 1907 , his mother Klara died a painful death from breast cancer at the age of 47. Hitler gave his share of the orphans ' benefits to his younger sister Paula , but when he was 21 he inherited some money from an aunt. He worked as a struggling painter in Vienna, copying scenes from postcards and selling his paintings to merchants and tourists (there is evidence he produced over 2000 paintings and drawings before World War I). Several biographers have noted that a Jewish resident of the house named Hanisch helped him sell his postcards.[ citation needed ]
A watercolour by Adolf Hitler depicting Laon , France .
After the second refusal from the Academy of Arts, Hitler gradually ran out of money. By 1909, he sought refuge in a homeless shelter , and by the beginning of 1910 had settled permanently into a house for poor working men.
Hitler first became an active anti-Semite in Vienna, which had a large Jewish community, including many Orthodox Jews from Eastern Europe and where traditional religious prejudice mixed with recent racist theories. Hitler was influenced over time by the writings of the race ideologist and anti-Semite Lanz von Liebenfels and polemics from politicians such as Karl Lueger , founder of the Christian Social Party and mayor of Vienna , one of the most outrageous demagogues in history, and Georg Ritter von Schönerer , leader of the pan-Germanic Away from Rome! movement. He later wrote in his book Mein Kampf that his transition from opposing anti-Semitism on religious grounds to supporting it on racial grounds came from having seen an Orthodox Jew :
"There were very few Jews in Linz. In the course of centuries the Jews who lived there had become Europeanized in external appearance and were so much like other human beings that I even looked upon them as Germans. The reason why I did not then perceive the absurdity of such an illusion was that the only external mark which I recognized as distinguishing them from us was the practice of their strange religion. As I thought that they were persecuted on account of their faith my aversion to hearing remarks against them grew almost into a feeling of abhorrence. I did not in the least suspect that there could be such a thing as a systematic anti-Semitism.
Once, when passing through the inner City, I suddenly encountered a phenomenon in a long caftan and wearing black side-locks. My first thought was: Is this a Jew? They certainly did not have this appearance in Linz. I carefully watched the man stealthily and cautiously but the longer I gazed at the strange countenance and examined it feature by feature, the more the question shaped itself in my brain: Is this a German?"
(Mein Kampf, vol. 1, chap. 2: "Years of study and suffering in Vienna")
Hitler began to claim the Jews were natural enemies of what he called the Aryan race . He held them responsible for Austria's crisis. He also identified certain forms of Socialism and especially Bolshevism , which had many Jews among its leaders, as Jewish movements, merging his anti-Semitism with anti-Marxism. Blaming Germany's military defeat on the 1917 Revolutions[ citation needed ], he considered Jews the culprit of Imperial Germany's military defeat and subsequent economic problems as well.
Generalising from tumultuous scenes in the parliament of the multi-national Austria Monarchy , he developed a firm belief in the inferiority of the democratic parliamentary system , which formed the basis of his political views. However, according to August Kubizek , his close friend and roommate at the time, he was more interested in the operas of Richard Wagner than in politics .
A landscape painted by Adolf Hitler.
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich . He later wrote in Mein Kampf that he had always longed to live in a "real" German city. In Munich, he became more interested in architecture and the writings of Houston Stewart Chamberlain . Moving to Munich also helped him escape military service in Austria for a time, but the Austrian army later arrested him. After a physical exam (during which his height was measured at 173 cm, or 5 ft 8 in) and a contrite plea, he was deemed unfit for service and allowed to return to Munich. However, when Germany entered World War I in August 1914, he immediately petitioned King Ludwig III of Bavaria for permission to serve in a Bavarian regiment, this request was granted, and Adolf Hitler enlisted in the Bavarian army. [4]
World War I
Hitler saw active service in France and Belgium as a messenger for the regimental headquarters of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment (also called Regiment List after its first commander), which exposed him to enemy fire. Unlike his fellow soldiers, Hitler reportedly never complained about the food or hard conditions, preferring to talk about art or history. He also drew some cartoons and instructional drawings for the army newspaper. His behaviour as a soldier was considered somewhat sloppy, but his regular duties required taking dispatches to and from fighting areas and he was twice decorated for his performance of these duties. He received the Iron Cross , Second Class, in December 1914 and the Iron Cross, First Class, in August 1918, an honour rarely given to a Gefreiter . However, because of the perception of "a lack of leadership skills" on the part of some of the regimental staff, as well as (according to Kershaw) Hitler's unwillingness to leave regimental headquarters (which would have been likely in event of promotion), he was never promoted to Unteroffizier . Other historians, however, say that the reason he was not promoted is that he did not have German citizenship. His duty station at regimental headquarters, while often dangerous, gave Hitler time to pursue his artwork. During October 1916 in northern France, Hitler was wounded in the leg, but returned to the front in March 1917. He received the Wound Badge later that year, as his injury was the direct result of hostile fire. Sebastian Haffner , referring to Hitler's experience at the front, suggests he did have at least some understanding of the military.
On October 15 , 1918 , shortly before the end of the war, Hitler was admitted to a field hospital , temporarily blinded by a poison gas attack. The English psychologist David Lewis [5] and Bernhard Horstmann indicate the blindness may have been the result of a conversion disorder (then known as hysteria ). Hitler later said it was during this experience that he became convinced the purpose of his life was to "save Germany". Some scholars, notably Lucy Dawidowicz, [6] argue that an intention to exterminate Europe's Jews was fully formed in Hitler's mind at this time, though he probably hadn't thought through how it could be done.
Two passages in Mein Kampf mention the use of poison gas :
At the beginning of the Great War, or even during the War, if twelve or fifteen thousand of these Jews who were corrupting the nation had been forced to submit to poison-gas . . . then the millions of sacrifices made at the front would not have been in vain. (Volume 2, Chapter 15 "The Right to Self-Defence").
These tactics are based on an accurate estimation of human weakness and must lead to success, with almost mathematical certainty, unless the other side also learns how to fight poison gas with poison gas. The weaker natures must be told that here it is a case of to be or not to be. (Volume 1, Chapter 2 "Years of Study and Suffering in Vienna")
Hitler had long admired Germany, and during the war he had become a passionate German patriot , although he did not become a German citizen until 1932. He was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918 even while the German army still held enemy territory. Like many other German nationalists , Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende ("dagger-stab legend") which claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field", had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian leaders and Marxists back on the home front . These politicians were later dubbed the November Criminals .
The Treaty of Versailles deprived Germany of various territories, demilitarized the Rhineland and imposed other economically damaging sanctions. The treaty also declared Germany the culprit for all the horrors of the Great War, as a basis for later imposing not-yet-specified reparations on Germany (the amount was repeatedly revised under the Dawes Plan , the Young Plan , and the Hoover Moratorium ). Germans, however, perceived the treaty and especially the paragraph on the German guilt as a humiliation, not least as it was damaging in the extreme to their pride. For example, there was a nearly total demilitarisation of the armed forces, allowing Germany only 6 battleships, no submarines, no air force, an army of 100,000 without conscription and no armoured vehicles. The treaty was an important factor in both the social and political conditions encountered by Hitler and his National Socialist Party as they sought power. Hitler and his party used the signing of the treaty by the "November Criminals" as a reason to build up Germany so that it could never happen again. He also used the 'November Criminals' as scapegoats, although at the Paris peace conference, these politicians had had very little choice in the matter.
The early years of the Nazi Party
A copy of Adolf Hitler's forged DAP membership card. His actual membership number was 555 (the 55th member of the party - the 500 was added to make the group appear larger) but later the number was reduced to create the impression that Hitler was one of the founding members (Ian Kershaw Hubris). Hitler had wanted to create his own party, but was ordered by his superiors in the Reichswehr to infiltrate an existing one instead.
Hitler's entry into politics
Main article: Hitler's political beliefs
After World War I, Hitler remained in the army and returned to Munich, where he - in contrast to his later declarations - participated in the funeral march for the murdered Bavarian prime minister Kurt Eisner . [7] After the suppression of the Munich Soviet Republic , took part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department (Dept Ib/P) of the Bavarian Reichswehr Group, Headquarters 4 under Captain Karl Mayr . A key purpose of this group was to create a scapegoat [ citation needed ] for the outbreak of the war and Germany's defeat. The scapegoats were found in "international Jewry", communists, and politicians across the party spectrum, especially the parties of the Weimar Coalition , who were deemed " November Criminals "[ citation needed ].
In July 1919, Hitler was appointed a Verbindungsmann (police spy) of an Aufklärungskommando (Intelligence Commando) of the Reichswehr , for the purpose of influencing other soldiers toward similar ideas and was assigned to infiltrate a small party, the German Workers' Party (DAP), which was thought of to be a possibly socialist party (See: Adolf Hitler's inspection of the German Workers' Party ). During his inspection of the party , Hitler was impressed with Drexler 's anti-Semitic , nationalist , anti-capitalist and anti- Marxist ideas, which favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism and mutual solidarity of all members of society.
Here Hitler also met Dietrich Eckart , one of the early founders of the party and member of the occult Thule Society . [8] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him, teaching him how to dress and speak, and introducing him to a wide range of people. Hitler in return thanked Eckart by paying tribute to him in the second volume of Mein Kampf.
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and with his former superiors' continued encouragement began participating full time in the party's activities. By early 1921, Adolf Hitler was becoming highly effective at speaking in front of even larger crowds. In February, Hitler spoke before a crowd of nearly six thousand in Munich . To publicize the meeting, he sent out two truckloads of Party supporters to drive around with swastikas , cause a commotion and throw out leaflets , their first use of this tactic. Hitler gained notoriety outside of the Party for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles , rival politicians (including monarchists, nationalists and other non-internationalist socialists) and especially against Marxists and Jews.
The DAP was centered in Munich which had become a hotbed of German nationalists who included Army officers determined to crush Marxism and undermine or even overthrow the young German republic. Gradually they noticed Adolf Hitler and his growing movement as a vehicle to hitch themselves to. Hitler traveled to Berlin to visit nationalist groups during the summer of 1921 and in his absence there was an unexpected revolt among the DAP leadership in Munich.
The Party was run by an executive committee whose original members considered Hitler to be overbearing and even dictatorial . To weaken Hitler's position they formed an alliance with a group of socialists from Augsburg . Hitler rushed back to Munich and countered them by tendering his resignation from the Party on July 11 , 1921 . When they realized the loss of Hitler would effectively mean the end of the Party, he seized the moment and announced he would return on the condition that he was made chairman and given dictatorial powers. Infuriated committee members (including founder Anton Drexler ) held out at first. Meanwhile an anonymous pamphlet appeared entitled Adolf Hitler: Is he a traitor ?, attacking Hitler's lust for power and criticizing the violence-prone men around him. Hitler responded to its publication in a Munich newspaper by suing for libel and later won a small settlement.
The executive committee of the DAP eventually backed down and Hitler's demands were put to a vote of party members. Hitler received 543 votes for and only one against. At the next gathering on July 29 , 1921 , Adolf Hitler was introduced as Führer of the National Socialist Party, marking the first time this title was publicly used. Hitler changed the name of the party to the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP ).
Hitler's beer hall oratory , attacking Jews, social democrats , liberals , reactionary monarchists , capitalists and communists , began attracting adherents. Early followers included Rudolf Hess , the former air force pilot Hermann Göring , and the army captain Ernst Röhm , who became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organization , the SA , which protected meetings and attacked political opponents. Hitler also assimilated independent groups, such as the Nuremberg-based Deutsche Werkgemeinschaft, led by Julius Streicher , who now became Gauleiter of Franconia . Hitler also attracted the attention of local business interests, was accepted into influential circles of Munich society and became associated with wartime General Erich Ludendorff during this time.
The Beer Hall Putsch
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Encouraged by this early support, Hitler decided to use Ludendorff as a front in an attempt to seize power later known as the Beer Hall Putsch (and sometimes as the Hitler Putsch or Munich Putsch). The Nazi Party had copied the Italian Fascists in appearance and also had adopted some programmatical points and now, in the turbulent year 1923, Hitler wanted to emulate Mussolini 's " March on Rome " by staging his own "Campaign in Berlin". Hitler and Ludendorff obtained the clandestine support of Gustav von Kahr , Bavaria 's de facto ruler along with leading figures in the Reichswehr and the police. As political posters show, Ludendorff, Hitler and the heads of the Bavarian police and military planned on forming a new government.
However on November 8 , 1923 Kahr and the military withdrew their support during a meeting in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall outside of Munich. A surprised Hitler had them arrested and proceeded with the coup. Unknown to him, Kahr and the other detainees had been released on Ludendorff's orders after he obtained their word not to interfere. That night they prepared resistance measures against the coup and in the morning, when Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government as a start to their "March on Berlin", the army quickly dispersed them (Ludendorff was wounded and a few other Nazis were killed).
Hitler fled to the home of friends and contemplated suicide. He was soon arrested for high treason and appointed Alfred Rosenberg as temporary leader of the party but found himself in an environment somewhat receptive to his beliefs. During Hitler's trial, sympathetic magistrates allowed Hitler to turn his debacle into a propaganda stunt. He was given almost unlimited amounts of time to present his arguments to the court, and his popularity soared when he voiced basic nationalistic sentiments shared by some of the public. On April 1 , 1924 Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg prison for the crime of conspiracy to commit treason. Hitler received favoured treatment from the guards and had much fan mail from admirers . Hitler was released on December 20 , 1924 after the authorities decided that he was not a danger to the public. Including remand, he had served just over one year of his five-year sentence.
Mein Kampf
Main article: Mein Kampf
While at Landsberg he dictated his political book Mein Kampf (My Struggle) to his deputy Rudolf Hess . The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart , was both an autobiography and an exposition of his political ideology. It was published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926 respectively, selling about 240,000 copies between 1925 and 1934 alone. By the end of the war, about 10 million copies had been sold or distributed (every newly-wed couple, as well as front soldiers, received free copies).
Hitler spent years dodging taxes on the royalties of his book, and had accumulated a tax debt of about 405,500 Reichsmarks (6m euros in today's money) by the time he became chancellor (at which time his debt was waived). [9] [10]
The rebuilding of the party
At the time of Hitler's release, the political situation in Germany had calmed down, and the economy had improved, which hampered Hitler's opportunities for agitation. Though the Hitler Putsch had given Hitler some national prominence, his party's mainstay was still Munich.
Joseph Goebbels with Adolf Hitler at the Obersalzberg , possibly early 1944.
As Hitler was still banned from public speeches, he appointed Gregor Strasser , who in 1924 had been elected to the Reichstag , as Reichsorganisationsleiter, authorizing him to organise the party in northern Germany. Gregor, joined by his younger brother Otto and Joseph Goebbels , steered an increasingly independent course, emphasizing the socialist element in the party's programme. The Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Gauleiter Nord-West became an internal opposition, threatening Hitler's authority, but this faction was defeated at the Bamberg Conference (1926) , during which Goebbels joined Hitler.
After this encounter, Hitler centralized the party even more and asserted the Führerprinzip as the basic principle of party organization. Leaders were not elected by their group but were rather appointed by their superior and were answerable to them while demanding unquestioning obedience from their inferiors. Consistent with Hitler's disdain for democracy , all power and authority devolved from the top down.
A key element of Hitler's appeal was his ability to convey a sense of offended national pride caused by the Treaty of Versailles imposed on the defeated German Empire by the Western Allies. Germany had lost economically important territory in Europe along with its colonies and in admitting to sole responsibility for the war had agreed to pay a huge reparations bill totaling 132 billion marks . Most Germans bitterly resented these terms but early Nazi attempts to gain support by blaming these humiliations on "international Jewry" were not particularly successful with the electorate. The party learned quickly and soon a more subtle propaganda emerged, combining anti-Semitism with an attack on the failures of the " Weimar system" and the parties supporting it.
Having failed in overthrowing the Republic by a coup, Hitler now pursued the "strategy of legality": this meant formally adhering to the rules of the Weimar Republic until he had legally gained power and then transforming liberal democracy into a Nazi dictatorship. Some party members, especially in the paramilitary SA , opposed this strategy and Ernst Röhm ridiculed Hitler as "Adolphe Legalité".
The road to power
Main article: Hitler's rise to power
The Brüning administration
The political turning point for Hitler came when the Great Depression hit Germany in 1930. The Weimar Republic had never been firmly rooted and was openly opposed by right-wing conservatives (including monarchists), Communists and the Nazis. As the parties loyal to the democratic, parliamentary republic found themselves unable to agree on counter-measures, their Grand Coalition broke up and was replaced by a minority cabinet. The new Chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Roman Catholic Centre Party , lacking a majority in parliament, had to implement his measures through the President's emergency decrees. Tolerated by the majority of parties, the exception soon became the rule and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.
The Reichstag's initial opposition to Brüning's measures led to premature elections in September 1930. The republican parties lost their majority and their ability to resume the Grand Coalition, while the Nazis suddenly rose from relative obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote along with 107 seats in the Reichstag , becoming the second largest party in Germany.
Hitler emerges from the Brown House in Munich (headquarters of the Nazi party during the last days of the Weimar Republic) after a post-election meeting in 1930.
Brüning's measure of budget consolidation and financial austerity brought little economic improvement and was extremely unpopular. Under these circumstances, Hitler appealed to the bulk of German farmers , war veterans and the middle-class who had been hard-hit by both the inflation of the 1920s and the unemployment of the Depression. Hitler received little response from the urban working classes and traditionally Catholic regions.
Meanwhile, on September 18 , 1931 , Hitler's niece Geli Raubal was found dead in her bedroom in his Munich apartment (his half-sister Angela and her daughter Geli had been with him in Munich since 1929), an apparent suicide. Geli was 19 years younger than he was and had used his gun, drawing rumours of a relationship between the two. The event is viewed as having caused lasting turmoil for him.
In 1932, Hitler intended to run against the aging President Paul von Hindenburg in the scheduled presidential elections . Though Hitler had left Austria in 1913, he still had not acquired German citizenship and hence could not run for public office. In February, however, the state government of Brunswick , in which the Nazi Party participated, appointed Hitler to some minor administrative post and also gave him citizenship. The new German citizen ran against Hindenburg, who was supported by a broad range of reactionary nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, Republican and even social democratic parties, and against the Communist presidential candidate. His campaign was called "Hitler über Deutschland" (Hitler over Germany). The name had a double meaning.
Hitler over Germany. Political campaign by aircraft.
Besides an obvious reference to Hitler's dictatorial intentions, it also referred to the fact that Hitler was campaigning by aircraft. This was a brand new political tactic that allowed Hitler to speak in two cities in one day, which was practically unheard of at the time. Hitler came in second on both rounds, attaining more than 35% of the vote during the second one in April. Although he lost to Hindenburg, the election established Hitler as a realistic and fresh alternative in German politics.
The cabinets of Papen and Schleicher
President Hindenburg, influenced by the Camarilla , became increasingly estranged from Brüning and pushed his Chancellor to move the government in a decidedly authoritarian and right-wing direction. This culminated, in May 1932, with the resignation of the Brüning cabinet.
Hindenburg appointed the nobleman Franz von Papen as chancellor, heading a "Cabinet of Barons". Papen was bent on authoritarian rule and, since in the Reichstag only the conservative DNVP supported his administration, he immediately called for new elections in July. In these elections, the Nazis achieved their biggest success yet and won 230 seats.
The Nazis had become the largest party in the Reichstag without which no stable government could be formed. Papen tried to convince Hitler to become Vice-Chancellor and enter a new government with a parliamentary basis. Hitler however rejected this offer and put further pressure on Papen by entertaining parallel negotiations with the Centre Party , Papen's former party, which was bent on bringing down the renegade Papen. In both negotiations, Hitler demanded that he, as leader of the strongest party, must be Chancellor, but President Hindenburg consistently refused to appoint the "Bohemian private" to the Chancellorship.
After a vote of no-confidence in the Papen government, supported by 84% of the deputies, the new Reichstag was dissolved and new elections were called in November. This time, the Nazis lost some votes but still remained the largest party in the Reichstag.
After Papen failed to secure a majority, he proposed to dissolve the parliament again along with an indefinite postponement of elections. Hindenburg at first accepted this, but after General Kurt von Schleicher and the military withdrew their support, Hindenburg instead dismissed Papen and appointed Schleicher, who promised he could secure a majority government by negotiations with both the Social Democrats, the trade unions, and dissidents from the Nazi party under Gregor Strasser . In January 1933, however, Schleicher had to admit failure in these efforts and asked Hindenburg for emergency powers along with the same postponement of elections that he had opposed earlier, to which the President reacted by dismissing Schleicher.
Hitler's appointment as Chancellor
Meanwhile Papen, resentful because of his dismissal, tried to get his revenge on Schleicher by working toward the General's downfall, through forming an intrigue with the camarilla and Alfred Hugenberg , media mogul and chairman of the DNVP . Also involved were Hjalmar Schacht , Fritz Thyssen and other leading German businessmen. They financially supported the Nazi Party, which had been brought to the brink of bankruptcy by the cost of heavy campaigning. The businessmen also wrote letters to Hindenburg, urging him to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties" which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people." [11]
Finally, the President reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler Chancellor of a coalition government formed by the NSDAP and DNVP . Hitler and two other Nazi ministers ( Frick , Göring ) were to be contained by a framework of conservative cabinet ministers, most notably by Papen as Vice-Chancellor and by Hugenberg as Minister of Economics. Papen wanted to use Hitler as a figure-head, but the Nazis had gained key positions, most notably the Ministry of the Interior. On the morning of January 30 , 1933 , in Hindenburg's office, Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor during what some observers later described as a brief and simple ceremony.
Reichstag Fire and the March elections
Having become Chancellor, Hitler foiled all attempts by non- NSDAP parties to gain a majority in parliament and on that basis persuaded President Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag again. Elections were scheduled for early March, but on February 27 , 1933 , the Reichstag building was set on fire . Since a Dutch independent communist was found in the building, the fire was blamed on a Communist plot to which the government reacted with the Reichstag Fire Decree of February 28 , which suspended basic rights, including habeas corpus . Under the provisions of this decree, the German Communist Party and other groups were suppressed, and Communist functionaries and deputies were arrested, put to flight, or murdered. In the same month Hitler banned pornography, homosexual bars and bath-houses and groups that promoted "gay rights". [12] Campaigning continued, with the Nazis making use of paramilitary violence, anti-Communist hysteria, and the government's resources for propaganda. On election day, March 6 , the NSDAP increased its result to 43.9% of the vote, remaining the largest party, but its victory was marred by its failure to secure an absolute majority. Hitler had to maintain his coalition with the DNVP , as the coalition had a slim majority.
The "Day of Potsdam" and the Enabling Act
On 21 March , the new Reichstag was constituted itself with an impressive opening ceremony held at Potsdam's garrison church. This "Day of Potsdam" was staged to demonstrate reconciliation and union between the revolutionary Nazi movement and "Old Prussia" with its elites and virtues. Hitler himself appeared, not in Nazi uniform, but in a tail coat, and humbly greeted the aged President Hindenburg.
Because of the Nazis' failure to obtain a majority on their own, Hitler's government confronted the newly elected Reichstag with the Enabling Act that would have vested the cabinet with legislative powers for a period of four years. Though such a bill was not unprecedented, this act was different since it allowed for deviations from the constitution. As the bill required a two-thirds majority in order to pass, the government needed the support of other parties. The position of the Catholic Centre Party , at this point the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive: under the leadership of Ludwig Kaas , the party decided to vote for the Enabling Act. It did so in return for the government's oral guarantees regarding the Church 's liberty, the concordats signed by German states and the continued existence of the Centre Party itself.
On 23 March , the Reichstag assembled in a replacement building under extremely turbulent circumstances. Some SA men served as guards within while large groups outside the building shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving deputies. Kaas announced that the Centre would support the bill amid "concerns put aside.", while Social Democrat Otto Wels denounced the Act in his speech. At the end of the day, all parties except the Social Democrats voted in favour of the bill. The Enabling Act was dutifully renewed by the Reichstag every four years, even through World War II.
Removal of remaining limits
With this combination of legislative and executive power, Hitler's government further suppressed the remaining political opposition . The KPD and the SPD were banned, while all other political parties dissolved themselves. Labour unions were merged with employers' federations into an organisation under Nazi control and the autonomy of German state governments was abolished.
Adolf Hitler in Triumph of the Will .
Hitler also used the SA paramilitary to push Hugenberg into resigning and proceeded to politically isolate Vice Chancellor Papen. As the SA's demands for political and military power caused much anxiety among the populace in general and especially among the military, Hitler used allegations of a plot by the SA leader Ernst Röhm to purge the paramilitary force's leadership during the Night of the Long Knives . Opponents unconnected with the SA were also murdered , notably Gregor Strasser and former Chancellor Kurt von Schleicher .
Soon after, president Paul von Hindenburg died on 2 August 1934 . Rather than holding new presidential elections, Hitler's cabinet passed a law proclaiming the presidency dormant and transferred the role and powers of the head of state to Hitler as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor). Thereby Hitler also became supreme commander of the military, which then swore their military oath not to the state or the constitution but to Hitler personally. In a mid-August plebiscite , these acts found the approval of 90% of the electorate. Combining the highest offices in state, military and party in his hand, Hitler had attained supreme rule that could no longer be legally challenged.
The Third Reich
Main article: Nazi Germany
Photographs like the one on the cover of Heinrich Hoffmann 's book of photography were used to promote Hitler's populist- nationalist (Völkisch) image.
Having secured supreme political power, Hitler went on to gain their support by convincing most Germans he was their saviour from the Depression, the Communists , the Versailles Treaty , and the Jews , along with other "undesirable" minorities .
Economics and culture
Hitler oversaw one of the greatest expansions of industrial production and civil improvement Germany had ever seen, mostly based on debt flotation and expansion of the military. Nazi policies toward women strongly encouraged them to stay at home to bear children and keep house. In a September 1934 speech to the National Socialist Women's Organization, Adolf Hitler argued that for the German woman her “world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home,” a policy which was reinforced by the bestowing of the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more babies, which resembled the Mother Heroaward of the Soviet Union under Stalin .. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Given this, claims that the German economy achieved near full employment are at least partly artifacts of propaganda from the era . Much of the financing for Hitler's reconstruction and rearmament came from currency manipulation by Hjalmar Schacht , including the clouded credits through the Mefo bills . The negative effects of this inflation were offset in later years by the acquisition of foreign gold from the treasuries of conquered nations.
Another popular photo theme was Hitler and his dog Blondi , here seen at the terrace of the Berghof .
Hitler also oversaw one of the largest infrastructure-improvement campaigns in German history, with the construction of dozens of dams , autobahns , railroads , and other civil works. Hitler's policies emphasised the importance of family life: men were the "breadwinners", while women's priorities were to lie in bringing up children and in household work. This revitalising of industry and infrastructure came at the expense of the overall standard of living, at least for those not affected by the chronic unemployment of the later Weimar Republic, since wages were slightly reduced in pre-World-War-II years, despite a 25% increase in the cost of living (Shirer 1959) .
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale, with Albert Speer becoming famous as the first architect of the Reich. While important as an Architect in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, Speer would prove much more effective as armaments minister during the last years of World War II. In 1936, Berlin hosted the summer Olympic games , which were opened by Hitler and choreographed to demonstrate Aryan superiority over all other races, achieving mixed results: most notably, African-American Jesse Owens won a Gold Medal , defeating "pure Aryan German athletes. Olympia , the movie about the games and other documentary propaganda films for the German Nazi Party were directed by Hitler's personal filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl .
Although Hitler made plans for a Breitspurbahn ( broad gauge railroad network), they were pre-empted by World War II. Had the railroad been built, its gauge would have been three metres, even wider than the old Great Western Railway of Britain.
Hitler contributed slightly to the design of the car that later became the Volkswagen Beetle , and charged Ferdinand Porsche with its design and construction. [13] Production was also deferred due to the war. (During the war, the Wolkswagenwerk factory produced military versions of the basic VW design, such as the Kugelwagen and the Schwimkugel ). After the war, the factory actually built the famous Volkswagen Beetle , although numerous German workers who had diligently bought savings stamps from the Strength Through Joy offices and pasted them into KDFstamp books didn't get their promised KDFWagens, because the Third Reich no longer existed. (People were allowed to trade their stamp books for a nontrivial discount on a new WV Beetle.[ citation needed ]
Rearmament and new alliances
Main articles: Axis Powers and Tripartite Treaty
Axis Powers signing with Saburo Kurusu ( Japan 's Ambassador to Germany), Galeazzo Ciano ( Italy 's Foreign Minister) and Adolf Hitler.
In March 1935, Hitler violated the Treaty of Versailles by reintroducing conscription in Germany, building a massive military machine, including a new Navy ( Kriegsmarine ) and an Air Force ( Luftwaffe ). The enlistment of vast numbers of men and women in the new military seemed to solve unemployment problems, but seriously distorted the economy. For the first time in 20 years, Germany's armed forces were as strong as France 's.
In March 1936, Hitler again violated the Treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland . When Britain and France did nothing, he grew bolder. In July 1936, the Spanish Civil War began when the military, led by General Francisco Franco , rebelled against the elected Popular Front government. Hitler sent troops to support Franco and Spain served as a testing ground for Germany's new forces and their methods, including the bombing of undefended towns such as Gernika in April 1937, prompting Pablo Picasso 's famous eponymous Guernica painting .
An Axis was declared between Germany and Italy by Galeazzo Ciano , foreign minister of Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini on October 25 , 1936 . Tripartite Treaty was then signed by Saburo Kurusu of Imperial Japan , Adolf Hitler of Nazi Germany and Galeazzo Ciano of Fascist Italy in September 27 , 1940 and was later expanded to include Hungary , Romania and Bulgaria . They were collectively known as the Axis Powers . Then on November 5 , 1937 , at the Reich Chancellory , Adolf Hitler held a secret meeting and stated his plans for acquiring "living space" ( Lebensraum ) for the German people.
The Holocaust
Main article: Holocaust
One of the foundations of Hitler's and the NSDAP's social policies was the concept of racial hygiene . This was applied with varying degrees of rigourousness to different groups of society, but constituted in essence the same application of the brutal and crude concept of social Darwinism to all the different kinds of victims. Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, systematically killed about 11 million people, including about 6 million Jews [14] , in concentration camps , ghettos and mass executions , or through less systematic methods elsewhere. Besides being gassed to death, many also died of starvation and disease while working as slave labourers (sometimes benefiting private German companies in the process, because of the low cost of such labour). Along with Jews, non-Jewish Poles (over 3 million of whom died), alleged communists or political opposition, members of resistance groups, resisting Roman Catholics and Protestants , homosexuals , Roma , the physically handicapped and mentally retarded , Soviet prisoners of war , Jehovah's Witnesses , anti-Nazi clergy , trade unionists , and psychiatric patients were killed. This industrial-scale genocide in Europe is referred to as the Holocaust (the term is also used by some authors in a narrower sense, to refer specifically to the unprecedented destruction of European Jewry). One of the biggest and most important concentration camps is Auschwitz.
The massacres that led to the coining of the word " genocide " (the Endlösung der jüdischen Frage or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") were planned and ordered by leading Nazis, with Himmler playing a key role. While no specific order from Hitler authorizing the mass killing of the Jews has surfaced, there is documentation showing that he approved the Einsatzgruppen and the evidence also suggests that in the fall of 1941 Himmler and Hitler agreed in principle on mass extermination by gassing. During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet Heinz Linge and his military aide Otto Gunsche said Hitler had "pored over the first blueprints of gas chambers ."
To make for smoother cooperation in the implementation of this "Final Solution", the Wannsee conference was held near Berlin on January 20 , 1942 , with fifteen senior officials participating, led by Reinhard Heydrich and Adolf Eichmann . The records of this meeting provide the clearest evidence of planning for the Holocaust. On February 22 , Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".
World War II
Hitler with Romanian leader Ion Antonescu (far left).
On March 12 , 1938 , Hitler pressured his native Austria into unification with Germany (the Anschluss ) and made a triumphal entry into Vienna . Next, he intensified a crisis over the German-speaking Sudetenland districts of Czechoslovakia . This led to the Munich Agreement of September 1938, which authorized the annexation and immediate military occupation of these districts by Germany. As a result of the summit, Hitler was TIME magazine's Man of the Year for 1938. [15] British prime minister Neville Chamberlain hailed this agreement as "Peace in our time", but by giving way to Hitler's military demands Britain and France also left Czechoslovakia to Hitler's mercy.
Hitler ordered Germany's army to enter Prague on March 10 , 1939 and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate . After that, Hitler was claiming territories ceded to Poland under the Versailles Treaty . Britain had not been able to reach an agreement with the Soviet Union for an alliance against Germany, and, on August 23 , 1939 , Hitler concluded a secret non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact ) with Stalin on which it was likely agreed that the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany would partition Poland. On September 1 , Germany invaded the western portion of Poland. Britain and France, who had guaranteed assistance to Poland, declared war on Germany. Not long after this, on September 17 , Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.
After capturing western Poland by the end of September, Hitler built up his forces much further during the so-called Phony War . In April 1940, he ordered German forces to march into Denmark and Norway . In May 1940, Hitler ordered his forces to attack France , conquering the Netherlands , Luxembourg and Belgium in the process. France surrendered on June 22 , 1940 . This series of victories convinced his main ally, Benito Mussolini of Italy, to join the war on Hitler's side in May 1940.
Britain , whose defeated forces had evacuated France from the coastal town of Dunkirk , continued to fight alongside Canadian forces in the Battle of the Atlantic . After having his overtures for peace systematically rejected by the defiant British Government, now led by Winston Churchill , Hitler ordered bombing raids on the British Isles, leading to the Battle of Britain , a prelude of the planned German invasion. The attacks began by pounding the RAF airbases and the radar stations protecting South-East England. However, the Luftwaffe failed to defeat the RAF by the end of October 1940. Air superiority for the invasion, code-named Operation Sealion , could not be assured and Hitler ordered bombing raids to be carried out on British cities, including London and Coventry , mostly at night.
Path to defeat
Hitler with Großadmiral Erich Raeder .
On June 22 , 1941 , Hitler gave the signal for three million German troops to attack the Soviet Union , breaking the non-aggression pact he had concluded with Stalin less than two years earlier. This invasion, code-named Operation Barbarossa , seized huge amounts of territory, including the Baltic states, Belarus , and Ukraine , along with the encirclement and destruction of many Soviet forces. German forces, however, were stopped short of Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian winter and fierce Soviet resistance (see Battle of Moscow ), and the invasion failed to achieve the quick triumph over the Soviet Union which Hitler had anticipated.
Hitler's declaration of war against the United States on December 11 , 1941 four days after the Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , USA set him against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire ), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the USA ), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union ).
In May 1942, Reinhard Heydrich , one of the highest SS officers and one of Hitler's favorite subordinates, was assassinated by British-trained Czech operatives in Prague . Hitler reacted by ordering brutal reprisals, including the massacre of Lidice .
In late 1942, German forces under Feldmarschall Erwin Rommel were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein , thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East . In February 1943, the lengthy Battle of Stalingrad ended with the complete encirclement and destruction of the German 6th Army . Both defeats were turning points in the war, although the latter is more commonly considered primary. From this point on, the quality of Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated. Hitler's health was deteriorating too. His left hand started shaking uncontrollably. The biographer Ian Kershaw believes he suffered from Parkinson's disease . Other conditions that are suspected by some to have caused some (at least) of his symptoms are methamphetamine addiction and syphilis .
Italians overthrew Hitler's ally, Benito Mussolini , in 1943 after Operation Husky , an American and British invasion of Sicily . Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the eastern front . On June 6 , 1944 , the Western allied armies landed in northern France in what was the largest amphibious operation ever conducted, Operation Overlord . Realists in the German army knew defeat was inevitable and some officers plotted to remove Hitler from power. In July 1944 one of them, Claus von Stauffenberg , planted a bomb at Hitler's military headquarters in Rastenburg (the so-called July 20 Plot ), but Hitler narrowly escaped death. He ordered savage reprisals, resulting in the executions of more than 4,900 people [16] (sometimes by starvation in solitary confinement followed by slow strangulation ). The main resistance movement was destroyed although smaller isolated groups such as Die Rote Kapelle continued to operate.
Defeat and death
Cover of US newspaper The Stars and Stripes , May 1945.
By the end of 1944, the Red Army had driven the last German troops from Soviet territory and began entering Central Europe. The western allies were also rapidly advancing into Germany. The Germans had lost the war from a military perspective, but Hitler allowed no negotiation with the Allied forces, and as a consequence the German military forces continued to fight. Hitler's stubbornness and defiance of military realities also allowed the continued mass killing of Jews and others to continue. He even issued the Nero Decree on March 19 , 1945 , ordering the destruction of what remained of German industry, communications and transport. However, Albert Speer , who was in charge of that plan, did not carry it out. (The Morgenthau Plan for postwar Germany, promulgated by the Allies, aimed at a similar deindustrialization.)
In April 1945, Soviet forces were at the outskirts of Berlin . Hitler's closest lieutenants urged him to flee to Bavaria or Austria to make a last stand in the mountains, but he seemed determined to either live or die in the capital. SS leader Heinrich Himmler tried on his own to inform the Allies (through the Swedish diplomat Count Folke Bernadotte ) that Germany was prepared to discuss surrender terms. Meanwhile Hermann Göring sent a telegram from Bavaria in which he argued that since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, as Hitler's designated successor he should assume leadership of Germany. Hitler angrily reacted by dismissing both Himmler and Göring from all their offices and the party and declared them traitors.
After intense street-to-street combat , when Soviet troops were spotted within a block or two of the Reich Chancellory in the city centre, Hitler committed suicide in the Führerbunker on April 30 , 1945 by means of a self-delivered shot to the head (it is likely he simultaneously bit into a cyanide ampoule). Hitler's body and that of Eva Braun (his long-term mistress whom he had married the day before) were put in a bomb crater, partially burned with gasoline by Führerbunker aides and hastily buried in the Chancellory garden as Russian shells poured down and Red Army infantry continued to advance only two or three hundred metres away. He also had his dog Blondi poisoned around the same time.
When Russian forces reached the Chancellory, they found his body and an autopsy was performed using dental records (and German dental assistants who were familiar with them) to confirm the identification. To avoid any possibility of creating a potential shrine, the remains of Hitler and Braun were repeatedly moved, then secretly buried by SMERSH at their new headquarters in Magdeburg . In April 1970, when the facility was about to be turned over to the East German government, the remains were reportedly exhumed, thoroughly cremated , and the ashes finally dumped unceremoniously into the Elbe . According to the Russian Federal Security Service, a fragment of human skull stored in its archives and displayed to the public in a 2000 exhibition came from the remains of Hitler's body uncovered by the Red Army in Berlin, and is all that remains of Hitler; however, the authenticity of the skull has been challenged by many historians and researchers.
At the time of Hitler's death, most of Germany's infrastructure and major cities were in ruins and he had left explicit orders to complete the destruction. Millions of Germans were dead with millions more wounded or homeless. In his will , he dismissed other Nazi leaders and appointed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Reichspräsident (President of Germany) and Goebbels as Reichskanzler (Chancellor of Germany). However, Goebbels and his wife Magda committed suicide on 1 May 1945 . On 7 May 1945 , in Rheims , France, the German armed forces surrendered unconditionally to the Western Allies and on 8 May 1945 , in Berlin to the Soviet Union thus ending the war in Europe and with the creation of the Allied Control Council on 5 June 1945 , the Four Powers assumed "supreme authority with respect to Germany." Adolf Hitler's proclaimed Thousand Year Reich had lasted 12 years.
Legacy
Outside the building in Braunau am Inn where Adolf Hitler was born is a memorial stone warning of the horrors of World War II.
Since the defeat of Germany in World War II, Hitler, the Nazi Party and the results of Nazism have been regarded in most of the world as synonymous with evil . After Hitler's death, virtually all portrayals and characterizations of him rely heavily on condemnation.
The copyright of Hitler's book Mein Kampf in Europe is claimed by the Free State of Bavaria and will expire in 2015. Reproductions in Germany are generally authorized only for scholarly purposes and in heavily commented form. The situation is however unclear; Werner Maser (whom Theodor Heuss proposed to publish "Mein Kampf" as a weapon against Nazi Ideology) comments that intellectual property cannot be confiscated and so, it still would lie in the hands of Hitler's nephew, who, however, does not want to have anything to do with Hitler's legacy. This situation lead to contested trials, eg., in Poland and Sweden. "Mein Kampf", however,is published in the USA, as well as in other countries such as Turkey and Israel, by publishers with various political positions.
The display of swastikas or other Nazi symbols is prohibited in Germany and political extremists are generally under surveillance by the Verfassungsschutz , one of the federal or state-based offices for the protection of the constitution.
There have been instances of public figures referring to Hitler's legacy in neutral or favourable terms, particularly in South America , the Islamic World and parts of Asia. Future Egyptian President Anwar Sadat wrote favourably of Hitler in 1953. [17] Bal Thackeray , leader of the right-wing Shiv Sena party in the Indian state of the Maharashtra , declared in 1995 that he was an admirer of Hitler. [18] Much of the positive or neutral attitude towards Hitler may partly be because many of these countries were colonies of Allied Powers who were fighting Hitler-led Germany.
Main article: Adolf Hitler's religious beliefs
Adolf Hitler was brought up in his family's religion by his Roman Catholic parents, but as a school boy he began to reject the Church and Catholicism. After he had left home, he never attended Mass or received the Sacraments . However, he was never excommunicated , so he could be considered a Catholic in good standing until his death by suicide .
In later life, Hitler's religious beliefs present a discrepant picture: In public statements, he frequently spoke positively about the Christian heritage of German culture and belief in Christ. Hitler’s private statements, reported by his intimates, are more mixed, showing Hitler as a religious but also anti-Christian man. However, in contrast to other Nazi leaders, Hitler did not adhere to esoteric ideas, occultism , or neo-paganism , and ridiculed such beliefs in his book Mein Kampf . Rather, Hitler advocated a " Positive Christianity ", a belief system purged from what he objected to in traditional Christianity, and reinvented Jesus as a fighter against the Jews.[ citation needed ]
Hitler believed in a Social Darwinist struggle for survival between the different races, among which the "Aryan race" was supposed to be the torchbearers of civilization and the Jews as enemies of all civilization. Whether his anti-semitism was influenced by older Christian ideas remains disputed. Hitler also strongly believed that "Providence" was guiding him in this fight.
Among Christian denominations, Hitler favoured Protestantism, which was more open to such reinterpretations, but at the same time imitated some elements of Catholic church organization, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.
Health and sexuality
Main article: Adolf Hitler's medical health
Hitler's alleged health problems in his later years have long been the subject of debate, and he has variously been suggested to have suffered from irritable bowel syndrome , skin lesions , irregular heartbeat , tremors on the left side of his body, syphilis , Parkinson's disease and a strongly suggested addiction to methamphetamine .
Most of Hitler's biographers have characterized him as a vegetarian who abstained from eating meat, beginning in the early 1930s until his death (although his actual dietary habits appear inconsistent and are sometimes hotly disputed). There are reports of him disgusting his guests by giving them graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make them shun meat. A fear of cancer (which his mother died from) is the most widely cited reason, though many authors also assert Hitler had a profound and deep love of animals. He did consume dairy products and eggs, however. Martin Bormann constructed a large greenhouse close to the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden ) in order to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruits and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Personal photographs of Bormann's children tending the greenhouse survive and, by 2005, its foundations were among the only ruins visible in the area which were directly associated with Nazi leaders. For more information on this topic, see Vegetarianism of Adolf Hitler .
Hitler was also a fervent non-smoker and promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany. He reportedly promised a gold watch to any of his close associates who quit (and actually gave a few away). Several witness accounts relate that, immediately after his suicide was confirmed, many officers, aides, and secretaries in the Führerbunker lit cigarettes. [19] [20]
Contrary to popular accounts, there seems to be some evidence Hitler did not abstain entirely from alcohol . After the war, an interrogation in the USSR of his valet Heinz Linge could indicate that Hitler drank champagne now and then with Eva Braun .[ citation needed ]
Sexuality
Hitler presented himself to his public as a man without an intimate domestic life, dedicated to his political "mission". He is known to have had a fiancée, Mimi Reiter in the 1920s, and to have later had a mistress, Eva Braun. He had a close bond with his niece Geli Raubal, which many commentators have claimed was sexual. [21] All three women attempted suicide during their relationship with him, a fact which has led to speculation that Hitler may have had unusual sexual fetishes, though Reiter, the only one to survive the Nazi regime, denies this. [22] During the war and afterwards psychoanalysts offered numerous inconsistent psycho-sexual explanations of his pathology. More recently Lothar Machtan has argued in his book The Hidden Hitler that Hitler was homosexual.
Hitler's family
Main article: Hitler (disambiguation)
Paula Hitler, the last living member of Adolf Hitler's immediate family, died in 1960.
The most prominent, and longest-living direct descendants of Adolf Hitler's father, Alois, was Adolf's nephew William Patrick Hitler . With his wife Phyllis, he eventually moved to Long Island, New York and had four sons. None of William Hitler's children have yet had any children of their own.
Over the years various investigative reporters have attempted to track down other distant relatives of the Führer; many are now alleged to be living inconspicuous lives and have long since changed their last name.
Ernst Röhm , leader of the SA and internal critic, killed in the Night of the Long Knives (1934).
Albert Speer , Hitler's personal architect, Minister of armaments. Close friend to Hitler.
Paul Troost , famous architect who served before Speer.
Winifred Wagner , head of the Wagner family and close friend of Hitler's.
Miscellany
In order to meet Wikipedia's quality standards , this article's trivia section requires cleanup .
Content in the trivia section should be integrated into other appropriate areas of the article.
A nickname for Hitler used by German soldiers was Gröfaz, a derogatory and/or sarcastic abbreviation for Größter Feldherr aller Zeiten ("Greatest War Lord of all Time"), a title initially publicized by Nazi propaganda after the surprisingly quick fall of France . Nicknames by others were more disparaging. General George S. Patton referred to Hitler as "that paper-hanging son of a bitch!", after Hitler's habit of going over wall maps with his staff. Some within his staff called him "carpet eater", after seeing him fly into a rage so intense that it left him on the floor gripping the carpet with his teeth and fists.
Hitler did not like women to wear cosmetics , since they contained animal by-products, and frequently teased his mistress Eva Braun about her habit of wearing makeup. [23]
He almost never wore a uniform to social engagements, which he attended frequently whenever in Berlin during the 1930s. When he did wear uniforms, they were tailored and understated compared to those of other prominent Nazis who often wore elaborate uniforms with extensive decorations and medals.
According to the 2001 documentary The Tramp and the Dictator , the Charlie Chaplin parody/satire The Great Dictator was not only sent to Hitler, but an eyewitness confirmed he did see it, twice. [24] Chaplin has been quoted as saying, "I'd have given anything to know what he thought of it."
Hitler's favourite film is variously credited as being King Kong (1933) or The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935) and his favourite opera was Richard Wagner 's Rienzi , of which he claimed to have seen over 40 performances. [ citation needed ]
Hitler in various media
Video clips of Hitler at his mountain retreat in Berchtesgaden , Germany .
Problems seeing the videos? See media help .
Speeches and talk by Hitler
Main article: List of Adolf Hitler speeches
Hitler was a gifted orator who captivated many with his beating of the lectern and growling, emotional speech. Authentic though they may seem, Hitler's speeches were full of propaganda and rhetoric, used to touch a spot with his audience as a way to persuade them. While his early speeches were rather amateurish, over time Hitler perfected his delivery by rehearsing in front of mirrors and carefully choreographing his display of emotions with the message he was trying to convey. [25] [26]
Recording of Hitler in private conversation
Hitler visited Finnish Field Marshal Mannerheim on his 75th birthday on the June 4 , 1942 . During the visit an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE , Thor Damen, recorded Hitler and Mannerheim in a private conversation, something which had to be done secretly as Hitler never allowed recordings of him off-guard. [2] Today the recording is the only known recording of Hitler not speaking in an official tone. The recording captures 11 and a half minutes of the two leaders in private conversation. [3] Hitler speaks in a slightly excited, but still intellectually detached manner during this talk (the speech has been compared to that of the working class). The majority of the recording is a monologue by Hitler. In the recording, Hitler admits to underestimating the Soviet Union's ability to conduct war (some English transcripts exist [4] [5] ).
Recording on the YLE Internet Archieve
Films
During Hitler's reign, he appeared in and was involved to varying degrees with a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl :
Olympia (1938).
Hitler was the central figure of the first three films, that focused on the party rallies of the respective years and are considered propaganda films, and features prominently in the Olympia film. Whether the latter is a propaganda film or a mere documentation is controversial, but it nonetheless perpetuated and spread the propagandistic message of the 1936 Olympic Games , depicting Nazi Germany as a prosperous and peaceful country.
IMDb: Adolf Hitler
Documentaries
The World at War (1974) is a famous Thames Television series which contains much information about Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, including an interview with his secretary, Traudl Junge .
Adolf Hitler's Last Days, from the BBC series "Secrets of World War II" tells the story about Hitler's last days during World War II.
Blind Spot: Hitler's Secretary (2002) is an exclusive 90 minute interview with Traudl Junge, Hitler's final trusted secretary. Made by Austrian Jewish director André Heller shortly before Junge's death from lung cancer, Junge recalls the last days in the Berlin bunker. Clips used in Downfall.
Dramatizations
Hitler: The Last Ten Days (1973) is a movie depicting the days leading up to Adolf Hitler's death, starring Sir Alec Guinness.
The Bunker (1978) by James O'Donnell, describing the last days in the Führerbunker from 1945 - 01-17 to 1945 - 05-02 . Made into the TV movie The Bunker (1981), starring Anthony Hopkins.
Hitler: The Rise of Evil (2003) is a two-part TV series about the early years of Adolf Hitler and his rise to power (up to 1933). Stars Robert Carlyle .
Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004) is a German movie about the last days of Adolf Hitler and the Third Reich, starring Bruno Ganz . This film is partly based on the autobiography of Traudl Junge , a favorite secretary of Hitler's. In 2002 Junge said she felt great guilt for "...liking the greatest criminal ever to have lived."
Hans-Jürgen Syberberg 's Hitler - Ein Film aus Deutschland (Hitler, A Film From Germany), 1977. Originally presented on German television, this is a 7-hour work in 4 parts: The Grail; A German Dream; The End Of Winter's Tale; We, Children Of Hell. The director uses documentary clips, photographic backgrounds, puppets, theatrical stages, and other elements from almost all the visual arts, with the "actors" addressing directly the audience/camera, in order to approach and expand on this most taboo subject of European history of the 20th century.
Max is a 2002 Drama movie , that depicts a friendship between art dealer Max Rothman (who is Jewish) and a young Adolf Hitler as a failed painter in Vienna .
Further reading
Many books have been written about Adolf Hitler with his life and legacy thoroughly researched. See this list for an extensive annotated bibliography , containing also a list of works authored by Hitler.
See also
| i don't know |
Usually affecting the big toe, Podagra is an alternative name for which medical condition ? | Gout / Podagra Symptoms, Causes, Risk Factors and Treatment | My Toe Hurts
Gout / Podagra Symptoms, Causes, Risk Factors and Treatment
About
Gout / Podagra
Gout (a.k.a. podagra when it affects the big toe joint) is a fairly common form of arthritis that is a result of an abnormal metabolism of uric acid. People with gout either produce too much uric acid, or it may be the case that their bodies simply have difficulty getting rid of it. When uric acid builds up in the tissues and the blood, it causes inflammation in the joints, and this leads to gout. The prevalence of gout as a medical condition seems to be on the rise; currently it is estimated that gout affects over 6 million Americans.
The increased prevalence of gout may be linked to several different disorders. Some of the conditions that have a correlation to gout include: heart disease, kidney stones, high blood pressure (hypertension), high levels of lipid, and obesity. Chronic gout can be controlled with the help of medication. If the condition is diagnosed early on and treated appropriately, the damage caused to one’s joints will be minimal. Standard treatments tend to include lifestyle changes, and these can be very effective in terms of preventing and managing gout and many of its associated conditions. The joint most commonly affected by gout is the metatarsal-phalangeal joint which is situated at the base of the big toe. This condition is often called podagra. This joint is affected in about 50% of cases. However, gout can affect almost any part of the body. Sometimes it is termed the “rich man’s disease” or the “disease of kings”, due to how gout has been stereotypically linked to habits like overindulgence in food and drink. The truth is, however, that the risk factors for gout vary greatly, and almost anyone can be affected by it.
Gout Symptoms
The onset of gout is often characterized by intense episodes of pain in individual joints, generally accompanied by swelling, redness, tenderness, and heat. An acute gout attack may wake you up in the early hours of the morning with an unbearable burning sensation in your big toe. The pain experienced during an attack of gout is often described as excruciating, throbbing, or crushing pain. Even the weight of a bed sheet may trigger more pain in the big toe joint. Acute gout may affect just one joint, or it could affect a few. Besides the metatarsal-phalangeal joint, gout commonly affects the knee and ankle joints.
In addition to the standard symptoms, someone suffering from an attack of gout may also have a fever. The attack may subside in several days, but may also return occasionally. Subsequent attacks of gout often last for longer than the initial one. If an individual develops chronic gout, this condition is termed gouty arthritis. Gouty arthritis may lead to a loss of motion and damage to the joints. Those with chronic gout may experience pain, swelling, and tenderness most or all of the time.
Gout Causes & Risk Factors
Hyperuricemia, which signifies abnormally high levels of uric acid in one’s blood, is the direct underlying cause of gout. When we metabolize food, and when bodily tissues are broken down during regular cell turnover, our bodies produce uric acid. 10% of gout patients have bodies that generate an excess of uric acid. These patients are referred to as “over-producers.” Other gout patients are “under-excreters”; these do not effectively pass the uric acid from their bodies in their urine. Under-excreters account for the remaining 90% of gout patients.
Why does gout develop? No one knows exactly why. A particularly common factor that increases your risk of getting gout is the excess consumption of alcohol. Beer in particular is high in purines, which causes higher levels of uric acid. Gout is also associated with injuries, surgical procedures, high stress periods, and hospitalization. The condition is at times also a consequence of diuretic medications.
Further, there are established links between gout and kidney disorders, cancers, enzyme deficiencies, tumours, and lead poisoning. Patients with transplanted organs have a higher risk of gout, as do those with pre-existing conditions such as psoriasis and anaemia.
Gout/Podagra Treatment
Self-help
There are many self-help techniques that are available to sufferers of gout, which will help minimize the pain and swelling experienced. These include:
Resting and raising the affected leg or joint. If possible, keep the painful joint at an elevation higher than your chest for much of the time.
Refraining from vigorous activity
Wearing a splint to immobilize the joint
Keeping the joint cool – you can ice the area for twenty minutes each time, this will help with swelling, pain, and possible bruising. (Use ice wrapped in a towel; do not apply ice directly! Further, be sure to allow the joint to return to a normal temperature before reapplying the ice.)
Drinking lots of water
When undergoing an attack of gout, you also should take care to keep as much weight as possible off the joint in question. This may involve using a cane or some other kind of support.
Medical Treatment
The medical treatment of gout aims to perform several functions. It should:
Offer relief from acute attacks of gout
Be preventative, reducing the risk of recurring attacks
Prevent joint damage
Manage and prevent any further complications
If or when you have an onset of gout, you should seek out medication and professional help as soon as you possibly can. Initially, treatment should aim to settle the obvious symptoms of the acute attack. Ice treatments, administered several times a day, are very effective in reducing the amount of pain experienced by the patient. If attacks are recurring, however, different drugs can be prescribed to reduce the levels of uric acid in the serum.
When acute gout occurs, treatment options include various NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), and colchicine; in extreme circumstances steroids may also be used. There are a number of preventative drug options; these include febuxostat, allopurinol, and probenecid. Ultimately, if the level of uric acid is lowered successfully, the condition may be cured. If a comorbidity occurs, the careful treatment of both the primary and secondary condition, and of both conditions in combination, must be handled very carefully.
Treating Gout Pain & Inflammation
Naproxen, ibuprofen, and indomethacin are some of the common NSAIDs that are prescribed when gout symptoms begin. You should consult carefully with your health care provider about the correct dosage of NSAIDs that should be taken. For the first few days, it is usual practice to be prescribed a stronger dose. NSAIDs are medications that have a similar effect to aspirin; they are able to decrease the amount of pain and inflammation in your joints and in other tissues. NSAIDs have become the treatment of choice for gout patients, being very effective and safe. (Fact sheets on NSAIDs will list the types of patients who should not take NSAIDs.)
At times, you may be prescribed strong pain medication, like oxycodone, codeine, or hydrocodone. Colchicine is another prescription drug that is effective in minimizing swelling, inflammation and pain – it works well especially if used as soon as any symptoms appear. However, common side effects of colchicine include nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, so this makes it a less common treatment option.
In cases of extreme pain, the affected joint may be injected with steroids. Corticosteriods like prednisone are particularly effective. They may be injected or taken in pill form, and they will help control the pain and inflammation. Your health care provider may also choose to withdraw a fluid sample from your joint, using a needle. This procedure often happens during the same visit where you receive a corticosteroid injection. Generally only people who cannot take colchicine or NSAIDs are given corticosteroids.
Within half a day of beginning treatment, pain usually reaches a manageable level, and within two days the pain should be gone.
Lowering Uric Acid Levels
Often medication that lowers the level of uric acid in the blood is used. This is usually necessary for those who have chronic gout, kidney stones, tophaceous gout, or abnormally high uric acid levels. These medications do not help with pain and inflammation, so they are normally administered following acute attacks, after the symptoms have subsided. Medicines that lower the levels of uric acid work by blocking the formation of uric acid, or by increasing the amount of uric acid that is excreted by the kidney.
The most common drug that is used for this purpose is allopurinol, also known as Lopurin or Zyloprim. Allopurinol serves to block the production of uric acid. Recently, febuxostat (or Uloric) has also been used, and it operates in the same way as allopurinol.
Probenecid (or Benemid) is a drug that helps the kidneys get rid of uric acid more efficiently. This drug is only recommended to patients who have healthy kidneys, which do not produce too much uric acid. Pegloticase (or Krystexxa), on the other hand, is a drug that helps the breakdown of uric acid, and it is administered by injection. Pegloticase is usually given to patients who are not able to tolerate or respond to other treatment options.
There are new drugs under development, which will aim to lower uric acid levels and treat gouty arthritis more effectively. Should you be prescribed medication for gout, it is possible that you might have to take these medications for the rest of your life, in order to prevent recurring attacks. Remember that all treatment options should be discussed thoroughly with your health care provider.
| Gout |
Which film, released in 1973 and featuring the main characters called Henry Shaw Gondorff and Johnny Kelly Hooker won the award for best picture in 1974 ? | Gout - Causes, Symptoms, Treatment, Diagnosis - Canoe.com
Health Column
The Facts
Gout is a type of arthritis that is characterized by sudden, severe attacks of joint pain with redness, warmth, and swelling in the affected area. It usually attacks only one joint at a time. It most often strikes the joint of the big toe, where it's also known as podagra, but other toes can also be involved.
Gout is typically a condition that occurs in middle age, is ten times more common in men than in women, is unusual in people under the age of 30, and is rarely seen in women before menopause. A first gout attack most commonly occurs around age 47. It's most common in countries with high standards of living, mainly because diet plays a big part in this condition. It affects about 1% of the population.
Causes
The pain and swelling of a gout attack are caused by uric acid crystals building up in the joint and leading to inflammation. The body normally forms uric acid when breaking down cells and proteins, releasing it into the bloodstream. The uric acid usually stays dissolved in the blood and ends up being flushed out by the kidneys. If there's too much uric acid in the blood, called hyperuricemia, or if the kidneys can't get rid of it quickly enough, it may begin to form crystals that collect in the joints and even the kidneys, skin, and other soft tissues.
In severe cases, the uric acid deposits are so large that they can extend out to the skin and beyond. These large deposits around the joints and cartilage (such as the outer ear) are called tophi. Gout can also cause severe bursitis.
Although most people with gout have hyperuricemia, about 3 in 10 turn out to have normal uric acid levels during an actual attack. Meanwhile, hyperuricemia by itself doesn't mean that a person will develop gout - less than 1 in 5 people with high uric acid end up with gout.
Certain high-protein foods can make the body produce too much uric acid, triggering gout. Beverages such as tea, coffee, cocoa, and especially alcohol in any form lead to extra water loss from the body, which can cause an attack. Certain medications can hamper the kidneys' ability to clear out uric acid, including acetylsalicylic acid* (ASA) and diuretics or "water pills" commonly given to control high blood pressure. Finally, sudden changes in diet and weight gain or loss can also lead to gout.
Symptoms and Complications
The symptoms of a gout attack are almost unmistakeable. Typically, a person will go to bed feeling fine, then wake up during the night with intense pain in the big toe (three-quarters of gout cases involve this joint). At first it feels like a bucket of cold water has been poured over the joint, but soon there's an agonizing sensation of stretching and tearing, along with pressure and tightness. The affected area also becomes extremely sensitive to touch – even a bed sheet or someone walking in the room makes it hurt more. The swelling often spreads over the whole foot, making it impossible to put on a shoe. Also, low-grade fever may develop.
An attack will usually taper off on its own in 3 to 10 days, but prompt treatment can end it faster. After such an attack, called acute gout or acute gouty arthritis, over half of sufferers will have another episode within the next year. Attacks tend to strike more often, last longer, and affect more joints over time.
In some people, however, the attacks don't go away – instead, they linger on to become chronic gout. The inflammation persists, while the crystals can permanently damage and deform the affected joints. As well, uric acid crystals can build up in tissues other than the joints, forming deposits called tophi that can show up as whitish or yellowish chalky lumps under the skin, typically in the fingers, toes, back of the elbow, behind the heel, and around the outer edge of the ear. The tophi sometimes poke through the skin, leading to ulcerations or sores.
Gout can cause kidney stones, which can cause symptoms such as severe flank or groin pain, and sometimes blood in the urine. It is unclear as to what degree gout can damage the kidneys besides the effects of kidney stones.
Making the Diagnosis
The symptoms and signs of an acute gout attack are so clear that a doctor can usually be quite sure of the diagnosis just from your history and physical exam. Blood tests showing hyperuricemia can support the diagnosis, but aren't necessary for it. To confirm the diagnosis, your doctor may insert a needle into the joint and draw out some fluid to examine under a microscope. If it's gout, needle-shaped uric acid crystals will show up when the fluid is viewed under polarizing light.
Treatment and Prevention
The first priority is to relieve pain and shorten the acute attack. NSAIDs (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) such as indomethacin, diclofenac, and naproxen are the mainstay of treatment. These medications help with the swelling and pain. Another medication called colchicine can be prescribed instead of an NSAID at the first sign of an attack but may have side effects such as diarrhea and vomiting that can limit its use in some cases. Corticosteroids, either injected directly into the joint or taken orally, can control the inflammation.
For chronic gout or repeated attacks, daily colchicine therapy can reduce the frequency of attacks, but it can't prevent the joint damage caused by tophi. However, medications that lower the blood levels of uric acid, such as allopurinol and probenecid can be very effective at preventing attacks and joint damage. Among these medications, allopurinol is the most commonly used. Another medication, febuxostat, can be used in place of allopurinol if it has caused side effects or been ineffective.
Prevention is an important part of managing gout. It's crucial to control weight and blood pressure and to be well-hydrated. A healthy diet is very important and can help minimize attacks. This includes:
Avoiding organ meats high in purine content (sweetbreads, liver, kidney).
Avoiding high fructose corn syrup-sweetened sodas, beverages, or foods.
Avoiding alcohol overuse (>2 servings per day for a male or > 1 serving per day for a female.) Avoid any alcohol consumption during periods of frequent attacks or poorly controlled gout.
Limiting consumption of beef, lamb, pork, seafood (sardines, shellfish).
Limiting consumption of naturally sweet fruit juices, sweetened beverages, and table salt (including sauces and gravies).
With early diagnosis and treatment, it's possible to control gout, prevent joint damage, and live a normal life.
*All medications have both common (generic) and brand names. The brand name is what a specific manufacturer calls the product (e.g., Tylenol®). The common name is the medical name for the medication (e.g., acetaminophen). A medication may have many brand names, but only one common name. This article lists medications by their common names. For information on a given medication, check our Drug Information database. For more information on brand names, speak with your doctor or pharmacist.
More on CHealth
| i don't know |
Even though he only lasted six months before he was assassinated, who succeeded Franco as Prime Minister of Spain in 1973 ? | Comparative Criminology | Europe - Spain
World : Europe : Spain
The Iberian Peninsula has been occupied for many millennia. Some of Europe's most impressive Paleolithic cultural sites are located there; the famous caves at Altamira contain spectacular paintings which date from about 15,000-25,000 years ago. The Basques are the first identifiable people of the peninsula and are the oldest surviving group in Europe. Iberians arrived from North Africa during a more recent period.
Beginning in the ninth century BC, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts entered the Iberian Peninsula, followed by the Romans, who arrived in the second century BC. Spain's present language, religion, and laws stem from the Roman period. Although the Visigoths arrived in the fifth century AD, the last Roman strongholds along the southern coast did not fall until the seventh century AD. In 711, North African Moors sailed across the straits, swept into Andalusia, and, within a few years, pushed the Visigoths up the peninsula to the Cantabrian Mountains. The Reconquest--efforts to drive out the Moors--lasted until 1492. By 1512, the unification of present-day Spain was complete.
During the 16th century, Spain became the most powerful nation in Europe, due to the immense wealth derived from its presence in the Americas. But a series of long, costly wars and revolts, capped by the defeat by the English of the "Invincible Armada" in 1588, began a steady decline of Spanish power in Europe. Controversy over succession to the throne consumed the country during the 18th century, leading to an occupation by France during the Napoleonic era in the early 1800s, and led to a series of armed conflicts throughout much of the 19th century.
The 19th century saw the revolt and independence of most of Spain's colonies in the Western Hemisphere: three wars over the succession issue; the brief ousting of the monarchy and establishment of the First Republic (1873-74); and, finally, the Spanish-American War (1898), in which Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. A period of dictatorial rule (1923-31) ended with the establishment of the Second Republic. It was dominated by increasing political polarization, culminating in the leftist Popular Front electoral victory in 1936. Pressures from all sides, coupled with growing and unchecked violence, led to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936.
Following the victory of his nationalist forces in 1939, Gen. Francisco Franco ruled a nation exhausted politically and economically. Spain was officially neutral during World War II but followed a pro-Axis policy. The victorious Allies isolated Spain at the beginning of the postwar period, and the country did not join the United Nations until 1955. In 1959, under an International Monetary Fund stabilization plan, the country began liberalizing trade and capital flows, particularly foreign direct investment.
Despite the success of economic liberalization, Spain remained the most closed economy in Western Europe--judged by the small measure of foreign trade to economic activity--and the pace of reform slackened during the 1960s as the state remained committed to "guiding" the economy.
Nevertheless, in the 1960s and 1970s, Spain was transformed into a modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector. Its economic expansion led to improved income distribution and helped develop a large middle class. Social changes brought about by economic prosperity and the inflow of new ideas helped set the stage for Spain's transition to democracy during the latter half of the 1970s.
Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Prince Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon, Franco's personally designated heir, assumed the titles of king and chief of state. Dissatisfied with the slow pace of post-Franco liberalization, in July 1976, the King replaced Franco's last Prime Minister with Adolfo Suarez. Suarez entered office promising that elections would be held within one year, and his government moved to enact a series of laws to liberalize the new regime. Spain's first elections to the Cortes (Parliament) since 1936 were held on June 15, 1977. Prime Minister Suarez's Union of the Democratic Center (UCD), a moderate center-right coalition, won 34% of the vote and the largest bloc of seats in the Cortes.
Under Suarez, the new Cortes set about drafting a democratic constitution that was overwhelmingly approved by voters in a December 1978 national referendum.
Today, Spain is a democracy with a constitutional monarch. The Parliament consists of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. In March 2000, Jose Maria Aznar of the Popular Party was reelected Prime Minister, with the title President of the Government. The next national elections must be held by March 2004. The Government respects the constitutional provisions for an independent judiciary in practice.
CIVIL DISORDER
During the Franco regime, a wide spectrum of opposition groups carried on antigovernment and, in some cases, terrorist activities. Nevertheless, these movements were successfully contained by the authorities, who were determined to crush all forms of independent political expression. Most of the dissident activity abated with the introduction of a democratic system that extended legal recognition to hitherto banned political groups, including the Communist Party of Spain (Partido Comunista de Espana--PCE. The legitimacy of separatist movements was recognized by granting partial regional autonomy, which included legislatures with powers of taxation, policing, and education.
As a consequence of these policies, political opposition groups presented no imminent threat to Spain's stability as of 1988, although the activities of Basque extremists continued to present a danger to the forces of internal security. The Basque terrorist movement did not, however, enjoy the active support of the majority of the Basque population, and it appeared to be in decline as a result of an increasingly effective police campaign.
The radical movement of Basque separatists was organized in 1959 when the group known as Basque Fatherland and Freedom (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna--ETA) broke away from the much larger Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco--PNV). The ETA adopted a policy of armed struggle in 1968; in practice, much of the violence was attributed to an extremist faction, the ETA Military Front (ETA Militar--ETA-M). A less violent faction, the ETA Political-Military Front (ETA Politico-Militar--ETA-PM), pursued a strategy of mixing political activities with terrorist actions. The ETA-M was largely responsible for the mounting savagery of the attacks during the 1970s, which included the assassination of the prime minister, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, in 1973.
The election of a democratic national parliament in 1977 and a Basque parliament in 1980 brought little relief from ETA violence. Although avowedly socialist in orientation, ETA continued to justify its terrorist policies after the Socialist government came to power in 1982. It insisted that the PSOE was only a pawn of the capitalist and clerical forces that dominated Spain and that it had failed to offer real autonomy to the Basque people.
The ETA-M was considered to be the militant wing of Popular Unity (Herri Batasuna--HB), the most radical of three Basque parties represented in the Cortes. Although the HB increased its representation in the Cortes to five seats in 1986, it still received only 17 percent of the Basque vote. The party's platform included the compulsory teaching of the Basque language, Euskera, in the schools; the withdrawal of Spanish security forces from Basque territory; measures to restrict private capital; and the addition of Navarre to the three provinces of the north that constituted the existing autonomous community of the Basque Country. As its ultimate objective, the party favored complete independence from Spain.
ETA-M's strategy had been to carry out a series of carefully selected assassinations and bombings, each having important psychological or symbolic impact. The terrorists thus hoped to inspire a spiral of violence and counterviolence that would arouse feeling against "repression" by the security forces and that would perhaps provoke a right-wing coup by the armed services. A total of more than 700 deaths had been attributed to the movement by the close of 1987. The violence had reached its peak in 1980 when the death toll was eighty-five. Nearly two-thirds of those killed were members of the Civil Guard or the National Police Corps. Most of the remainder were civilians killed in bombings or caught in crossfire. The military represented only 7 percent of the deaths, but those selected for assassination were often senior officers holding prominent positions.
The activists of ETA-M, believed to number no more than 200 to 500 in 1986, were organized into cells of as few as 5 individuals. Most members were under thirty years of age, and they had served for an average of three years in this sideline to their ordinary jobs. Perhaps no more than 100 were actual gunmen, the others acting as messengers, transporting weapons and explosives, and providing support. A number of young women also served in ETA-M; they were said to be among the most uncompromising militants, willing to take risks that young men increasingly shunned.
By the mid-1980s, ETA-M appeared to be under growing pressure from the security forces, with the result that the incidence of terrorist acts had tapered off. Better use of informants, ambushes, raids, and tighter control of the border with France contributed to the success of the police efforts. In 1984 the Spanish government had announced a policy of "social integration," a form of amnesty offered to ETA members in exile or in Spanish jails if they renounced future acts of terrorism. Improved international cooperation was also important. In 1986 about 200 active terrorists were believed to be living among the large Basque population in the adjacent provinces of France, using French territory as sanctuary and as a base for terrorist missions. Two years later, their numbers had been reduced to a few dozen as a result of intensified cooperation between Spanish and French security authorities. Until 1983 France, citing its tradition of granting political asylum, had been unwilling to extradite ETA members to Spain. France shifted to a more accommodating policy, after the new Socialist government took office in Spain, and permited the extradition of a few ETA members, accused of specific crimes of violence, while resettling others in northern France or deporting them. In late 1987, the police claimed a crippling blow had been administered to the terrorists by the arrest of many senior members of ETA-M in both Spain and France and the discovery of caches of arms and explosives.
Sympathy among Basques for the extremists, which was already limited, diminished further following the bombing in 1987 of a supermarket garage in Barcelona, in which twenty-four innocent people were killed. Later in the same year there was popular revulsion over the deaths of five children among eleven people killed in a bombing of family quarters of the Civil Guard at Zaragoza.
Beginning in late 1983, a right-wing force, the Antiterrorist Liberation Group (Grupo Antiterrorista de Liberacion--GAL), began a campaign of revenge killings and bombings among suspected ETA terrorists, chiefly in France, where GAL was widely believed to be linked to the Civil Guard. At the same time, an offshoot of ETA-M, Spain Commando, targeted members of the Civil Guard and the armed forces in Madrid, where such attacks, which gained maximum publicity for the movement, had been on the rise.
ETA-M was at one time well financed by kidnappings, robberies, and the so-called "revolutionary tax" on Basque businessmen. Reportedly, however, after the reverses suffered by the terrorists in 1987, receipts from the tax had declined almost to zero.
The regional Basque police force, Ertzaintza, formed in 1981, originally was assigned to traffic and other nonsecurity duties, but in late 1986 it conducted its first engagement against ETA-M. A plan had been adopted for Ertzaintza gradually to take a larger role, but it was reported that Civil Guard officers were reluctant to turn over intelligence out of conviction that the autonomous police were infiltrated by ETA activists.
Other regional opposition groups--in the Canary Islands, Galicia, and Catalonia--did not present a threat to internal security forces that was comparable to ETA. The Catalan separatist organization Terre Lluire (Free Land), formed in 1980, was responsible for a series of bomb explosions, some of which had resulted in fatalities. In late 1987, a United States servicemen's club in Barcelona was attacked with grenades, and the United States consulate was bombed. Terre Lluire and a newer group, the Catalan Red Liberation Army, both claimed responsibility. During the first part of 1987, a group dedicated to a separate Galician nation, the Free Galician Guerrilla People's Army, carried out bomb attacks against banks in a number of towns in Galicia.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM
The market-based economy, with primary reliance on private enterprise, provides the population of over 40 million with a high standard of living. The economy grew during the third quarter at a 2.6 percent annual rate. The annual inflation rate was 2.7 percent at year's end 2001. Unemployment decreased to 12.8 percent during the year 2001, continuing its downward trend.
BELIEFS
Spain, it has been observed, is a nation-state born out of religious struggle between Catholicism and, in turn, Islam, Judaism, and Protestantism. After centuries of the Reconquest, in which Christian Spaniards fought to drive Muslims from Europe, the Inquisition sought to complete the religious purification of the Iberian Peninsula by driving out Jews, Protestants, and other nonbelievers. The Inquisition was finally abolished only in the 1830s, and even after that religious freedom was denied in practice, if not in theory. Catholicism became the state religion in 1851, when the Spanish government signed a Concordat with the Vatican that committed Madrid to pay the salaries of the clergy and to subsidize other expenses of the Roman Catholic Church. This pact was renounced in 1931, when the secular constitution of the Second Republic imposed a series of anticlerical measures that threatened the church's very existence in Spain and provoked its support for the Franco uprising five years later.
The advent of the Franco regime saw the restoration of the church's privileges. During the Franco years, Roman Catholicism was the only religion to have legal status; other worship services could not be advertised, and only the Roman Catholic Church could own property or publish books. The government not only continued to pay priests' salaries and to subsidize the church, but it also assisted in the reconstruction of church buildings damaged by the war. Laws were passed abolishing divorce and banning the sale of contraceptives. Catholic religious instruction was mandatory, even in public schools. Franco secured in return the right to name Roman Catholic bishops in Spain, as well as veto power over appointments of clergy down to the parish priest level. In 1953 this close cooperation was formalized in a new Concordat with the Vatican that granted the church an extraordinary set of privileges: mandatory canonical marriages for all Catholics; exemption from government taxation; subsidies for new building construction; censorship of materials the church deemed offensive; the right to establish universities, to operate radio stations, and to publish newspapers and magazines; protection from police intrusion into church properties; and exemption of clergy from military service.
The proclamation of the Second Vatican Council in favor of the separation of church and state in 1965 forced the reassessment of this special relationship. In the late 1960s, the Vatican attempted to reform the church in Spain by appointing liberals as interim, or acting, bishops, thereby circumventing Franco's stranglehold on the country's clergy. In 1966 the Franco regime passed a law that freed other religions from many of the earlier restrictions, although it also reaffirmed the privileges of the Catholic Church. Any attempt to revise the 1953 Concordat met the dictator's rigid resistance.
In 1976, however, King Juan Carlos de Borbon unilaterally renounced the right to name the bishops; later that same year Madrid and the Vatican signed a new accord that restored to the church its right to name bishops, and the church agreed to a revised Concordat that entailed a gradual financial separation of church and state. Church property not used for religious purposes was henceforth to be subject to taxation, and gradually, over a period of years, the church's reliance on state subsidies was to be reduced. The timetable for this reduction was not adhered to, however, and the church continued to receive the public subsidy through 1987 (US$110 million in that year alone). Indeed, by the end of 1987 issues such as financing and education had not been definitively resolved, and the revised Concordat still had not been agreed to in final form, even though the 1953 Concordat had expired in 1980.
It took the new 1978 Constitution to confirm the right of Spaniards to religious freedom and to begin the process of disestablishing Catholicism as the state religion. The drafters of the Constitution tried to deal with the intense controversy surrounding state support of the church, but they were not entirely successful. The initial draft of the Constitution did not even mention the church, which was included almost as an afterthought and only after intense pressure from the church's leadership. Article 16 disestablishes Roman Catholicism as the official religion and provides that religious liberty for non-Catholics is a state-protected legal right, thereby replacing the policy of limited toleration of non-Catholic religious practices. The article further states, however, that "The public authorities shall take the religious beliefs of Spanish society into account and shall maintain the consequent relations of cooperation with the Catholic Church and the other confessions." In addition, Article 27 also aroused controversy by appearing to pledge continuing government subsidies for private, church-affiliated schools. These schools were sharply criticized by Spanish Socialists for having created and perpetuated a class-based, separate, and unequal school system. The Constitution, however, includes no affirmation that the majority of Spaniards are Catholics or that the state should take into account the teachings of Catholicism.
Government financial aid to the church was a difficult and contentious issue. The church argued that, in return for the subsidy, the state had received the social, health, and educational services of tens of thousands of priests and nuns who fulfilled vital functions that the state itself could not have performed. Nevertheless, the revised Concordat was supposed to replace direct state aid to the church with a scheme that would allow taxpayers to designate a certain portion of their taxes to be diverted directly to the church. Through 1985, taxpayers were allowed to deduct up to 10 percent from their taxable income for donations to the Catholic Church. Partly because of the protests against this arrangement from representatives of Spain's other religious groups, the tax laws were changed in 1987 so that taxpayers could choose between giving 0.52 percent of their income tax to the church and allocating it to the government's welfare and culture budgets. For three years, the government would continue to give the church a gradually reduced subsidy, but after that the church would have to subsist on its own resources. The government would continue, however, its program of subsidizing Catholic schools, which in 1987 cost the Spanish taxpayers about US$300 million, exclusive of the salaries of teachers, which were paid directly by the Ministry of Education and Science.
Anyone visiting Spain must be constantly aware of the church's physical presence in buildings, museums, and religious celebrations. In a population of about 39 million, the number of non-Catholics was probably no more than 300,000. About 250,000 of these were of other Christian faiths, including several Protestant denominations, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormons. The number of Jews in Spain was estimated at about 13,000. More than 19 out of every 20 Spaniards were baptized Catholics; about 60 percent of them attended Mass; about 30 percent of the baptized Catholics did so regularly, although this figure declined to about 20 percent in the larger cities. As of 1979, about 97 percent of all marriages were performed according to the Catholic religion. A 1982 report by the church claimed that 83 percent of all children born the preceding year had been baptized in the church.
Nevertheless, there were forces at work bringing about fundamental changes in the place of the church in society. One such force was the improvement in the economic fortunes of the great majority of Spaniards, making society more materialistic and less religious. Another force was the massive shift in population from farm and village to the growing urban centers, where the church had less influence over the values of its members. These changes were transforming the way Spaniards defined their religious identity.
Being a Catholic in Spain had less and less to do with regular attendance at Mass and more to do with the routine observance of important rituals such as baptism, marriage, and burial of the dead. A 1980 survey revealed that, although 82 percent of Spaniards were believers in Catholicism, very few considered themselves to be very good practitioners of the faith. In the case of the youth of the country, even smaller percentages believed themselves to be "very good" or "practicing" Catholics.
In contrast to an earlier era, when rejection of the church went along with education, in the late 1980s studies showed that the more educated a person was, the more likely he or she was to be a practicing Catholic. This new acceptance of the church was due partly to the church's new self-restraint in politics. In a significant change from the pre-Civil War era, the church had accepted the need for the separation of religion and the state, and it had even discouraged the creation of a Christian Democratic party in the country.
The traditional links between the political right and the church no longer dictated political preferences; in the 1982 general election, more than half of the country's practicing Catholics voted for the PSOE. Although the Socialist leadership professed agnosticism, according to surveys between 40 and 45 percent of the party's rank-and-file members held religious beliefs, and more than 70 percent of these professed to be Catholics. Among those entering the party after Franco's death, about half considered themselves Catholic.
One important indicator of the changes taking place in the role of the church was the reduction in the number of Spaniards in Holy Orders. In 1984 the country had more than 22,000 parish priests, nearly 10,000 ordained monks, and nearly 75,000 nuns. These numbers concealed a troubling reality, however. More than 70 percent of the diocesan clergy was between the ages of 35 and 65; the average age of the clergy in 1982 was 49 years. At the upper end of the age range, the low numbers reflected the impact of the Civil War, in which more than 4,000 parish priests died. At the lower end, the scarcity of younger priests reflected the general crisis in vocations throughout the world, which began to be felt in the 1960s. Its effects were felt especially acutely in Spain. The crisis was seen in the decline in the number of young men joining the priesthood and in the increase in the number of priests leaving Holy Orders. The number of seminarists in Spain fell from more than 9,000 in the 1950s to only 1,500 in 1979, even though it rose slightly in 1982 to about 1,700.
Changes in the social meaning of religious vocations were perhaps part of the problem; having a priest in the family no longer seemed to spark the kind of pride that family members would have felt in the past. The principal reason in most cases, though, was the church's continued ban on marriage for priests. Previously, the crisis was not particularly serious because of the age distribution of the clergy. As the twentieth century nears an end, however, a serious imbalance will appear between those entering the priesthood and those leaving it. The effects of this crisis were already visible in the decline in the number of parish priests in Spain--from 23,620 in 1979 to just over 22,000 by 1983.
Another sign of the church's declining role in Spanish life was the diminishing importance of the controversial secular religious institute, Opus Dei (Work of God). Opus Dei was a worldwide lay religious body that did not adhere to any particular political philosophy and was allegedly nonpolitical. The organization was founded in 1928 by a Spanish priest, Jose Maria Escriva de Balaguer y Albas, as a reaction to the increasing secularization of Spain's universities, and higher education continued to be one of the institute's foremost priorities. Despite its public commitment to a nonpolitical stance, Opus Dei members rose to occupy key positions in the Franco regime, especially in the field of economic policy-making in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Opus Dei members dominated the group of liberal technocrats who engineered the opening of Spain's autarchic economy after 1957. After the 1973 assassination of Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco (often rumored to be an Opus Dei member), however, the influence of the institute declined sharply. The secrecy of the order and its activities and the power of its myth helped it maintain its strong position of influence in Spain; but there was little doubt that, compared with the 1950s and the 1960s, Opus Dei had fallen from being one of the country's chief political organizations to being simply one among many such groups competing for power in an open and pluralist society.
In the late 1980s, however, the church showed signs of becoming more conservative than liberal. After years of being the minority in the church hierarchy, conservative Catholic leaders had reasserted their power and influence, and they were beginning to wrest power from the liberals. One telling indicator of the return of conservatives to control within the church was the battle in late 1987 over the editorial policy of the leading Spanish Catholic weekly magazine, Vida Nueva, which ended with the liberal editor's being forced out of office and his being replaced with a conservative.
CRIMINAL CODES
There is a distinction between serious (delitos) and less serious (faltas) offenses. Serious offenses are indictable and less serious offenses are nonindictable.
The Penal Code includes as indictable offenses offenses against state security, fakes and falsifications, offenses against the administration of justice, offenses against sanitation and health (including drug offenses), behavior causing risk but not actual damage, offenses by public officers, offenses against individuals (murder, homicide, illegal abortions, bodily harm caused by assault and battery), sexual offenses, offenses against reputation (libel and slander), offenses against freedom and personal security, property offenses, and offenses committed recklessly and without intent.
Among the less serious, nonindictable offenses, the Penal Code includes violations of the public order, violations against individuals, and minor property offenses, such as theft resulting in deprivation of less than 30.000 pesetas ($200).
The age of criminal responsibility is 16 years. Youngsters under this age accused of delinquent behavior are handled by the Juvenile Courts. Delinquents between 16 and 18 years old benefit from a mitigation in penalty. (Penal Code, Article 8.2 and 9.3).
Growing, processing, trafficking, promoting and facilitating the consumption of toxic, stupefacient or psychotropic drugs, as well as simple possession with the intent to engage in such behavior, is punishable by 2 to 8 years in prison and a maximum fine of 100 million pesetas in fines ($666,000) if the drug can cause important harm to personal health. In all other cases, the prison sentence can be set between 4 months and 4 years and the fine can be a maximum of 50 million pesetas ($333,000).
These penalties can be increased for members of any permanent or temporary organization dedicated to the trafficking of drugs. They can be increased for health facility personnel who give drugs to minors or to persons undergoing treatment for drug addiction. And they can be increased when the quantity of drugs involved is significant. Penal Code, Articles 344 and 344 bis).
Individual consumption is not subject to penalty. An average of 3 days drug stock for individual consumption by drug-addicted individuals does not constitute illegal possession as ruled by the Supreme Court.
Spain's criminal justice system, which is based on Roman law, extends customary procedural safeguards to accused persons. Article 17 of the 1978 Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. It also provides that there be a maximum period of preventive detention (set by law at seventy-two hours), and that the arrested person be informed of his or her rights, including the right to an attorney, the right to an explanation of the reason for the arrest, and the right to be present at the trial. The Constitution abolishes the death penalty, except for certain military crimes in wartime. Under the Socialist government that took office in 1982, laws were passed providing for a limited right of habeas corpus for suspects to appeal against illegal detention or mistreatment. Defendants unable to afford counsel were assured of free legal assistance. A Public Defender's Office was formed that had authority to look into complaints by citizens and to initiate investigations. Trial by jury, which had been abolished by Franco, was part of the Socialist electoral program, but its introduction was delayed by differences with the judiciary as to the precise role the jury would play.
A full-scale revision of the Penal Code was being prepared in the late 1980s, but a number of significant changes had already taken effect. The principle of suspended sentences was introduced. Pollution of the environment was made a crime, and distinctions were introduced between hard and soft narcotics in sentencing illicit producers and dealers. Earlier provisions of law that had legalized the possession of small quantities of soft drugs were reaffirmed.
After the Civil War, crimes involving the security of the state were handled outside the regular court system. From 1941 until 1963, military courts had sole charge of all crimes against national security, in many cases through summary courts martial. Offenses ranging from treason and sabotage to the fostering of strikes and membership in illegal associations came under the jurisdiction of military courts. In 1963 Franco created the three-judge civilian Court for Public Order to deal with all nonterrorist internal security offenses, such as belonging to illegal parties and distributing antigovernment propaganda. In 1968, however, and again in 1975, after intensified terrorist action, various crimes were added to the state security category, restoring them to military jurisdiction. In 1980 the charging or the trying of civilians by military courts was prohibited.
Antiterrorist laws adopted in 1980 and in 1981, in response to a wave of killings by Basque terrorists, had the effect of suspending certain constitutional guarantees. Anyone charged with supporting terrorism could be held virtually incommunicado for up to ten days (later reduced to three days). A suspect's home could be searched, his mail opened, and his telephone tapped. A detainee in a terrorism case had the right to an appointed attorney who could formally advise him of his rights, and who might be present during his interrogation, but who could not consult with the detainee until the interrogation was completed.
The international human rights group, Amnesty International, Spanish civil rights organizations, and the Spanish press have drawn attention to abuses of these exceptional powers given to police under the antiterrorism laws. In several of its annual reports, Amnesty International has said that detainees were not accorded access to counsel while in custody, that few were actually charged with crimes, that habeas corpus rights were not respected, and that insufficient judicial and medical supervision was exercised. The organization's claims of widespread mistreatment and torture, mainly of alleged members of Basque terrorist organizations, were supported by the annual reports on human rights of the United States Department of State. The Spanish government asserted, for its part, that detainees under the antiterrorist laws routinely lodged complaints of police brutality or torture, whether or not there was cause. Nevertheless, in 1986 the courts sentenced thirty-nine members of security forces for mistreatment of prisoners, and an estimated 150 additional cases were pending.
INCIDENCE OF CRIME
Spanish statistics reflected increases of 5 to 10 percent annually in the incidence of crime during the late 1970s and the 1980s. Foreign tourists in particular were frequent victims of armed and violent robberies. The rise was attributed largely to the economic and social problems of urban areas where recent high school and college graduates faced unemployment rates often in excess of 20 percent. The growing problem of drug addiction also contributed to the number of robberies in cities and in resort areas.
Over 90 percent of all crimes reported in 1986 were offenses against property. The next most significant crimes--against persons and internal security as well as the abandonment of family and personal injury--each contributed only between 1 and 2 percent to the total. Despite liberal laws in this area, the number of persons arrested on narcotics charges rose from about 9,000 in 1980 to nearly 22,000 in 1987. Nevertheless, in Spain as a whole, the official crime rate continued to be lower than it was in most other countries of Western Europe.
The crime rate in Spain is medium compared to industrialized countries. An analysis was done using INTERPOL data for Spain. For purpose of comparison, data were drawn for the seven offenses used to compute the United States FBI's index of crime. Index offenses include murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. The combined total of these offenses constitutes the Index used for trend calculation purposes. Spain will be compared with Japan (country with a low crime rate) and USA (country with a high crime rate). According to the INTERPOL data, for murder, the rate in 2000 was 2.91 per 100,000 population for Spain, 1.10 for Japan, and 5.51 for USA. For rape, the rate in 2000 was 3.09 for Spain, compared with 1.78 for Japan and 32.05 for USA. For robbery, the rate in 2000 was 229.92 for Spain, 4.08 for Japan, and 144.92 for USA. For aggravated assault, the rate in 2000 was 22.15 for Spain, 23.78 for Japan, and 323.62 for USA. For burglary, the rate in 2000 was 530.4 for Spain, 233.60 for Japan, and 728.42 for USA. The rate of larceny for 2000 was 675.1 for Spain, 1401.26 for Japan, and 2475.27 for USA. The rate for motor vehicle theft in 2000 was 332.72 for Spain, compared with 44.28 for Japan and 414.17 for USA. The rate for all index offenses combined was 1796.29 for Spain, compared with 1709.88 for Japan and 4123.97 for USA.
TRENDS IN CRIME
Between 1995 and 2000, according to INTERPOL data, the rate of murder increased from 2.43 to 2.91 per 100,000 population, an increase of 19.8%. The rate for rape decreased from 4.37 to 3.09, a decrease of 29.3%. The rate of robbery increased from 221.27 to 229.92, an increase of 3.9%. The rate for aggravated assault decreased from 22.64 to 22.15, a decrease of 2.2%. The rate for burglary decreased from 565.95 to 530.4, a decrease of 6.3%. The rate of larceny decreased from 751.16 to 675.1, a decrease of 10.1%. The rate of motor vehicle theft increased from 250.66 to 332.72, an increase of 32.7%. The rate of total index offenses decreased from 1818.48 to 1796.29, a decrease of 1.2%.
LEGAL SYSTEM
Spain has a European Continental legal system, requiring that behavior be defined as criminal and that the penal law assign a penalty to that behavior for it to be prosecuted (nullum crimen sine lege, nulla pena sine lege). The investigative stage of the penal process is carried out by a judge, and the suspect benefits from a system of procedural guarantees. Hearings are characterized by adversarial procedures, with a public attorney prosecuting on the basis of findings of the investigating judge, although calumny and slander cases are only prosecuted at the request of the presumptively offended person. Hearings are made public. Evidence is produced in the presence of the accused person, who is always assisted by legal counsel and by a translator if necessary.
The Spanish penal system was developed during the Middle Ages from local adaptations of its original Germanic heritage. In the 18th century, it was subjected to the influence of the rationalist thinkers who asked for the adoption of systematic rules which resulted, during the era of the French Revolution, in requests for the adoption of Penal and Criminal Procedural Codes.
The famous book, Dei delitti e delle pene by Beccaria, first appeared in 1764 and was translated into Spanish some ten years later. Although the book was opposed by some conservative authors at the time, it led to an enthusiastic movement culminating in the proposal to adopt a Penal Code.
In 1812, the Spanish patriots who, during the Napoleonic invasion (1808-1813) had taken shelter in Cadiz in the south of Spain, adopted Spain's first political Constitution. This liberal Constitution also included a proposal for the creation of a Penal Code, but the reestablishment of the absolutist King Ferdinand VII on the Spanish throne (1814) prevented the adoption of the Code. In fact, even the progressive 1812 Constitution was repealed. A liberal upheaval in 1820 led to the adoption of the first Spanish Penal Code in 1822. The Code was in force for only one year, after which the monarch resumed absolute rule.
In 1848, in a more moderate political situation, a new Penal Code was adopted, and since then, a Penal Code has always existed and been applied, with some interruptions during times of military rule. A Penal Procedural Code was adopted in 1881 and is still in force as of 1993. A draft of a new Penal Code, whose structure differed greatly from the existing Penal Code, was being studied by the Legislature in 1993.
POLICE
The transition from Franco's dictatorship to a system of parliamentary democracy was accompanied by a major effort to bring the forces of law and order and the justice system into harmony with the new political era. The police were stripped of most of their military characteristics. The Civil Guard, which maintained order in rural areas and in smaller communities, retained many of its military features, but both the civil Guard and the police were placed under civilian leadership. Once dedicated to repressing all evidence of opposition to the Franco regime, the police and the Civil Guard were expected to tolerate forms of conduct previously banned and to protect individual rights conferred by the 1978 Constitution and by subsequent legislation. Members of the Civil Guard continued to be implicated in cases of mistreatment and brutality in the campaign against Basque terrorism. The authorities had, however, prosecuted many guardsmen for such infractions, with the result that by 1988 fewer violations of legal norms were being recorded.
Reforms of the judicial system included appointments of judges by a body insulated from political pressures and increased budgets to enable courts to deal with a chronic backlog of criminal hearings. The penal code was being modernized to bring it into conformity with the new Constitution. Some progress had been made in ensuring that defendants had effective legal representation and that they received speedier trials. Nevertheless, antiquated procedures and the escalation of crime continued to generate huge delays in the administration of justice, with the result that as much as half of the prison population in 1986 consisted of accused persons still awaiting trial.
The principal forces of public order and security as of 1988 were the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps (Cuerpo Nacional de Policia). The Civil Guard, fortified by nearly a century and a half of tradition, was a highly disciplined paramilitary body with close links to the army. As it evolved, it served mainly as a rural police to protect property and order and to reinforce the authority of the central government. Under Franco, a tripartite system of police was formalized: the Civil Guard in rural areas; the Armed and Traffic Police (renamed the National Police in 1979), which fulfilled normal police functions in communities with a population of more than 20,000; and the Higher Police Corps of plainclothes police with responsibility for investigating crimes and political offenses. Separate municipal police forces under the control of local mayors were concerned mainly with traffic control and with enforcement of local ordinances.
During the Franco era, the police had been regarded as a reactionary element, associated in the public mind with internal surveillance and political repression. The Civil Guard and the Armed and Traffic Police were legally part of the armed forces, and their senior officers were drawn from the army. The 1978 Constitution effects the separation of the police from the military, and it emphasizes that one of the functions of the police is to safeguard personal liberties. Article 104 of the 1978 Constitution states that, "The Security Corps and Forces, responsible to the Government, shall have as their mission the protection of the free exercise of rights and liberties and the guaranteeing of the safety of citizens." Although considerably delayed, a subsequent statute, the Organic Law on the Security Corps and Forces, was enacted in March 1986 to incorporate the mandate of the Constitution to redefine the functions and the operating principles of the police forces. With its passage, the final legal steps had been taken to make the police system conform to the requirements of the democratic regime, although most observers concluded that it would be years before the reforms were fully in effect.
The new organic law provided a common ethical code for police practices, affirmed trade union rights, recast the role of the judicial police serving under the courts and the public prosecutors, combined the uniformed and the nonuniformed police into the single National Police Corps, and redefined the missions and the chains of command of the various police elements. The Civil Guard remained a separate paramilitary force, although in operational matters it was under the direction of the Ministry of Interior rather than the Ministry of Defense. In time of war or emergency, it would revert to the authority of the minister of defense. In 1986 a new post of secretary of state for security was created in the Ministry of Interior to coordinate the activities of the National Police Corps and the Civil Guard. The National Police Corps functioned under the directives of the director general of the National Police Corps, but local supervision was exercised by civil governors of the provinces where police forces served.
Patterned after the French rural gendarmerie when it was formed in 1844, the Civil Guard has long maintained its own traditions and style of operation. Until the first civilian director general of the Civil Guard was installed in 1986, its head had been an army lieutenant general. The total complement of the Civil Guard as of 1986 was 65,000; in addition, about 9,000 auxiliary guardsmen performed their military service obligation in the Civil Guard.
The Civil Guard was grouped into six zones, matching the six army regions, each commanded by an army brigadier general. These were divided, in turn, into commands coinciding with provincial boundaries and further subdivided into about 300 companies, 800 lines (lineas) corresponding to platoons, and about 3,200 posts. A post typically consisted of six to ten guardsmen, headed by a corporal or a sergeant. Posts were responsible for organizing two-member patrols to police their areas, generally by automobile. To deploy forces more flexibly, this traditional system had been augmented by radio-controlled mobile patrols of three or more members. A separate traffic group patrolled the main roads to assist in cases of breakdown or accident. A Rural Antiterrorist Group of four companies, stationed in the Basque Country (Spanish, Pais Vasco; Basque, Euskadi) and Navarre (Spanish, Navarra), concentrated its efforts against Basque extremists. This force could be supplemented by a helicopter unit and by a Special Intervention Unit as needed. Mountain Units guarded the Pyrenees frontier against terrorists and smugglers, in addition to providing general police and rescue services.
The Civil Guard generally enjoyed greater popularity than other police elements, in part because of its reputation for courtesy and helpfulness to motorists. Nevertheless, it had not completely shed its earlier reputation as the primary instrument of the Franco regime's efforts to root out and crush any evidence of opposition. Numerous cases of torture and ill treatment were attributed to members of the Civil Guard, especially in the handling of suspected Basque dissidents. The persistence of reactionary tendencies was underscored by the participation of a senior officer of the Civil Guard, Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero Molina, in the dramatic coup attempt of 1981, backed by nearly 300 guardsmen who made prisoners of cabinet ministers and deputies of the Cortes.
Most members of the Civil Guard were housed with their families on compounds that formed part of the stations from which they operated. A high proportion of recruits were the sons of guardsmen. Entrance was at the age of sixteen years or seventeen years, when recruits began a two-year course at one of two "colleges" or, alternatively, at ages nineteen to twenty-four at the other college where the course was of eleven months duration. Promotion to officer rank was possible after fourteen years of service. A minority of officers gained direct commissions by attending the General Military Academy at Zaragoza for two years, where they followed the regular military cadet curriculum. After an additional three years at the Special Academy of the Civil Guard at Aranjuez, these cadets entered the service as lieutenants.
Under the 1986 organic law, the Ministry of Interior was assigned responsibility for operational matters, pay, assignments, accommodations, and equipment. The Ministry of Defense was responsible for promotions, military missions, and wartime mobilization. Recruitment, training, weapons, deployment, and conduct of the system whereby compulsory service could be performed in the Civil Guard were matters of joint responsibility. The regulations introduced in early 1988 enabling women to serve in certain categories of the armed forces also cleared the way for eventual recruitment of women into the Civil Guard.
The 1986 law set out a new functional division of responsibilities between the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps. In addition to its rural police functions, the Civil Guard was to be responsible for firearms and explosives control; traffic policing on interurban roads; protection of communication routes, coasts, frontiers, ports, and airports; enforcement of environmental and conservation laws, including those governing hunting and fishing; and interurban transport of prisoners.
The 1986 organic law unifying the separate uniformed and plainclothes branches of the national police was a major reform that required a considerable period of time to be brought into full effect. The former plainclothes service, known as the Higher Police Corps, but often referred to as the "secret police," consisted of some 9,000 officers. Prior to 1986, it had a supervisory and coordinating role in police operations, conducted domestic surveillance, collected intelligence, investigated major crimes, issued identity documents, and carried out liaison with foreign police forces.
The uniformed service was a completely separate organization with a complement of about 50,000 officers, including a small number of female recruits who were first accepted for training in 1984. The Director General of the National Police Corps, a senior official of the Ministry of Interior, commanded 13 regional headquarters, 50 provincial offices, and about 190 municipal police stations. In the nine largest cities, several district police stations served separate sections of the city. The chief of police of each station was in command of both the uniformed and the plainclothes officers attached to the station. A centrally controlled Special Operations Group (Grupo Especial de Operaciones--GEO) was an elite fighting unit trained to deal with terrorist and hostage situations.
The principal weapons regularly used by the uniformed police were 9mm pistols, 9mm submachine guns, CETME and NATO 7.62mm rifles, and various forms of riot equipment. The uniform consisted of light brown trousers and dark brown jackets.
The initial training phase for recruits to the National Police Corps was nine months, followed by a year of practical training. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, and sergeant major were based on seniority, additional training, and performance. In the Franco era, most police officers were seconded from the army. Under a 1978 law, future police officers were to receive separate training, and army officers detailed to the police were to be permanently transferred. By 1986 only 170 army officers remained in the National Police Corps. Under the 1986 organic law, military-type training for police was to be terminated, and all candidate officers were to attend the Higher Police School at Ávila, which previously had served as the three-year training center for the Higher Police Corps. The ranks of the plainclothes corps--commissioners, subcommissioners, and inspectors of first, second, and third class--were to be assimilated into the ranking system of the uniformed police--colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, and lieutenant. Two lower categories --subinspection and basic--would include all nonofficer uniformed personnel. The newly unified National Police Corps was to be responsible for issuing identity cards and passports, as well as for immigration and deportation controls, refugees, extradition, deportation, gambling controls, drugs, and supervision of private security forces.
Franco's Armed and Traffic Police had once been dreaded as one of the most familiar symbols of the regime's oppressiveness. During the 1980s, however, the police effected an internal transformation, adopting wholeheartedly the new democratic spirit of the times. The police unwaveringly supported the legally constituted government during the 1981 coup attempt. Led by the new police trade union, the police demonstrated in 1985 against right-wing militants in their ranks and cooperated in efforts to punish misconduct and abuses of civil rights by individual officers.
Although their powers were, in most cases, quite limited, the local police services of individual towns and cities supplemented the work of the National Police Corps, dealing with such matters as traffic, parking, monitoring public demonstrations, guarding municipal buildings, and enforcing local ordinances. They also collaborated with the National Police Corps by providing personnel to assist in crowd control. Numbering about 37,000 individuals in 1986, the local police were generally armed only with pistols.
Under the Statutes of Autonomy of 1979, the Basque Country and Catalonia were granted authority to form their own regional police forces. Subsequently, ten of the seventeen autonomous regions were extended the right to create their own forces, but, as of 1988, only three areas--the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Navarre--had developed regional police units. The 1986 organic law defined the limits of competence for regional police forces, although the restrictions imposed did not apply to the existing forces in the Basque Country and Navarre and applied only in part to those in Catalonia. Under the law, regional police could enforce regional legislation, protect regional offices, and, in cooperation with national forces, could police public places, control demonstrations and crowds, and perform duties in support of the judiciary. A Security Policy Council was established at the national level to ensure proper coordination with the new regional forces, which, as of 1986, numbered about 4,500 officers.
The principal intelligence agency was the Higher Defense Intelligence Center (Centro Superior de Informacion de la Defensa--CESID), created in 1977 to replace the intelligence organizations of the Francoist period. These included the Political-Social Brigade--a special branch of the plainclothes corps--and the Intelligence Service of the Civil Guard. With their files on every part of the rural and urban population, these bodies carried on close surveillance and political intimidation on behalf of the Franco regime.
By a royal decree of January 1984, CESID was defined legally as the intelligence agency of the prime minister. Nevertheless, it was fundamentally military in nature, and its head in 1988 was an army lieutenant general, Emilio Alanso Manglano. Observers speculated, however, that Manglano, who had held the post since 1981, eventually would be succeeded by a civilian.
Employing about 2,000 individuals as of 1988, CESID was staffed primarily by the military, supplemented by 500 members of the Civil Guard and by 80 plainclothes police. About 30 percent of the members of the staff were civilians, said to be selected usually from among close relatives of military officers. Women had been confined largely to administrative tasks, but they were increasingly being entrusted with operational assignments.
The principal operating units were domestic intelligence; foreign intelligence; counterintelligence; economics and technology (primarily industrial espionage); and operational support (principally application of devices for surveillance and eavesdropping). Considerable emphasis in external intelligence was allotted to North Africa and to the security of Ceuta and Melilla. Liaison was maintained with a number of intelligence services of North African and Middle Eastern nations, as well as with the Israeli agency, Mossad. Interception of ship transmissions in the strait area was another focus of activity. Domestic intelligence centered on exposure of plots against the government, monitoring activities of unrecognized political parties, and counterterrorism.
Although CESID was the senior agency, it did not have a firmly established coordinating function over other intelligence bodies, which included the General Headquarters of Information of the Ministry of Defense; the second sections of the army, the air force, and the navy staffs; and the Civil Guard Information Service, dedicated to criminal and terrorist intelligence. In addition, the National Police Corps had a General Commissariat of Intelligence, with an antiterrorist mission that included a Foreign Intelligence Brigade to investigate international terrorism aimed against Spain. Considerable rivalry and overlapping of missions characterized the entire intelligence system. CESID, in particular, was reported to be seeking to gain exclusive jurisdiction over police foreign intelligence activities.
Today, internal security responsibilities are divided among the National Police, which are responsible for nationwide investigations and security in urban areas; the Civil Guard, which polices rural areas and controls borders and highways; and police forces under the authority of the autonomous communities of Catalunya and the Basque Country. While the security forces generally are under the effective control of civilian authorities, some members of the security forces committed human rights abuses.
There were no reports of the arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life committed by the Government or its agents.
An Algeciras court opened an investigation into the December 2000 case in which a Civil Guard officer fatally shot an unarmed Morrocan, Abdelhadi Lamhamdi, in Tarifa. Also in December 2000, a court sentenced a Civil Guard officer to 1 year's imprisonment for shooting and killing Miriam Gomez, who was a passenger in a car fleeing the police in 1999 in Seville.
ETA, whose declared goal is to establish an independent Basque state, continued its terrorist campaign of bombings and shootings, killing 15 persons during the year 2001. ETA publicly claimed responsibility for its attacks. On January 26, an ETA bomb explosion killed a navy cook in San Sebastian. On February 22, another bomb, intended for a Socialist Party councilor, killed two electrical workers in San Sebastian. On March 9, an ETA car bomb killed a member of the autonomous police force of the Basque Country, and on March 17 an ETA car bomb killed a member of the autonomous police force of Catalunya. On March 20, ETA assailants shot to death the deputy mayor of the Basque town of Lasarte. On May 6, ETA assailants shot and killed Manuel Gimenez Abad, the Aragon regional President of the Popular Party. On May 24, ETA assailants shot and killed Santiago Oleaga, the financial director of a major Basque Country newspaper. On June 26, ETA targeted Army General Justo Oreja with a bomb in Madrid; Oreja died from his injuries a month later. On July 10, an ETA car bomb killed a policeman in Madrid. On July 14, ETA killed a policeman in the Basque Country and a town councilor in Navarra. On November 7, ETA assailants shot and killed Jose Maria Lidon, a Basque provincial magistrate, in Getxo. On November 23, ETA assailants shot and killed two members of the Basque autonomous police.
The Government continued to pursue legal actions against ETA members. The courts convicted and sentenced more than 10 ETA members during the year 2001. In January a court sentenced Mikel Arrieta Llopis to 128 years' imprisonment for a 1982 attack that killed three persons. In February a court sentenced Jose Luis Barrios to 232 years' imprisonment for a 1997 attack. In July former ETA leader Francisco Mugica Garmendia and Jose Maria Arregi Erostarbe each received more than 1,000 years' imprisonment for their roles in a 1988 attack in Madrid. In October Rafael Caride Simon was sentenced to 142 years' imprisonment for killing a Civil Guard officer in 1987. In December Jose Javier Zabaleta received 200 years' imprisonment for an attack that killed five persons in 1980. In December, following an October agreement, France for the first time temporarily extradited an ETA member serving a prison sentence to facilitate his trial in Spain. Mexico expelled two ETA members to Spain and extradited another.
Several organizations are dedicated to the concerns of victims of terrorism, among them the Association of Victims of Terrorism (AVT). The AVT serves 1,300 families, providing legal and psychological counseling since 1981. The Government supports its work. Under a 1999 law, the Government has compensated directly victims of terrorism and their families, including victims of the Antiterrorist Liberation Groups (government-sponsored death squads known by their acronym, GAL) in the 1980's.
The law prohibits such practices; however, suspects charged with terrorism at times assert that they have been abused during detention, and at times other detainees make similar charges. Amnesty International continued to criticize the Government for reports of brutality by security forces, particularly directed at foreigners and illegal immigrants. Amnesty International also reported that police abused undocumented Moroccan minors.
According to Amnesty International, in February Madrid police allegedly beat 18-year-old Pedro Garcia Munoz after an exchange of insults.
Iratxe Sorzabal Diaz, an ETA suspect expelled from France, alleged that Civil Guards tortured her in Madrid in March 2000. She subsequently lodged a formal complaint of torture with the National High Court, which remained pending at year's end 2001.
The Government investigates allegations of torture; however, in a November 2000 report on impunity and mistreatment, Amnesty International criticized the judicial process for law enforcement officials accused of torture or mistreatment. Amnesty cited the length of the judicial process, light sentencing, and the use of pardons as factors that contributed to effective impunity. In January Amnesty International criticized the Government's inclusion of 14 members of the security forces, who had been convicted of torture, in a millenium pardon. Also contributing to a climate of impunity, according to Amnesty International, were poor standards of forensic medical reporting and the continued use of incommunicado detention.
In July a Bilbao court sentenced eight Civil Guard members to 4 years' and 6 months' imprisonment for torturing seven suspected members of ETA in 1980.
In July the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) visited the country. The CPT's report had not been released by year's end 2001. The Government permits outside parties to investigate allegations of torture. On March 15, the Council of Europe's Commissioner for Human Rights released a report on his February visit to the Basque Country. He noted that Senideak, a Basque separatist prison rights organization, which had complained about the torture of convicted terrorists, failed to provide any specific examples, and that during his tour of Basauri Prison on February 6, he did not receive any complaints of mistreatment or torture from prisoners.
In addition to killings, ETA bombings and attempted bombings caused numerous injuries and property damage. Several of these attempts were directed at the tourist industry, including June car bombings in Logrono and San Sebastian, and August car bombings in the Madrid airport parking facility and the resort town of Salou. In August ETA also blew up some sections of a high-speed train track. On May 15, a package bomb severely injured journalist Gorka Landaburu. In October ETA exploded a car bomb in front of the Vitoria courts building and another in Madrid, injuring 17 persons. A November 6 car bomb in Madrid caused 59 injuries. ETA sympathizers also continued to commit numerous acts of street violence and vandalism in the Basque region throughout the year. On August 6, two members of the Basque autonomous police were severely injured after an attack by hooded ETA sympathizers. The police arrested more than 150 persons in connection with street violence by ETA sympathizers.
There were occasional reports of violence against immigrants, particularly by rightwing youth groups.
The Constitution prohibits such actions, and the Government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. Under the Criminal Code, the authorities must obtain court approval before searching private property, wiretapping, or interfering with private correspondence. However, the antiterrorist law gives discretionary authority to the Minister of the Interior to act prior to obtaining court approval in "cases of emergency."
The parents or legal guardians of a person with mental disabilities may petition a judge for sterilization of that person.
DETENTION
The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the Government generally observes these prohibitions in practice. A suspect may not be held for more than 72 hours without a hearing except in cases involving terrorism, in which case the law permits holding a suspect an additional 2 days--or a total of 5 days--without a hearing. A judge may authorize incommunicado detention for terrorism suspects. Amnesty International and other NGO's have criticized this provision.
At times pretrial detention can be lengthy. By law suspects may not be confined for more than 2 years before being brought to trial, unless a further delay is authorized by a judge, who may extend pretrial custody to 4 years. In practice pretrial custody is usually less than a year. In previous years, criticism was heard in legal circles that some judges used "preventive custody" as a form of anticipatory sentencing; however, this practice rarely, if ever, was used during the year 2001. At year's end 2001, approximately 22 percent of the prison population was in pretrial detention (10,652 out of 48,118 inmates), although that number included convicted prisoners whose cases were on appeal.
The law on aliens permits the detention of a person for up to 40 days prior to deportation but specifies that it must not take place in a prison-like setting.
The Constitution prohibits forced exile, and the Government does not employ it.
COURTS
The Constitution declares that justice emanates from the people and that it is administered in the name of the king by independent judges and magistrates, who are irremovable and who are responsible and subject only to the rule of law. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court, which is the country's highest tribunal except for constitutional questions. The supreme governing and administrative body is the General Council of the Judiciary. Its primary functions are to appoint judges and to maintain ethical standards within the legal profession. The 1978 Constitution provides that twelve of this council's twenty members are to be selected for five-year terms by judges, lawyers, and magistrates, with the remaining eight to be chosen by the Cortes. A judicial reform law that entered into force in July 1985 called for all twenty members to be chosen by the Cortes; ten by the Congress of Deputies and ten by the Senate. The General Council of the Judiciary elects the president of the Supreme Court, who also serves on this council. In addition, there are territorial courts, regional courts, provincial courts, courts of the first instance, and municipal courts.
Constitutional questions are to be resolved by a special Constitutional Court, outlined in the 1978 Constitution and in the Organic Law on the Constitutional Court that was signed into law in October 1979. This court consists of twelve judges who serve for nine-year terms. Four of these are nominated by the Congress of Deputies, four by the Senate, two by the executive branch of the government, and two by the General Council of the Judiciary. They are chosen from among jurists of recognized standing with at least fifteen years' experience. Once appointed, they are prohibited by the Constitution from engaging in other forms of political, administrative, professional, or commercial activity. The Organic Law on the Constitutional Court contains provisions whereby the court can expel its own members, a circumstance which appears to contradict the constitutional declaration that magistrates are irremovable.
The Constitutional Court is authorized to rule on the constitutionality of laws, acts, or regulations set forth by the national or the regional parliaments. It also may rule on the constitutionality of international treaties before they are ratified, if requested to do so by the government, the Congress of Deputies, or the Senate. The Constitution further declares that individual citizens may appeal to the Constitutional Court for protection against governmental acts that violate their civil rights. Only individuals directly affected can make this appeal, called an amparo, and they can do this only after exhausting other judicial appeals.
In addition, this court has the power to preview the constitutionality of texts delineating statutes of autonomy and to settle conflicts of jurisdiction between the central and the autonomous community governments, or between the governments of two or more autonomous communities. Because many of the constitutional provisions pertaining to autonomy questions are ambiguous and sometimes contradictory, this court could play a critical role in Spain's political and social development.
The Constitution prohibits special courts and limits the jurisdiction of military courts to members of the armed services, except during a state of siege. It provides for a public prosecutor as well as for a public defender, to protect both the rule of law and the rights of citizens. A significant innovation is the provision allowing for trial by jury in criminal cases.
A major problem that continued to plague the legal system in the 1980s was a severe shortage of funds, which made it impossible to keep up with an increasingly heavy case load. This resulted in inordinate delays, which led to corrupt practices such as the bribing of court administrators by lawyers attempting to expedite their clients' cases.
One of the most persistent problems of the judicial system was the delay in bringing cases to trial. As of 1986, these delays averaged eighteen months for minor offenses and between two and four years for serious crimes. In 1980, in an effort to curb the growing incidence of crime, bail was made available only for those accused of crimes for which the penalty was six months or less. By 1983 the large number of prisoners awaiting trial obliged the government to introduce a law raising to two years the maximum time that an accused could be held pending trial on a minor charge and to four years, on a serious charge.
Today, the Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the Government generally respects this provision in practice.
The judicial structure consists of local, provincial, regional, and national courts with the Supreme Court at its apex. The Constitutional Court has the authority to return a case to the court in which it was adjudicated if it can be determined that constitutional rights were violated during the course of the proceedings. The National High Court handles crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking. The European Court of Human Rights is the final arbiter in cases concerning human rights.
The Constitution provides for the right to a fair public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforces this right. There is a nine-person jury system. Defendants have the right to be represented by an attorney (at state expense for the indigent). Defendants are released on bail unless the court believes that they may flee or be a threat to public safety. Following a conviction, defendants may appeal to the next higher court.
The law calls for an expeditious judicial hearing following arrest; however, the judicial process is often lengthy. In cases of petty crime, suspects released on bail sometimes wait up to 5 years for trial.
There were no reports of political prisoners.
CORRECTIONS
The prison population as of 1987 consisted of 17,643 individuals, of whom 1,486 were women. Of the total, about 7,700 were serving sentences, and nearly 9,000 were detained pending trial. An additional 7,200 were inmates of other correctional institutions and halfway houses. Many complaints of overcrowding and inadequate medical attention had in the past been leveled against prison conditions. A series of riots between 1976 and 1978 had been provoked in major part by the crowding and by delays in sentencing. Under the Franco government, periodic amnesties had helped to reduce pressures from the expanding prison population. The ban in the 1978 Constitution against such amnesties had led to a buildup that necessitated an ambitious construction and renovation program. As a result, by 1984, one-third of existing prisons had been built in the previous five years, and many others had been modernized. Prisons, which numbered forty-seven in 1987, were located in most of the main population centers. The largest prisons by far were in Madrid and in Barcelona, each of which had inmate populations of more than 2,000. None of the others housed more than 800 prisoners.
Although in a 1978 report a committee of the Spanish Senate (upper chamber of the Cortes) had severely criticized the treatment of inmates, subsequent evidence indicated considerable improvement. The International Red Cross was permitted to inspect prison conditions whenever it desired. It reported that facilities were satisfactory in the majority of cases, and it described Yeserias Women's Prison in Madrid, where female militants of the Basque movement were held, as a model for the rest of the world. There were several open prisons from which inmates were allowed to return to the community for specified periods. Conjugal visits were allowed on a limited basis. Rehabilitation facilities were said to be almost nonexistent, however.
Today, prison conditions generally meet international standards; however, in a June report compiled by the Coordinator in Solidarity with Imprisoned Persons, an umbrella prison rights nongovernmental organization (NGO), prisoners claimed that they were tortured or mistreated by prison staff in 151 incidents during 1999 and 2000. The same report noted that in January, three prison officials were sentenced to a year's imprisonment for a case of mistreatment in 1997. In the prison system, women are held separately from men; juveniles are held separately from adults; and pretrial detainees are held separately from convicted criminals.
Senideak continued to demand that all imprisoned ETA terrorists be moved to prisons in the Basque region or the adjacent region, Navarra, to be closer to their families. As of July, more than 400 ETA terrorists were in prison.
The Government permits prison visits by independent human rights monitors, one of which visited prisons in July.
WOMEN
Violence against women, particularly domestic violence, remained a problem. According to the Government, 42 women and 3 men were killed as a result of domestic violence during the year 2001, compared with at least 40 women and 6 men in 2000. During the year 2001, women filed 5,983 criminal complaints and 18,175 misdemeanor complaints against their husbands or male partners. In 2000 women filed 5,722 such criminal complaints and 14,846 such misdemeanor complaints. A 1999 study commissioned by the Women's Institute, which is part of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, indicated that 4.2 percent of women reported domestic abuse in the previous year but concluded that the number who actually had been abused was closer to 12.4 percent, based on the survey responses of approximately 20,000 women.
The law prohibits rape and spousal abuse. Police received 1,219 reports of rape during the year 2001. In May the Government initiated its second Plan Against Domestic Violence, with a proposed budget of $72 million (13 billion pesetas) over 4 years. The four principal areas outlined in the plan are preventive education; improvements in judicial regulations and practices to protect victims and increase the penalty for abusers; the extension of social services for abused women to all parts of the country; and increased coordination among the agencies and organizations involved in preventing domestic violence.
During the first plan, from 1998 to 2000, the Government sponsored 3 publicity campaigns and distributed over 750,000 educational pamphlets. It trained additional personnel for each of the 54 Civil Guard units that assist battered women and created 43 similar units in the National Police. There are 53 offices that provide legal assistance to victims of domestic violence and approximately 225 shelters for battered women. A 24-hour free national hot line that advises women where to find local assistance or shelter received 260,000 calls in 2000.
Trafficking in women for the purpose of prostitution, primarily from Latin America, Africa, and Eastern Europe, was a problem.
CHILDREN
The Government is strongly committed to children's rights and welfare; it amply funds a system of public education and health care. Education is compulsory until age 16 and free until age 18. However, a 1998 study found that only 35 percent of Romani children are integrated fully into the educational system. Approximately 60 percent of Romani children do not complete primary school, and only very few progress to middle school and beyond. According to a report by the NGO Gypsy Presence, one-fifth of teachers describe themselves as anti-Roma, and one-fourth of students say that they would like to see Roma expelled from school. Truancy and dropout rates among Roma are very high, and Romani parents, over 80 percent of whom are functionally illiterate, often do not see the value of an education or are unaware of the educational opportunities for their children.
The Constitution obligates both the State and parents to protect children. The Ministries of Health and Social Affairs are responsible for the welfare of children and have created numerous programs to aid needy children. Numerous NGO's promote children's rights and welfare, often through government-funded projects. Several of the Autonomous Communities have an office of the Defender of Children, an independent, nonpartisan agency charged with defending children's rights. Under the Penal Code, children under the age of 18 are not considered responsible for their actions and cannot be sent to prison.
There appears to be no societal pattern of abuse of children. The 1995 Law of the Child gives legal rights of testimony to minors in child abuse cases; it also obliges all citizens to act on cases of suspected child abuse.
Trafficking in teenage girls for prostitution was a problem.
Law enforcement and social service agencies reported an increasing number of undocumented immigrant children living on the streets. These children cannot legally work; as a result, many survive through petty crime. Amnesty International reported that police abused undocumented Moroccan minors, especially in the Spanish North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, and that some undocumented minors are returned to Morocco without sufficient concern for their welfare.
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS
The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, trafficking in women and teenage girls remained a problem. Trafficking involves almost exclusively the importation of women for prostitution, although there are reports of occasional cases in which victims are employed in other work, including agriculture and sweatshops. Trafficked women are usually 18 to 30 years of age, but sometimes are girls as young as age 16. There are few reports of trafficking in younger minors.
Women are trafficked primarily from Latin America (Colombia, Dominican Republic, Brazil), East European countries, sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Guinea, Sierra Leone), and, to a lesser extent, North Africa. Asians, including Chinese, are trafficked to a much lesser degree, and more often for work other than prostitution. Traffickers use coercion, including confiscation of documents, violence, and threats against family members to keep victims working in prostitution. As a group, women from Eastern Europe reportedly are subject to more severe violence and threats on the part of traffickers. Some victims from sub-Sarahan Africa reportedly are sold to traffickers by members of their own families. Traffickers lure some victims from other regions with false promises of employment in service industries and agriculture and then force them into prostitution upon arrival in Spain.
The 2000 Immigration law redefined trafficking as a criminal offense. The penalty for trafficking is 2 to 4 years' imprisonment and a fine, or 6 to 12 years if the crime is committed by a public official. The exploitation of prostitutes through coercion or fraud and the exploitation of workers in general also are illegal, although prostitution is legal. Trafficking in workers is punishable by 2 to 5 years' imprisonment and a fine. During 2000 law enforcement agencies arrested over 1,000 individuals involved in some aspect of trafficking in persons or migrant smuggling and initiated over 700 prosecutions.
The Government specifically targets trafficking as part of its broader plan to control immigration; for example, the police actively pursue and prosecute mafias who use false identity documentation for immigrant smuggling of all kinds, including trafficking. Within the Interior Ministry, the National Police Corps has primary responsibility for all matters pertaining to immigration, including trafficking. Regional authorities also participate in fighting organized criminal activity, including trafficking. In addition the Interior Ministry chairs an interagency committee on all immigration issues, including trafficking. The Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Health, Education, Treasury, and Labor also are members of the committee. The main police school gives courses on trafficking issues, such as the recognition of fake documents and the best ways to identify traffickers.
The law allows for trafficked persons to remain in the country if they agree to testify against the perpetrators. After legal proceedings conclude, the individual is given the option of remaining in Spain or returning to the country of origin. Victims are encouraged to help police investigate trafficking cases and to testify against traffickers. The Government works with and provides funding to NGO's that provide assistance to trafficking victims. In addition regional and local governments provide assistance either directly or through NGO's.
Project Hope, a program backed by the Catholic NGO Las Adoratrices and government agencies, is the first program specifically intended to assist trafficking victims. The project operates shelters in Madrid and provides assistance with medical and legal services and acts as liaison with law enforcement for victims who choose to testify against traffickers. Project Hope receives many of its referrals directly from police. In 2000 the Campaign Against Trafficking in Women, a coalition of NGO's with support from the Ministry of Labor, published a booklet on the problems of trafficking.
DRUG TRAFFICKING
Spain is a transit country, and remains actively involved in counternarcotics efforts globally. Spain is a signatory to the three UN Drug Conventions and maintains membership in the UN Commission. Spain complies with EU consensus on drug trafficking and money laundering. Drug trafficking and terrorism remain Spain's highest law enforcement concerns.
Illicit refining and manufacturing of drugs in Spain is minimal. However, small scale laboratories which convert cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride are discovered and confiscated each year. The first significant cocaine conversion operation was discovered in February 1995, when the Spanish National Police (SNP) seized a cocaine base extraction and conversion lab in a Madrid. It became apparent that individuals purchasing chemicals allegedly for legitimate use were diverting them for illicit use.. Although Spain has a pharmaceutical industry that produces precursor and essential chemicals, there have been no reports of diversion of chemicals to the illicit market. In all cases where MDMA (spell out) laboratories have been seized in Spain, Dutch traffickers were found to be in charge of operations. The production process is a simple one.(?) The SNP recently seized an MDMA logo press. A substantial amount of MDMA was seized in Murcia in early November 1998. When amphetamine laboratories are discovered in Spain, they have been operated by Spaniards with no involvement by other nationalities. There has never been a heroin conversion laboratory identified in Spain. No methamphetamine laboratories have been seized in Spain.
Ever increasing amounts of cocaine are seized by Spanish drug law enforcement agencies each year. Trends indicate that Spain is the chief gateway for cocaine shipments entering Europe. Spain's close historic and linguistic ties with Latin America attract Colombian cocaine traffickers who fully exploit Spain's position as a bridge to the rest of Europe. Maritime containerized cargo shipments account for the bulk of the cocaine shipped to Spain, but a proliferation of smaller amounts smuggled into the country by air courier, usually at Madrid's Barajas International Airport, also contribute to sizeable totals.
Coca leaf is not cultivated in Spain, however opium poppy is cultivated for research purposes under strictly regulated conditions. Insignificant amounts of cannabis are also cultivated.
As previously discussed, there exists minimal refining and manufacturing of drugs in Spain, however there is evidence of small scale laboratories which convert cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Ecstasy is manufactured in Spain in limited quantities.
Spain has the reputation for being a chief gateway for cocaine shipments entering Europe. Spain's close linguistic and cultural ties with Latin America attract Colombian cocaine traffickers who exploit Spain's position as a bridge to the rest of Europe. Cocaine is shipped to Spain through maritime containers in cargo holds. In Spain's northwest province of Galicia, local groups involved in smuggling contraband - usually tobacco - have expanded their illicit activities to include cocaine and hashish trafficking.
Studies and analyses carried out in cooperation with the Center for Sociological Investigations and the Institute for Police Studies over the issue of victimization emphasize that street-level drug trafficking and drug use in urban centers form one of the most important indices for measuring safety concerns among the general populace of city neighborhoods. It is felt that this type of behavior is the genesis of 80 percent of urban crime, usually property-related, but is also responsible for a large number of disruptive acts
Media campaigns were launched, including specially focused ones targeted at youth audiences. Spain's PNSD office has decided to push a positive drug prevention message to young people rather than using the "say no to drugs" phrase which is prevalent in many countries. In a European forum held during the European Drug Prevention Week that began November 16, 1998, Spanish policy in this area was judged to be the most valuable and effective of that of all the participants. Priority has been given to rehabilitating minors to diminish the threat of syringe-borne diseases. Mechanisms have been developed for dispensing methadone and exchanging needles, and joint action has been implemented with the National Plan on Aids (Plan Nacional del Sida).
Programs have also been developed to provide alternative penalties for addicts, making it possible for them to complete their sentences in accredited detoxification and rehabilitation centers.
Methadone distribution programs have been extended to all penitentiaries.
| Luis Carrero Blanco |
Usually causing face pain and most common in children aged 2 - 12, whic disease has the alternative name 'Epidemic Parotitus' ? | Comparative Criminology | Europe - Spain
World : Europe : Spain
The Iberian Peninsula has been occupied for many millennia. Some of Europe's most impressive Paleolithic cultural sites are located there; the famous caves at Altamira contain spectacular paintings which date from about 15,000-25,000 years ago. The Basques are the first identifiable people of the peninsula and are the oldest surviving group in Europe. Iberians arrived from North Africa during a more recent period.
Beginning in the ninth century BC, Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Celts entered the Iberian Peninsula, followed by the Romans, who arrived in the second century BC. Spain's present language, religion, and laws stem from the Roman period. Although the Visigoths arrived in the fifth century AD, the last Roman strongholds along the southern coast did not fall until the seventh century AD. In 711, North African Moors sailed across the straits, swept into Andalusia, and, within a few years, pushed the Visigoths up the peninsula to the Cantabrian Mountains. The Reconquest--efforts to drive out the Moors--lasted until 1492. By 1512, the unification of present-day Spain was complete.
During the 16th century, Spain became the most powerful nation in Europe, due to the immense wealth derived from its presence in the Americas. But a series of long, costly wars and revolts, capped by the defeat by the English of the "Invincible Armada" in 1588, began a steady decline of Spanish power in Europe. Controversy over succession to the throne consumed the country during the 18th century, leading to an occupation by France during the Napoleonic era in the early 1800s, and led to a series of armed conflicts throughout much of the 19th century.
The 19th century saw the revolt and independence of most of Spain's colonies in the Western Hemisphere: three wars over the succession issue; the brief ousting of the monarchy and establishment of the First Republic (1873-74); and, finally, the Spanish-American War (1898), in which Spain lost Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines to the United States. A period of dictatorial rule (1923-31) ended with the establishment of the Second Republic. It was dominated by increasing political polarization, culminating in the leftist Popular Front electoral victory in 1936. Pressures from all sides, coupled with growing and unchecked violence, led to the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in July 1936.
Following the victory of his nationalist forces in 1939, Gen. Francisco Franco ruled a nation exhausted politically and economically. Spain was officially neutral during World War II but followed a pro-Axis policy. The victorious Allies isolated Spain at the beginning of the postwar period, and the country did not join the United Nations until 1955. In 1959, under an International Monetary Fund stabilization plan, the country began liberalizing trade and capital flows, particularly foreign direct investment.
Despite the success of economic liberalization, Spain remained the most closed economy in Western Europe--judged by the small measure of foreign trade to economic activity--and the pace of reform slackened during the 1960s as the state remained committed to "guiding" the economy.
Nevertheless, in the 1960s and 1970s, Spain was transformed into a modern industrial economy with a thriving tourism sector. Its economic expansion led to improved income distribution and helped develop a large middle class. Social changes brought about by economic prosperity and the inflow of new ideas helped set the stage for Spain's transition to democracy during the latter half of the 1970s.
Upon the death of General Franco in November 1975, Prince Juan Carlos de Borbon y Borbon, Franco's personally designated heir, assumed the titles of king and chief of state. Dissatisfied with the slow pace of post-Franco liberalization, in July 1976, the King replaced Franco's last Prime Minister with Adolfo Suarez. Suarez entered office promising that elections would be held within one year, and his government moved to enact a series of laws to liberalize the new regime. Spain's first elections to the Cortes (Parliament) since 1936 were held on June 15, 1977. Prime Minister Suarez's Union of the Democratic Center (UCD), a moderate center-right coalition, won 34% of the vote and the largest bloc of seats in the Cortes.
Under Suarez, the new Cortes set about drafting a democratic constitution that was overwhelmingly approved by voters in a December 1978 national referendum.
Today, Spain is a democracy with a constitutional monarch. The Parliament consists of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. In March 2000, Jose Maria Aznar of the Popular Party was reelected Prime Minister, with the title President of the Government. The next national elections must be held by March 2004. The Government respects the constitutional provisions for an independent judiciary in practice.
CIVIL DISORDER
During the Franco regime, a wide spectrum of opposition groups carried on antigovernment and, in some cases, terrorist activities. Nevertheless, these movements were successfully contained by the authorities, who were determined to crush all forms of independent political expression. Most of the dissident activity abated with the introduction of a democratic system that extended legal recognition to hitherto banned political groups, including the Communist Party of Spain (Partido Comunista de Espana--PCE. The legitimacy of separatist movements was recognized by granting partial regional autonomy, which included legislatures with powers of taxation, policing, and education.
As a consequence of these policies, political opposition groups presented no imminent threat to Spain's stability as of 1988, although the activities of Basque extremists continued to present a danger to the forces of internal security. The Basque terrorist movement did not, however, enjoy the active support of the majority of the Basque population, and it appeared to be in decline as a result of an increasingly effective police campaign.
The radical movement of Basque separatists was organized in 1959 when the group known as Basque Fatherland and Freedom (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna--ETA) broke away from the much larger Basque Nationalist Party (Partido Nacionalista Vasco--PNV). The ETA adopted a policy of armed struggle in 1968; in practice, much of the violence was attributed to an extremist faction, the ETA Military Front (ETA Militar--ETA-M). A less violent faction, the ETA Political-Military Front (ETA Politico-Militar--ETA-PM), pursued a strategy of mixing political activities with terrorist actions. The ETA-M was largely responsible for the mounting savagery of the attacks during the 1970s, which included the assassination of the prime minister, Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco, in 1973.
The election of a democratic national parliament in 1977 and a Basque parliament in 1980 brought little relief from ETA violence. Although avowedly socialist in orientation, ETA continued to justify its terrorist policies after the Socialist government came to power in 1982. It insisted that the PSOE was only a pawn of the capitalist and clerical forces that dominated Spain and that it had failed to offer real autonomy to the Basque people.
The ETA-M was considered to be the militant wing of Popular Unity (Herri Batasuna--HB), the most radical of three Basque parties represented in the Cortes. Although the HB increased its representation in the Cortes to five seats in 1986, it still received only 17 percent of the Basque vote. The party's platform included the compulsory teaching of the Basque language, Euskera, in the schools; the withdrawal of Spanish security forces from Basque territory; measures to restrict private capital; and the addition of Navarre to the three provinces of the north that constituted the existing autonomous community of the Basque Country. As its ultimate objective, the party favored complete independence from Spain.
ETA-M's strategy had been to carry out a series of carefully selected assassinations and bombings, each having important psychological or symbolic impact. The terrorists thus hoped to inspire a spiral of violence and counterviolence that would arouse feeling against "repression" by the security forces and that would perhaps provoke a right-wing coup by the armed services. A total of more than 700 deaths had been attributed to the movement by the close of 1987. The violence had reached its peak in 1980 when the death toll was eighty-five. Nearly two-thirds of those killed were members of the Civil Guard or the National Police Corps. Most of the remainder were civilians killed in bombings or caught in crossfire. The military represented only 7 percent of the deaths, but those selected for assassination were often senior officers holding prominent positions.
The activists of ETA-M, believed to number no more than 200 to 500 in 1986, were organized into cells of as few as 5 individuals. Most members were under thirty years of age, and they had served for an average of three years in this sideline to their ordinary jobs. Perhaps no more than 100 were actual gunmen, the others acting as messengers, transporting weapons and explosives, and providing support. A number of young women also served in ETA-M; they were said to be among the most uncompromising militants, willing to take risks that young men increasingly shunned.
By the mid-1980s, ETA-M appeared to be under growing pressure from the security forces, with the result that the incidence of terrorist acts had tapered off. Better use of informants, ambushes, raids, and tighter control of the border with France contributed to the success of the police efforts. In 1984 the Spanish government had announced a policy of "social integration," a form of amnesty offered to ETA members in exile or in Spanish jails if they renounced future acts of terrorism. Improved international cooperation was also important. In 1986 about 200 active terrorists were believed to be living among the large Basque population in the adjacent provinces of France, using French territory as sanctuary and as a base for terrorist missions. Two years later, their numbers had been reduced to a few dozen as a result of intensified cooperation between Spanish and French security authorities. Until 1983 France, citing its tradition of granting political asylum, had been unwilling to extradite ETA members to Spain. France shifted to a more accommodating policy, after the new Socialist government took office in Spain, and permited the extradition of a few ETA members, accused of specific crimes of violence, while resettling others in northern France or deporting them. In late 1987, the police claimed a crippling blow had been administered to the terrorists by the arrest of many senior members of ETA-M in both Spain and France and the discovery of caches of arms and explosives.
Sympathy among Basques for the extremists, which was already limited, diminished further following the bombing in 1987 of a supermarket garage in Barcelona, in which twenty-four innocent people were killed. Later in the same year there was popular revulsion over the deaths of five children among eleven people killed in a bombing of family quarters of the Civil Guard at Zaragoza.
Beginning in late 1983, a right-wing force, the Antiterrorist Liberation Group (Grupo Antiterrorista de Liberacion--GAL), began a campaign of revenge killings and bombings among suspected ETA terrorists, chiefly in France, where GAL was widely believed to be linked to the Civil Guard. At the same time, an offshoot of ETA-M, Spain Commando, targeted members of the Civil Guard and the armed forces in Madrid, where such attacks, which gained maximum publicity for the movement, had been on the rise.
ETA-M was at one time well financed by kidnappings, robberies, and the so-called "revolutionary tax" on Basque businessmen. Reportedly, however, after the reverses suffered by the terrorists in 1987, receipts from the tax had declined almost to zero.
The regional Basque police force, Ertzaintza, formed in 1981, originally was assigned to traffic and other nonsecurity duties, but in late 1986 it conducted its first engagement against ETA-M. A plan had been adopted for Ertzaintza gradually to take a larger role, but it was reported that Civil Guard officers were reluctant to turn over intelligence out of conviction that the autonomous police were infiltrated by ETA activists.
Other regional opposition groups--in the Canary Islands, Galicia, and Catalonia--did not present a threat to internal security forces that was comparable to ETA. The Catalan separatist organization Terre Lluire (Free Land), formed in 1980, was responsible for a series of bomb explosions, some of which had resulted in fatalities. In late 1987, a United States servicemen's club in Barcelona was attacked with grenades, and the United States consulate was bombed. Terre Lluire and a newer group, the Catalan Red Liberation Army, both claimed responsibility. During the first part of 1987, a group dedicated to a separate Galician nation, the Free Galician Guerrilla People's Army, carried out bomb attacks against banks in a number of towns in Galicia.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM
The market-based economy, with primary reliance on private enterprise, provides the population of over 40 million with a high standard of living. The economy grew during the third quarter at a 2.6 percent annual rate. The annual inflation rate was 2.7 percent at year's end 2001. Unemployment decreased to 12.8 percent during the year 2001, continuing its downward trend.
BELIEFS
Spain, it has been observed, is a nation-state born out of religious struggle between Catholicism and, in turn, Islam, Judaism, and Protestantism. After centuries of the Reconquest, in which Christian Spaniards fought to drive Muslims from Europe, the Inquisition sought to complete the religious purification of the Iberian Peninsula by driving out Jews, Protestants, and other nonbelievers. The Inquisition was finally abolished only in the 1830s, and even after that religious freedom was denied in practice, if not in theory. Catholicism became the state religion in 1851, when the Spanish government signed a Concordat with the Vatican that committed Madrid to pay the salaries of the clergy and to subsidize other expenses of the Roman Catholic Church. This pact was renounced in 1931, when the secular constitution of the Second Republic imposed a series of anticlerical measures that threatened the church's very existence in Spain and provoked its support for the Franco uprising five years later.
The advent of the Franco regime saw the restoration of the church's privileges. During the Franco years, Roman Catholicism was the only religion to have legal status; other worship services could not be advertised, and only the Roman Catholic Church could own property or publish books. The government not only continued to pay priests' salaries and to subsidize the church, but it also assisted in the reconstruction of church buildings damaged by the war. Laws were passed abolishing divorce and banning the sale of contraceptives. Catholic religious instruction was mandatory, even in public schools. Franco secured in return the right to name Roman Catholic bishops in Spain, as well as veto power over appointments of clergy down to the parish priest level. In 1953 this close cooperation was formalized in a new Concordat with the Vatican that granted the church an extraordinary set of privileges: mandatory canonical marriages for all Catholics; exemption from government taxation; subsidies for new building construction; censorship of materials the church deemed offensive; the right to establish universities, to operate radio stations, and to publish newspapers and magazines; protection from police intrusion into church properties; and exemption of clergy from military service.
The proclamation of the Second Vatican Council in favor of the separation of church and state in 1965 forced the reassessment of this special relationship. In the late 1960s, the Vatican attempted to reform the church in Spain by appointing liberals as interim, or acting, bishops, thereby circumventing Franco's stranglehold on the country's clergy. In 1966 the Franco regime passed a law that freed other religions from many of the earlier restrictions, although it also reaffirmed the privileges of the Catholic Church. Any attempt to revise the 1953 Concordat met the dictator's rigid resistance.
In 1976, however, King Juan Carlos de Borbon unilaterally renounced the right to name the bishops; later that same year Madrid and the Vatican signed a new accord that restored to the church its right to name bishops, and the church agreed to a revised Concordat that entailed a gradual financial separation of church and state. Church property not used for religious purposes was henceforth to be subject to taxation, and gradually, over a period of years, the church's reliance on state subsidies was to be reduced. The timetable for this reduction was not adhered to, however, and the church continued to receive the public subsidy through 1987 (US$110 million in that year alone). Indeed, by the end of 1987 issues such as financing and education had not been definitively resolved, and the revised Concordat still had not been agreed to in final form, even though the 1953 Concordat had expired in 1980.
It took the new 1978 Constitution to confirm the right of Spaniards to religious freedom and to begin the process of disestablishing Catholicism as the state religion. The drafters of the Constitution tried to deal with the intense controversy surrounding state support of the church, but they were not entirely successful. The initial draft of the Constitution did not even mention the church, which was included almost as an afterthought and only after intense pressure from the church's leadership. Article 16 disestablishes Roman Catholicism as the official religion and provides that religious liberty for non-Catholics is a state-protected legal right, thereby replacing the policy of limited toleration of non-Catholic religious practices. The article further states, however, that "The public authorities shall take the religious beliefs of Spanish society into account and shall maintain the consequent relations of cooperation with the Catholic Church and the other confessions." In addition, Article 27 also aroused controversy by appearing to pledge continuing government subsidies for private, church-affiliated schools. These schools were sharply criticized by Spanish Socialists for having created and perpetuated a class-based, separate, and unequal school system. The Constitution, however, includes no affirmation that the majority of Spaniards are Catholics or that the state should take into account the teachings of Catholicism.
Government financial aid to the church was a difficult and contentious issue. The church argued that, in return for the subsidy, the state had received the social, health, and educational services of tens of thousands of priests and nuns who fulfilled vital functions that the state itself could not have performed. Nevertheless, the revised Concordat was supposed to replace direct state aid to the church with a scheme that would allow taxpayers to designate a certain portion of their taxes to be diverted directly to the church. Through 1985, taxpayers were allowed to deduct up to 10 percent from their taxable income for donations to the Catholic Church. Partly because of the protests against this arrangement from representatives of Spain's other religious groups, the tax laws were changed in 1987 so that taxpayers could choose between giving 0.52 percent of their income tax to the church and allocating it to the government's welfare and culture budgets. For three years, the government would continue to give the church a gradually reduced subsidy, but after that the church would have to subsist on its own resources. The government would continue, however, its program of subsidizing Catholic schools, which in 1987 cost the Spanish taxpayers about US$300 million, exclusive of the salaries of teachers, which were paid directly by the Ministry of Education and Science.
Anyone visiting Spain must be constantly aware of the church's physical presence in buildings, museums, and religious celebrations. In a population of about 39 million, the number of non-Catholics was probably no more than 300,000. About 250,000 of these were of other Christian faiths, including several Protestant denominations, Jehovah's Witnesses, and Mormons. The number of Jews in Spain was estimated at about 13,000. More than 19 out of every 20 Spaniards were baptized Catholics; about 60 percent of them attended Mass; about 30 percent of the baptized Catholics did so regularly, although this figure declined to about 20 percent in the larger cities. As of 1979, about 97 percent of all marriages were performed according to the Catholic religion. A 1982 report by the church claimed that 83 percent of all children born the preceding year had been baptized in the church.
Nevertheless, there were forces at work bringing about fundamental changes in the place of the church in society. One such force was the improvement in the economic fortunes of the great majority of Spaniards, making society more materialistic and less religious. Another force was the massive shift in population from farm and village to the growing urban centers, where the church had less influence over the values of its members. These changes were transforming the way Spaniards defined their religious identity.
Being a Catholic in Spain had less and less to do with regular attendance at Mass and more to do with the routine observance of important rituals such as baptism, marriage, and burial of the dead. A 1980 survey revealed that, although 82 percent of Spaniards were believers in Catholicism, very few considered themselves to be very good practitioners of the faith. In the case of the youth of the country, even smaller percentages believed themselves to be "very good" or "practicing" Catholics.
In contrast to an earlier era, when rejection of the church went along with education, in the late 1980s studies showed that the more educated a person was, the more likely he or she was to be a practicing Catholic. This new acceptance of the church was due partly to the church's new self-restraint in politics. In a significant change from the pre-Civil War era, the church had accepted the need for the separation of religion and the state, and it had even discouraged the creation of a Christian Democratic party in the country.
The traditional links between the political right and the church no longer dictated political preferences; in the 1982 general election, more than half of the country's practicing Catholics voted for the PSOE. Although the Socialist leadership professed agnosticism, according to surveys between 40 and 45 percent of the party's rank-and-file members held religious beliefs, and more than 70 percent of these professed to be Catholics. Among those entering the party after Franco's death, about half considered themselves Catholic.
One important indicator of the changes taking place in the role of the church was the reduction in the number of Spaniards in Holy Orders. In 1984 the country had more than 22,000 parish priests, nearly 10,000 ordained monks, and nearly 75,000 nuns. These numbers concealed a troubling reality, however. More than 70 percent of the diocesan clergy was between the ages of 35 and 65; the average age of the clergy in 1982 was 49 years. At the upper end of the age range, the low numbers reflected the impact of the Civil War, in which more than 4,000 parish priests died. At the lower end, the scarcity of younger priests reflected the general crisis in vocations throughout the world, which began to be felt in the 1960s. Its effects were felt especially acutely in Spain. The crisis was seen in the decline in the number of young men joining the priesthood and in the increase in the number of priests leaving Holy Orders. The number of seminarists in Spain fell from more than 9,000 in the 1950s to only 1,500 in 1979, even though it rose slightly in 1982 to about 1,700.
Changes in the social meaning of religious vocations were perhaps part of the problem; having a priest in the family no longer seemed to spark the kind of pride that family members would have felt in the past. The principal reason in most cases, though, was the church's continued ban on marriage for priests. Previously, the crisis was not particularly serious because of the age distribution of the clergy. As the twentieth century nears an end, however, a serious imbalance will appear between those entering the priesthood and those leaving it. The effects of this crisis were already visible in the decline in the number of parish priests in Spain--from 23,620 in 1979 to just over 22,000 by 1983.
Another sign of the church's declining role in Spanish life was the diminishing importance of the controversial secular religious institute, Opus Dei (Work of God). Opus Dei was a worldwide lay religious body that did not adhere to any particular political philosophy and was allegedly nonpolitical. The organization was founded in 1928 by a Spanish priest, Jose Maria Escriva de Balaguer y Albas, as a reaction to the increasing secularization of Spain's universities, and higher education continued to be one of the institute's foremost priorities. Despite its public commitment to a nonpolitical stance, Opus Dei members rose to occupy key positions in the Franco regime, especially in the field of economic policy-making in the late 1950s and the early 1960s. Opus Dei members dominated the group of liberal technocrats who engineered the opening of Spain's autarchic economy after 1957. After the 1973 assassination of Prime Minister Luis Carrero Blanco (often rumored to be an Opus Dei member), however, the influence of the institute declined sharply. The secrecy of the order and its activities and the power of its myth helped it maintain its strong position of influence in Spain; but there was little doubt that, compared with the 1950s and the 1960s, Opus Dei had fallen from being one of the country's chief political organizations to being simply one among many such groups competing for power in an open and pluralist society.
In the late 1980s, however, the church showed signs of becoming more conservative than liberal. After years of being the minority in the church hierarchy, conservative Catholic leaders had reasserted their power and influence, and they were beginning to wrest power from the liberals. One telling indicator of the return of conservatives to control within the church was the battle in late 1987 over the editorial policy of the leading Spanish Catholic weekly magazine, Vida Nueva, which ended with the liberal editor's being forced out of office and his being replaced with a conservative.
CRIMINAL CODES
There is a distinction between serious (delitos) and less serious (faltas) offenses. Serious offenses are indictable and less serious offenses are nonindictable.
The Penal Code includes as indictable offenses offenses against state security, fakes and falsifications, offenses against the administration of justice, offenses against sanitation and health (including drug offenses), behavior causing risk but not actual damage, offenses by public officers, offenses against individuals (murder, homicide, illegal abortions, bodily harm caused by assault and battery), sexual offenses, offenses against reputation (libel and slander), offenses against freedom and personal security, property offenses, and offenses committed recklessly and without intent.
Among the less serious, nonindictable offenses, the Penal Code includes violations of the public order, violations against individuals, and minor property offenses, such as theft resulting in deprivation of less than 30.000 pesetas ($200).
The age of criminal responsibility is 16 years. Youngsters under this age accused of delinquent behavior are handled by the Juvenile Courts. Delinquents between 16 and 18 years old benefit from a mitigation in penalty. (Penal Code, Article 8.2 and 9.3).
Growing, processing, trafficking, promoting and facilitating the consumption of toxic, stupefacient or psychotropic drugs, as well as simple possession with the intent to engage in such behavior, is punishable by 2 to 8 years in prison and a maximum fine of 100 million pesetas in fines ($666,000) if the drug can cause important harm to personal health. In all other cases, the prison sentence can be set between 4 months and 4 years and the fine can be a maximum of 50 million pesetas ($333,000).
These penalties can be increased for members of any permanent or temporary organization dedicated to the trafficking of drugs. They can be increased for health facility personnel who give drugs to minors or to persons undergoing treatment for drug addiction. And they can be increased when the quantity of drugs involved is significant. Penal Code, Articles 344 and 344 bis).
Individual consumption is not subject to penalty. An average of 3 days drug stock for individual consumption by drug-addicted individuals does not constitute illegal possession as ruled by the Supreme Court.
Spain's criminal justice system, which is based on Roman law, extends customary procedural safeguards to accused persons. Article 17 of the 1978 Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and imprisonment. It also provides that there be a maximum period of preventive detention (set by law at seventy-two hours), and that the arrested person be informed of his or her rights, including the right to an attorney, the right to an explanation of the reason for the arrest, and the right to be present at the trial. The Constitution abolishes the death penalty, except for certain military crimes in wartime. Under the Socialist government that took office in 1982, laws were passed providing for a limited right of habeas corpus for suspects to appeal against illegal detention or mistreatment. Defendants unable to afford counsel were assured of free legal assistance. A Public Defender's Office was formed that had authority to look into complaints by citizens and to initiate investigations. Trial by jury, which had been abolished by Franco, was part of the Socialist electoral program, but its introduction was delayed by differences with the judiciary as to the precise role the jury would play.
A full-scale revision of the Penal Code was being prepared in the late 1980s, but a number of significant changes had already taken effect. The principle of suspended sentences was introduced. Pollution of the environment was made a crime, and distinctions were introduced between hard and soft narcotics in sentencing illicit producers and dealers. Earlier provisions of law that had legalized the possession of small quantities of soft drugs were reaffirmed.
After the Civil War, crimes involving the security of the state were handled outside the regular court system. From 1941 until 1963, military courts had sole charge of all crimes against national security, in many cases through summary courts martial. Offenses ranging from treason and sabotage to the fostering of strikes and membership in illegal associations came under the jurisdiction of military courts. In 1963 Franco created the three-judge civilian Court for Public Order to deal with all nonterrorist internal security offenses, such as belonging to illegal parties and distributing antigovernment propaganda. In 1968, however, and again in 1975, after intensified terrorist action, various crimes were added to the state security category, restoring them to military jurisdiction. In 1980 the charging or the trying of civilians by military courts was prohibited.
Antiterrorist laws adopted in 1980 and in 1981, in response to a wave of killings by Basque terrorists, had the effect of suspending certain constitutional guarantees. Anyone charged with supporting terrorism could be held virtually incommunicado for up to ten days (later reduced to three days). A suspect's home could be searched, his mail opened, and his telephone tapped. A detainee in a terrorism case had the right to an appointed attorney who could formally advise him of his rights, and who might be present during his interrogation, but who could not consult with the detainee until the interrogation was completed.
The international human rights group, Amnesty International, Spanish civil rights organizations, and the Spanish press have drawn attention to abuses of these exceptional powers given to police under the antiterrorism laws. In several of its annual reports, Amnesty International has said that detainees were not accorded access to counsel while in custody, that few were actually charged with crimes, that habeas corpus rights were not respected, and that insufficient judicial and medical supervision was exercised. The organization's claims of widespread mistreatment and torture, mainly of alleged members of Basque terrorist organizations, were supported by the annual reports on human rights of the United States Department of State. The Spanish government asserted, for its part, that detainees under the antiterrorist laws routinely lodged complaints of police brutality or torture, whether or not there was cause. Nevertheless, in 1986 the courts sentenced thirty-nine members of security forces for mistreatment of prisoners, and an estimated 150 additional cases were pending.
INCIDENCE OF CRIME
Spanish statistics reflected increases of 5 to 10 percent annually in the incidence of crime during the late 1970s and the 1980s. Foreign tourists in particular were frequent victims of armed and violent robberies. The rise was attributed largely to the economic and social problems of urban areas where recent high school and college graduates faced unemployment rates often in excess of 20 percent. The growing problem of drug addiction also contributed to the number of robberies in cities and in resort areas.
Over 90 percent of all crimes reported in 1986 were offenses against property. The next most significant crimes--against persons and internal security as well as the abandonment of family and personal injury--each contributed only between 1 and 2 percent to the total. Despite liberal laws in this area, the number of persons arrested on narcotics charges rose from about 9,000 in 1980 to nearly 22,000 in 1987. Nevertheless, in Spain as a whole, the official crime rate continued to be lower than it was in most other countries of Western Europe.
The crime rate in Spain is medium compared to industrialized countries. An analysis was done using INTERPOL data for Spain. For purpose of comparison, data were drawn for the seven offenses used to compute the United States FBI's index of crime. Index offenses include murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated assault, burglary, larceny, and motor vehicle theft. The combined total of these offenses constitutes the Index used for trend calculation purposes. Spain will be compared with Japan (country with a low crime rate) and USA (country with a high crime rate). According to the INTERPOL data, for murder, the rate in 2000 was 2.91 per 100,000 population for Spain, 1.10 for Japan, and 5.51 for USA. For rape, the rate in 2000 was 3.09 for Spain, compared with 1.78 for Japan and 32.05 for USA. For robbery, the rate in 2000 was 229.92 for Spain, 4.08 for Japan, and 144.92 for USA. For aggravated assault, the rate in 2000 was 22.15 for Spain, 23.78 for Japan, and 323.62 for USA. For burglary, the rate in 2000 was 530.4 for Spain, 233.60 for Japan, and 728.42 for USA. The rate of larceny for 2000 was 675.1 for Spain, 1401.26 for Japan, and 2475.27 for USA. The rate for motor vehicle theft in 2000 was 332.72 for Spain, compared with 44.28 for Japan and 414.17 for USA. The rate for all index offenses combined was 1796.29 for Spain, compared with 1709.88 for Japan and 4123.97 for USA.
TRENDS IN CRIME
Between 1995 and 2000, according to INTERPOL data, the rate of murder increased from 2.43 to 2.91 per 100,000 population, an increase of 19.8%. The rate for rape decreased from 4.37 to 3.09, a decrease of 29.3%. The rate of robbery increased from 221.27 to 229.92, an increase of 3.9%. The rate for aggravated assault decreased from 22.64 to 22.15, a decrease of 2.2%. The rate for burglary decreased from 565.95 to 530.4, a decrease of 6.3%. The rate of larceny decreased from 751.16 to 675.1, a decrease of 10.1%. The rate of motor vehicle theft increased from 250.66 to 332.72, an increase of 32.7%. The rate of total index offenses decreased from 1818.48 to 1796.29, a decrease of 1.2%.
LEGAL SYSTEM
Spain has a European Continental legal system, requiring that behavior be defined as criminal and that the penal law assign a penalty to that behavior for it to be prosecuted (nullum crimen sine lege, nulla pena sine lege). The investigative stage of the penal process is carried out by a judge, and the suspect benefits from a system of procedural guarantees. Hearings are characterized by adversarial procedures, with a public attorney prosecuting on the basis of findings of the investigating judge, although calumny and slander cases are only prosecuted at the request of the presumptively offended person. Hearings are made public. Evidence is produced in the presence of the accused person, who is always assisted by legal counsel and by a translator if necessary.
The Spanish penal system was developed during the Middle Ages from local adaptations of its original Germanic heritage. In the 18th century, it was subjected to the influence of the rationalist thinkers who asked for the adoption of systematic rules which resulted, during the era of the French Revolution, in requests for the adoption of Penal and Criminal Procedural Codes.
The famous book, Dei delitti e delle pene by Beccaria, first appeared in 1764 and was translated into Spanish some ten years later. Although the book was opposed by some conservative authors at the time, it led to an enthusiastic movement culminating in the proposal to adopt a Penal Code.
In 1812, the Spanish patriots who, during the Napoleonic invasion (1808-1813) had taken shelter in Cadiz in the south of Spain, adopted Spain's first political Constitution. This liberal Constitution also included a proposal for the creation of a Penal Code, but the reestablishment of the absolutist King Ferdinand VII on the Spanish throne (1814) prevented the adoption of the Code. In fact, even the progressive 1812 Constitution was repealed. A liberal upheaval in 1820 led to the adoption of the first Spanish Penal Code in 1822. The Code was in force for only one year, after which the monarch resumed absolute rule.
In 1848, in a more moderate political situation, a new Penal Code was adopted, and since then, a Penal Code has always existed and been applied, with some interruptions during times of military rule. A Penal Procedural Code was adopted in 1881 and is still in force as of 1993. A draft of a new Penal Code, whose structure differed greatly from the existing Penal Code, was being studied by the Legislature in 1993.
POLICE
The transition from Franco's dictatorship to a system of parliamentary democracy was accompanied by a major effort to bring the forces of law and order and the justice system into harmony with the new political era. The police were stripped of most of their military characteristics. The Civil Guard, which maintained order in rural areas and in smaller communities, retained many of its military features, but both the civil Guard and the police were placed under civilian leadership. Once dedicated to repressing all evidence of opposition to the Franco regime, the police and the Civil Guard were expected to tolerate forms of conduct previously banned and to protect individual rights conferred by the 1978 Constitution and by subsequent legislation. Members of the Civil Guard continued to be implicated in cases of mistreatment and brutality in the campaign against Basque terrorism. The authorities had, however, prosecuted many guardsmen for such infractions, with the result that by 1988 fewer violations of legal norms were being recorded.
Reforms of the judicial system included appointments of judges by a body insulated from political pressures and increased budgets to enable courts to deal with a chronic backlog of criminal hearings. The penal code was being modernized to bring it into conformity with the new Constitution. Some progress had been made in ensuring that defendants had effective legal representation and that they received speedier trials. Nevertheless, antiquated procedures and the escalation of crime continued to generate huge delays in the administration of justice, with the result that as much as half of the prison population in 1986 consisted of accused persons still awaiting trial.
The principal forces of public order and security as of 1988 were the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps (Cuerpo Nacional de Policia). The Civil Guard, fortified by nearly a century and a half of tradition, was a highly disciplined paramilitary body with close links to the army. As it evolved, it served mainly as a rural police to protect property and order and to reinforce the authority of the central government. Under Franco, a tripartite system of police was formalized: the Civil Guard in rural areas; the Armed and Traffic Police (renamed the National Police in 1979), which fulfilled normal police functions in communities with a population of more than 20,000; and the Higher Police Corps of plainclothes police with responsibility for investigating crimes and political offenses. Separate municipal police forces under the control of local mayors were concerned mainly with traffic control and with enforcement of local ordinances.
During the Franco era, the police had been regarded as a reactionary element, associated in the public mind with internal surveillance and political repression. The Civil Guard and the Armed and Traffic Police were legally part of the armed forces, and their senior officers were drawn from the army. The 1978 Constitution effects the separation of the police from the military, and it emphasizes that one of the functions of the police is to safeguard personal liberties. Article 104 of the 1978 Constitution states that, "The Security Corps and Forces, responsible to the Government, shall have as their mission the protection of the free exercise of rights and liberties and the guaranteeing of the safety of citizens." Although considerably delayed, a subsequent statute, the Organic Law on the Security Corps and Forces, was enacted in March 1986 to incorporate the mandate of the Constitution to redefine the functions and the operating principles of the police forces. With its passage, the final legal steps had been taken to make the police system conform to the requirements of the democratic regime, although most observers concluded that it would be years before the reforms were fully in effect.
The new organic law provided a common ethical code for police practices, affirmed trade union rights, recast the role of the judicial police serving under the courts and the public prosecutors, combined the uniformed and the nonuniformed police into the single National Police Corps, and redefined the missions and the chains of command of the various police elements. The Civil Guard remained a separate paramilitary force, although in operational matters it was under the direction of the Ministry of Interior rather than the Ministry of Defense. In time of war or emergency, it would revert to the authority of the minister of defense. In 1986 a new post of secretary of state for security was created in the Ministry of Interior to coordinate the activities of the National Police Corps and the Civil Guard. The National Police Corps functioned under the directives of the director general of the National Police Corps, but local supervision was exercised by civil governors of the provinces where police forces served.
Patterned after the French rural gendarmerie when it was formed in 1844, the Civil Guard has long maintained its own traditions and style of operation. Until the first civilian director general of the Civil Guard was installed in 1986, its head had been an army lieutenant general. The total complement of the Civil Guard as of 1986 was 65,000; in addition, about 9,000 auxiliary guardsmen performed their military service obligation in the Civil Guard.
The Civil Guard was grouped into six zones, matching the six army regions, each commanded by an army brigadier general. These were divided, in turn, into commands coinciding with provincial boundaries and further subdivided into about 300 companies, 800 lines (lineas) corresponding to platoons, and about 3,200 posts. A post typically consisted of six to ten guardsmen, headed by a corporal or a sergeant. Posts were responsible for organizing two-member patrols to police their areas, generally by automobile. To deploy forces more flexibly, this traditional system had been augmented by radio-controlled mobile patrols of three or more members. A separate traffic group patrolled the main roads to assist in cases of breakdown or accident. A Rural Antiterrorist Group of four companies, stationed in the Basque Country (Spanish, Pais Vasco; Basque, Euskadi) and Navarre (Spanish, Navarra), concentrated its efforts against Basque extremists. This force could be supplemented by a helicopter unit and by a Special Intervention Unit as needed. Mountain Units guarded the Pyrenees frontier against terrorists and smugglers, in addition to providing general police and rescue services.
The Civil Guard generally enjoyed greater popularity than other police elements, in part because of its reputation for courtesy and helpfulness to motorists. Nevertheless, it had not completely shed its earlier reputation as the primary instrument of the Franco regime's efforts to root out and crush any evidence of opposition. Numerous cases of torture and ill treatment were attributed to members of the Civil Guard, especially in the handling of suspected Basque dissidents. The persistence of reactionary tendencies was underscored by the participation of a senior officer of the Civil Guard, Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero Molina, in the dramatic coup attempt of 1981, backed by nearly 300 guardsmen who made prisoners of cabinet ministers and deputies of the Cortes.
Most members of the Civil Guard were housed with their families on compounds that formed part of the stations from which they operated. A high proportion of recruits were the sons of guardsmen. Entrance was at the age of sixteen years or seventeen years, when recruits began a two-year course at one of two "colleges" or, alternatively, at ages nineteen to twenty-four at the other college where the course was of eleven months duration. Promotion to officer rank was possible after fourteen years of service. A minority of officers gained direct commissions by attending the General Military Academy at Zaragoza for two years, where they followed the regular military cadet curriculum. After an additional three years at the Special Academy of the Civil Guard at Aranjuez, these cadets entered the service as lieutenants.
Under the 1986 organic law, the Ministry of Interior was assigned responsibility for operational matters, pay, assignments, accommodations, and equipment. The Ministry of Defense was responsible for promotions, military missions, and wartime mobilization. Recruitment, training, weapons, deployment, and conduct of the system whereby compulsory service could be performed in the Civil Guard were matters of joint responsibility. The regulations introduced in early 1988 enabling women to serve in certain categories of the armed forces also cleared the way for eventual recruitment of women into the Civil Guard.
The 1986 law set out a new functional division of responsibilities between the Civil Guard and the National Police Corps. In addition to its rural police functions, the Civil Guard was to be responsible for firearms and explosives control; traffic policing on interurban roads; protection of communication routes, coasts, frontiers, ports, and airports; enforcement of environmental and conservation laws, including those governing hunting and fishing; and interurban transport of prisoners.
The 1986 organic law unifying the separate uniformed and plainclothes branches of the national police was a major reform that required a considerable period of time to be brought into full effect. The former plainclothes service, known as the Higher Police Corps, but often referred to as the "secret police," consisted of some 9,000 officers. Prior to 1986, it had a supervisory and coordinating role in police operations, conducted domestic surveillance, collected intelligence, investigated major crimes, issued identity documents, and carried out liaison with foreign police forces.
The uniformed service was a completely separate organization with a complement of about 50,000 officers, including a small number of female recruits who were first accepted for training in 1984. The Director General of the National Police Corps, a senior official of the Ministry of Interior, commanded 13 regional headquarters, 50 provincial offices, and about 190 municipal police stations. In the nine largest cities, several district police stations served separate sections of the city. The chief of police of each station was in command of both the uniformed and the plainclothes officers attached to the station. A centrally controlled Special Operations Group (Grupo Especial de Operaciones--GEO) was an elite fighting unit trained to deal with terrorist and hostage situations.
The principal weapons regularly used by the uniformed police were 9mm pistols, 9mm submachine guns, CETME and NATO 7.62mm rifles, and various forms of riot equipment. The uniform consisted of light brown trousers and dark brown jackets.
The initial training phase for recruits to the National Police Corps was nine months, followed by a year of practical training. Promotions to corporal, sergeant, and sergeant major were based on seniority, additional training, and performance. In the Franco era, most police officers were seconded from the army. Under a 1978 law, future police officers were to receive separate training, and army officers detailed to the police were to be permanently transferred. By 1986 only 170 army officers remained in the National Police Corps. Under the 1986 organic law, military-type training for police was to be terminated, and all candidate officers were to attend the Higher Police School at Ávila, which previously had served as the three-year training center for the Higher Police Corps. The ranks of the plainclothes corps--commissioners, subcommissioners, and inspectors of first, second, and third class--were to be assimilated into the ranking system of the uniformed police--colonel, lieutenant colonel, major, captain, and lieutenant. Two lower categories --subinspection and basic--would include all nonofficer uniformed personnel. The newly unified National Police Corps was to be responsible for issuing identity cards and passports, as well as for immigration and deportation controls, refugees, extradition, deportation, gambling controls, drugs, and supervision of private security forces.
Franco's Armed and Traffic Police had once been dreaded as one of the most familiar symbols of the regime's oppressiveness. During the 1980s, however, the police effected an internal transformation, adopting wholeheartedly the new democratic spirit of the times. The police unwaveringly supported the legally constituted government during the 1981 coup attempt. Led by the new police trade union, the police demonstrated in 1985 against right-wing militants in their ranks and cooperated in efforts to punish misconduct and abuses of civil rights by individual officers.
Although their powers were, in most cases, quite limited, the local police services of individual towns and cities supplemented the work of the National Police Corps, dealing with such matters as traffic, parking, monitoring public demonstrations, guarding municipal buildings, and enforcing local ordinances. They also collaborated with the National Police Corps by providing personnel to assist in crowd control. Numbering about 37,000 individuals in 1986, the local police were generally armed only with pistols.
Under the Statutes of Autonomy of 1979, the Basque Country and Catalonia were granted authority to form their own regional police forces. Subsequently, ten of the seventeen autonomous regions were extended the right to create their own forces, but, as of 1988, only three areas--the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Navarre--had developed regional police units. The 1986 organic law defined the limits of competence for regional police forces, although the restrictions imposed did not apply to the existing forces in the Basque Country and Navarre and applied only in part to those in Catalonia. Under the law, regional police could enforce regional legislation, protect regional offices, and, in cooperation with national forces, could police public places, control demonstrations and crowds, and perform duties in support of the judiciary. A Security Policy Council was established at the national level to ensure proper coordination with the new regional forces, which, as of 1986, numbered about 4,500 officers.
The principal intelligence agency was the Higher Defense Intelligence Center (Centro Superior de Informacion de la Defensa--CESID), created in 1977 to replace the intelligence organizations of the Francoist period. These included the Political-Social Brigade--a special branch of the plainclothes corps--and the Intelligence Service of the Civil Guard. With their files on every part of the rural and urban population, these bodies carried on close surveillance and political intimidation on behalf of the Franco regime.
By a royal decree of January 1984, CESID was defined legally as the intelligence agency of the prime minister. Nevertheless, it was fundamentally military in nature, and its head in 1988 was an army lieutenant general, Emilio Alanso Manglano. Observers speculated, however, that Manglano, who had held the post since 1981, eventually would be succeeded by a civilian.
Employing about 2,000 individuals as of 1988, CESID was staffed primarily by the military, supplemented by 500 members of the Civil Guard and by 80 plainclothes police. About 30 percent of the members of the staff were civilians, said to be selected usually from among close relatives of military officers. Women had been confined largely to administrative tasks, but they were increasingly being entrusted with operational assignments.
The principal operating units were domestic intelligence; foreign intelligence; counterintelligence; economics and technology (primarily industrial espionage); and operational support (principally application of devices for surveillance and eavesdropping). Considerable emphasis in external intelligence was allotted to North Africa and to the security of Ceuta and Melilla. Liaison was maintained with a number of intelligence services of North African and Middle Eastern nations, as well as with the Israeli agency, Mossad. Interception of ship transmissions in the strait area was another focus of activity. Domestic intelligence centered on exposure of plots against the government, monitoring activities of unrecognized political parties, and counterterrorism.
Although CESID was the senior agency, it did not have a firmly established coordinating function over other intelligence bodies, which included the General Headquarters of Information of the Ministry of Defense; the second sections of the army, the air force, and the navy staffs; and the Civil Guard Information Service, dedicated to criminal and terrorist intelligence. In addition, the National Police Corps had a General Commissariat of Intelligence, with an antiterrorist mission that included a Foreign Intelligence Brigade to investigate international terrorism aimed against Spain. Considerable rivalry and overlapping of missions characterized the entire intelligence system. CESID, in particular, was reported to be seeking to gain exclusive jurisdiction over police foreign intelligence activities.
Today, internal security responsibilities are divided among the National Police, which are responsible for nationwide investigations and security in urban areas; the Civil Guard, which polices rural areas and controls borders and highways; and police forces under the authority of the autonomous communities of Catalunya and the Basque Country. While the security forces generally are under the effective control of civilian authorities, some members of the security forces committed human rights abuses.
There were no reports of the arbitrary or unlawful deprivation of life committed by the Government or its agents.
An Algeciras court opened an investigation into the December 2000 case in which a Civil Guard officer fatally shot an unarmed Morrocan, Abdelhadi Lamhamdi, in Tarifa. Also in December 2000, a court sentenced a Civil Guard officer to 1 year's imprisonment for shooting and killing Miriam Gomez, who was a passenger in a car fleeing the police in 1999 in Seville.
ETA, whose declared goal is to establish an independent Basque state, continued its terrorist campaign of bombings and shootings, killing 15 persons during the year 2001. ETA publicly claimed responsibility for its attacks. On January 26, an ETA bomb explosion killed a navy cook in San Sebastian. On February 22, another bomb, intended for a Socialist Party councilor, killed two electrical workers in San Sebastian. On March 9, an ETA car bomb killed a member of the autonomous police force of the Basque Country, and on March 17 an ETA car bomb killed a member of the autonomous police force of Catalunya. On March 20, ETA assailants shot to death the deputy mayor of the Basque town of Lasarte. On May 6, ETA assailants shot and killed Manuel Gimenez Abad, the Aragon regional President of the Popular Party. On May 24, ETA assailants shot and killed Santiago Oleaga, the financial director of a major Basque Country newspaper. On June 26, ETA targeted Army General Justo Oreja with a bomb in Madrid; Oreja died from his injuries a month later. On July 10, an ETA car bomb killed a policeman in Madrid. On July 14, ETA killed a policeman in the Basque Country and a town councilor in Navarra. On November 7, ETA assailants shot and killed Jose Maria Lidon, a Basque provincial magistrate, in Getxo. On November 23, ETA assailants shot and killed two members of the Basque autonomous police.
The Government continued to pursue legal actions against ETA members. The courts convicted and sentenced more than 10 ETA members during the year 2001. In January a court sentenced Mikel Arrieta Llopis to 128 years' imprisonment for a 1982 attack that killed three persons. In February a court sentenced Jose Luis Barrios to 232 years' imprisonment for a 1997 attack. In July former ETA leader Francisco Mugica Garmendia and Jose Maria Arregi Erostarbe each received more than 1,000 years' imprisonment for their roles in a 1988 attack in Madrid. In October Rafael Caride Simon was sentenced to 142 years' imprisonment for killing a Civil Guard officer in 1987. In December Jose Javier Zabaleta received 200 years' imprisonment for an attack that killed five persons in 1980. In December, following an October agreement, France for the first time temporarily extradited an ETA member serving a prison sentence to facilitate his trial in Spain. Mexico expelled two ETA members to Spain and extradited another.
Several organizations are dedicated to the concerns of victims of terrorism, among them the Association of Victims of Terrorism (AVT). The AVT serves 1,300 families, providing legal and psychological counseling since 1981. The Government supports its work. Under a 1999 law, the Government has compensated directly victims of terrorism and their families, including victims of the Antiterrorist Liberation Groups (government-sponsored death squads known by their acronym, GAL) in the 1980's.
The law prohibits such practices; however, suspects charged with terrorism at times assert that they have been abused during detention, and at times other detainees make similar charges. Amnesty International continued to criticize the Government for reports of brutality by security forces, particularly directed at foreigners and illegal immigrants. Amnesty International also reported that police abused undocumented Moroccan minors.
According to Amnesty International, in February Madrid police allegedly beat 18-year-old Pedro Garcia Munoz after an exchange of insults.
Iratxe Sorzabal Diaz, an ETA suspect expelled from France, alleged that Civil Guards tortured her in Madrid in March 2000. She subsequently lodged a formal complaint of torture with the National High Court, which remained pending at year's end 2001.
The Government investigates allegations of torture; however, in a November 2000 report on impunity and mistreatment, Amnesty International criticized the judicial process for law enforcement officials accused of torture or mistreatment. Amnesty cited the length of the judicial process, light sentencing, and the use of pardons as factors that contributed to effective impunity. In January Amnesty International criticized the Government's inclusion of 14 members of the security forces, who had been convicted of torture, in a millenium pardon. Also contributing to a climate of impunity, according to Amnesty International, were poor standards of forensic medical reporting and the continued use of incommunicado detention.
In July a Bilbao court sentenced eight Civil Guard members to 4 years' and 6 months' imprisonment for torturing seven suspected members of ETA in 1980.
In July the Council of Europe's Committee for the Prevention of Torture (CPT) visited the country. The CPT's report had not been released by year's end 2001. The Government permits outside parties to investigate allegations of torture. On March 15, the Council of Europe's Commissioner for Human Rights released a report on his February visit to the Basque Country. He noted that Senideak, a Basque separatist prison rights organization, which had complained about the torture of convicted terrorists, failed to provide any specific examples, and that during his tour of Basauri Prison on February 6, he did not receive any complaints of mistreatment or torture from prisoners.
In addition to killings, ETA bombings and attempted bombings caused numerous injuries and property damage. Several of these attempts were directed at the tourist industry, including June car bombings in Logrono and San Sebastian, and August car bombings in the Madrid airport parking facility and the resort town of Salou. In August ETA also blew up some sections of a high-speed train track. On May 15, a package bomb severely injured journalist Gorka Landaburu. In October ETA exploded a car bomb in front of the Vitoria courts building and another in Madrid, injuring 17 persons. A November 6 car bomb in Madrid caused 59 injuries. ETA sympathizers also continued to commit numerous acts of street violence and vandalism in the Basque region throughout the year. On August 6, two members of the Basque autonomous police were severely injured after an attack by hooded ETA sympathizers. The police arrested more than 150 persons in connection with street violence by ETA sympathizers.
There were occasional reports of violence against immigrants, particularly by rightwing youth groups.
The Constitution prohibits such actions, and the Government generally respects these prohibitions in practice. Under the Criminal Code, the authorities must obtain court approval before searching private property, wiretapping, or interfering with private correspondence. However, the antiterrorist law gives discretionary authority to the Minister of the Interior to act prior to obtaining court approval in "cases of emergency."
The parents or legal guardians of a person with mental disabilities may petition a judge for sterilization of that person.
DETENTION
The Constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest and detention, and the Government generally observes these prohibitions in practice. A suspect may not be held for more than 72 hours without a hearing except in cases involving terrorism, in which case the law permits holding a suspect an additional 2 days--or a total of 5 days--without a hearing. A judge may authorize incommunicado detention for terrorism suspects. Amnesty International and other NGO's have criticized this provision.
At times pretrial detention can be lengthy. By law suspects may not be confined for more than 2 years before being brought to trial, unless a further delay is authorized by a judge, who may extend pretrial custody to 4 years. In practice pretrial custody is usually less than a year. In previous years, criticism was heard in legal circles that some judges used "preventive custody" as a form of anticipatory sentencing; however, this practice rarely, if ever, was used during the year 2001. At year's end 2001, approximately 22 percent of the prison population was in pretrial detention (10,652 out of 48,118 inmates), although that number included convicted prisoners whose cases were on appeal.
The law on aliens permits the detention of a person for up to 40 days prior to deportation but specifies that it must not take place in a prison-like setting.
The Constitution prohibits forced exile, and the Government does not employ it.
COURTS
The Constitution declares that justice emanates from the people and that it is administered in the name of the king by independent judges and magistrates, who are irremovable and who are responsible and subject only to the rule of law. The judicial system is headed by the Supreme Court, which is the country's highest tribunal except for constitutional questions. The supreme governing and administrative body is the General Council of the Judiciary. Its primary functions are to appoint judges and to maintain ethical standards within the legal profession. The 1978 Constitution provides that twelve of this council's twenty members are to be selected for five-year terms by judges, lawyers, and magistrates, with the remaining eight to be chosen by the Cortes. A judicial reform law that entered into force in July 1985 called for all twenty members to be chosen by the Cortes; ten by the Congress of Deputies and ten by the Senate. The General Council of the Judiciary elects the president of the Supreme Court, who also serves on this council. In addition, there are territorial courts, regional courts, provincial courts, courts of the first instance, and municipal courts.
Constitutional questions are to be resolved by a special Constitutional Court, outlined in the 1978 Constitution and in the Organic Law on the Constitutional Court that was signed into law in October 1979. This court consists of twelve judges who serve for nine-year terms. Four of these are nominated by the Congress of Deputies, four by the Senate, two by the executive branch of the government, and two by the General Council of the Judiciary. They are chosen from among jurists of recognized standing with at least fifteen years' experience. Once appointed, they are prohibited by the Constitution from engaging in other forms of political, administrative, professional, or commercial activity. The Organic Law on the Constitutional Court contains provisions whereby the court can expel its own members, a circumstance which appears to contradict the constitutional declaration that magistrates are irremovable.
The Constitutional Court is authorized to rule on the constitutionality of laws, acts, or regulations set forth by the national or the regional parliaments. It also may rule on the constitutionality of international treaties before they are ratified, if requested to do so by the government, the Congress of Deputies, or the Senate. The Constitution further declares that individual citizens may appeal to the Constitutional Court for protection against governmental acts that violate their civil rights. Only individuals directly affected can make this appeal, called an amparo, and they can do this only after exhausting other judicial appeals.
In addition, this court has the power to preview the constitutionality of texts delineating statutes of autonomy and to settle conflicts of jurisdiction between the central and the autonomous community governments, or between the governments of two or more autonomous communities. Because many of the constitutional provisions pertaining to autonomy questions are ambiguous and sometimes contradictory, this court could play a critical role in Spain's political and social development.
The Constitution prohibits special courts and limits the jurisdiction of military courts to members of the armed services, except during a state of siege. It provides for a public prosecutor as well as for a public defender, to protect both the rule of law and the rights of citizens. A significant innovation is the provision allowing for trial by jury in criminal cases.
A major problem that continued to plague the legal system in the 1980s was a severe shortage of funds, which made it impossible to keep up with an increasingly heavy case load. This resulted in inordinate delays, which led to corrupt practices such as the bribing of court administrators by lawyers attempting to expedite their clients' cases.
One of the most persistent problems of the judicial system was the delay in bringing cases to trial. As of 1986, these delays averaged eighteen months for minor offenses and between two and four years for serious crimes. In 1980, in an effort to curb the growing incidence of crime, bail was made available only for those accused of crimes for which the penalty was six months or less. By 1983 the large number of prisoners awaiting trial obliged the government to introduce a law raising to two years the maximum time that an accused could be held pending trial on a minor charge and to four years, on a serious charge.
Today, the Constitution provides for an independent judiciary, and the Government generally respects this provision in practice.
The judicial structure consists of local, provincial, regional, and national courts with the Supreme Court at its apex. The Constitutional Court has the authority to return a case to the court in which it was adjudicated if it can be determined that constitutional rights were violated during the course of the proceedings. The National High Court handles crimes such as terrorism and drug trafficking. The European Court of Human Rights is the final arbiter in cases concerning human rights.
The Constitution provides for the right to a fair public trial, and an independent judiciary generally enforces this right. There is a nine-person jury system. Defendants have the right to be represented by an attorney (at state expense for the indigent). Defendants are released on bail unless the court believes that they may flee or be a threat to public safety. Following a conviction, defendants may appeal to the next higher court.
The law calls for an expeditious judicial hearing following arrest; however, the judicial process is often lengthy. In cases of petty crime, suspects released on bail sometimes wait up to 5 years for trial.
There were no reports of political prisoners.
CORRECTIONS
The prison population as of 1987 consisted of 17,643 individuals, of whom 1,486 were women. Of the total, about 7,700 were serving sentences, and nearly 9,000 were detained pending trial. An additional 7,200 were inmates of other correctional institutions and halfway houses. Many complaints of overcrowding and inadequate medical attention had in the past been leveled against prison conditions. A series of riots between 1976 and 1978 had been provoked in major part by the crowding and by delays in sentencing. Under the Franco government, periodic amnesties had helped to reduce pressures from the expanding prison population. The ban in the 1978 Constitution against such amnesties had led to a buildup that necessitated an ambitious construction and renovation program. As a result, by 1984, one-third of existing prisons had been built in the previous five years, and many others had been modernized. Prisons, which numbered forty-seven in 1987, were located in most of the main population centers. The largest prisons by far were in Madrid and in Barcelona, each of which had inmate populations of more than 2,000. None of the others housed more than 800 prisoners.
Although in a 1978 report a committee of the Spanish Senate (upper chamber of the Cortes) had severely criticized the treatment of inmates, subsequent evidence indicated considerable improvement. The International Red Cross was permitted to inspect prison conditions whenever it desired. It reported that facilities were satisfactory in the majority of cases, and it described Yeserias Women's Prison in Madrid, where female militants of the Basque movement were held, as a model for the rest of the world. There were several open prisons from which inmates were allowed to return to the community for specified periods. Conjugal visits were allowed on a limited basis. Rehabilitation facilities were said to be almost nonexistent, however.
Today, prison conditions generally meet international standards; however, in a June report compiled by the Coordinator in Solidarity with Imprisoned Persons, an umbrella prison rights nongovernmental organization (NGO), prisoners claimed that they were tortured or mistreated by prison staff in 151 incidents during 1999 and 2000. The same report noted that in January, three prison officials were sentenced to a year's imprisonment for a case of mistreatment in 1997. In the prison system, women are held separately from men; juveniles are held separately from adults; and pretrial detainees are held separately from convicted criminals.
Senideak continued to demand that all imprisoned ETA terrorists be moved to prisons in the Basque region or the adjacent region, Navarra, to be closer to their families. As of July, more than 400 ETA terrorists were in prison.
The Government permits prison visits by independent human rights monitors, one of which visited prisons in July.
WOMEN
Violence against women, particularly domestic violence, remained a problem. According to the Government, 42 women and 3 men were killed as a result of domestic violence during the year 2001, compared with at least 40 women and 6 men in 2000. During the year 2001, women filed 5,983 criminal complaints and 18,175 misdemeanor complaints against their husbands or male partners. In 2000 women filed 5,722 such criminal complaints and 14,846 such misdemeanor complaints. A 1999 study commissioned by the Women's Institute, which is part of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, indicated that 4.2 percent of women reported domestic abuse in the previous year but concluded that the number who actually had been abused was closer to 12.4 percent, based on the survey responses of approximately 20,000 women.
The law prohibits rape and spousal abuse. Police received 1,219 reports of rape during the year 2001. In May the Government initiated its second Plan Against Domestic Violence, with a proposed budget of $72 million (13 billion pesetas) over 4 years. The four principal areas outlined in the plan are preventive education; improvements in judicial regulations and practices to protect victims and increase the penalty for abusers; the extension of social services for abused women to all parts of the country; and increased coordination among the agencies and organizations involved in preventing domestic violence.
During the first plan, from 1998 to 2000, the Government sponsored 3 publicity campaigns and distributed over 750,000 educational pamphlets. It trained additional personnel for each of the 54 Civil Guard units that assist battered women and created 43 similar units in the National Police. There are 53 offices that provide legal assistance to victims of domestic violence and approximately 225 shelters for battered women. A 24-hour free national hot line that advises women where to find local assistance or shelter received 260,000 calls in 2000.
Trafficking in women for the purpose of prostitution, primarily from Latin America, Africa, and Eastern Europe, was a problem.
CHILDREN
The Government is strongly committed to children's rights and welfare; it amply funds a system of public education and health care. Education is compulsory until age 16 and free until age 18. However, a 1998 study found that only 35 percent of Romani children are integrated fully into the educational system. Approximately 60 percent of Romani children do not complete primary school, and only very few progress to middle school and beyond. According to a report by the NGO Gypsy Presence, one-fifth of teachers describe themselves as anti-Roma, and one-fourth of students say that they would like to see Roma expelled from school. Truancy and dropout rates among Roma are very high, and Romani parents, over 80 percent of whom are functionally illiterate, often do not see the value of an education or are unaware of the educational opportunities for their children.
The Constitution obligates both the State and parents to protect children. The Ministries of Health and Social Affairs are responsible for the welfare of children and have created numerous programs to aid needy children. Numerous NGO's promote children's rights and welfare, often through government-funded projects. Several of the Autonomous Communities have an office of the Defender of Children, an independent, nonpartisan agency charged with defending children's rights. Under the Penal Code, children under the age of 18 are not considered responsible for their actions and cannot be sent to prison.
There appears to be no societal pattern of abuse of children. The 1995 Law of the Child gives legal rights of testimony to minors in child abuse cases; it also obliges all citizens to act on cases of suspected child abuse.
Trafficking in teenage girls for prostitution was a problem.
Law enforcement and social service agencies reported an increasing number of undocumented immigrant children living on the streets. These children cannot legally work; as a result, many survive through petty crime. Amnesty International reported that police abused undocumented Moroccan minors, especially in the Spanish North African enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla, and that some undocumented minors are returned to Morocco without sufficient concern for their welfare.
TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS
The law prohibits trafficking in persons; however, trafficking in women and teenage girls remained a problem. Trafficking involves almost exclusively the importation of women for prostitution, although there are reports of occasional cases in which victims are employed in other work, including agriculture and sweatshops. Trafficked women are usually 18 to 30 years of age, but sometimes are girls as young as age 16. There are few reports of trafficking in younger minors.
Women are trafficked primarily from Latin America (Colombia, Dominican Republic, Brazil), East European countries, sub-Saharan Africa (Nigeria, Guinea, Sierra Leone), and, to a lesser extent, North Africa. Asians, including Chinese, are trafficked to a much lesser degree, and more often for work other than prostitution. Traffickers use coercion, including confiscation of documents, violence, and threats against family members to keep victims working in prostitution. As a group, women from Eastern Europe reportedly are subject to more severe violence and threats on the part of traffickers. Some victims from sub-Sarahan Africa reportedly are sold to traffickers by members of their own families. Traffickers lure some victims from other regions with false promises of employment in service industries and agriculture and then force them into prostitution upon arrival in Spain.
The 2000 Immigration law redefined trafficking as a criminal offense. The penalty for trafficking is 2 to 4 years' imprisonment and a fine, or 6 to 12 years if the crime is committed by a public official. The exploitation of prostitutes through coercion or fraud and the exploitation of workers in general also are illegal, although prostitution is legal. Trafficking in workers is punishable by 2 to 5 years' imprisonment and a fine. During 2000 law enforcement agencies arrested over 1,000 individuals involved in some aspect of trafficking in persons or migrant smuggling and initiated over 700 prosecutions.
The Government specifically targets trafficking as part of its broader plan to control immigration; for example, the police actively pursue and prosecute mafias who use false identity documentation for immigrant smuggling of all kinds, including trafficking. Within the Interior Ministry, the National Police Corps has primary responsibility for all matters pertaining to immigration, including trafficking. Regional authorities also participate in fighting organized criminal activity, including trafficking. In addition the Interior Ministry chairs an interagency committee on all immigration issues, including trafficking. The Ministries of Foreign Affairs, Health, Education, Treasury, and Labor also are members of the committee. The main police school gives courses on trafficking issues, such as the recognition of fake documents and the best ways to identify traffickers.
The law allows for trafficked persons to remain in the country if they agree to testify against the perpetrators. After legal proceedings conclude, the individual is given the option of remaining in Spain or returning to the country of origin. Victims are encouraged to help police investigate trafficking cases and to testify against traffickers. The Government works with and provides funding to NGO's that provide assistance to trafficking victims. In addition regional and local governments provide assistance either directly or through NGO's.
Project Hope, a program backed by the Catholic NGO Las Adoratrices and government agencies, is the first program specifically intended to assist trafficking victims. The project operates shelters in Madrid and provides assistance with medical and legal services and acts as liaison with law enforcement for victims who choose to testify against traffickers. Project Hope receives many of its referrals directly from police. In 2000 the Campaign Against Trafficking in Women, a coalition of NGO's with support from the Ministry of Labor, published a booklet on the problems of trafficking.
DRUG TRAFFICKING
Spain is a transit country, and remains actively involved in counternarcotics efforts globally. Spain is a signatory to the three UN Drug Conventions and maintains membership in the UN Commission. Spain complies with EU consensus on drug trafficking and money laundering. Drug trafficking and terrorism remain Spain's highest law enforcement concerns.
Illicit refining and manufacturing of drugs in Spain is minimal. However, small scale laboratories which convert cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride are discovered and confiscated each year. The first significant cocaine conversion operation was discovered in February 1995, when the Spanish National Police (SNP) seized a cocaine base extraction and conversion lab in a Madrid. It became apparent that individuals purchasing chemicals allegedly for legitimate use were diverting them for illicit use.. Although Spain has a pharmaceutical industry that produces precursor and essential chemicals, there have been no reports of diversion of chemicals to the illicit market. In all cases where MDMA (spell out) laboratories have been seized in Spain, Dutch traffickers were found to be in charge of operations. The production process is a simple one.(?) The SNP recently seized an MDMA logo press. A substantial amount of MDMA was seized in Murcia in early November 1998. When amphetamine laboratories are discovered in Spain, they have been operated by Spaniards with no involvement by other nationalities. There has never been a heroin conversion laboratory identified in Spain. No methamphetamine laboratories have been seized in Spain.
Ever increasing amounts of cocaine are seized by Spanish drug law enforcement agencies each year. Trends indicate that Spain is the chief gateway for cocaine shipments entering Europe. Spain's close historic and linguistic ties with Latin America attract Colombian cocaine traffickers who fully exploit Spain's position as a bridge to the rest of Europe. Maritime containerized cargo shipments account for the bulk of the cocaine shipped to Spain, but a proliferation of smaller amounts smuggled into the country by air courier, usually at Madrid's Barajas International Airport, also contribute to sizeable totals.
Coca leaf is not cultivated in Spain, however opium poppy is cultivated for research purposes under strictly regulated conditions. Insignificant amounts of cannabis are also cultivated.
As previously discussed, there exists minimal refining and manufacturing of drugs in Spain, however there is evidence of small scale laboratories which convert cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride. Ecstasy is manufactured in Spain in limited quantities.
Spain has the reputation for being a chief gateway for cocaine shipments entering Europe. Spain's close linguistic and cultural ties with Latin America attract Colombian cocaine traffickers who exploit Spain's position as a bridge to the rest of Europe. Cocaine is shipped to Spain through maritime containers in cargo holds. In Spain's northwest province of Galicia, local groups involved in smuggling contraband - usually tobacco - have expanded their illicit activities to include cocaine and hashish trafficking.
Studies and analyses carried out in cooperation with the Center for Sociological Investigations and the Institute for Police Studies over the issue of victimization emphasize that street-level drug trafficking and drug use in urban centers form one of the most important indices for measuring safety concerns among the general populace of city neighborhoods. It is felt that this type of behavior is the genesis of 80 percent of urban crime, usually property-related, but is also responsible for a large number of disruptive acts
Media campaigns were launched, including specially focused ones targeted at youth audiences. Spain's PNSD office has decided to push a positive drug prevention message to young people rather than using the "say no to drugs" phrase which is prevalent in many countries. In a European forum held during the European Drug Prevention Week that began November 16, 1998, Spanish policy in this area was judged to be the most valuable and effective of that of all the participants. Priority has been given to rehabilitating minors to diminish the threat of syringe-borne diseases. Mechanisms have been developed for dispensing methadone and exchanging needles, and joint action has been implemented with the National Plan on Aids (Plan Nacional del Sida).
Programs have also been developed to provide alternative penalties for addicts, making it possible for them to complete their sentences in accredited detoxification and rehabilitation centers.
Methadone distribution programs have been extended to all penitentiaries.
| i don't know |
First seen in 1926, the series of books entitled The Hardy Boys were published under the collective pseudonym of which author ? | Hardy Boys - The Full Wiki
The Full Wiki
Advertisements
Note: Many of our articles have direct quotes from sources you can cite, within the Wikipedia article! This article doesn't yet, but we're working on it! See more info or our list of citable articles .
Related top topics
(Redirected to The Hardy Boys article)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the WWE professional wrestling tag team, see Hardy Boyz .
Cover of the revised edition of The Tower Treasure , the first Hardy Boys mystery
The Hardy Boys, Frank and Joe Hardy , are fictional teenage brothers and amateur detectives who appear in various mystery series for children and teens. The characters were created by Edward Stratemeyer , the founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book-packaging firm, and the books have been written by many different ghostwriters over the years. The books are published under the collective pseudonym Franklin W. Dixon .
The Hardy Boys have evolved in various ways since their first appearance in 1927. Beginning in 1959, the books were extensively revised, largely to eliminate racist stereotypes. The books were also written in a simpler style in an attempt to compete with television. Some critics argue that in the process the Hardy Boys changed, becoming more respectful of the law and simultaneously more affluent, "agents of the adult ruling class" [1] rather than characters who aided the poor. A new Hardy Boys series, the Hardy Boys Casefiles, was created in the 1980s, and featured murders, violence, and international espionage. The original Hardy Boys Mystery Stories series ended in 2005. A new series, Undercover Brothers , was launched the same year, featuring updated versions of the characters who narrate their adventures in the first person .
Through all these changes, the characters have remained popular. The books sell more than a million copies a year. [2] Several additional volumes are published annually, and the boys' adventures have been translated into more than 25 languages. The Hardy Boys have been featured in computer games and five television shows and used to promote merchandise such as lunchboxes and jeans. Critics have offered many explanations for the characters' longevity, suggesting variously that the Hardy Boys embody simple wish-fulfillment, [3] American ideals of masculinity, [4] American ideals of white masculinity, [5] a paradoxically powerful but inept father, [6] and the possibility of the triumph of good over evil. [7]
Contents
Main article: List of The Hardy Boys characters
The Hardy Boys are fictional teenage brothers and amateur detectives. They live in the fictional town of Bayport with their father, detective Fenton Hardy , their mother, Laura Hardy , [8] and their Aunt Gertrude . Frank, the elder brother, is 18 (16 in earlier versions), and his younger brother Joe is 17 (15 in earlier versions). The brothers nominally attend high school in Bayport, where they are in the same grade, [9] but school is rarely mentioned in the books and never hinders the Hardys in solving mysteries. [1] In the older stories, the Hardy Boys' cases often are linked to the confidential cases their detective father is working on. He sometimes asks them for help, while at other times they stumble upon villains and incidents that are connected to his cases. In the Undercover Brothers series, begun in 2005, the Hardys are members of an organization known as American Teens Against Crime , which assigns them to cases. The Hardy Boys are sometimes assisted in solving mysteries by their friends Chet Morton , Phil Cohen , Biff Hooper , Jerry Gilroy , and Tony Prito , and, less frequently, by their platonic girlfriends Callie Shaw and Iola Morton (Chet's sister).
The Hardy Boys are constantly involved in adventure and action. Despite frequent danger the boys "never lose their nerve ... They are hardy boys, luckier and more clever than anyone around them." [10] They live in an atmosphere of mystery and intrigue: "Never were so many assorted felonies committed in a simple American small town. Murder, drug peddling, race horse kidnapping, diamond smuggling, medical malpractice, big-time auto theft, even (in the 1940s) the hijacking of strategic materials and espionage, all were conducted with Bayport as a nucleus." [11] With so much in common, the boys are so little differentiated that one commentator facetiously describes them thus: "The boys' characters basically broke down this way – Frank had dark hair; Joe was blond." [12] In general, however, "Frank was the thinker while Joe was more impulsive, and perhaps a little more athletic." [12] The two boys are infallibly on good terms with each other and never engage in sibling rivalry. [13]
Frank and Joe do not lack for money and they travel frequently to far-away locations, including Mexico in The Mark on the Door (1934), Scotland in The Secret Agent on Flight 101 (1967), Egypt in The Mummy Case (1980), and Kenya in The Mystery of the Black Rhino (2003). The Hardys also travel freely within the United States by motorcycle, motor boat, iceboat, and airplane, [14] as well as their own car. [15]
Creation of characters
The characters were conceived in 1926 by Edward Stratemeyer , founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate , a book-packaging firm. Stratemeyer initially pitched the new series to publishers Grosset & Dunlap and suggested that the boys might be called the Keene Boys, the Scott Boys, the Hart Boys, or the Bixby Boys. [16] Grosset & Dunlap editors, for reasons unknown, chose the name "The Hardy Boys" and approved the project. Stratemeyer accordingly hired Canadian Leslie McFarlane to ghostwrite the first volumes in the series. McFarlane would author 19 of the first 25 volumes in the series. Subsequent titles have been written by a number of different ghostwriters, all under the pseudonym Franklin W. Dixon . The first three titles were published in 1927, and were an immediate success: by mid-1929 over 115,000 books had been sold. [17] So successful was the series that Stratemeyer created the character of Nancy Drew as a female counter-part to the Hardys. [18]
Advertisements
See also: Leslie McFarlane
Edward Stratemeyer, creator of the Hardy Boys and founder of the Stratemeyer Syndicate
All Hardy Boys books have been written by ghostwriters . In accordance with the customs of Stratemeyer Syndicate series production, ghostwriters for the Syndicate signed contracts that have sometimes been interpreted as requiring authors to sign away all rights to authorship or future royalties. [19] The contracts stated that authors could not use their Stratemeyer Syndicate pseudonyms independently of the Syndicate. [20] In the early days of the Syndicate, ghostwriters were paid a fee of $125, "roughly equivalent to two months' wages for a typical newspaper reporter, the primary day job of the syndicate ghosts." [21] During the Great Depression this fee was lowered, first to $100 [22] and later to $75. [23] All royalties went to the Syndicate; all correspondence with the publisher was handled through a Stratemeyer Syndicate office, and the Syndicate was able to enlist the cooperation of libraries in hiding the ghostwriters' names. [24]
The Syndicate's process for creating the Hardy Boys books consisted of creating a detailed outline, with all elements of plot; drafting a manuscript; and editing the manuscript. Edward Stratemeyer's daughter, Edna Stratemeyer Squier, and possibly Stratemeyer himself, wrote outlines for the first volumes in the series. [25] Beginning in 1934, Stratemeyer's other daughter, Harriet Stratemeyer Adams , began contributing plot outlines; she and Andrew Svenson wrote most of the plot outlines for the next several decades. [25] Other plot outliners included Vincent Buranelli, James Duncan Lawrence, and Tom Mulvey. [25]
Most of the early volumes were written by Leslie McFarlane. Unlike many other Syndicate ghostwriters, McFarlane was regarded highly enough by the Syndicate that he was frequently given advances of $25 or $50, [26] and during the Depression, when fees were lowered, he was paid $85 for each Hardy Boys book when other Syndicate ghostwriters were receiving only $75 for their productions. [23] Beginning with volume 17, The Secret Warning (1938), John Button took over the series; McFarlane resumed with volume 22, The Flickering Torch Mystery (1943). [25] McFarlane's last contribution was volume 24, The Short-Wave Mystery (1945); his wife, Amy, authored volume 26, The Phantom Freighter (1947). [25] [27] Over the next several decades, other volumes were written by Adams, Svenson, Lawrence, Buranelli, William Dougherty, and James Buechler (a teenager at the time). [25] Beginning in 1959, the series was extensively revised and re-written. Many authors worked on the revised books, writing new manuscripts; some of them also wrote plot outlines and edited the books. Among the authors who worked on the revised versions were Adams, Svenson, Buechler, Lilo Wuenn, Anne Shultes, Alistair Hunter, Tom Mulvey, Patricia Doll, and Priscilla Baker-Carr. [25]
In 1979, the Hardy Boys books began to be published in paperback, rather than hardcover. Lawrence and Buranelli continued to write titles; other authors included Karl Harr III and Laurence Swinburne. [25] The rights to the series were sold, along with the Stratemeyer Syndicate, in 1984 to Simon and Schuster . [28] New York book packager Mega-Books subsequently hired authors to write the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories and a new series, the Hardy Boys Casefiles. [29]
Legal disputes
In 1980, dissatisfied with the lack of creative control at Grosset & Dunlap and the lack of publicity for the Hardy Boys' 50th anniversary in 1977, Harriet Adams switched publishers for the Hardy Boys and Nancy Drew, as well as other series, to Simon and Schuster. Grosset & Dunlap filed suit against the Syndicate and Simon and Schuster, citing "breach of contract, copyright infringement, and unfair competition" [30] and requesting $300 million in damages. [31]
The outcome of the case turned largely on the question of who had written the Nancy Drew series. Adams filed a countersuit, claiming that, as author of the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories, she retained the rights to her work. Although Adams had written many Nancy Drew titles after 1953, and edited others, she claimed to be the author of all of the early titles. [32] In fact, she had rewritten the older titles, but was not the original author. When Mildred Benson , the author of the early Nancy Drew volumes, was called to testify about her work for the Syndicate, Benson's role in writing the manuscripts of early titles was revealed in court with extensive documentation, contradicting Adams' claims to authorship. [33] The court ruled that Grosset had the rights to publish the original series of both Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys as they were in print in 1980, but did not own characters or trademarks. Furthermore, any new publishers chosen by Adams were completely within their rights to print new titles. [28]
Evolution of characters
The Hardy Boys have gone through many permutations over the years. Beginning in 1959, the books were extensively revised, and some commentators find that the Hardys' characters changed in the process. [34] Commentators also sometimes see differences between the Hardy Boys of the original Hardy Boys Mystery Stories and the Hardy Boys of the Hardy Boys Casefiles [35] or the new Undercover Brothers series. [36]
1927–1959
The early volumes, largely written by Leslie McFarlane , have been praised for their atmosphere and writing style, qualities often considered lacking in juvenile series books. [37] McFarlane's writing is clear and filled with specific details, [38] making his works superior to many other Stratemeyer series titles. [39] Such, at least, was McFarlane's intention: "It seemed to me the Hardy Boys deserved something better than the slapdash treatment Dave Fearless [40] had been getting... I opted for Quality." [41] The volumes not written by McFarlane or his wife were penned by John Button, who wrote the series from 1938 to 1942; this period is sometimes referred to as the "Weird Period" as the writing is full of inconsistencies and the Hardy Boys' adventures involve futuristic gadgetry and exotic locations. [42]
"Of course, chief," said Frank smoothly, "if you're afraid to go up to the Polucca place just because it's supposed to be haunted, don't bother. We can tell the newspapers that we believe our father has met with foul play and that you won't bother to look into the matter, but don't let us disturb you at all–"
"What's that about the newspapers?" demanded the chief, getting up from his chair so suddenly that he upset the checkerboard.... "Don't let this get into the papers." The chief was constantly afraid of publicity unless it was of the most favorable nature.
The House on the Cliff, 1927 [43]
In general, the world of these early volumes is a "[dark] and ... divided place". [44] In these early titles, the boys are cynical about human nature, an attitude apparently justified when the police, whom they have repeatedly helped, throw them into jail on slim evidence in The Great Airport Mystery (1930). [45] The police and authority figures in general come off poorly in these books, so much so that at one point Edward Stratemeyer wrote McFarlane to reprimand him for "grievous lack of respect for officers of the law." [46] The Hardys are less affluent than earlier Stratemeyer characters; they eagerly accept cash rewards largely to finance college educations, and, with their parents, strive to please their Aunt Gertrude, because she possesses a small fortune. [45] The rich are portrayed as greedy and selfish. [47] This view of the world reflects McFarlane's relative "lack [of] sympathy with the American power structure." [45] In his autobiography, McFarlane described his rationale for writing the books this way, writing: "I had my own thoughts about teaching youngsters that obedience to authority is somehow sacred.... Would civilization crumble if kids got the notion that the people who ran the world were sometimes stupid, occasionally wrong and even corrupt at times?" [48]
The books' attitudes towards non-Anglo characters are a matter of disagreement. These early volumes have been called models of diversity for their day, since among the Hardys' friends are Phil Cohen, who is Jewish , and the Italian immigrant Tony Prito. [12] However, these two friends are rarely involved in the Hardys' adventures, a level of friendship reserved for Biff Hooper and Chet Morton . [49] The books have been extensively criticized for their use of racial and ethnic stereotypes [50] and their xenophobia . Vilnoff, for example, the villain in the The Sinister Sign-Post (1936), is described as "swarthy" and "a foreigner", notes critic Steve Burgess.
We sense his untrustworthy nature immediately when he sits down beside the boys at a football game and doesn't understand it, despite the boys' best efforts to explain. When he does grasp something, you know it. "I onnerstand pairfectly," he says. Later he adds genially, "I haf you vhere I vant you now!" Can't quite place the accent? It's foreign. Twenty-five chapters are not enough to solve the mystery of his nationality. [12]
African Americans are the targets of much racism , being depicted as unintelligent, lazy, and superstitious, [49] "bumpkin rescuers" at best and "secretive and conspiratorial villains" at worst. [51] Benjamin Lefebvre notes that Harriet Adams at times rebuked Leslie McFarlane for not sufficiently following her instructions regarding the portrayal of African-American characters; he writes that it is not clear "whether Adams rewrote parts of McFarlane's manuscripts to add [racist] details or to what extent these early texts would now be considered even more notoriously racist had McFarlane followed Adams's instructions more carefully." [52] In Footprints Under the Window (1933), [53] Chinese American men are portrayed as effeminate threats both to national security and white heteromasculinity. [54] Native Americans received mixed treatment; those living within the continental United States are portrayed as members of once-noble tribes whose greatness has been diminished by the coming of white men, while those living outside the continental U.S. are "portrayed as uneducated, easily manipulated, or semi-savage." [55] However, Hispanics are generally treated as equals; the Hardy Boys as well as their father speak Spanish, and Mexico's history and culture are treated with respect and admiration. [56]
1959–1979
The Hardy Boys volumes were extensively revised beginning in 1959 at the insistence of publishers Grosset & Dunlap and against the wishes of Harriet Adams. [57] The revision project, which also encompassed the Nancy Drew Mystery Stories , was sparked largely by letters that parents had been writing to Grosset & Dunlap since at least 1948, complaining about the prevalence of racial stereotypes in the books. [57] Volume 14 in the Hardy Boys series, The Hidden Harbor Mystery (1935), was singled out for particular and repeated attention for its portrayal of a black criminal who organizes a gang of black boys and treats whites disrespectfully. [58] As one parent put it, the books were "ingraining the old race-riot type of fear." [59] As such letters became more frequent, Grosset & Dunlap informed the Stratemeyer Syndicate that the books must be revised and such stereotypes excised. The end result, however, was less the removal of stereotypes than the removal of non-white characters altogether. [60] and the creation of an "ethnically cleansed Bayport", [61] By the 1970s, however, the series began to re-introduce black characters. [62]
An additional rationale for the revisions was a drop in sales, which became particularly significant by the mid-1960s. [57] Accordingly, the revisions focused on streamlining the texts, as well as eliminating stereotypes. The books were shortened from 25 chapters to 20 and the writing style was made terser. [63] Difficult vocabulary words such as "ostensible" and "presaged" were eliminated, as was slang. [12] As a result of the new, more streamlined writing style, the books focus more on non-stop action than on building atmosphere, [64] and "prolonged suspense [is] evaporated." [65] The books were also aimed at an increasingly younger audience [66] with shorter attention spans. [63] For this reason, many commentators find the new versions nothing less than "eviscerated", [12] foremost among them being the first Hardy Boys ghostwriter, Leslie McFarlane, who agreed with a reporter's statement that the books had been "gutted". [67]
"Great, Dad!" Frank said, jumping to his feet. "With spring vacation coming up we won't miss any time at school!"
"Are your passports up to date?" his father asked.
"Sure, we always keep them that way."
The Arctic Patrol Mystery, 1969 [68]
In the course of revising and modernizing the series, many plots were completely re-written. The Flickering Torch Mystery (1943), for example, was changed from a plot involving an actual flickering torch used as a signal by a gang to a plot featuring a rock group called "The Flickering Torch". [69] When plots were kept, their more lurid elements were eliminated; Vilnoff, the villain in The Sinister Sign-Post, was changed from a criminal who compulsively sculpts miniature models of his own hands to a car thief without such eccentricities, and another villain, Pedro Vincenzo, who branded his victims no longer does so in the revised version of The Mark on the Door (1934, rev. 1967). [70]
The books became more respectful of law and authority. Even villains no longer smoked or drank, and scenes involving guns and shoot-outs were compressed or eliminated, in favor of criminals simply giving themselves up. [71] The boys, too, become more respectful of rules and of the law; they no longer even drive faster than the speed limit in pursuit of a villain. [72] The Hardys also became more and more wealthy, prompting the criticism that the "major problem in [these volumes] is that the Hardy Boys have risen above any ability to identify with people like the typical boys who read their books. They are members and agents of the adult ruling class, acting on behalf of that ruling class." [73]
1979–2005
"A secret door!" Joe said.
"We haven't seen one of these in, oh, several months," Frank said.
Casefiles #65, No Mercy, 1992 [74]
The Hardy Boys began to be published in paperback in 1979. The Hardys were also featured in two new series, the Hardy Boys Casefiles and the Clues Brothers. The latter series, modeled on the Nancy Drew Notebooks , was aimed at a younger audience, and ran from 1997 to 2000. In contrast, the Casefiles, begun a decade earlier in 1987, was aimed at an older audience than the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories. [75] In the new series, the Hardys work with a secret government organization simply called the "Network", with which they collaborate to "infiltrate organized crime, battle terrorists and track down assassins around the world." [75] The Hardys' personalities are portrayed as more separate and distinct, and they sometimes fight; in the first of the series, Dead on Target , for example, the brothers brawl after Frank tries to restrain Joe after Joe's girlfriend, Iola Morton, is killed by a car bomb. [75] In general, the series is more violent, and the Hardy Boys carry various guns; [76] "lines like 'Joe! Hand me the Uzi !' are not out of character." [77] Barbara Steiner, a Casefiles ghostwriter, describes a sample plot outline: "I was told that Joe Hardy would get involved with a waitress, a black widow kind of character, and that Joe would get arrested for murder. I was told the emphasis was on high action and suspense and there had to be a cliff-hanger ending to every chapter." [78]
2005–present
The long-running Hardy Boys Mystery Stories series ended in 2005 and was replaced with a reboot series, The Hardy Boys: Undercover Brothers . In these volumes, the Hardys' adventures are narrated in the first person, each brother alternating chapters. The boys' Aunt Gertrude becomes "Trudy", their mother Laura is given a career as a librarian, and their father is semi-retired. The boys are given their cases by a secret group known as ATAC, an acronym for American Teens Against Crime . In this new series, the Hardy Boys seem "more like regular kids – who have lots of wild adventures – in these books, which also deal with issues that kids today might have thought about. For example, the second book in the series, 'Running on Fumes,' deals with environmentalists who go a little too far to try to save trees." [79] The Hardys are also featured in a new graphic novel series, begun in 2005 and produced by Papercutz. [80]
Books
Main article: List of Hardy Boys books
The longest-running series of books to feature the Hardy Boys is the Hardy Boys Mystery Stories, sometimes also called the Hardy Boys Mysteries. [81] The series ran from 1927 to 2005 and comprised 190 volumes, although some consider only the first 58 volumes of this series to be part of the Hardy Boys "canon". [82] The Hardy Boys also appeared in 127 volumes of the Casefiles series and are currently the heroes of the Undercover Brothers series.
International publications
Hardy Boys books have been extensively re-printed in the United Kingdom , with new illustrations and cover art. The Hardys' adventures have also been translated into over 25 languages, including Norwegian , Swedish , Spanish , Icelandic , Hebrew , French , German , Japanese , Russian , Malay , and Italian . [83] The books are widely read in India , [84] and Japan 's Kyoto Sangyo University listed 21 Hardy Boys books on its reading list for freshmen in the 1990s. [83]
Television
See also: The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries
The Hardy Boys have appeared in television shows five times. [85] In the late 1950s, Disney contracted with the Stratemeyer Syndicate and Grosset & Dunlap to produce two Hardy Boys TV serials, starring Tim Considine and Tommy Kirk . The first of the serials, The Mystery of the Applegate Treasure, was aired on The Mickey Mouse Club in 1956 during the show's second season. [86] To appeal to the show's audience, the Hardy Boys were portrayed as younger than in the books, seeming to be 11 or 12 years old. [87] The script, written by Jackson Gillis, was based on the first Hardy Boys book, The Tower Treasure , and the serial was aired in 19 episodes of 15 minutes each with production costs of $5,700. [88] A second serial, The Mystery of Ghost Farm, followed in 1957, with an original story by Jackson Gillis. [87]
In the mid-1960s, sales of Hardy Boys books began to drop. The Stratemeyer Syndicate conducted a survey, which revealed that the decline in sales was due to the perceived high cost of the books and to competition from television. [89] As a result, the Syndicate approved an hour-long pilot for a new Hardy Boys television show. The pilot, based on The Mystery of the Chinese Junk , was aired on the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) in 1967 and starred Tim Matthieson (later Matheson) as Joe Hardy and Rick Gates as Frank. Both actors were 20 at the time of production and portrayed the Hardy Boys as young adults rather than children, as they had been in the Mickey Mouse Club serials. The show did poorly, however, and the series was abandoned. [90]
Two years later, in 1969, the American Broadcasting Company aired a Saturday morning cartoon series based on the Hardy Boys; the series was produced by Filmation and ran from 1969 to 1971. [91] In this series, the Hardys were members of a rock and roll band. A group of professional musicians performed all the songs on the series, and toured across the United States. [92] The animated series produced two bubblegum music albums "of moderate quality with no commercial success." [93] The series was notable for being the first cartoon to include a black character. [94] The show took note of current concerns; although aimed at a young audience, some plotlines dealt with illegal drugs, and the animated Frank and Joe spoke directly to children about not smoking and the importance of wearing seatbelts. [95]
ABC aired another series featuring the Hardy Boys, The Hardy Boys/Nancy Drew Mysteries , from 1977 to 1979. The prime time series starred Parker Stevenson and Shaun Cassidy as Frank and Joe Hardy; Pamela Sue Martin and later Janet Louise Johnson played Nancy Drew. During the first season, the series alternated between episodes featuring the Hardy Boys one week and Nancy Drew the next. The Hardy Boys were cast as young adults (Stevenson and Cassidy were 24 and 18 respectively during the filming of the first episodes) to appeal to a prime time television audience. The series featured original plots as well as ones based on Hardy Boys books, among them The Disappearing Floor and The Flickering Torch Mystery . The series received an Emmy nomination and featured a number of guest stars, including Kim Cattrall , Ray Milland , Howard Duff , and Ricky Nelson . [96] During the second season, the series format changed to focus more on the Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew appearing mostly in crossover episodes with the brothers; midway through production of the second season, Martin quit and was replaced by Johnson. The series returned for a third season, dropping the Nancy Drew character completely and shortening its title to The Hardy Boys Mysteries.
In 1995, a TV show called simply The Hardy Boys was produced and syndicated by New Line Television , a division of New Line Cinema . The show was co-produced by Canadian broadcasting company Nelvana [97] and was dubbed in French for airing in Quebec and France as well as in the United States. [96] Colin Gray starred as Frank Hardy and Paul Popowich played Joe. The characters were portrayed as in their early 20s, Frank working as a reporter and Joe still in college. The show only lasted for one season of 13 episodes due to poor ratings. [96]
Computer games and general merchandise
The Hardy Boys have appeared in several titles in the Nancy Drew computer game series produced by Her Interactive . [98] As of April 30, 2009, Her Interactive has announced that it will partner with Sega to release its own series of Hardy Boys games. The first game in the series is titled Treasure on the Tracks and is scheduled to be released in 2009 for Nintendo DS . [99]
JoWood Productions and DreamCatcher Games have released a Hardy Boys computer game called The Hidden Theft. Jesse McCartney and Cody Linley are the voices of Frank and Joe. [100]
The Hardy Boys have also been used to sell a variety of merchandise over the years, much of it tied to television adaptations. They have appeared in several board games, comic books, coloring books, [101] and activity books, jigsaw puzzles, and lunch boxes; two LP albums , Here Come the Hardy Boys and The Hardy Boys Wonderland; a Viewmaster set, a toy truck, charm bracelets , rings, wristwatches, greeting cards, jeans, and guitars. [102]
In July 2009 DreamCatcher Games released another computer game called The Perfect Crime.
Thematic analysis
The Hardy Boys have been called "a cultural touchstone all over the world". [103] Their adventures have been continuously in print since 1927. The series was an instant success: by mid-1929 over 115,000 books had been sold, [17] and as of 2008 the books were selling over a million copies a year [2] (the first Hardy Boys book, The Tower Treasure, alone sells over 100,000 copies a year). [104] Worldwide, over 70 million copies of Hardy Books have been sold. [12] A number of critics have tried to explain the reasons for the characters' longevity.
One explanation for this continuing popularity is that the Hardy Boys are simple wish-fulfillment. Their adventures allow readers to vicariously experience an escape from the mundane. [105] At the same time, Frank and Joe live ordinary lives when not solving mysteries, allowing readers to identify with characters who seem realistic and whose parents and authority figures are unfailingly supportive and loving. [106] The Hardy Boys also embody an ideal of masculinity: by their very name they "set the stage for a gentrified version of hardness and constructed hardiness as an ideal for modern American males", part of the "cultural production of self-control and mastery as the revered ideal for the American man." [107] Further, according to Meredith Wood, the characters embody not just an ideal of masculinity, but an ideal of white masculinity. She argues that "racist stereotypes are ... fundamental to the success of the Hardy Boys series." In support of this claim, Wood cites the replacement of one stereotype (evil Chinese) with another (evil Latin Americans) in the original and revised versions of Footprints Under the Window and the popularity of the Applewood Books reprints of the original, unrevised texts. [108]
Critic Jeffery P. Dennis argues that one reason for the books' popularity is that they, especially in the early volumes, provide readers with something they cannot get in other media: homoromance . While the Hardy Boys have nominal girlfriends in Callie Shaw and Iola Morton, the boys exhibit little interest in them, planning no individual dates with them, for example. [109] [110] Instead, the Hardys spend time in the early volumes with male friends; "Frank favors chubby, good-natured Chet, who frets over household chores, befriends girls, and eventually goes to art school" while Joe "favors Biff, with 'muscles like steel,' who dislikes school chores, dislikes girls, and plays every school sport." [109] Later, the Hardys no longer have particular friends; they do everything as a group: rescue each other from being tied up, finish each other's sentences, attend the same classes at school despite their age difference, and never argue or disagree with each other. According to Dennis, they "behave precisely as if their bond is romantic", [111] but they are portrayed as brothers because the culture at large demanded that latent homoeroticism be masked by girlfriends and fraternalism. [111] However, critic Gary Westfahl argues that the Hardy Boys are neither heterosexual or homosexual, but asexual, although he and others suggest that Chet is portrayed as a feminine male character. [112]
The Hardys' ignorance of sex and their increasing respect for the law, along with the possibility of homoerotic tones to the books, have led to some negative perceptions and many parodies of the characters. They are "well-scrubbed Boy Scout types" [2] who "fetishized squareness". [113] They have been parodied numerous times, in such works as The Hardy Boys and the Mystery of Where Babies Come From by Christopher Durang , The Secret of the Old Queen: A Hardy Boys Musical by Timothy Cope and Paul Boesing, [114] and Mabel Maney's novel A Ghost in the Closet: A Hardly Boys Mystery. National Lampoon ran an article in 1985 entitled "The Undiscovered Notebooks of Franklin W. Dixon," in which the authors "purport to have stumbled upon some unpublished Hardy Boys manuscripts", including "The Party Boys and the Case of the Missing Scotch" and "The Hardly Boys in the Dark Secret of the Spooky Closet". [115]
Others have pointed to the Hardy Boys' relationship with their father as a key to the success of the series. As Tim Morris notes, while Fenton Hardy is portrayed as a great detective, his sons are usually the ones that solve cases, making Fenton Hardy a paradoxical figure:
He is always there, he knows everything. He is infallible but always failing. When the Boys rescue him, he is typically emaciated, dehydrated, semi-conscious, delirious; they must succor him with candy bars and water. He can take on any shape, but reveals his identity within moments of doing so. He never discusses a case except the one he's working on in a given novel, so that his legendary close-mouthedness turns to garrulousness when a Hardy Boys novel begins, which is of course the only time we ever get to see him. All the same, he only discusses the case in enough detail to mislead his sons and put them in mortal danger. He has systems of information and data-gathering that put the FBI to shame, yet he is always losing his case notes, his ciphers, his microfilm, or some other valuable clue, usually by leaving it in his extra pair of pants, meaning that the Boys have to drive to Canada or Florida or somewhere to retrieve it. I suppose he isn't mysterious at all; he simply embodies what many think of their own fathers: utterly powerful, contemptibly inept. [49]
As a result, the Hardy Boys are able both to be superior to their father and to gain the satisfaction of "fearlessly making their dad proud of them." [116]
In the end, many commentators find that the Hardy Boys are largely successful because their adventures represent "a victory over anxiety". [117] The Hardy Boys series teaches readers that "although the world can be an out-of-control place, good can triumph over evil, that the worst problems can be solved if we each do our share and our best to help others." [118]
Notes
Westfahl, Gary (2000). Science fiction, children's literature, and popular culture: coming of age in fantasyland . California: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0313308470. http://books.google.com/books?id=HlxJKBEEG9QC&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0 .
Wood, Meredith (2002). Lee, Josephine D; Lim, Imogene L; Matsukawa, Yuko. eds. "Footprints from the Past: Passing racial stereotypes in the Hardy Boys" in Re/collecting Early Asian America: Essays in Cultural History. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. ISBN 1566399645.
Woolnough, Damien (20 April 2007). "Tom and Ben as Hardy Men." The Advertiser . Accessed through LexisNexis on 7 April 2009.
Further reading
Carpentieri, Tony; Paul Mular (2004). Hardy & Hardy Investigations. SyneSine Press. ISBN 1891388053.
A guide to various editions of the Hardy Boys books, with price information. Also contains such information as each title's Flesch-Kincaid reading level, statistics on percentage of dialogue in each book, and lists of the ages given for every character in every book. Includes information from Carpentieri's earlier book, Frank and Joe Turn Blue.
External links
| Franklin W. Dixon |
Which Englishman was the very first footballer to score a goal for Liverpool in a European Cup Final, the year in question being 1977 ? | Project MUSE - Nancy, Tom and Assorted Friends in the Stratemeyer Syndicate Then and Now
Nancy, Tom and Assorted Friends in the Stratemeyer Syndicate Then and Now
Ken Donelson (bio)
Around the time when my daughter Sherri was nine or ten, she received a nearly complete set of Nancy Drew books from my sister. To say that I was pleased with my sister's gift would be an outrageous lie. As an English teacher still unsure of my role in life, I had all the self-righteous feelings I might have been expected to feel. "I am," I told myself, "an English teacher, guardian of the language, the last bastion against worldwide illiteracy, the champion of great literature, and my innocent daughter will be corrupted by the literary inanities of series books, worst of all by a series I had been taught to abhor." But I loved my sister and it was her gift and since Sherri was pleased, I took the American way out—I did nothing.
Later, when I left the childhood stage of teaching and entered the world of reality and began to look at what kids like to read and were reading despite my increasingly faltering admonitions, I became more and more intrigued by the ubiquitous Nancy Drew books and the fascination kids—especially young girls—felt about Nancy. As I puzzled through the Sears-Roebuck catalogue-of-dreams Nancy personified to her readers, my lingering toleration dimmed and my respect for author Carolyn Keene grew slowly and even grudgingly.
Much later after digging into series books, I found that there was no Carolyn Keene but only Edward Stratemeyer, his Literary Syndicate and his daughter Harriet Adams. I'll confess that I felt a mild let-down somewhat like the disappointment a few of my college students feel when they learn that Carolyn Keene is no more, indeed never was. But for me that let-down was replaced with awe as I dug into the machinations of the Stratemeyer syndicate.
Probably no American writer has had such an impact as Edward Stratemeyer on so many young readers. About his professional life we know much, though some details elude us even today; but about his personal life we know very little.
He was born on October 4, 1862, the son of a German immigrant who migrated to California during the Gold Rush era and then returned to New Jersey to help settle the estate of his dead brother. [End Page 17] In 1886 Stratemeyer was working at his step-brother's tobacco store in Elizabeth, New Jersey. Sometime during that year, Stratemeyer wrote an 18,000 word serial on brown wrapping paper, Victor Horton's Idea, and sent it off to Golden Days, a Philadelphia weekly boy's magazine. His father or step-brother may have originally questioned his foolish waste of time, but the $75.00 check Stratemeyer soon received alleviated their worries, and his father urged him to continue writing. He followed with Captain Bob's Secret, or, The Treasures of Bass Island, again for Golden Days.
From about 1890 until 1896 he ran a stationery store in Newark and during that time contributed to Frank Munsey's Golden Argosy. In 1893, Stratemeyer was offered the editorship of Good News, a boys' weekly published by Street and Smith, one of America's leading publishers. His devout faith in hard work, his writing and his personal life paid off, as his stories for Good News eventually built the circulation to more than 200,000. In 1895 he edited Young Sports of America (after the twenty-second issue retitled Young People of America) and in 1896 Bright Days. His work at Street and Smith brought him acquaintance with the reading public, particularly young people, and with staff writers like Frederick Dey (author of Nick Carter), Upton Sinclair (who wrote the True Blue series under the pen name Ensign Clark Fitch), William T. Adams (the pen name of Oliver Optic), H. R. Gordon (the pen name of Edward S. Ellis), and Horatio Alger. Stratemeyer wrote several dime novels for the Log Cabin Library, the first being Crazy Bob, The Terror of Creede, under the pseudonyms Jim Bowie, Nat Woods, and Jim Daly. He also wrote women's serials for the New York Weekly using the pen name Julia Edwards.
When Optic and Alger died, publishers asked Stratemeyer to edit the last three Optic novels, and he completed or wrote at least eleven and possibly eighteen Alger books from notes or outlines. Just how many he completed under Alger's name is still uncertain. His first hardback book published under his own name was Richard Dare's Venture, or, Striking Out For Himself in 1894, the first in his Bound to Succeed series. Reuben Stone's Discovery, or, The Young Miller of Torrent Bend appeared a year later. Other Stratemeyer books in 1897 had similar Alger-like titles, Schooldays of Fred Harley, or, Rivals For All Honors; The Young Auctioneers, or, The Polishing of a Rolling Stone; Shorthand Tom, or, The Exploits of a Bright Boy; Gun and Sled, or, The Young Hunters of [End Page 18] Snow-top Island; and Leo the Circus Boy, or, Life Under the Great White Canvas. By the end of 1897, Stratemeyer has six series and sixteen hardcover books in print.
Stratemeyer's big breakthrough came in 1898. He sent a book about two boys on a battleship to Boston publishers Lothrop & Shepard, one of the most prominent publishers of juvenile fiction. Only a few days later, Admiral Dewey's victory at Manila made headlines, and Lothrop's reader remembered Stratemeyer's manuscript. He wrote to Stratemeyer asking if it would be possible to place the boys at the scene of Dewey's triumph and return the rewritten book within a few weeks. Stratemeyer did, and Under Dewey at Manila, or, The War Fortunes of a Castaway hit the streets in time to capitalize on the recent victory. The book went through many printings that year and for several years to follow, and it greatly increased Stratemeyer's popularity and reputation with boys and publishers.
Not one to miss an opportunity, Stratemeyer used the major characters from Under Dewey at Manila in his next books—A Young Volunteer in Cuba, or, Fighting For the Single Star; Fighting in Cuban Waters, or, Under Schley on the Brooklyn; Under Otis in the Philippines, or, A Young Officer in the Tropics; The Campaign of the Jungle, or, Under Lawton Through Luzon; and Under MacArthur, or, Last Battles in the Philippines, all published from 1898 to 1901 under the umbrella series-title Old Glory. Using the same characters in contemporary battles in the Orient, Stratemeyer created the Soldiers of Fortune series with titles like On to Pekin, or, Old Glory in China; Under the Mikado's Flag, or, Young Soldiers of Fortune; At the Fall of Port Arthur, or, A Young American in the Japanese Navy; and With Togo For Japan, or, Three Young Americans on Land and Sea, all published from 1900 through 1906.
By this time Stratemeyer obviously had recognized his literary destiny although he probably had no inkling of his future productivity as a writer. He turned to full-time writing, sometimes completing a book in two or three days. As early as 1899, major publishers of juvenile books like Grosset & Dunlap and Cupples & Leon were wooing him and requesting that new books be sent to them.
Many of his early series dealt with war and patriotism: the Old Glory series, six books, 1898-1901; the Minute Boys series, two books, 1898-1904; the Soldiers of Fortune series, four books, [End Page 19] 1900-1906; the Mexican War series, three books, 1900-1902; and the Colonial series, six books, 1901-1906. Or they dealt with the Alger theme of getting ahead in life through hard work: the Working Upward series, four books, all 1897; the Bound to Succeed series, three books, all 1899; the Ship and Shore series, three books, 1899-1900; the Stratemeyer Popular series, twelve books, 1900-1909; and the American Boys' Biographical series, two books, both 1901. He tried a series of six books, 1902-1907, about adventures in Central and South America, the Pan-American series, but they were not very successful. Stratemeyer soon learned what every writer of popular literature must learn, that faddish material sells well for the moment but rapidly becomes dated. Stratemeyer also learned that his more serious works may have been applauded by adults but were largely unread by young people no longer entranced by Alger, much less by Alger's imitators.
So Stratemeyer turned to stories of school life and sports, and the two series he produced were incredibly successful at the time and remained in print and popular for years. The Lakeport series, six books, 1904-1912 and the Dave Porter series, fifteen books, 1905-1919 served as prototypes of later Stratemeyer Syndicate series like Dave Dashaway, Don Sturdy, College Sports, Fred Fenton, Dave Fearless, Tom Fairfield, and Jack Ranger.
It's fashionable and easy now to revile and ridicule Stratemeyer's series books, but they had a far kinder contemporary press. A reviewer of Under Otis in the Philippines wrote:
Mr. Stratemeyer is in a class by himself when it comes to writing about American heroes, their brilliant doings on land and sea.
(Boston Times)
And a Congregationalist reviewer wrote of Under Dewey at Manila,
Edward Stratemeyer weaves the incidents of the naval conflict at Manila into a narrative of experiences and adventure which is wholesome in spirit and full of excitement, and which the boys will like.
Reviewers of Between Boer and Briton, or, Two Boys' Adventures in South Africa were most kind.
A stirring story of the South African War.
(Indianapolis Journal)
The author is one of the most accomplished writers for the young.
(San Francisco Chronicle) [End Page 20]
And reviewers of the Dave Porter series said:
The story is told with great fidelity to real life.
(Brooklyn Eagle)
Mr. Stratemeyer has seldom introduced a more popular hero than Dave Porter. He is a typical boy, manly, brave, always ready for a good time if it can be obtained in an honorable way.
(Milwaukee Wisconsin)
In 1899, Stratemeyer published the first three volumes of a series no longer read but still widely recognizable, The Rover Boys Series For Young Americans: The Rover Boys at School, or, The Cadets of Putnam Hall; The Rover Boys on the Ocean, or, A Chase For Fortune; and The Rover Boys in the Jungle, or, Stirring Adventures in Africa. The early books in the series were published under the pseudonym of Arthur M. Winfield but after only a few volumes, Stratemeyer listed his name in parentheses below the pen name. The series was set in Putnam Hall, a military academy with three heroes, serious-and-older Dick, fun-loving Tom, and straight-man Sam along with two villains, Dan Baxter and Mumps. In later series, Stratemeyer brought readers up to date by summarizing previous volumes in the series somewhere in the second chapter, but in The Rover Boys he wrote introductions to the volumes. Two of those introductions, to the first and the last of the series, may serve as examples of Stratemeyer's style and illustrate the nature of the series:
MY DEAR BOYS: 'The Rover Boys at School' has been written that those of you who have never put in a term or more at an American military academy for boys may gain some insight into the workings of such an institution.
While Putnam Hall is not the real name of the particular place of learning I had in mind while penning this tale for your amusement and instruction, there is really such a school, and dear Captain Putnam is a living person, as are also the lively, wide-awake, fun-loving Rover brothers, Dick, Tom, and Sam, and their schoolfellows, Larry, Fred, and Frank. The same can be said, to a certain degree, of the bully Dan Baxter, and his toady, the sneak commonly known as 'Mumps.'
The present story is complete in itself, but it is written as the first of a series, to be followed by 'The Rover Boys in the Jungle,' in both of which volumes we will again meet many of our former characters.
Trusting that this tale will find as much favor in your hands [End Page 21] as have my previous stories, I remain,
Affectionately and sincerely yours,
March 1, 1889.
(The Rover Boys at School, or, The Cadets of Putnam Hall) 1
MY DEAR BOYS: This book is a complete story in itself but forms the tenth volume in the line issued under the general title, 'The Second Rover Boys Series for Young Americans.'
In the opening volume of the First Series, 'The Rover Boys at School,' I introduced my readers to Dick, Tom and Sam Rover and their friends and relatives. That volume and those which followed related the adventures of the three Rover boys at Putnam Hall Military Academy, Brill College, and elsewhere.
Leaving college, the three young men established themselves in business in New York City and became married to their girl sweethearts. Dick Rover became the father of a son and a daughter, as did likewise his brother Sam, while Tom was blessed with a pair of lively twin boys. The four youths were first sent to boarding school, as related in the first volume of the Second Series, entitled 'The Rover Boys at Colby Hall,' where the lads made a host of friends. During their outings they went with one of the older Rovers to establish oil wells in Texas and Oklahoma and also went out on Sunset Trail, where we last met them. Their school days had come to an end, and two of the boys were preparing to join their fathers in business when a most disastrous affair occurred. Then the lads went on an ocean trip in an endeavor to aid the family fortunes, and what stirring times their outing led to I leave for the pages which follow to narrate.
Of the twenty-nine volumes issued in this line of 'Rover Boys' stories the publishers have already sold over three and one-half million copies! To me this is as astonishing as it is pleasing, and I here wish to thank all the young people, as well as the parents who have stood by me in my efforts to entertain them.
Affectionately and sincerely yours,
Edward Stratemeyer
(The Rover Boys Winning A Fortune, or, Strenuous Days Ashore And Afloat) 2
The Rover Boys' adventures filled thirty books, the first twenty (The First Rover Boys Series) with Dick and Tom and Sam, the last ten (The Second Rover Boys Series) with the sons of the original [End Page 22] Rovers. The books were extraordinarily popular in the United States, and they were also shipped to England, Canada, and Australia and translated into German and Czechoslovakian. The series sold somewhere between 5,000,000 and 6,000,000 copies before the Rover boys disappeared with the publication of the last volume in 1926. The only other series of its time that surpassed it in sales and popularity was the Bobbsey Twins (1904-present) with total sales of more than 50,000,000 copies; where the Rover boys did not endure, the Bobbsey Twins series goes on and on and on.
Somewhere around 1906 Stratemeyer discovered a most successful way of gaining even wider readership; he convinced Cupples & Leon to drop the price of his books to fifty cents. Cupples & Leon may have been shocked to discover an author willing to take a smaller royalty per book, but they soon learned that the mass production of fifty-centers increased total sales almost beyond belief. One gimmick used by Cupples & Leon brought the company a steady supply of potential customers.
Cupples decided to compile a colossal list of children's names. Included on the jacket of its books was a coupon which, when filled out with the names and addresses of ten friends, entitled the whole group to Cupples' illustrated catalogue. The catalogue was an insidious narcotic with the habit-forming properties of opium. In it were printed fetching bits from the more popular series. Cupples estimates that all in all 500,000 names have been on that list. 3
Presumably, that technique and the mass production of the fifty-centers contributed to the popularity and sales of yet another Stratemeyer series, The Motor Boys, published under the pen name of Clarence Young. The twenty-two novels in this series, published between 1906 and 1924 sold something in excess of 4,000,000 copies.
Around 1906, Stratemeyer evolved the idea of his Literary Syndicate which was perhaps loosely modeled after Dumas' syndicate. It must have been obvious to him by this time that his brain teemed with prolific ideas for plots and series, and the twenty-four hour day simply wasn't long enough. Details of the evolution of the Stratemeyer Syndicate (frequently and unkindly called Stratemeyer's Fiction Factory) are lacking, but the operational plan is clear. Stratemeyer sent aspiring writers three-page [End Page 23] sketches detailing settings and characters and a chapter-by-chapter outline of the plot. Writers were given from one week to six weeks to fill in the outline. When the copy arrived at Stratemeyer's office, he edited and tightened the prose and checked for discrepancies with earlier volumes in the series. Then the manuscript was off to the printer. Writers were paid flat sums, from $50.00 to $100.00, depending upon the importance of the series.
In a recent autobiography, 4 Leslie McFarlane, author of the first twenty-six Hardy Boys, tells how he first encountered the Stratemeyer Syndicate. The trade journal Editor and Publisher ran an advertisement:
Experienced Fiction Writer Wanted to Work from Publisher's Outlines
It was 1926 and McFarlane was a newly hired reporter for the Springfield Republican with no great hopes for money. He replied. The letter he soon received asked McFarlane to try his hand at developing a couple of sample chapters of either a Dave Fearless or Nat Ridley Rapid Fire Detective series book from an enclosed outline like this.
CHAP. 1—Dave and Bob cruising off Long Island in launch Amos run into fog—mention first and second volumes of series—engine fails—ring reminds Bob of adventures on Volcano Island—mention other volumes—boys discuss Lem and Bart Hankers, believed dead—sound of foghorn is heard—ocean liner looms out of fog—collision seems inevitable.
CHAP. 2—Ship veers off in nick of time—boys hear warning bell and see lighthouse—fix engine—almost pile up on dangerous reef—night and darkness—searchlight suddenly reveals mass of wreckage dead ahead—launch crashes into wreckage and catches fire—boys dive into water—boat blows up—Dave looks for Bob. 5
Later in 1926 (after McFarlane passed the test), he wrote the first Hardy Boys book, The Twoer Treasure, under what became a popular Syndicate house name: Franklin W. Dixon. The mark of his success in that first Hardy Boys book arrived in the form of an envelope from Stratemeyer containing outlines for the next two Hardy Boys books—The House on the Cliff and The Secret of the Old Mill. But with the outline, [End Page 24]
There was also a letter, a check and a document that looked vaguely legal. The document, a contract, was very simple—it covered everything. It was a release form absolving me of any rights to any volumes already written or any that might be written in the future for the Stratemeyer Syndicate. It covered the plots, the titles, the Roy Rockwood name, the name of Franklin W. Dixon and the manuscripts, forever and ever. Furthermore, it included a promise that I would never under any circumstances divulge to anyone the fact that I had ever written a Dave Fearless book or a Hardy Boys book under any title or pen name for anyone.
The penalty for such a revelation wasn't spelled out, I assumed that it had something to do with boiling in oil.
I had no hesitation in signing this document. As a matter of fact, I had been doing a little thinking about the matter. The release saved me the trouble of asking Stratemeyer to do me a similar favor. No sworn affidavits—merely his signature to a promise that he would never tell anyone I ever wrote books for him. 6
Since McFarlane had accepted in a weak and poverty-stricken moment Stratemeyer's suggestion that he try his hand at three books of the Dana Girls series, one can sympathize with his last paragraph. One seemingly capricious but carefully planned Stratemeyer idiosyncrasy was his desire to keep Syndicate authors unaware of each other's existence. McFarlane tells us it would have been difficult to locate other Stratemeyer ghosts.
Nor would it have helped to seek out a companion spook and compare notes. They were anonymous, invisible, unidentifiable, impossible to find. I met one of them quite by accident years later and he said Stratemeyer conferred with writers only by appointment and that he took good care to see that appointments were judiciously spaced. No two spooks ever found themselves waiting side by side on the bench and in a position to compare notes or even to discover that each was Roy Rockwood or even (God forbid) Laura Lee Hope, renowned since 1906 as authoress of the Bobbsey Twins. 7
Tom Swift was the first series to appear after the creation of the Stratemeyer Syndicate; this series outsold all earlier ones except The Bobbsey Twins. Using the Syndicate house name of Victor Appleton, the Tom Swift books began in 1910 and ended with the publication of the fortieth volume in 1941; total sales for the series [End Page 25] was something like 15,000,000 copies.
Click for larger view
View full resolution
Different as they appeared at first glance, series books had common elements. Early in the opening chapter of all books following the initial volume would appear some hook to the previous volume or volumes, a hook that would make any kid aware that he had missed at least one terribly exciting book. In the last paragraph or so of the last chapter would be another hook, this time suggesting that if the present book was a thriller, then the reader had even greater excitement awaiting him. Andrew Svenson, a late partner of Stratemeyer's daughter in the Syndicate, caught the essence of series books:
The trick in writing children's books is to set up danger, mystery and excitement on page one. Force the kid to turn the page. I've written page one as many as 20 times. Then in the middle of each chapter there's a dramatic point of excitement and, at chapter's end, a cliffhanger. 8
Any reader of the Hardy Boys or Nancy Drew will remember those cliffhanging moments of "Watch out, Frank" (or Nancy). Finally, about halfway through the second chapter of most series books, action was temporarily interrupted, allowing the writer to remind [End Page 26] readers of the entire series so far. In Baseball Joe, Pitching Wizard, the fourteenth and last of the once popular Baseball Joe series, Joe and his friend Jim Barclay see a man fall over the edge of a ravine. They rush to him, find him still alive, recognize in him a villain from previous books, and then as they talk over the unconscious body, writer Lester Chadwick interrupts with a wrap-up of the previous thirteen books, everything from Baseball Joe of the Silver Stars to Baseball Joe, Club Owner:
While they stand there in utter bewilderment, it may be well, for the benefit of those who have not read the preceding volumes of this series, to tell who Baseball Joe was and what had been his adventures up to the time this story opens. Joe Matson had been brought up in Riverside, a small but thriving town. His parents were estimable people of moderate means whose lives were bound up in their two children, Joe and his younger sister, Clara.
Joe grew up a strong and vigorous youth, frank, manly and courageous. He excelled in all boyish sports, but was especially drawn toward baseball. All the time he could spare from his school and home duties found him playing in some of the vacant lots that the boys frequented.
It soon appeared that Joe Matson had a natural aptitude for pitching, and before long he had at his command a collection of curves and slants which made him feared by the teams that came to measure strength with the town nine.
How he became the mainstay in the box of his home team, what difficulties he met and surmounted, how the envy of rivals sought to discredit him, how in spite of all obstacles he won victory after victory, is told in the first volume of this series, entitled 'Baseball Joe of the Silver Stars.'
Later on he went to boarding school, where his outstanding work on the school nine won recognition for him, despite the tactics of the bully of the institution. Following his graduation he entered Yale. Here the unwritten law that gave the preference to veterans and held the freshmen in the background kept him for some time from having a chance to show his ability on the diamond. But such a light as Joe Matson 's could not be long hidden under a bushel, and in a time of great stress his opportunity came and he registered a glorious victory for Yale. Nor was it the last, for he eventually became one of the greatest college boxmen that Yale had ever known. [End Page 27]
His work in the box for Yale was so sensational that he received an offer to pitch for the Pittston team of the Central League. Here he made good from the start and soon became the leading twirler of that league. It was evident that he would not long remain in the sticks, and one of the keen-eyed scouts of the St. Louis Cardinals spotted him and he was signed up promptly.
Many players who are sensations in the bush circuit fall down lamentably when they get among the players of the major leagues. Only one who has the stuff can get by there.
Joe Matson got by in record time. One after the other he faced the doughty teams of the National League—the Giants, the Cubs, the Reds, the Dodgers, and all the rest of that famous aggregation. Many of them smiled when the comparatively untried stripling faced them for the first time, but they did not do much laughing after the game was over. Here was a youngster to be reckoned with.
No one realized this more keenly than McRae, the manager of the New York Giants. He was the keenest judge of baseball talent in the country, and he lost no time in acquiring Joe Matson for his team.
Now Baseball Joe felt that he had reached the very height of his ambition, the goal that is dreamed of by all young players. But not for a minute did he relax. He knew that he still had much to learn and from none could he get better teaching than from McRae. That shrewd old fox taught him all he knew, and what Baseball Joe once learned he never forgot. Before long he was universally acknowledged to be the king of pitchers.
But his strength lay not alone in the box, though that was his chosen throne. His batting was as remarkable as his twirling. He had the eye of a hawk in spotting the ball. His timing was perfect, and he met the ball at just the right fraction of a second to make every ounce of his strength tell. Before long he developed into the greatest batter in the game.
He became known as the home-run king, and people packed the parks all over the circuit in the hope of seeing Baseball Joe clout another homer. Again and again he led the league in home run hitting, and many a game was won thereby that would otherwise have been lost.
The Giants were a great team, but, outside of the pitcher's box, there were other teams quite as powerful. It was Joe's great pitching year after year that brought the championship of the league to New York and later on several world championships. [End Page 28]
Second only to Joe as a pitcher was Jim Barclay, who had come to the team from Princeton. He had a great arm and a good head, and a warm friendship sprang up between he and Joe. The latter coached the young recruit until he became one of the mainstays of the nine in the box. This friendship between the two was still further cemented when Jim fell in love with and married Joe's sister, Clara.
Joe himself had met his fate some time earlier. On one occasion when his team was in the South Joe had been instrumental in saving a young girl, Mabel Varley, the daughter of a banker, when the horse she was driving ran away. Love between Mabel and the stalwart young athlete was not long in developing. They were married some time later and their wedded life had proved ideally happy.
Baseball Joe had not pursued his meteoric career without making enemies, and their machinations against him at times were very serious.
In the spring of the year before that in which this story opens his arm had gone wrong, owing to an injury inflicted by enemies the season before. He consulted eminent specialists who decreed that for a whole year he would have to withdraw from the game unless he wanted his arm to be entirely ruined. The consternation of McRae was great, and Joe Matson himself was shocked beyond measure by the fateful verdict. But there was no help for it and they had to yield.
Joe went back to Riverside to recuperate. He reached there just at the time that the local baseball club was placed on the market. Joe saw a chance to stay in the game he loved, if only as manager, and he bought the club. In doing so he incurred the bitter enmity of Moe Russnak, an unscrupulous Jew, who himself had intended to buy the team. Aided by Hupft and McCarney, two former Giants who had been thrown off the team for crooked work, Russnak worked up a scheme that came near costing Joe his life.
How Russnak overreached himself and was sent to jail, how Joe brought a club of tailenders up to the championship of the Valley League, the many thrilling and exciting incidents that attended his efforts, are told in the preceding volume of this series, entitled 'Baseball Joe, Club Owner.' 9
After that whirlwind tour through the life of a truly amazing man, author Lester Chadwick returns us to the story, "Now to return to Joe and Jim as they stood amazed and perplexed at the recognition [End Page 29] of Moe Russnak as the man who had fallen into the gully." They really don't write books like that anymore.
Who wrote for the Syndicate? Stratemeyer almost certainly wrote all the books which appeared under his own name or the names of Arthur M. Winfield and Captain Ralph Bonehill; Leslie McFarlane wrote the first twenty-six Hardy Boys and three of the Dana Girls; Howard Garis, better known as the author of the Uncle Wiggily stories, wrote the first thirty-five Tom Swift books (the prolific Garis family—father Howard, mother Lilian, and children Roger and Cleo wrote many Stratemeyer Syndicate books prior to their establishing their own Syndicate); Harriet Adams (Stratemeyer's daughter) wrote many of the Dana Girls and apparently all the Nancy Drew series; and Andrew Svenson wrote the Happy Hollister series. But the identities of many series writers are unknown and are likely to remain that way. Certain house names appeared over and over again, witness the incomplete list below.
Boys' Books—
Gertrude W. Morrison, Girls of Central High series
Margaret Penrose, Radio Girls series, Motor Girls series, Dorothy Dale series
Helen Louise Thorndike, Honey Bunch series
Edna Winfield, Holly Library series
An incredible number of series and an incredible number of books flowing from the mind of one man and the pens of heaven knows how many anonymous writers. Estimates of the total number of books produced by the Syndicate over the years vary from as few as 800 to as many as 1200. A reading of Leslie McFarlane's Ghost of the Hardy Boys suggests that it was all quite possible, and given Stratemeyer's operation and ambition it was not unlikely that a vast number of books could be produced.
Then in 1908, the Boy Scouts of America was established; a few years later Stratemeyer was to become highly disturbed by the BSA and their leaders. James E. West, Chief Scout Executive, was alarmed by the outpourings from the presses of books he deemed inferior:
The boys' taste is being constantly vitiated and exploited by [End Page 31] the mass of cheap juvenile literature. To meet this grave peril the Library Commission of the Boy Scouts of America has been organized. 10
Not long after, Franklin K. Mathiews, Chief Scout Librarian, visited Louis Reed of Grosset and Dunlap and proposed a mass reprinting of a list of better books for boys, making finer literature more widely and inexpensively available. Grosset and Dunlap, one of the two chief publishers of Stratemeyer's Syndicate, agreed, and on November 1, 1913, appeared a Boy Scouts of America publication "Safety First Week" announcing the list. By 1934, more than 2,000,000 copies of BSA-approved books had been sold. The list eventually included seventy-five titles: classics like Jack London's Call of the Wild, John Masefield's Jim Davis, and Jules Verne's 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea; contemporary boys' books like William Heyliger's Bartley, Freshman Pitcher, Ralph Paine's College Years, and Ralph Henry Barbour's For the Honor of the School; and books about the Boy Scout movement, Percy Keese Fitzhugh's Adventures of a Boy Scout, Charles P. Burton's Boy Scouts of Bob's Hill, and William Heyliger's Don Strong of the Wolf Patrol. Announcements about the series were featured prominently in the ad sections at the back of Grosset and Dunlap books:
Every Boy's Library
Boy Scout Edition Similar to This Volume
The Boy Scouts of America in making up this Library, selected only such books as had been proven by a nationwide canvass to be most universally in demand among the boys themselves. Originally published in more expensive editions only, they are now, under the direction of the Scout's National Council, re-issued at a lower price so that all boys may have the advantage of reading and owning them. It is the only series of books published under the control of this great organization, whose sole object is the welfare and happiness of the boy himself. For the first time in history a guaranteed library is available, and at a price so low as to be within the reach of all.
If all this affected Stratemeyer and his Syndicate relatively little, the next BSA move disturbed him considerably more. In the November 18, 1914, Outlook, Franklin K. Mathiews, Chief Scout Librarian, delivered a stinging diatribe against Stratemeyer's Syndicate without once mentioning it by name. Mathiews began by [End Page 32] noting that in most surveys of children's reading, inferior books, (defined as those not found in libraries), were widely read and probably as influential as the better books. Mathiews argued that Syndicate books were even more dishonest and inaccurate and inflammatory than the earlier and much-attacked dime novels.
In almost all of this 'mile-a-minute fiction' some inflammable tale of improbable adventure is told. Boys move about in aeroplanes as easily as though on bicycles; criminals are captured by them with a facility that matches the ability of Sherlock Holmes; and when it comes to getting on in the world, the cleverness of these hustling boys is comparable only to those captains of industry and Napoleans of finance who have made millions in a minute. Insuperable difficulties and crushing circumstances are as easily overcome and conquered as in fairy tales. Indeed, no popular character of history or legend or mythological story was ever more wise, more brave, more resourceful, than some of these up-to-the-minute boy heroes are made to appear in the Sunday supplement juvenile stories. 11
Mathiews' loud and angry title for his article, "Blowing Out the Boy's Brains," is underscored throughout, especially in these paragraphs:
Because these cheap books do not develop criminals or lead boys, except very occasionally, to seek the Wild West, parents who buy such books think they do their boys no harm. The fact is, however, that the harm done is simply incalculable. I wish I could label each one of these books: 'Explosives! Guaranteed to Blow Your Boy's Brains Out.'
The difference between a Treasure Island and a modern 'thriller' in its many editions is not a difference in the elements so much as the use each author makes of them. A Stevenson works with combustibles, but, as in the case of using the gasoline, he confines them, directs them with care and caution, always thinking of how he may use them in a way that will be of advantage to the boy. In the case of the modern 'thriller' the author works with the same materials, but with no moral purpose, with no real intelligence. No effort is made to confine or direct or control these highly explosive elements. The result is that, as some boys read such books, their imaginations are literally 'blown out,' and they go into life as terribly crippled [End Page 33] as though by some material explosion they had lost a hand or foot. For not only will the boy be greatly handicapped in business, but the whole world of art in its every form almost is closed to him. Why are there so few men readers of the really good books, or even of the passing novels, sometimes of real worth? Largely, I think, because the imagination of so many men as boys received such brutal treatment at the hands of those authors and publishers who give no concern as to what they write or publish so long as it returns constantly the expected financial gain. 12
To support his contention that series books were objectionable, Mathiews cites the manager of a book section in a New England department store who read another article condemning cheap books. The manager, wanting to be sure that he was not retailing filth for children, "sent some of these books to the local children's librarian, whose report, of course, confirmed his fear that they were not wholesome." 13 Using librarians to establish the worthlessness of series books may be standard procedure today, but Mathiews' use of the gimmick was doubtless fresher then.
Mathiews attacked these "trashy" books for many reasons, one of the chief being that hack writers were employed in the cruel salt mines of Stratemeyer's Syndicate to produce money for one man. This was strange reasoning, since the implication seemed to be that if the books had not sold well, they would have been less deserving of attack. He concluded his article with a melodramatic incident readers today may find less than compelling:
Just as I am closing this article there comes to my desk a letter from a scoutmaster in Lansing, Michigan. To the letter a postal card is attached signed by the sheriff stating that "information is wanted relative to the whereabouts of Guy Arthur Phinisey, who left his home in Lansing, Michigan, on September 2, 1914,' etc. In the letter of the scoutmaster I find these significant words: 'From the information I have received there seems to be no reason for his leaving home of his own accord. He has a good home, and his parents seem quiet but thrifty. The only possible clue I can find is 'cheap reading.' "
Of course not every boy who indulges himself in 'cheap reading' will be so affected, but who of us is wise enough to know which one it is that will be so influenced? 14
Determining how successful this article was is problematical; but a [End Page 34] later account states that shortly after the appearance of "Blowing Out the Boy's Brains"
Women in Portland Oregon, stood beside the counters of bookstores discouraging would-be buyers of fifty-centers. Disgusted booksellers packed up their Tom Swifts and shipped them back to the publishers. 15
While Mathiews never attributed any of his ideas to Anthony Comstock, leading American censor of the time, some passages from Comstock's 1883 book Traps for the Young remind the reader more than a little of Mathiews' later words. Attacking the cheaper literature of the 1870's and 1880's, Comstock said,
Light literature, then, is a devil-trap to captivate the child by perverting taste and fancy. It turns aside from the pursuit of useful knowledge and prevents the full development in man or woman of the wonderful possibilities locked up in the child! 16
Take further instances of the effect of this class of publications, and then say if my language is too strong. Does it startle and offend? To startle, to awaken, to put you on your guard, to arouse you to your duty over your own children is my earnest purpose. Your child is in danger of having its pure mind cursed for life.
A few months ago, in a small town in Massachusetts, I arrested a young man about twenty-one years of age, for sending most obscene and foul matter by mail. He was in the field with his father at work at the time of arrest. He desired to go to his room to change his apparel before going to court. While in his room, and up to the moment of the finding of a pile of these vile five-cent story-papers in one corner, he had been perfectly cool and stolid. When these were discovered, he started as though a nest of adders had been opened, and said with great feeling, 'There! that's what has cursed me! That has brought me to this!' 17
In addition to creating the list of better boys' books, Mathiews persuaded Percy Keese Fitzhugh to develop several series presenting boy scout life in a far more realistic light. Fitzhugh's seven series sold approximately 3,000,000 copies, and the Tom Slade series (1915-1930), the Boy Scout series (1913-1915), the Buddy Books for Boys series (1927), the Flying Stories series (1930-1932), the Pee Wee Harris series (1922-1930), the Roy Blakeley series (1920-1931), and the Westy Martin series (1924-1931) did offer competition [End Page 35] to Stratemeyer's Syndicate, though they never equalled the sales or the popularity of Stratemeyer's books.
Click for larger view
View full resolution
Mathiews made a final effort to destroy Stratemeyer's Syndicate in 1919. He "persuaded Frederic G. Melcher and the American Association of Book Publishers to establish the first National Children's Book Week 'to bring together in common cause the many groups which had a deep interest in the reading of children—librarians, teachers, publishers, artists, authors, scout leaders, and the like.'" 18
The overall effect of the campaign against Stratemeyer was probably minimal. Certainly Mathiews was deadly serious about Stratemeyer, and Stratemeyer increasingly took Mathiews seriously; but little emerged out of this extended squabble. Stratemeyer may temporarily have lost some sales, and when he challenged Grosset & Dunlap about the appearance of the competing Every Boy's Library, Grosset & Dunlap made it clear that they had no desire to become embroiled in the argument and even if they did, they were not at all sure whose side they might take. Stratemeyer wisely let the matter drop. He may have "toned down dangers, thrills, and violence in favor of well-researched instruction" in later volumes, as Arthur Prager suggests, 19 but in the long run the only winners were boys [End Page 36] who continued to buy and read Stratemeyer's books and could now find other books available as well in a less expensive format. Financial losses must have been temporary, because by 1934 Grosset & Dunlap was selling about 3,000,000 Stratemeyer Syndicate books yearly, while Cupples & Leon sold another 1,000,000 copies.
The effectiveness of Mathiews' challenge is open to question in light of the data compiled by Carleton Washburne and Mabel Vogel in their Winnetka Graded Book List. The authors polled 36,750 children in thirty-four cities throughout the country to determine what books were read and liked. Using the responses, the authors compiled a list of 700 books reported at least twenty-five or more times. In their original publication, the authors excluded from the graded list "books that are not recommended because of low literary value" (e.g., Bobbsey Twins, Honey Bunch, Shifting for Himself, Mystery at Number Six, Adventures of Reddy Fox) and "books that are not recommended because of subject content" (e.g., The Harvester, The Circular Staircase, The Hound of the Baskervilles, When a Man's a Man) based on the evaluations of selected librarians. Commenting upon the ambiguous nature of the phrase "literary value," the authors wrote:
The books of one series—seventeen of them—were unanimously rated trashy by our expert librarians and almost unanimously (98%) liked by the 900 children who read them. On the other hand, of the ten most popular books, not one was rated trashy by the judging librarians (although one librarian so considered Huckleberry Finn!). For the most part the children's tastes do not appear to be very far wrong. If a group of children's librarians, selected as among the most expert in the United States, differ among themselves as to what books have high literary merit and what ones are trashy does it not show that none of us are able to set up as yet any final and generally acceptable standard of literary merit? If we adults do not agree on what books are 'literary' should literary merit be a primary determining factor in selecting and recommending books for children? Is it not more important to know what books are likely to be thoroughly enjoyed by children of various ages and degrees of reading ability? 20
Presumably to appease their own consciences and possibly to satisfy the curiosity of teachers and librarians, Washburne and Vogel published [End Page 37] two supplements to their original booklist, showing books previously excluded. Stratemeyer must have been pleased and Mathiews horrified to learn that seventeen Bobbsey Twins books, six Tom Swifts, and several other titles from other Stratemeyer books were listed. 21
When World War II broke out, the Stratemeyer Syndicate dropped several of its series, partly because paper was difficult to get, partly because several of the series were obviously losing readership. The most famous early Stratemeyer series ended (or so it seemed at the time) in 1941 with the publication of the fortieth Tom Swift book. Apparently, by that time young boys had lost interest in the wild adventures of this great hero. But in 1954, Tom Swift was transformed into the Tom Swift, Jr. series, written by Victor Appleton II. But even the casual reader must have noted the change, for Tom Swift was clearly not Tom Swift, Jr.; the earlier books were primarily adventure books and the newer series mixed adventure with genuine science.
Two popular Stratemeyer series survived World War II and they may endure forever, English teachers and librarians notwithstanding. The Hardy Boys first appeared in 1926 in The Tower Treasure, and that one title had sold more than 1,500,000 copies by 1973. Number 51 in the series, The Naked Monkey, appeared in 1972 and sold more than 60,000 copies that year. In 1975 alone, 1,670,000 Hardy Boys books were sold—not a bad record for a series few people thought would last. Ed Zuckerman's recent article 22 amusingly details changes in the series from its beginnings, particularly the changes that have taken place through the rewriting and updating of older volumes for today's boys.
But if the Hardy Boys had their fans, no fans were and are more dedicated and faithful than the readers of Nancy Drew. The Secret of the Old Clock appeared in 1930 and since that time fifty-two more mysteries and one Nancy Drew cookbook have been published. Estimates of the total sales of Nancy Drew books range between 55,000,000 and 60,000,000, a healthy figure indeed for the clean-cut, blonde teenager from River Heights. But Nancy's popularity with readers was guaranteed when she first appeared in print. Even the first book in the series made clear what a super-girl, super-detective she would become.
Older Nancy Drew books have been revised and updated, and to compare the 1930 The Secret of the Old Clock with the 1959 [End Page 38] revision is to find intriguing changes, though none of them fundamentally alter Nancy's personality or ability. In the printings after the 1959 copyright, this legend appeared on the reverse of the title page.
This new story for today's readers is based on the original of the same title.
A recent printing of the 1959 edition no longer contains that message. The 1930 edition presented Nancy as 16 years old, the 1959 revision as 18 years old. The plot of both editions are much alike, but structurally there are odd, if not significant, changes. More interesting changes can be found in smaller matters. The "negro caretaker Jeff Tucker" with his Uncle Tom-ish "humorous" dialect of the 1930 edition is replaced by "Jeff Tucker, the caretaker, the tallest, skinniest man I've ever seen outside a circus," in the later edition. As the series continues and earlier volumes are revised, villains lose distinct ethnic characteristics, and the strange/humorous dialects of earlier minor characters become more and more Anglo-Saxon. Ardent feminists have joyously gathered Nancy into the fold as an early prototype of the liberated young woman. Jane Ginsburg, writing in Ms. Magazine, wrote,
Nancy Drew, whose mystery-solving exploits have filled the contents of 50 books, is one heroine who qualifies in many ways as a role-model for young feminists. Unlike the patient and self-sacrificing protagonists of the nurse books, Nancy is brave and active. She seldom needs strong-arm male assistance. 23
And Bobbie Ann Mason asked,
Where would women's liberation be without Nancy Drew and Judy Bolton and Beverly Gray and Cherry Ames? Nancy Drew alone has been crucial to the lives of millions of girls (no one can count how many) since 1929 . . . She was the first official girl sleuth, and the rest came tumbling after. 24
If Mason later notes some qualifications in her enthusiasm for Nancy Drew, she still retains more than nostalgic enthusiasm for Nancy.
English teachers and librarians have opposed Stratemeyer's Syndicate almost since Stratemeyer began writing. Mathiews maligned Stratemeyer and temporarily may have hurt sales, but the attack was soon forgotten. Stratemeyer may have lost sales because of the Winnetka Graded Book List and its supplements, may have [End Page 39] cost Stratemeyer some sales but likely very few since his books were never intended for the library. His readers would have paid no attention to the attack even if they had ever heard of it. The violent feelings some critics have harbored for Stratemeyer is puzzling and surprising. In a 1934 article, librarian Hope White called Stratemeyer an "arch-fiend." 25 In 1956, librarian Janie Smith quoted Mathiews approvingly and launched yet another attack on Stratemeyer. 26 And in 1964, librarian Margaret Beckman triumphantly announced three major reasons why Nancy Drew or the Bobbsey Twins did not deserve a place in the library:
In the first place, it is a matter of cost . . . If it is the responsibility of teachers and librarians to provide the best there is for our children, then surely no public funds should be spent on this sort of trash. The second reason is a matter of time . . . I disagree most strenuously that there is no harm done in reading the Bobbsey Twins and Nancy Drew, etc. There are only six to eight years in which a child can read, as a child, and there are so many wonderful books to be read he will never have time to read them all. To waste these few precious years reading the less than worthwhile is really a crime . . . The final reason is the effect of Bobbsey Twin reading on youthful minds. Certainly I know there are some children who are omnivorous readers, who will read, unencouraged, everything they can find and jump easily from the Hardy Boys to Treasure Island. But this is where the newspaper experts make their mistake. They assume all children can or will do this, because some of the few children with whom they are familiar have been able to. 27
Some English teachers and librarians still apparently believe it is their duty to attack Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys. Future attacks appear to be as unpromising and futile as they are inevitable. Perhaps some people genuinely enjoy modeling their lives after Don Quixote.
It is frequently said that the Stratemeyer books have limited literary value, and of course that's true as far as it goes. Any adult reader can discover this through even a limited acquaintance with a Nancy Drew or Hardy Boys book. But that is also true of most adolescent literature, most adult literature, most science fiction, most mysteries, most books generally. And true or not, the assertion begs the question. The Syndicate never pretended it was [End Page 40] creating imperishable literature. More to the point, young boys and girls rarely look for those qualities that may help to create great or enduring literature. Young people look for rapid action and humor and excitement, and Syndicate books certainly provided that. But more important to Stratemeyer were the moral lessons his books purveyed. Whether boys and girls listened to the morality in the midst of all the action may be a moot point, but there was morality in abundance. And, no matter what the book or what the series, Stratemeyer's books preached the same moral lessons over and over.
1. The Protestant Ethic: hard work is good in and of and for itself, but rigorously applied it will be rewarded here on earth, if not in affluence at least in gaining a higher rung on the ladder of respectability.
2. The Godly and manly virtues of cleanliness, thrift, righteousness, and abstinence (from gambling, drinking, smoking, gossiping, frivolity, and evil thoughts) are essential for the good man or woman.
3. The hallmarks of the good American are Yankee ingenuity and tenacity; he/she can do anything or discover anything he/she wants to.
4. Education and sports are essential to young people and both should be taken seriously, since they will make a good person a better person.
5. The outdoor life is beneficial to young people, psychologically and spiritually as well as physically.
6. Evil and good are clearly and easily distinguishable to the good person; rarely do gray or doubtful areas lie between evil and good.
7. All young people must respect the law, the church, the school, adults, and authority in general, for in the final analysis, society is wiser than the individual.
8. America is truly the land of promise for all, abounding in opportunities for the young person who watches for them and follows through with his/her innate drive.
One .question about the Syndicate books persists, a question, which by its existence perhaps assumes an answer unfavorable to Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys. Will reading series books permanently impair young readers? I sincerely believe the answer must be a resounding NO! My daughter went from Nancy Drew (or more accurately, all of the Nancy Drews) to Beverly Cleary's Ellen Tebbits and from there on to Betty Smith's A Tree Grows in Brooklyn. Each in turn became a literary touchstone used by Sherri [End Page 41] for several years, then abandoned. Why I should have been so surprised at that time now escapes me, for I went through much the same process with different books. I read every sports story and every series book I could get my hands on in the small public library of Clarinda, Iowa. The librarian paid no attention to me, treating me with almost total disdain. That may have been the nicest gift she could have given me—she left me totally alone, totally free to determine my own reading for my own tastes, perverted and childish as they must have appeared to her. I read all the Tarzan and Zane Grey books the library owned, and somewhere around my tenth or eleventh year I began to buy all the twenty-five cent books I could afford at the local Woolworth or J. C. Penney stores during Christmas season. The books had no particular literary value, but they were exciting and mysterious and horrible and fun and all the good stuff reading has always represented to me, all the stuff that school for many years thereafter never represented. But my progress in reading should be no particular surprise, for most of us librarians and English teachers read widely and indiscriminately for much of our youth. And we survived and we grew because of our reading, all of it, the bad and the worst mixed with a little of the good, not despite it but because of it.
On May 10, 1930, Edward Stratemeyer died of pneumonia. But his Syndicate continued. Mrs. Harriet Adams and Mrs. Edna Squier, Stratemeyer's daughters, carried on. Mrs. Squier became an inactive partner in 1942. Andrew E. Svenson joined the Syndicate in 1948, and was a full partner from 1961 until his death in 1975. The number of series published has shrunk to seven: Hardy Boys, Nancy Drew, Dana Girls, Bobbsey Twins, Cherry Ames, Tom Swift, Jr., and Wynn and Lonny. But the sales continue, at an almost unbelievable rate—approximately 6,000,000 copies a year—led by Drew's 2,300,000 last year.
The Stratemeyer Syndicate goes on. 28 Harriet Adams is now 83, but Grosset & Dunlap has made arrangements for others to take over the work of the Syndicate when there is no longer a Stratemeyer left. The Syndicate goes on, and the readers become older and are replaced by the newly young, and the Syndicate goes on and on and on. It may go on forever. I hope it does. More important, so do thousands of young people today. So will thousands of young people tomorrow. [End Page 42]
Ken Donelson is Professor of English at Arizona State University, Tempe. He has published numerous articles on censorship, adolescent literature, short films, and on the professional concerns of English teachers.
Notes
17. ibid..
18. Dora V. Smith, Fifty Years of Children's Books 1910-1960: Trends, Backgrounds, Influences (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1963), p. 6.
19. Arthur Prager, "Edward Stratemeyer and His Book Machine," Saturday Review, July 10, 1971, p. 53.
20. Carlton Washburne and Mabel Vogel, Winetka Graded Book List (Chicago: American Library Association, 1926), p. 44.
21. Carlton Washburne and Mabel Vogel, "Supplement to the Winetka Graded Book List," Elementary English Review, February 1927, pp. 47-52 and March 1927, pp. 66-73.
22. "The Great Hardy Boys' Whodunit," Rolling Stone, September 9, 1976, pp. 36-40.
23. Jane Ginsburg, "And Then There Is Good Old Nancy Drew," Ms., January 1974, p. 93.
24. Bobbie Ann Mason, The Girl Sleuth: A Feminist Guide (Old Westbury; New York: The Feminist Press, 1975), p. 6.
25. Hope White, "For It Was Indeed He," Illinois Libraries, October 1934, pp. 113-116.
26. Janie Smith, "History of the Bobbsey Twins," South Carolina Library Bulletin, May 1956, pp. 3-4.
27. Margaret Beckman, "Why Not the Bobbsey Twins?" Library Journal, November 15, 1964, pp. 4612-4613, 4627.
28. If much remains unknown about the Stratemeyer Syndicate, much more has been written than the casual reader might expect. Anyone interested in [End Page 43] further mining the Stratemeyer lode should consult the following among other sources: Robert Cantwell, "A Sneering Laugh with the Bases Loaded," Sports Illustrated, April 23, 1962, pp. 67-70, 73-76; Sol Cohen, "Minority Stereotypes in Children's Literature: The Bobbsey Twins, 1904-1968," Educational Forum, November 1969, pp. 119-125; Paul C. Deane, "The Persistence of Uncle Tom: An Examination of the Images of the Negro in Children's Fiction Series," Journal of Negro Education, Spring 1968, pp. 140-145; John T. Dizer, Jr., "Fortune and the Syndicate," Boys' Book Collector, Fall 1970, pp. 146-153 and Winter 1971, pp. 178-186; John T. Dizer, Jr., "Serials and Boys' Books by Edward Stratemeyer," Dime Novel Round-Up, December 1975, pp. 126-148; John T. Dizer, Jr., "Stratemeyer and the Blacks," Dime Novel Round-Up, October 1975, pp. 90-117; John T. Dizer, Jr., "Stratemeyer and Science Fiction," Dime Novel Round-Up, July 15,1975, pp. 66-81 and August 1976, pp. 74-90; Roger Garis, My Father Was Uncle Wiggily, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966; Harry K. Hudson, A Bibliography of Hard-Cover Boys' Books, Clearwater, Florida: Jiffy Blueprint Company, 1965-1966; James P. Jones, "Nancy Drew, WASP Super Girl of the 1930's," Journal of Popular Culture, Spring 1973, pp. 707-717; James P. Jones, "Negro Stereotypes in Children's Literature: The Case of Nancy Drew," Journal of Negro Education, Spring 1971, pp. 121-125; J. Frederick MacDonald, "'The Foreigner' in Juvenile Series Fiction, 1900-1945," Journal of Popular Culture, Winter . 534-548; Russel Nye, The Unembarrassed Muse: The Popular Arts in America, New York: Dial, 1970, especially Chapter 3; Arthur Prager, Rascals at Large, or, The Clue in the Old Nostalgia, Garden City: Doubleday, 1971; Peter Soderbergh, "The Stratemeyer Strain: Educators and the Juvenile Series Book, 1900-1974," Journal of Popular Culture, Spring 1974, pp. 864-872; Edna Yost, "The Fifty Cent Juveniles," Publishers Weekly, June 18, 1932, pp. 2405-2408; Edna Yost, "Who Writes the Fifty-Cent Juveniles?" Publishers Weekly, May 20, 1933, pp. 1595-1598. [End Page 44]
Copyright © 1978 Children's Literature An International Journal, Inc.
| i don't know |
Which Englishman was the very first footballer to score a goal for Manchester United in a European Cup Final, the year in question being 1968 ? | Goal.com's Top 50 English Players: Bobby Charlton (1) - Goal.com
Goal.com's Top 50 English Players: Bobby Charlton (1)
Featured
0
Jul 1, 2009 16:00:28
We've reached the pinnacle of Goal.com's top 50 countdown of the greatest English players, and the man at number one eptomises both his club and his country: Sir Bobby Charlton...
Born: 11 October 1937, Ashington, Northumberland
England: 106 caps, 49 goals
Clubs: Manchester United, Preston North End, Waterford United
No-one symbolises English football - or a nation's sporting aspirations and achievements - more than Bobby Charlton. During the 1960s he was the most famous - and popular - Englishman in the world, a byword for sportsmanship and fair play, whose fame and universal esteem were based upon the twin virtues of phenomenal footballing ability and a quintessentially Corinthian spirit.
He was, and remains, English football's ultimate ambassador, with an unsurpassed record of achievement in the game.
That record is impressive enough: Charlton won three Football League championships, the FA Cup, European Cup and World Cup; was Footballer of the Year in both England and Europe; and scored more goals for Manchester United and England than any other player. But it is also the context of his career that made it so unique, poignant and globally admired.
For Charlton was shaped and forever affected by the Munich disaster that decimated an outstandingly vibrant team in which he was a rising star of huge promise. Surviving that horror, he was thereafter burdened with the awful question, 'why me?' - while at the same time becoming the focus of his mentor Matt Busby's determination to rebuild a team that would honour the memory of those who had perished. That he met the challenge with such style and success is why Bobby Charlton is number one among Goal.com’s greatest English players of all time.
Busby said of Charlton, "There has never been a more popular footballer. He was as near perfection as man and player as it is possible to be." Sir Alf Ramsey, England's manager when they became world champions, put it more prosaically, "He was one of the greatest players I have seen, very much the linchpin of the 1966 team. Early in my management I knew I had to find a role suitable to Bobby's unique talents. He wasn't just a great goalscorer, with a blistering shot using either foot. Bobby was a player who could also do his share of hard work."
Charlton was born to play football. It was, quite literally, in his blood. His mother Cissie was one of the Milburns, a footballing clan from the Northumberland mining community. Charlton's grandfather and four of his uncles were professional players, one of them 'Wor' Jackie Milburn, the legendary Newcastle United centre-forward who is deified on Tyneside. Cissie herself was passionate about the game and coached it to children. So it was inevitable that her own sons Bobby and Jack - who forged an illustrious playing career with Leeds United and England - would be footballers.
Bobby grew up supporting Newcastle but was mesmerised by the wizardry of Stanley Matthews, from whom he noted the importance of balance, the timing of runs, and speed over the first 10 yards. He represented England Schools and his potential soon attracted a host of scouts from leading clubs to the Charlton's Ashington home.
He opted to join Manchester United, becoming a 'Busby Babe' as the former Scotland wing-half implemented his vision of a successful club built upon a productive youth system and European competition.
United had won the League in 1955-56, and the following season defied the FA by entering the fledgling European Cup, progressing to the semi-final where they lost to Real Madrid. Charlton was drafted into the team in autumn 1956, appropriately enough against Charlton Athletic, scoring twice on his debut. He won a League championship medal as United retained the title, and also played in his first FA Cup final, though Aston Villa controversially denied United the double.
In 1957-58, their second crack at the European Cup was progressing thrillingly, Charlton scoring twice in a 3-3 draw against Red Star in Belgrade that put them through to another semi-final. Then disaster struck on February 6, 1958, when the plane in which they were flying home crashed in the slush on the runway at Munich, where it had stopped to refuel. As the aircraft broke in two, Charlton was flung from the wreckage, still strapped in his seat. Harry Gregg and Bill Foulkes, heroically pulling survivors to safety, at first thought Charlton was dead. In fact Bobby was suffering from head cuts and shock, and was the first to be discharged from hospital. Seven team-mates died on the runway, and an eighth - Charlton's great friend and hero, Duncan Edwards - died in hospital.
When the seriously injured Busby eventually returned to Manchester, 20-year-old Bobby Charlton became the key figure in his rebuilding plans.
Charlton earned his first senior England cap two months after the disaster, scoring a sensational goal against Scotland. In May he was in the FA Cup final again, as a makeshift United side lost to Bolton. Then he was off to Sweden with the England squad for the 1958 World Cup.
At this stage of his career he was playing on the left-wing, though later he would move to inside-forward and ultimately into the deep-lying centre forward role - essentially an attacking central midfielder - for which he is best remembered.
Busby had said it would take five years to rebuild a winning team, and in 1963 Charlton collected an FA Cup winner's medal as United beat Leicester. The following season, with the dazzling trinity of Charlton, Denis Law and George Best now firmly in place, they finished runners-up to Liverpool in the League; and in 1964-65 were crowned champions again. They repeated the achievement in 1966-67; but in between was the little matter of the World Cup, hosted on English soil.
Charlton hadn’t played in 1958, but was a regular by 1962 in Chile, when England lost to eventual winners Brazil in the quarter-finals. In 1966 he and his team were destined to go all the way. They began inauspiciously against Uruguay, but in the second group game, against Mexico, Charlton lit the fuse of English expectations, firing home a stunner after collecting the ball from deep and running 30 yards with it before letting fly with a thunderbolt.
It was vintage Charlton, a scorer of great goals. Further wins against France and Argentina took England to the semi-final, where Bobby produced possibly his best performance in an England shirt, unsettling Portugal's defence with his runs, spraying passes with precision and hitting both goals in a 2-1 win. In the final against West Germany, Franz Beckenbauer was deployed to try and shackle Charlton's effectiveness; the Englishman edged the contest, and his team - which included brother Jack - lifted the World Cup. Bobby, already England's Footballer of the Year and European Footballer of the Year in 1966, was also voted Best Player of the World Cup.
But if it was a case of job done on the international stage, there was still unfinished business in the European Cup. United's League title in 1965 was their passport back into the competition. They stormed into the last four, thrashing Benfica 5-1 away in the process, with Best and Charlton lighting up Lisbon; but the semi-final took them to Belgrade for the first time since Munich, and they were beaten 2-1 on aggregate by Partizan. The dream was put on hold.
Recapturing the League in 1967 meant the wait would not be long. The quest for the holy grail began with aggregate victory over Hibernian Valletta. Then FC Sarajevo and Gornik Zabrze were overcome, setting up a semi-final with Real Madrid, as Busby told journalists, "I feel this is our year."
United took a precarious 1-0 lead to Madrid for the decisive second leg, and without the injured Law trailed 3-1 at the break. Yet goals from David Sadler and Foulkes rescued the dream in the second-half, prompting Charlton to hail the match as the greatest he ever played in.
May 29 1968 at Wembley was thus United's day of destiny, with Eusebio's Benfica the dangerous and experienced opposition. The Eagles of Lisbon had appeared in four previous European Cup finals, winning two of them. In contrast, this was the first time United - or any English team - had reached the final.
CAREER HIGHLIGHT
Finally conquering Europe
A week before the match, Charlton had broken Jimmy Greaves's record of 44 goals for England when he scored against Sweden; but he hadn't yet scored in United's European Cup campaign. Captaining his team, he rectified that just after half-time with a rare but perfectly executed header from a Sadler cross to put United ahead. But Graca equalised in the 81st minute, forcing extra-time. Mercurial Irishman Best scored a marvellous individual goal, Brian Kidd headed a third, and Charlton hit the fourth to complete Busby's mission ten years after his Babes had been destroyed.
Busby received a knighthood, Charlton was honoured with the OBE, and United reached the semi-finals of the European Cup the next season; but with Busby retiring, the team was heading into decline.
Internationally, Charlton still had the challenge of defending the World Cup to look forward to in 1970. But that Mexican quest foundered against West Germany in the heat of Leon, despite England having led 2-0. Charlton was substituted by Sir Alf, who wanted to save him for a semi-final which the Germans snatched from England with a 3-2 win after extra-time.
Charlton decided to retire from playing at the end of the 1972-73 season. The following year United were relegated. He had scored a record 247 goals for the club in 758 games – an appearance record that Ryan Giggs broke in the 2008 Champions League final. For England, Bobby had made a record 106 appearances (subsequently overtaken by Bobby Moore, Peter Shilton and David Beckham) and scored 49 goals, which remains unequalled.
He took the reins at Preston North End, and played for them in 1974, but realised he was not cut out for management, though he did briefly caretaker-manage Wigan Athletic while on the board there. In 1974 he was awarded the CBE, and in 1975-76 scored 18 goals in 31 appearances for Waterford United in Ireland.
Charlton ran several businesses and established successful soccer schools in the UK and around the world. In 1984, he was invited onto the board at Manchester United, and is still a director. He was instrumental in the appointment of Alex Ferguson as manager in 1986, recognising in the Scot the same skills, drive and vision with which Busby had led United.
Knighted in 1994, in April 2009 he was further honoured when UEFA president Michel Platini presented him with a special award recognising his outstanding contribution to European football. Platini said it was a privilege to present the UEFA President’s Award to an outstanding ambassador and role model who “represents everything that is good about the game of football; fair play, respect, and true loyalty, and is a good example for future generations, both on and off the pitch”.
As for the football, current England coach Fabio Capello recently said Charlton was the one past player he would love to have in his current England squad. "He was a midfielder, a bit like Alfredo di Stefano. He had the same style. He ran a lot. He could defend and attack. Overall, he was a really fantastic player."
The late George Best - a team-mate with whom Sir Bobby had an occasionally fractious relationship - summed up Charlton's ability succinctly, "I've never seen anyone go past players as easily as he did."
HONOURS
Football League First Division champion - 1956–57, 1964–65, 1966–67
FA Cup winner - 1963
European Cup winner - 1967–68
Charity Shield winner - 1956, 1957, 1965, 1967
European Player of the Year - 1966 (runner-up - 1967, 1968)
FWA Footballer of the Year - 1966
PFA Merit Award (1974)
BBC Sports Personality of the Year Lifetime Achievement Award - 2008
UEFA President’s Award - 2009
DID YOU KNOW...That Bobby Charlton helped promote Manchester's bids for the 1996 and 2000 Olympic Games and the 2002 Commonwealth Games, England's bid for the 2006 FIFA World Cup and London's successful bid for the 2012 Olympic Games... that he is honorary president of the National Football Museum... and that he is involved in a number of charitable activities including fund raising for cancer hospitals, and the land mine clearance charity Mines Advisory Group?
Graham Lister, Goal.com
| Bobby Charlton |
Which stage musical, with music and lyrics by Stephen Schwarz, was first seen in 2003 and features the songs 'Defying Gravity', 'I'm not that Girl' and 'As long as you're mine' ? | BOBBY CHARLTON - International Football Hall of Fame
Bobby Charlton
Born: 11 October, 1937. Ashington, England
International Caps
Manchester United, Preston North End
Team Honours
League Division 1 (1957, 65, 67)
Individual Honours
Football Writers' Player of the Year (1967)
PFA Merit Award (1974)
Had he not been so modest, there was a time when Bobby Charlton could have claimed, with some justification, that he was the most famous living Englishman.
He never did, of course, but others, such as TV soccer pundit Jimmy Hill, said it for him. It was the late 1960s. England had won the World Cup and Manchester United the European Cup. All over the world there were children who could speak only two words of English. One was "Bobby", the other was "Charlton", such was the esteem in which he was held.
It was more than just his tremendous achievements that sparked instant recognition, though he won everything the game has to offer. Championships, Cup winner's medals, a record number of international caps and goals.
Nor was it solely his exquisite skills - grace, speed, athleticism and a thunderbolt shot that made him dangerous even 30 yards from goal.
No, Charlton stood for something that the world admired. He was a gentleman, the ultimate in old-fashioned sporting heroes. He was never in trouble, never argued with referees, showed honesty and respect to opponents. It made him a perfect role model, the essence of the Corinthian ideal. His status as the greatest ambassador in the history of British sport rested unequivocally on his unrivaled sense of fair play.
Charlton was born in October, 1937, into a football family in the Northumberland mining village of Ashington. His mother Cissie was a Milburn, his grandfather and four of his uncles were professional footballers and one of those uncles was the legendary "Wor" Jackie Milburn, Newcastle United and England centre forward.
Cissie was a football fanatic who taught Bobby and his elder brother Jack how to play. She once said: "I never had a doll. I just wanted to play football with the lads. It's in my blood." Even in her seventies, she was still coaching children at the local primary school.
Bobby was chosen to play for England Schools against Wales in the days when 93,000 people would pack the stadium to watch boys play. Word soon went round that here was a special talent and scouts from 18 leading clubs made their way to the Charltons' colliery-owned terrace home.
Cissie said: "I'd be cleaning the fireplace in the morning and I'd look round and there'd be another one standing behind me. There were times when we had one in the front room and one in the kitchen.
"They were offering us the world. One fellow offered �800 (a huge sum then). Another said he'd double whatever was the highest offer we'd had. He didn't even ask what it was." Charlton's idols were Newcastle United, but he would go to St James's Park in anticipation of seeing the great players from other famous clubs. His favourite was Stanley Matthews, from whom he learned the importance of speed off the mark.
It was the late 1940s and Matthews was at his peak. Charlton recalled: "You could stand on the cinders in front of the terracing. The men used to pass you down over their heads. "Stan was magic. We all like dribblers and he was the wizard. I would study him and think: 'What makes him better than anybody else?' My uncles said: 'Just watch his first 10 yards.'
"After that I practised sprinting with my grandad, who trained professional sprinters. But the motivation came from Stan." It was to pay off. Later, at the peak of his game, there was no one quicker over those first 10 yards. Charlton goes further: "It was from Stan that I learned how to find space, how to beat an opponent, how to put defenders off balance and how to time my runs."
Bobby was still a schoolboy when he decided to join Manchester United. They were to be his only club. Former United captain Billy Foulkes, with whom Charlton played for 15 years, remembered seeing him at Old Trafford in 1953.
"He had this mop of blond hair which stood up in the wind," said Foulkes. "I bet he wishes he had it now." Charlton's hair, or lack of it as the years went by, became almost as legendary as its owner. The less of it he had, the longer it seemed to get until he had one long strand famously described as "hanging like a rope over his collar."
Charlton and Foulkes were bonded together as members of the "Busby Babes." The Old Trafford at which they arrived was not the impregnable citadel it became. The club was undergoing a transformation fashioned by Matt Busby, that most illustrious of soccer managers.
When Busby came to United in 1945, the ground was a wreck, victim of wartime German bombing. The club had, for a long time, been the weaker of the city's teams. They hadn't won the League since 1910-11, nor the FA Cup since 1909. Busby set about changing all that.
United won the FA Cup in 1948, but Busby saw that two things were necessary to turn them into a side which could win honours regularly. The first was to pioneer a youth system, the second to learn from the advances being made in Continental football. The policies soon began to work. United won the First Division title in 1951-52 and again in 1955-56.
The European Cup had begun in 1955, but the English authorities had adopted a sniffy attitude towards it. Chelsea, the previous year's English Champions, had been told not to compete and they complied. But Busby was having none of it. Manchester United would play.
And so the great adventure began in the season that Charlton began to establish himself as an Old Trafford regular. He had made his debut against Charlton (who else?) and scored two goals.
United reached the semi-final of the European Cup at their first attempt in 1956-57, losing to the eventual winners Real Madrid. They were beaten in that year's FA Cup Final 2-1 by Aston Villa, a controversial match in which United's goalkeeper Ray Wood left the field with a fractured cheekbone after being charged by Peter McParland.
However, they had retained their League title and all was set for another crack at the European Cup. They were not to know that disaster was lurking in the shadows.
It was 3.04 on a snowbound Friday afternoon. The date was February 6, 1958. The day a team died.
United had drawn 3-3 against Red Star in Belgrade and were through to the semi-finals of the European Cup. The plane in which they were flying home, a British European Airways Elizabethan, had stopped at Munich to refuel.
There was slush on the runway as it took off. The Elizabethan never made it off the ground. Just 54 seconds after the pilot opened the throttle, the plane hit the airport's perimeter fence, slithered 200 yards across a frozen field and burst into flames.
A wing had been torn off and the tail section had broken away, scattering bodies into the snow. Twenty-one people died, among them seven of Busby's Babes - Roger Byrne, Tommy Taylor, Mark Jones, David Pegg, Geoff Bent, Eddie Colman and Billy Whelan. Busby survived, clinging to life in an oxygen tent. So did another young man, one who symbolised the brilliance of the Babes. His name was Duncan Edwards, arguably the greatest footballer Manchester United ever produced.
After 15 days, Edwards died from his injuries. He was 21. A truly world-class talent had been lost.
Charlton, just 20, had been thrown 40 yards clear of the wreckage and escaped with a cut head. Busby came home and with his assistant Jimmy Murphy, who had not been on the flight, set about rebuilding his shattered team. Charlton was to be the player central to his plans.
Three months after the Munich tragedy, United had bravely reached the FA Cup Final with a patched up side. The nation's hearts were with them, but they went down to Bolton 2-1. Again, it was a match marred by controversy, Bolton's Nat Lofthouse scoring his second goal by bundling United goalkeeper Harry Gregg over the line.
The previous month Charlton had gained the first of his record 106 England caps, scoring in the defeat of Scotland at Hampden. He shot on the run from a pass by Tom Finney before a 134,000 partisan crowd. "I can still hear the sound of the ball lashing against the net," recalled Charlton. "After that, all you could hear was the silence."
Charlton's incredible modesty shines through the memory. "I'd probably been picked for England too soon," he said. "I think they felt sorry for me because of Munich." He was selected for England's World Cup campaign that summer in Sweden, but remained on the bench as his team-mates drew all three group matches and then failed to qualify for the quarter-finals by losing to Russia 1-0 in a play-off. Charlton's day would come . . .
At this time, Charlton played on the left-wing. It was much later that he was to move, first to inside forward and then into the deep-lying centre forward role, the equivalent of today's central attacking midfielder. But he was anxious to move inside, to make a greater contribution to the game. In a 1961 football annual he wrote of "wanting to create something, something that might be remembered." It was only five years away.
Even so, he had scored in England's historic 9-3 thrashing of Scotland that season against the likes of Denis Law and Dave McKay.
And in 1962 he went to his second World Cup, this time in Chile and as a first-choice player. England qualified for the quarter-finals, thanks to a 3-1 defeat of Argentina in which Charlton scored. But the Brazil of Garrincha, Didi and Amarildo were too good for England and they were knocked out 3-1.
Back at Old Trafford, United's rebuilding was taking shape. The team included Albert Quixall, British record signing at �45,000 from Sheffield Wednesday, Maurice Setters from West Brom and Johnny Giles had been discovered in Ireland. By 1960-61 Nobby Stiles had made his debut and Charlton was United's leading scorer that season with 20 goals.
These players were followed by David Herd from Arsenal, Noel Cantwell from West Ham, Denis Law, a record �115,000 signing from Torino, and Pat Crerand from Celtic. Busby was assembling another team of all the talents.
It was 1962-63 and Busby had said after Munich that it would take five years to recover. How right he was. United reached the FA Cup Final against Leicester. The match took place on Saturday, May 25 at Wembley. A ground ticket cost 17/6 (88p) and the souvenir programme was a shilling (5p).
United's team was the most expensive up to then to appear in a Cup Final, yet Leicester were the favourites. The reason was United's wayward League form in these years. They had finished 19th out of 24 in the First Division, but in the Cup they had scored 12 goals, conceding only one.
It was one of the most one-sided Finals ever seen. United won 3-1, Charlton setting up the second goal when he let rip with a flier that Leicester keeper Gordon Banks couldn't hold and Herd knocked in the rebound.
For those like Charlton who had been through Munich, it was an overwhelming occasion. United were back in business, but there was better to come.
The season of 1963-64 was memorable for two reasons. First, against West Brom, the triumvirate of Law-Charlton-Best played together for the first time. Significantly, they all scored in a 4-1 victory.
The second was that United were back in Europe for the first time since Munich, this time in the European Cup Winners' Cup. Charlton, now coming inside more often, had scored a spectacular acrobatic goal in the 7-2 aggregate demolition of Dutch part-timers Willem II Tilburg. But the next round pitted them against Tottenham Hotspur, holders of the Cup Winners' Cup.
They lost the first leg 2-0 at White Hart Lane and faced a seemingly uphill task. United were 2-1 ahead in the second leg at Old Trafford, but trailing on aggregate, when Charlton scored twice to put them through to a quarter-final against Sporting Lisbon.
The first leg was at home and Charlton scored again in an impressive 4-1 victory.. The away match was a nightmare, United suffering their worst defeat in Europe 5-0. Some of United's League form was bizarre that year. For example, they lost 6-1 at Burnley and yet took the return fixture 5-1. These were the days of attacking football, however, and big scores were not unusual. Despite the inconsistency, they finished runners-up to Liverpool in the Championship.
The turning point came in 1964-65. United won the League and reached the semi-finals of the FA Cup and the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup, the forerunner of today's UEFA Cup. Charlton was in tremendous form that season as United inflicted heavy defeats on some good teams. They beat Liverpool 3-0, Aston Villa 7-0 and Blackburn 5-0 at Ewood Park. Charlton got a hat-trick against Rovers and, as Nobby Stiles said, "played them on his own."
But the most impressive performance was a 6-1 hammering of Borussia Dortmund in Germany in the second round of the Fairs Cup. Charlton got three, one of them a rocket which crashed in off the crossbar, and added two more - one from 20 yards - in the 4-0 victory at Old Trafford. It is worth remembering that Dortmund won the West German cup that season and the European Cup Winners' Cup the following year.
Nonethless, United were back in the European Cup chasing Busby's elusive dream. It was an impressive run. A 9-2 aggregate humbling of HJK Helsinki was followed by a 7-1 aggregate defeat of ASK Vorwaerts of Berlin. The quarter-finals beckoned, a clash against mighty Benfica, Eusebio and all.
United shaded the first leg at Old Trafford 3-2 and travelled to Lisbon knowing that Benfica had never lost in 19 European Cup ties at home. There's a first time for everything and that night United turned on the magic with a stunning 5-1 victory. Charlton got one of the goals, "sweeping through the Benfica defence before lashing the ball home," as author Graham McColl put it in his book, Manchester United In The Sixties.
United felt on top of the world, but it was not to be. At least not yet. The semi-final took them back to Belgrade for the first time since Munich and they went down 2-1 on aggregate to Partizan.
They had played some breathtaking football that season, but inexplicably they missed out on honours, their FA Cup run also ending in the semi-finals and finishing fourth in the League. At the end of a long, hard season Charlton joined his brother Jack for the World Cup Finals in England. They began dismally with a 0-0 draw against Uruguay, but then Bobby lit up England's hopes with a stunning goal in the 2-0 defeat of Mexico.
He ran 30 yards with the ball before letting go and it thundered into the net. That was the goal that convinced a cynical nation that England COULD win the World Cup. Before then, there was a feeling that they just weren't good enough, an impression confirmed by the sterile performance against the Uruguayans. Charlton changed the national mood in seconds, yet to hear his version made it seem nothing more than good fortune.
"I picked up the ball quite deep and I had no intention of shooting at goal, "he said. "I didn't really expect them to allow me to keep going.
"I just banged it and it came off so sweetly and when it went on its way I thought, well that's a goal." Despite his record tally of 49 for England (now shared with Gary Lineker), there are those who say that Charlton was not a great scorer of goals. But he was most certainly a scorer of great goals, and few were greater than that.
A 2-0 victory over France put England on course for a quarter-final showdown with Argentina. It was a nasty game, the Argentine defender Antonio Rattin was sent off and England manager Alf Ramsey sent a chill through FIFA by calling the Argentinians "animals." But a 1-0 victory meant a semi-final against Portugal.
It was against the Portuguese, according to Brian Glanville in his book The Story of the World Cup, that "Charlton had much his best game of the World Cup, perhaps the best he ever played for England." His passing was crisp, his running made gaps in Portugal's defence and he scored both goals in a 2-1 win. Charlton had put England into the World Cup Final.
Geoff Hurst, the hat-trick hero of the Final, grabbed the headlines as England beat West Germany 4-2 in extra time. But perhaps the crucial factor in the game that day was the German manager Helmut Schoen's decision to tie-up the great Franz Beckenbauer in a policing role on Charlton. It was a battle of wits. Charlton was the player the Germans feared most and as Beckenbauer himself said years later: "England beat us in 1966 because Bobby Charlton was just a bit better than me."
Ramsey had no doubts how crucial Charlton had been. "He was one of the greatest players I have seen," said Sir Alf. "Very much the linchpin of the 1966 team. Early in my management I knew I had to find a role suitable to Bobby's unique talents. "He wasn't just a great goalscorer, with a blistering shot using either foot. Bobby was a player who could also do his share of hard work."
The reward for Charlton was not only a World Cup winner's medal. He was also Footballer of the Year, European Footballer of the Year and voted Best Player in the 1966 World Cup. After 18 months of non-stop football, it came as no surprise that Charlton suffered a loss of form in the 1966-67 season. He went three months without scoring before getting two in a 4-0 defeat of Blackpool at the end of February. United, however, retained their title in style, wrapping up the Championship with a 6-1 win at West Ham.
In the close season, Charlton was one of a United squad that undertook a remarkable overseas tour. It began in May in Los Angeles, went on to New Zealand, and finished at the end of June in Western Australia. It was an extraordinary preparation for a season that would begin in six weeks time, one that would see another assault on the European Cup.
Significantly, one of those tour matches was against Benfica. United lost 3-1.
United beat Hibernian Valletta of Malta and FC Sarajevo of Yugoslavia in the first two rounds of the European Cup before meeting Gornik Zabrze of Poland in the quarter-finals. They took a 2-0 lead from the first leg to Poland where they had to play on a snow covered pitch. It continued to snow during the match and United went down 1-0. But they were through to the semis where they would face Real Madrid. Busby told journalists: " I feel this is our year."
United held only a fragile 1-0 lead as they went to the Bernabeau for the second leg against Real. Law was out with an injury and by half-time United were 3-1 down. The dream was dying again.
Somehow United stuck to the task and, through David Sadler and Foulkes, came away with a 3-3 draw. Charlton has no hesitation in naming it the greatest match he played in - his favourite above World and European Cup Final glory. "Real were murdering us," said Charlton, "but we came out after the break, battled away and they collapsed."
The night of May 29 at Wembley was to be the fulfillment of Charlton's long and heartbreaking journey. The Red Devils of Manchester against the Red Devils of Lisbon . . . the old foes, Eusebio's Benfica.
Benfica were vastly experienced. They had played 52 European Cup ties, winning 29. United had played 32 and won 20. Benfica, who had already won the trophy twice, were appearing in their fifth European Cup Final in eight years. It was United's first. And in Eusebio, Benfica had the second highest goalscorer of all time in the competition with 36, topped only by the peerless Di Stefano of Real Madrid with 49.
Charlton had played in all four of United's European Cup campaigns, but this was the first in which he had not scored. A week before the final, in an international against Sweden, he had broken Jimmy Greaves's record of 44 goals for England. Now, on this historic night as captain of Manchester United, he was determined to put matters right. Just after half-time, Sadler crossed and Charlton rose to meet the ball. He scored, unusually for him with a header. United had the lead.
Now there were only nine minutes to the final whistle when United's defence left Graca unmarked and he stunned the crowd with an equaliser. United were tiring, Benfica coming on strong. With time running out, Eusebio twice had good chances to grab the glory. Each time he was foiled by Alex Stepney in goal. Benfica were overunning United and looked certain to get the winner. Then the whistle went. United had the chance to regroup before extra time.
It was then that United took the game by the scruff of the neck. Best weaved his magic, beating two men before sidefooting the ball into the net. Brian Kidd, United's present-day assistant manager, headed the third.
But how appropriate it was that Charlton, the Busby Babe, the spirit of Munich, should score the last for a crushing 4-1 triumph. Busby, having achieved his life'sambition, became Sir Matt. Charlton, then aged 31, was rewarded with an eight-year contract, the longest in Football League history, and received the OBE.
United reached the semi-finals of the European Cup the following season, falling to eventual trophy winners Milan. It was the end of an era. Sir Matt retired at 60, his work done, and United fell into the doldrums.
Wilf McGuinness, who had joined the club on the same day as Charlton, was promoted from youth team manager to take over with Sir Matt upstairs as general manager. A succession of managers came and went. It was to be 26 years before United would be back in the European Cup, now called the Champions League, and by then Charlton would be sitting in the directors' box.
There was to be one last hurrah on the international stage for Charlton. The World Cup of 1970 in Mexico with England defending as Champions.
Before they could reach Mexico, Charlton was caught up in the Nightmare of the Bogota Bracelet. England captain Bobby Moore was accused of stealing it in Colombia. The charge was ludicrous and Moore was eventually cleared after being held in jail for four days.
But just as absurdly, the police alleged that Charlton had been Moore's accomplice. As Moore was to say: "The fact that they accused Bobby Charlton of sheltering me while I 'stole' a bracelet proves I'm innocent. Bobby has never done a dishonest thing in his life."
The match of the tournament was the 1-0 defeat by Brazil. But it was the showdown with West Germany in the quarter-finals that was England's undoing. Leading 2-0 mid-way through the second-half, they lost their grip on the game and went down 3-2. The World Champions were out.
And where was Charlton? Sitting on the substitutes' bench! Manager Ramsey had pulled him off when the match was seemingly won.
Sir Alf explained: "I decided to substitute Bobby as I wanted to save him for the semi-finals. He understood, although he was far from happy." Neither were England's fans. By the time he retired as a player in 1973, Charlton had scored 245 goals in 751 games for United. The manner of his going was typical.
Tommy Docherty, then United's manager, said: "I was thinking that I'd have to make the decision and didn't want to do it. There would have been a public outcry. But he came to see me and said he was thinking about retiring. I breathed a huge sigh of relief. I'm glad he made the decision and not me."
He tried management with Preston - for whom he turned out as a player in 1974, the year he was awarded the CBE - and later with Wigan Athletic. But he returned to United as a member of the board and was knighted in 1994.
Just how great was he? Football writer Mike Langley claims England have never replaced him. George Best said: "I've never seen anyone go past players as easily as he did." Charlton himself, self-effacing as ever, said only: "I was lucky." But the last word should go to Sir Matt, mentor and friend, of whom Charlton said: "He never got over Munich. He felt responsible. Those were his kids that died that day."
It was Charlton, through his achievements, who did so much to ease "the old man's" pain and Busby recognised it. "There has never been a more popular footballer," said Sir Matt. "He was as near perfection as man and player as it is possible to be."
There can be no higher praise from no greater judge.
| i don't know |
'The Little Nipper' is Britain's best selling brand of what ? They are seen in many houses throughout the country. | Don't Get Me Started with Linda Sharp:
I'll Drink To That!
Say what you will about the state of our healthcare system - use descriptors like "abysmal", "lags behind the rest of the industrialized nations", sucks the sweat off a dead man's teabags"....whatever...
Be as colorful as you like, I really won't argue with you (although I may appropriate some of the more vivid descriptions for future use - you people ARE an insanely creative bunch - especially you, Lori).
Healthcare, as a "system" is a pretty rag tag, moth eaten, lopsided affair in this country. Even if you have good insurance (which I do), I still come away from an unexpected sewing together of my daughter's chin with hundreds of dollars coming out of my own pocket.
Thankfully, I can cover our copays, deductibles, and "amounts not covered", but receiving a statement, even one reduced by insurance coverage, makes me truly sick for the millions who don't have a blue cross OR a blue shield standing between them and injury.
But, as much as I hold the "system" in disdain, I am constantly humbled by stories of the individuals in the medical profession - all around the world - who use their years of training, finely honed skills, and ingenuity to lessen pain, fix what may have seem unfixable, and in many cases, save lives.
Which brings me to today's topic - join me in a mental trip to Australia, won't you, mate?
An Italian tourist was recently rushed to the Mackay Base Hospital in north Queensland after ingesting a large amount of the poisonous substance typically found in antifreeze - ethylene glycol.
(No word on what precipitated his suicide attempt. But I think it's safe to assume he was not merely bereft at a lack of kangaroos or shrimp-on-the-barbie.)
Now, ethylene glycol, while making for a happy automobile engine, does little for a human being's transmission, typically resulting in renal failure, overheating, sluggishness, "a banging noise under the hood", and then death. To use an Australian slangism - the bloke was crook.
Enter some pretty creative doctors - Dr Pascal Gelperowicz and Dr Todd Fraser - ridgy didge, both (the genuine article).
Knowing that the accepted "antidote" to this type of poisoning is pharmaceutical-grade alcohol (100%), they immediately began pumping the man full via IV. Round after round was "poured" into his system, but soon they had depleted the pharmacy bar's stock.
What to do?
Hit the nearest liquor store and purchase a case of Absolut, of course.
For the next three days, the man was literally fed shots of vodka - three an hour - through a naso-gastric tube.
I get tipsy just thinking about that...
But while that much continuous alcohol would make for one lampshade-wearing-Linda (ok, ok - THAT much alcohol would render me as lifeless as a garage sale lamp), it proved to be just what the doctor ordered for the tourist - even though he was as "pissed as a family fart" (very drunk).
He made a complete, albeit hungover, recovery. (Personally, I would wake up feeling like I got the "rough end of the pineapple" (a bad deal).
(No word on his mental state right now, but he is alive, and that's a pretty dinki-di place to start. After all, let's face it, in Australian terms, whatever led him to drink the anti-freeze was as "funny as a fart in an elevator" (not funny at all).
G'day. mate.
Posted on Saturday, October 13, 2007 at 06:51 AM | Permalink | Comments (6)
|
[email protected]
And while you're in a giving mood - Sandy in NC has this link for us! http://karenneuburger.com
Simply enter your email address and they'll donate a dollar to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation (up to $15,000). You can even honor a survivor by giving a first name!
You guys have been "baking" up a storm all day, and those dollars are quickly building up at the Cupcake site. I know you can do the same for this one!
(Yes, I know it involves putting down the airplane...you can do it...back AWAY from the airplane... and don't EVEN get me started on that damned monkey...)
Posted on Thursday, October 11, 2007 at 08:03 PM | Permalink | Comments (10)
|
COULTER: Yeah. You have to obey.
DEUTSCH: You can't possibly believe that.
COULTER: Yes.
DEUTSCH: You can't possibly — you're too educated, you can't — you're like my friend in —
COULTER: Do you know what Christianity is? We believe your religion, but you have to obey.
DEUTSCH: No, no, no, but I mean —
COULTER: We have the fast-track program.
DEUTSCH: Why don't I put you with the head of Iran? I mean, come on. You can't believe that.
COULTER: The head of Iran is not a Christian.
DEUTSCH: No, but in fact, "Let's wipe Israel" —
COULTER: I don't know if you've been paying attention.
DEUTSCH: "Let's wipe Israel off the earth." I mean, what, no Jews?
COULTER: No, we think — we just want Jews to be perfected, as they say.
DEUTSCH: Wow, you didn't really say that, did you?
COULTER: Yes. That is what Christianity is. We believe the Old Testament, but ours is more like Federal Express. You have to obey laws. We know we're all sinners —
DEUTSCH: In my old days, I would have argued — when you say something absurd like that, there's no —
COULTER: What's absurd?
DEUTSCH: Jews are going to be perfected. I'm going to go off and try to perfect myself —
COULTER: Well, that's what the New Testament says.
And it just went on from there. (The complete transcript is available at CNBC.com)
I honestly am appalled (and that's a hard thing for Annie dear to do to me - I have heard some really poisonous crapola spew from her piehole before.). And this is exactly the reason I don't believe in religion. Make no mistake, I believe in God. I just do not believe in organizations built around Him.
Religions have been established, obliterated, reworked, refashioned, added to, subtracted from, rethought, and bastardized right down the line.
And more people have been killed in the name of "God" than anything else. The thought process that somehow your normally benevolent god (all gods are benevolent) sanctions killing, murdering, chopping up, blowing up, or "cleansing" groups of people?
Laughable.
I eschew religion because to believe in one thought process is to alienate one's self from millions and millions of other people. To say I'm right, you're wrong? I'm going to Heaven, you're condemned to Hell? Sorry, I don't buy that.
I believe in living decently. I believe in helping your fellow man - regardless of which mammoth religious cathedral, mosque, tabernacle, or humble hut you worship in. I simply don't care.
Are you a nice person? Do you have a good heart? Do you care about others? Do you treat others well?
Good. Let's hang. I'll buy the first round.
But if you believe that I'm condemned because I don't show up in a pew every Sunday? If you think that I need "saved" because I don't formally affiliate myself with your particular brand of religion? If you think I'm less than you because I don't believe the way you do?
Keep walking. I'm not interested in you either.
Yes, I understand that not every person in every religion is closed minded to other's belief system, but I also have been immersed in one in particular, and around enough others, to know that the words "holier than thou" are alive and well.
My choice to stay away from organized religion is just that, my choice. It works for me. And my relationship with God is solid. I may not follow the manmade, people scripted dictums and rituals of a particular thought process, but I am happy, content, and fulfilled. I don't need someone coming to my door to spread the news that they have it all figured out and I don't. In fact, I have been known to answer the door, congratulate them for their entusiasm, and then inform them that its pretty poor form to assume they know what goes on behind my door when I am a complete stranger. That beginning by telling me how wrong I am is not the basis for a lasting friendship.
I know millions of people find comfort, meaning, security in their faith. So do I. I just don't find it behind the doors of a single religion.
But back to Ms. Coulter...
I realize we should just write Ann off as "being Ann again", but this time I really feel she has crossed a line.
I'm not Jewish. But I am offended on behalf of every decent, loving, thoughtful, caring person who is.
And it seems to me the only person in this scenario who needs perfected is one blond big mouth named Coulter.
Posted on Thursday, October 11, 2007 at 05:53 PM | Permalink | Comments (50)
|
Have Your Cupcake And Cure Cancer Too
foI know, I know - not ANOTHER time waster link. (I fear many of you, like me, have discovered some latent OCD tendencies and are determined to get the damned airplane out the window / ball in the trashcan / pumpkin carved just right, or keel over trying.)
But this one is actually fun AND worthwhile.
Simply stop by Cupcakes For A Cause . For each cupcake you "decorate" and send to a friend, $1 will be donated to Cancer Care For Kids. (Up to $10,000)
The FUNdraiser continues through October 21st, so put down the paper airplane, stop playing with all those dots, and take a moment to "bake" a cupcake.
Let's see how many you can send to ME (I love cupcakes), and I'll keep you updated on how many dollars DGMS readers manage to get contributed!
Posted on Thursday, October 11, 2007 at 01:47 PM | Permalink | Comments (11)
|
I Feel The Need...The Need For A Speedy Defense
Good morning all.
Well, after yesterday's completely wasted day, cruising the cyberskies in my paper airplane, I finally managed to best the high score of 105 meters by Jeanne, by cruising a whopping 105.362 meters. (A fact I gleefully reported in the comments, along with an offer of spoons so everyone could better consume my dust.)
(For those of you late to the game, who have no idea what I'm talking about: http://flightsimx.archive.amnesia.com.au/ I trust you'll be a paper airplane crack ho in no time.)
Well, I woke this morning to an email (all in fun) challenging me to prove the distance.
I'm hurt.
(Not really.)
Would I lie to you people about something so important? Something to which I dedicated hours and hours of training, crashing, burning, heartache? I mean, do you people know how many things I sent flying off the edge of my desk when I would get overexuberant with my mouse?
Sigh.
Well, since someone felt the need to get all Iceman-y on my Maverickness, here you go. I took this picture this morning of my monitor. Please note the Your Best score of 105.362 meters.
But also note that as of this morning, I have done little more than pitch the damned plane into the ceiling fan over and over and over, and have still not made it out the window. (4.507 meters)
So boo-yah. And while I channel my own inner Iceman, please picture me coming in REAL close, chewing my gum, and snapping my teeth shut a la Val Kilmer's classic Top Gun moment in the locker room.
Maverick cleared for take-off...I think I'm going to go buzz the tower now...
Posted on Thursday, October 11, 2007 at 06:15 AM | Permalink | Comments (8)
|
New Moustrap Is A Gas
There is a long held belief / saying that "If you build a better mousetrap, the world will beat a path to your door."
The mousetrap which we are all familiar with - the spring loaded SNAP!-and-it's-over type - was actually invented in 1897 by James Henry Atkinson. Nicknamed the "Little Nipper", it slammed shut in 38,000s of a second.
And that record has never been broken.
In fact, the Little Nipper is still manufactured to this day and remains the prevailing leader in the mousetrapping market.
Sure, others have come along attempting to "build a better" trapping device. There are, on record, 4,400 patents for various types, but only a handful have ever gone on to make any amount of "cheese".
Some have chosen the humane route, traps which actually ensnare them alive for later transport to a better environment (aka: one not indoors with your shoes and cereal).
Some are fairly simple, yet fairly sad in terms of a slow death. I'm speaking of the Glue Trap - a sticky tray in which a mouse walks and then from which it cannot escape. Death is slow, often from blood loss or injury as the mouse attempts to chew its own limbs off to escape.
Not a nice visual, but then again, if I were stuck in a tar pit, I guess I'd try to chew my legs off too. Self preservation is not the sole domain of rodentia, you know.
Poison is a popular barn/attic/basement method. Pellets are soaked with a substance (strychnine, etc), the mice think they have stumbled upon a rat-like Luby's and enjoy what they surely must believe is a buffet of goodness.
Then they die.
I'm sure given the average age of Luby's clientele, this happens more than one would think after dining in one, but I don't think poisoned food is the culprit. Although their peach cobbler and mashed potatoes are to die for.
But back to the mousetraps...
Even though very few traps have produced profits for their makers, inventors have yet to be deterred. The desire to "Build it better" is still inspiring folks the world over.
Which brings me to Rentokil - a pest control business based in the UK. They have created a new mousetrap, which besides being very sleek and aesthetically pleasing (seriously, you'd expect to see it in a Hammacher Schlemmer catalog or catching demo mice in a Sharper Image store in the mall.), touts itself as the "smartest and most humane mousetrap ever".
(Seriously can't you just picture this in a SkyMall catalog while cruising at 30,000 feet? A couple mini bottle of Jack and you'd be grabbing that Airphone to order.)
Called RADAR - Rodent Activated Detention and Riddance Unit - it lures the furry creatures into the opening, infrared sensors detect the presence of a new inhabitant, the door slams shut, and then a carefully measure amount of carbon dioxide is released into the chamber.
According to the company, death is quick and painless. The little menace just drifts off to that giant cheese wheel in the sky. It is so humane, PETA has referred to this product as an "animal friendly achievement".
And I can get behind that. I don't currently have any uninvited rodents in my home, but I have battled them in houses past. It's not fun, it's not pleasant. Mice in glue traps cry. Mice in regular traps don't have the decency to die with their eyes shut. They stare at you from the grave.
So a device which could catch the problem, but keep its sleepy demise hidden from view would be welcome.
But that's not the best part. No, no, no!
This is a tech savvy world in which we live! We can check email from our cell phones, take naked pictures and send them zipping through cyberspace, and even beat someone up in the school locker room and become famous on YouTube!
So the Rentokil gurus decided that in order to make their mousetrap effective AND interactive, the trap actually sends you a text message when the carcass is ready to be unloaded into the trash.
Given how advanced, how "today" the technology is, I have to wonder if the message is "with it" too?
Hey Tom! Jerry in da howse and he be toes up!
Then again, it is only available in the UK currently so it's probably more along the lines of...
Bloody hell. Sorry to interrupt your tea and crumpets Guv'ner, but we buggered another furry wanker. Cheerio!
Posted on Wednesday, October 10, 2007 at 08:41 PM | Permalink | Comments (9)
|
While I'm Wasting Your Time...
OK, as if I have not sucked the life out of your entire day by creating a bunch of paper airplane crack ho's at http://flightsimx.archive.amnesia.com.au/
Katy has now directed me to a site where you face another paper challenge, only this one is all crumpled up. Can you toss the paperball into the trashcan? Can you? Can you? Look out for the fan, it changes the windspeed and direction of your toss.
(I swear, I hope Internet Addict is an option on those forms when you all have to apply for unemployment...)
Posted on Wednesday, October 10, 2007 at 02:00 PM | Permalink | Comments (22)
|
Pointing Fingers Won't Turn Back The Hands Of Time
I have watched the story of Carol Ann Gotbaum unfold since her tragic tale first came to light two weeks ago.
Carol is the woman who was taken into custody in the Phoenix Sky Harbor Airport after becoming irate and irrational when she was denied boarding after showing up late for her flight to Tucson.
Once in custody, she was placed in a holding cell, handcuffed and shackled by a chain to a bench - all in accordance with police policy and procedures. Sadly, in her highly emotional state, she attempted to undo the restraints, resulting in a choking death by the chain.
And while the family of Ms. Gotbaum is obviously bereft at losing a beloved wife and mother, an emotional rape compounded by the facts surrounding her very public passing, I have to take issue with the statements being made by her husband.
These latest words are from the eulogy he gave at her funeral this past Sunday:
"If the airline or the police authorities had treated Carol with some modicum of sensitivity and grace, or one single person at that airport had put an arm around her shoulder, sat her down and given her some protection, she might still be with us today."
I think that is as unfair a statement as it is wrong.
Last week the police, forced by Mr. Gotbaum's and his attorney's repeated accusations of brutality, released airport surveillance tapes of Carol ranting and raving up and down the concourse, shouting, waving her arms wildly.
I don't know too many people who would go up to a total out-of-control stranger and offer a loving embrace. Most would walk a wider circle for their own safety.
As for assertions that the airline personnel are somehow culpable in her breakdown? Wrong again. There are procedures, policies, and stringent guideines which they must follow. Carol arrived after the flight manifest had been sealed, the jetway doors closed. Not to be callous, but basically, "Too bad. You're late." It happens every single day to travelers in this country who arrive late, get held up by a connecting flight, etc.
The biggest point I have to take issue with is the reason she was traveling to begin with. Carol was, by all accounts, an alcoholic and depressed. She was traveling to a treatment facility in Arizona.
Mr. Gotbaum - WHY WAS SHE TRAVELING ALONE?
It has been well documented and reported by friends of your family that Carol was in "bad shape". Should she really have been flying across the country, a trip which included the stress of connecting flights, without escort?
It's fairly obvious to most at this point that the answer is No, she should not have been alone.
Nothing that happened, in terms of missing the flight and being denied a seat on a subsequent one (a gentleman offered his seat, but airline restrictions prohibit it as a possible security breach) would have ended with a stable person endangering herself and nearby strangers.
Sources report that she drank in an airport sports bar before the series of events which led to her being placed in the holding cell. Something that an escort could have prevented.
Again, it is tragic that her life ended this way. I feel bad for her children, for her family, for her friends.
But in the realm of personal responsibility, while I also feel sorry for Mr. Gotbaum's loss, he knew all of the details of his wife's years long struggles - perhaps he should have been there with her.
Blaming the police, blaming the public, railing at the fates, won't change what happened, cannot bring her back. That flight has flown.
Posted on Wednesday, October 10, 2007 at 09:44 AM | Permalink | Comments (14)
|
| The Mousetrap |
Which stage musical, with music and lyrics by Richard and Robert Sherman, was first seen in 2002 and features the songs 'Come to the funfair', 'Kiddy Widdy Winkies' and 'The Bombie Samba' ? | Brands
Brands
Brands
3-IN-ONE - The world's number one multi-purpose lubricant, with hundreds of uses around the home, garage or work place. 3-IN-ONE is a precise drip oil, and the new telescopic spout reaches even the most hard to get to places. With a radical new appearance reminiscent of a traditional old style oil can, the telespout incorporates a six-inch flexible extendable spout. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Founded in 1968, Abru is a leading supplier of access equipment and loft hatches and loft ladders and other DIY instruments. Abru’s success is due to a refreshing philosophy which invests a continuous programme of innovation into new products and manufacturing techniques; and, notably, shows a dynamic approach to packaging and point of sale. But above all, the most important reason for Abru’s sustained growth - and the cornerstone of its reputation for customer loyalty and satisfaction - is sheer quality of service. From the calibre of our products, through quick and accurate order fulfillment and delivery, to willing after-sales advice, Abru holds quality of service to its customers above all else. And in this, we’re proud to be recognised as an industry leader.
As the world's leading padlock manufacturer, ABUS have earned a reputation for, quality, reliability and innovation.
"Access-Panels" supply innovative access panels to tradesmen and DIYers. They offer both metal access panels and plastic access panels. From a fire rated access panels, tiled access panel, loft access panel, picture frame access panel and beaded metal access panel, TradeCounteDirect.com has the one of the largest ranges of access panels on the internet. With our new release of the unique Reversidoor access panels, this combines the funtion of both reversible and hinged access panels into one innovative product.
Advent Tools is different. And we're different simply by being the very best at what we're good at - own label hand tool products. Superior levels of service, expert design, investment in new technology and an attention to detail appreciated by our valued customers, ensures we are seen by many as the industry leader.
As soon as you Pick up an A.E.G. Power Tool, you can feel it's right. With a wide range of Cordless drills, combi drills, screwdrivers, Planers, Impact Drivers, Jigsaw, Circular Saw and Batteries. Balance, ergonomics, power with precise control - it's all in hand and ready to work. From the world's first portable electric drill to contemporary innovations, A.E.G. power tools leads the way. The FIXTEC tool-changing system, the Anti-Vibration Sytem (AVS) and numerous other breakthroughs are the direct result of AEG's almost obsessive approach to continuous development.
Aerosol - The Aerosol company provide a varied range of aerosols and applicators manufactured to exacting standards for quality and safety, and specialise in line marking paint ideal for a wide range of applications for playing fields, car parks, warehouses, golf courses and road marking, specially formulated for stencil, line or freehand marking. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
ALM - ALM Manufacturing is a family owned company established in 1972, specialising in the manufacture of consumable parts and accessories for all brands of trimmers, lawnmowers, chainsaws and greenhouses. ALM's main focus is the manufacture and distribution of quality British Made Trimmer Spools and Accessories to Retailers within the UK and abroad, and we now offer over 200 different models to fit both branded and own brand trimmers. ALM owns patents, design and copyrights, manufacturing licences, and has stringent internal, as well as external, testing and quality control procedures to ensure supply of consistently high quality products. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Other Am-Tech brands have also been added including Am-Tech Gardening and Am-Tech Air Tools all with their own distinctive eye catching packaging style. Since taking over from the DKT brand of tools, Am-Tech has now become an established brand, recognized for innovative products and outstanding packaging.
Anglo - Manufactured to meet the requirements of those who require a fast, cutting grease mixed compound. Fine grade to produce the required finish on polished seat or surface. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Antex - Antex have been involved in the selling and manufacturing of soldering irons for over 60 years. In that time we have built up extensive experience and a reputation as a high quality supplier promoting safety in soldering. Beware of Imitations. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Trade Counter Direct offers a range of functional, quality and competitively priced Apache Industrial Workwear, safety footwear/ clothing for the work place.
Araldite - Araldite is one of the world's leading providers of adhesive and sealant solutions. Their relentless pursuit of excellence lies at the heart of everything they do and ensures that the products they produce are of the highest specification. Araldite have built their reputation on providing first class support to all their customers and it is this combined commitments to innovation and service that continues to drive their business forward. Araldite has a large range of high performance, easy to use, solvent free epoxy adhesives that suit every experts needs, and Araldite adhesives combine the versatility to fix anything with the strongest possible bond. The range also includes specialist adhesives for bonding specific surfaces, such as Super Ceramic. Araldite, the brand to rely on for exceptional strength and quality and most of all a long lasting bond. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
ArmorAll - The ArmorAll story started in a Southern California laboratory in 1962, when 21-year-old polymer chemist, Joe Palcher, invented a 'miracle' formula to protect the inside surfaces of his car from the harmful effects of nature's elements. Joe came up with the winning recipe now known as ArmorAll Protectant, and ever since his elixir of life for car interiors found its way into local accessory shops, ArmorAll's boffins have used Protectant as the springboard to a whole range of pioneering new car appearance products, such as Wipes and Gels...helping to maintain the condition and appearance of cars, for those who care about them. These days, ArmorAll continue to lead the way, winning countless awards for its products, and constantly developing new products to tackle any challenge. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Armorgard - Araldite is one of the world's leading providers of adhesive and sealant solutions. Their relentless pursuit of excellence lies at the heart of everything they do and ensures that the products they produce are of the highest specification. Araldite have built their reputation on providing first class support to all their customers and it is this combined commitments to innovation and service that continues to drive their business forward. Araldite has a large range of high performance, easy to use, solvent free epoxy adhesives that suit every experts needs, and Araldite adhesives combine the versatility to fix anything with the strongest possible bond. The range also includes specialist adhesives for bonding specific surfaces, such as Super Ceramic. Araldite, the brand to rely on for exceptional strength and quality and most of all a long lasting bond. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Arrow is a high quality hand tool brand, manufacturing tools such as rivet guns, Rivets, Staples and staple guns.
Bahco is a pan-European market leading brand of a wide range of professional hand-held tools such as: handsaws, combination spanners, socket spanners, screwdrivers, adjustable wrenches, cutters, files, bandsaws, pruning tools, holesaws, hacksaw frames and blades.
Bailey Peerless was formed in 2000 with the merging of Bailey Brothers and Peerless Stampings, both companies having a history stretching back over 70 years in the manufacturing of quality brass products. In 2001 the business was acquired by Carro EMS Limited who are a member of The Marmon Group of companies. Suppliers of drain equipment, and kitchen and bath waste fittings. Essential tools for cleaning pipes and clearing blockages in pipes and drains.
Bakers - Bakers Solder Connection offer a wide range of materials and equipment direct from stock but can also undertake material analysis, COSHE fume evaluations, equipment calibration and reclamation of waste solder dross and chemicals. From a wide range of solder, ingots, wires, pastes and associated fluxes, they cover a wide range of job applications from professional trademan to the DIY enthusiast. Bakers Solder Connection has over 20 years experience in the electronics market. Their product portfolio now covers all market sectors from commercial and telecoms through to military and space applications. Bakers Solder Connection are totally commited to give 100% support throughout their product range. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Since the 1950s, Belle has been developing and manufacturing tough, durable construction equipment for the DIY and professional builder, making it the first choice for utilities, local authorities, construction companies and plant hire businesses.
Bernzomatic established in the late 1800s are today a worldwide marketer and manufacturer of a full name brand, hand held torches and accessories.
Bernzomatic Blow Torches are designed for a variety of household uses including light soldering, heating putty or paint, removing rusty bolts and nuts, and thawing frozen locks.
Bessey - The Bessey company has been setting new benchmarks in the field of clamping and cutting technology since its inception in the year 1889. Based on their expertise in development, they have been working on new and innovative ideas and for their continuous improvement. Bessey invent and perfect the patented brands in their plant in Bietigheim, which often become models for an entire generation of clamping and cutting tools. Often copied, but never matched: This applies to, e.g. Original BESSEY malleable cast iron-screw clamps that are being used in the almost unmodified form since 1936. Or even to the Original BESSEY all-steel-screw clamps that were patented in 1952. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Bi-Metal - Manufacturers of Scaffolding spanners made from lightweight high quality low density Titanium. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Big Wipes supplying the Big Industrial Wipes branded range of cleaning wipes as well as a full private label development and manufacturing service. Big Industrial Wipes. Multi functional wipes to remove and Cleans paint, adhesive, gap-fill, silicone, PU, foam, oil etc.
Black and Decker founded in 1917 with the invention of the pistol grip and trigger mechanism. Black and Decker have gone on to become a household name and one of the world's largest producers of power tools and accessories ranging from cordless power drills to tape measures.
Blackedge - Rexel Blackedge is a range of top quality specialist pencils for builders and joiners. ACCO UK Ltd (Rexel Ltd), the UK s largest manufacturer of office products, business machines and fine art materials was formed in 1992 as a result of the integration of ACCO Europe Ltd and Rexel Ltd, the leading office products manufacturer in the UK. ACCO UK Limited is now the market leader with a broad portfolio of high quality products which are sold in more than 120 countries. Their long business heritage began in 1832 with the original manufacture of Derwent high-quality fine-art pencils, a craft tradition that still continues today. In the early 1900 s the launch of what was then an innovatory accounting system from the USA established Twinlock on its path to becoming a major company. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
BlueSpot Tools - The Bluespot company is a premier supplier of hand tools, power tools, security, decorating and consumables. The Bluespot company was established in 1978 and is one of the UK's leading design innovators and importers of quality hand and power tools. Bluespot has a commitment to provide the best quality products and service at competitive prices and to continually increase and update their extensive product range for the professional and DIY enthusiasts. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
BlueSpot Tools - The Bluespot company is a premier supplier of hand tools, power tools, security, decorating and consumables. The Bluespot company was established in 1978 and is one of the UK's leading design innovators and importers of quality hand and power tools. Bluespot has a commitment to provide the best quality products and service at competitive prices and to continually increase and update their extensive product range for the professional and DIY enthusiasts. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Boa the company was set up two years later to market and distribute this product on a global basis, the boa constrictor strap wrench sold in excess of 15 million units making it a phenomenally successful invention and building on this success Boa went on to develop world first’s in many areas of the hand tool and power tool accessory markets.
Boilermag is the latest innovation from Eclipse Magnetics. The High quality magnetic heating system filter is a must to get the most out of your central heating and your boiler.
Bollé delivers the highest quality sunglasses and goggles for performance and protection. They are constantly refining their trademark combination of fit, fashion, and comfort, resulting in some of the freshest and most technologically advanced eyewear.
The Power Tools Division of the Bosch Group is the world market leader for power tools and power tool accessories. The core success factors are innovative strength and pace of innovation. Cordless tools with lithium-ion technology, e.g. cordless screwdrivers, cordless angle grinders, cordless jigsaws or cordless rotary hammers, constitute an important part of our product range. In the stone and concrete working segment, we are a leading manufacturer of rotary hammers, drills, impact drills and core drills.
Bostik - Bostik offer a wide range of high quality, easy to use adhesives with exceptional strength that you can rely on and trust. Bostik is a renowned household name that provides safe and friendly adhesive solutions for all the family and every need. Bostik is the household name for adhesive. Bostik is one of the world's leading providers of adhesive and sealant solutions. Their relentless pursuit of excellence lies at the heart of everything they do and ensures that the products they produce are of the highest specification. Bostik have built their reputation on providing first class support to all their customers and it is these combined commitments to innovation and service that continue to drive their business forward. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Bostitch - Stanley-Bostitch manufactures top-quality, innovative fastening tools and fasteners for industrial, construction and home improvement applications. Products include pneumatic staplers and nailers, compressors, manually operated staplers and tackers, coil-fed screw systems, rivet tools, glue guns, a broad assortment of collated nails, screws, staples and specialty fasteners in a variety of materials and finishes, plus office products and carton-closing staplers - many of them industry firsts. With over 110 years of practical experience across a diverse range of applications, Stanley Bostitch have the knowledge, facilities and expertise to stay ahead of demand. Innovative fastener and tool design and manufacture continue to maintain Stanley Bostitch as leaders in fastening solutions. Stanley acquired Bostitch, another company with an outstanding heritage in the fastening industry, in 1987, as part of its drive to become a world leader in fastening applications across a wide range of industries. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Boxxer - Maufactureer of heavy duty petrol generators fitted with roll cages. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Brennenstuhl - The Brennenstuhl Group is a top international company within the area of electronics and electrotechnology. They have achieved this by constantly being ambitious and innovative. Since their inception in 1958, Brennenstuhl engineers and technicians have constantly developed new ideas, on the basis of which they create new products. This gives them a head start, which they solidify through national and international patents and trade mark rights, and continuously expand, in cooperation with their partners in retailing. The company's high-quality product series also includes - besides equipment for power distribution ( e.g. cable reels, cable boxes and power outlet strips) - overvoltage protection devices and home and safety engineering equipment (e.g. video surveillance systems, intercom systems and smoke detectors). If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
The British Tool and Engineering Company, the company which founded the Britool brand, first started production in 1908 and Britool has been the number one choice for professional engineers ever since. Demand for the company's products grew strongly between the wars and during the Second World War, Britool was the principal supplier of tools to the British armed forces, supplying over 200 million wrenches, sockets and accessories.
Briwax - Briwax has an impeccable heritage which dates back to 1860 when Henry Flack started manufacturing polishes and waxes near London Bridge for cabinetmakers and woodcarvers. His business was acquired by the Bollom Group in 1961 who grew the brand successfully in both the professional and consumer markets. The Bollom Family produced and distributed Briwax for 45 years. The Bollom Group was sold by the family to an investment company in Feb 07. A fire in the factory did not help and through lack of investment they were put into administration in November 2007. Having been greatly distressed at the demise of the Group, Martin and Tony Bollom were determined that Briwax should thrive again. They therefore bought the Briwax name, formulations and equipment from the administrator. They have been striving to put it back on the map. They have invested heavily by both increasing the stocks, and now have enough production capability to fulfil nearly twice the present annual sales. Briwax again gives a first class service for a first class product. Briwax is presently sold to over 20 Countries through all 5 Continents. BRIWAX recognised as the best furniture wax throughout the World. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Brummer - Brummer products are made in the UK and have been the preferred choice of cabinet makers, joiners, furniture restorers and DIY'ers for over 70 years. The word Brummer originates from the time of Chippendale when skilled cabinet makers and carpenters made wood fillers by mixing fine shaving dust and glue. Today Brummer products are used by nearly all the leading furniture, joinery and conservatory manufacturers. To these craftsmen Brummer is an essential tool of the trade. Brummer produce wood fillers for both interior and exterior use and in a wide range of natural wood colours they can be used under most decorative finishes, including paint, varnish, lacquer, and polish. Incredibly tough and hard wearing when set, they may be drilled and sanded just like wood itself. Incredibly tough and hard wearing they can be drilled and sanded just like the wood itself and our exterior range is also impervious to the elements including sea water. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Bulldog - Bulldog Tools have been made at Clarington Forge in Wigan, England, for over 200 years. Generations of Farmers, Contractors and Professional Landscapers stand testimony to a quality of product upon which their livelihoods depend. The skill and craftsmanship that were the key to the company's success in those early days are still maintained and are available to this day. Bulldog use a unique specification steel which results in exceptionally strong tool heads with the flexibility to absorb all the shock and pressure of hard work, without distorting or breaking. The Bulldog name has a long history and enviable reputation. The Bulldog label is a guarantee that, no matter which tool you choose, it will give you a lifetime of reliable service and be a pleasure to use and own. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Byron is the largest manufacturer of door chimes in the United Kingdom.They distribute their products worldwide and pride themselves on their firstclass service and comprehensive range of products. Everything fromresearch and development, to their friendly after sales service make them thebest company to deal with for door entry products.
C H Hanson - Headquartered near Chicago, Illinois, the C. H. Hanson Company has been a family-owned and managed operation since 1866. The company has demonstrated throughout its 140 year history, the ability to innovate products and provide the consumer with a high quality range of hand tools and accessories. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
All Coleman products are designed by people who love to get outside. They create products for outdoor enthusiasts like you who share their passion and aspire to escape the ordinary. From their iconic fuel lanterns to their innovative range of tents, our products have been inspiring people to embrace the outdoors for over 100 years. In 1949, the founding engineers of Campingaz products created the first blue bottle. Not long after, already attentive to users' comments, Campingaz bottles were adapted to face up to the problem of emptiness awareness. The blue bottle gets lighter when the contents or the materials of the bottle are modified. The legendary Campingaz "Bleuet" is born. Since then, Campingaz engineers have never stopped innovating in order to fullfil the needs and independence of their customers.
Carplan - CarPlan offers a complete car care and valeting product range and is the number one selling car care brand in the UK. CarPlan offer everything needed to clean, valet and care for your car, inside and out, for that great showroom look. CarPlan is the Uk's number one selling and most recognised car care brand, products include T-Cut Scratch Remover, Triplewax Car Wash and Wonder Wheels. CarPlan offer a high quality innovative range of car care products. CarPlan car care has been manufacturing first class car care products since the 1960's and is still going strong to this day. Due to their experience and heritage they continually update and develop their car care products to meet changing customer needs. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Carroll and Meynell Transformer Ltd have excelled in the manufacture of transformers for over 35 years enabling us to become a market leader in the UK. These transformers are encapsulated in reinforced polyester cases for protection to IP44 and stand up to the rigours of daily use.
Carver - Designed for the most demanding engineering applications.The Carver range is safe, stable and strong. The extensive range of Carver Clamps is built to exacting specifications, incorporating over 30 years of engineering excellence. Carver have manufactured a range of industrial clamps for welding and metal / wood-working use for over 40 years. The range includes the Carver Rack and Bar Clamps, Carver T Slot Clamps, Carver Buttress Clamps and Carver Machine Vices. Wherever there is a work holding requirement there is a suitable Carver Clamp. With the needs of today's engineers in mind, Carver Clamps offer a combination of versatility and reliability, increasing operator efficiency and safety, combined with savings on set-up time. When used correctly, Carver Clamps provide one of the most secure work holding systems available for the professional trades person or the DIY enthusiast. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Castrol - On 19th March 1899, Charles 'Cheers' Wakefield set up an oil company in England, ten years later, he produced a new lubricant that would revolutionise transport in the first half of the Twentieth Century. He called the new oil Castrol. To this day this name is synonymous with premium quality, high performance and leading edge technology in lubrication. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Channellock - Manufaturers of Hand honed with perfectly mated cutters. Scientifically heat treated to hold their edge. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Over 20 years ago, CLC Custom LeatherCraft began designing and manufacturing our line of tool storage solutions. Our goal was to create innovative products to help everyone from the home do-it-yourselfer to the professional contractor/tradesman. That original commitment remains our goal today.
Coleman - Nearly 100 years ago, a young man with an entrepreneurial spirit and a better idea began manufacturing lanterns in Wichita, Kansas. His name was W.C. Coleman. And the company he founded would change life in America. A fascinating saga. One filled with historical significance, amazing innovations and delightfully fun things to know. The company's current catalogue is thick with recently introduced products that make spending time outside a pleasure. There are products just for kids. A technologically-advanced, proven mosquito-defense system. Coolers that keep food and drinks cold for up to five days. A complete line of grills, lights, heaters and more for your backyard. An accessory line with 100 separate items. And a backpacking stove featuring technology so remarkable and so relevant that Backpacker Magazine named it Editors' Choice in 1997. All Coleman products are designed by people who love to get outside. We create products for outdoor enthusiasts like you who share our passion and aspire to escape the ordinary. From their iconic fuel lanterns to their innovative range of tents, their products have been inspiring people to embrace the outdoors for over 100 years. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Concept are a high quality tool brand, specialising in impact drill drivers, pointing and grouting guns and work lights.
Contico - Contico Europe are UK manufacturers of quality tool and workshop storage products, producing a varied range to suit both the professional tradesman and the DIY enthusiast. Their unique Structural Foam Products offer durable, high quality, chemical resistant toolboxes ideal for use in a rugged work environment, providing protection for the 'Tools of your Trade'. For over five decades, Contico has been a strong leader in its field, offering wide-ranging products and solutions for clients all across Europe. Developing strong and committed relationships throughout the years, we are dedicated to understanding customers and their diverse needs, while remaining attentive and aware of their evolving environments. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Copydex - Henkel operates worldwide with leading brands and technologies in three business areas: Laundry and Home Care, Cosmetics/Toiletries and Adhesive Technologies. Henkel manufacturer Copydex products and are the name behind many of the branded products that you regularly use. Founded in 1876, Henkel holds globally leading market positions both in the consumer and industrial businesses with well-known brands such as Persil, Schwarzkopf and Loctite. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Crescent is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry.
Cuprinol - With over 75 years of woodcare expertise, Cuprinol woodcare treatments are the best you can use. At Cuprinol they know how important it is to treat your garden wood, as leaving it untreated causes the wood to lose its colour and good looks. They regularly test the performance of their wood treatments against the elements, so that they can continue to provide the best performing products and the highest quality finishes. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Custom - Custom Accessories product sourcing and own brand development is a unique service for customers who already have, or are implementing, a strategy of product differentiation with proprietary products or packaging brand image. CAE is uniquely positioned to provide this service due to its in-house design of a wide range ot automotive products from battery chargers to tyre snow chains. CAE has its own in-house designs functions providing a full range of services, from basic concept development of product and packaging through to complete origination and final artwork. To compliment this they also have full mock-up / model-making / cardboard engineering service. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Mykal Industries Limited are the manufacturers of the ultra-successful De.Solv.it brand and they have developed a comprehensive range of Hi-Tech, innovative 'user friendly' chemicals for the DIY, Grocery, Private Label and Industrial markets. With over 20 years of history at the forefront of environmental technology, Mykal Industries have gained considerable growth and expertise in manufacturing safer solutions in liquids, gels, wipes and aerosols with products ranging from delicate stain removers to heavy-duty paint and graffiti removers and marketed in pack sizes from small 100ml aerosols for retail and industry alike.
Decosol develops and manufactures cleaning and hygiene chemicals for both the professional and retail sectors, and also produce vehicle protection from screenwash to antifreeze. Decosol Products are made available both under the widely recognised and respected Selden brands, and private label. They regularly make bespoke formulas for clients and pride themselves in their ability to develop products to the highest levels of performance experienced in the cleaning industry.
Defender Power and Lighting products are high quality, value-for-money and innovative. All the Defender products are designed with safety in mind, and they offer a low cost solution for the site or the general DIYer.
Denso Tape - DENSO FLASHING TAPE Self-adhesive tape for fast effective new seals and repairs to roofs and flashings. Self adhesive tape for sealing, waterproofing and corrosion prevention. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
DeWalt have over 200 electric power tools and more than 800 accessories and have come a long way from their origins in 1922 as creators of the world's first radial arm saw. DeWalt have become a market leader in cordless drills, drivers, hammers, wrenches and high quality woodworking tools valued by millions worldwide.
Trade Counter Direct Provides A large Range of Dickies Products perfect for tough jobs. Dickies workwear combines performance, comfort and value for money. Functional and durable, Grafters workwear has become one of Dickies most popular ranges, while Eisenhower workwear offers modern styling without compromising performance. Workers operating in some of the harshest working conditions have found that Dickies clothing wont let them down. Wherever you work wear a brand that you can trust.
Dimplex - Dimplex is the brand leader in electric space and water heating, offering a selection of over 400 products within this sector ? the widest in the world. The range covers an extensive commercial heating portfolio; domestic installed heating ? including the UK
Disston - Disston was founded as a specialist handsaw manufacturer in 1840 and the name Disston became synonymous with the very best quality available. Today, this multi-million dollar organisation operates in global markets and Disston has become one of the world's largest producers of quality holesaws, grit edge blades, hacksaw blades and woodworking accessories. Selling under the Disston and Blu-Mol brands, their international manufacturing and distribution capabilities combine with their history and tradition as a brand leader in the tool business for over 165 years, to provide their customers with the optimum blend of value, performance and integrity. They also cater for more specialist applications and their RemGrit carbide grit edged holesaws, TCT holesaws, Soffit Cutters, Screwdiggers and Plugcutters form part of this offering. Their research and development teams are constantly challenging themselves to introduce new products that make the life of the professional tradesman simpler and more effective. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
DMT - DMT Diamond Sharpeners are an excellent value because of their durable construction, quality and reputation for providing years of uncompromising service. Unlike conventional oilstones, Japanese waterstones, Arkansas stones and other ceramic sharpeners, DMT Diamond Whetstones will not break, chip, crack, hollow or groove. Do not be fooled by other diamond sharpeners made in other countries who claim their products are just as good If you want the best care for your edge, demand DMT. The DMT company offers sharpening solutions for virtually every user from do-it-yourselfers to large commercial operations. DMT s specialized, precision sharpening systems function easily and efficiently to sharpen, hone, lap or deburr in the production, maintenance and repair of cutting tools. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Doff Portland Limited is an independent, family-owned business, founded in 1946. We are the UK's largest independent manufacturer of insecticides, weedkillers and garden care products. Doff are committed to helping the nation's gardeners, both traditional and modern, by offering a full and diverse range of high quality garden care products.
Dormer - Dormer Tools is one of the leading producers of high speed cutting tools in the world, acquired in 1993 by the Sandvik Group. The Dormer name is renowned world wide as the quality engineers cutting tool and for nearly 100 years has been synonymous with developments at the leading edge of tool design and production technology. As well as spearheading the development of hi-tech application tools, Dormer has brought out differentiated designs of its standard Jobber and Morse Taper Shank drills, offering enhanced performance and added value to its customers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Draper Tools started out in 1919 when the founder, Bert Draper, sold government surplus and tools around the Kingston Upon Thames' markets. This led to the purchase of the original warehouse, from which the Draper Tool Company Limited as we know it today was born, although at this time it was known as B. Draper & Son Limited and owned the trademark B.D.S. Although Drapers sold its own brand as early as this time, it was also a quality Engineers Merchant and Tool Wholesaler, selling brands well known today, such as, Britool, King Dick, Elliott Lucas, etc.
Duck Tape - If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
DURACELL is the world's leading producer of high-performance alkaline batteries.
DYMO is fast-becoming the worldwide leader in providing innovative solutions that help people accomplish their tasks more easily and look good doing it. From initial beginnings in 1958 as an embossing company based in California, DYMO has grown to be a company with global reach.
E-Magnets - E-Magnets UK is based in Sheffield and is part of the well respected and successful Sterling Tools Group, which was established in 1986. The company has enjoyed continuous growth as a specialist supplier of professional high quality magnets and magnetic solutions into a rapidly expanding customer base throughout the UK. The E-Magnets brand name has become synonymous with quality and is recognised as a highly respected and leading name within the various magnetic markets, supplying Blue Chip companies whilst also supplying a diverse customer base including OEM's distributors and resellers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Earlex - Earlex is a British manufacturer of decorating power tools and power cleaning products for both professional and domestic use. Earlex Limited was established in 1987 to launch the world s first DIY steam wallpaper stripper. Today, still dedicated to UK manufacture and with wallpaper strippers and spray guns. Made famous by its best selling steam wallpaper strippers, Earlex has a range of very affordable, good quality products that are easy to use and provide extremely satisfying results in short space of time. Steam wallpaper strippers, heat guns, electric spray guns, HVLP painting systems, cordless painting systems, steam cleaners and wet and dry vacuums are all products that will provide a solution for many of your decorating or cleaning tasks. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Edma - Edma celebrated its 70th Anniversary in 2007 and has earned a well deserved reputation for the quality of its products and for innovation. Edma has a large number of patented products in its range, a range of products used in a wide range of applications, in fact - anywhere there is a need for durable, professional quality tools. Edma has extensive manufacturing and distribution facilities, with three sites in France, one in the UK and one in Spain. Edma is famous in the UK and Ireland for its MAT Slate Cutter with Punch and also as the owner of the MONODEX brand and manufacturer of the MONODEX range of Sheet Metal Nibblers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Einhell supplies products for the tradesman and handyman for home, garden or recreational use. A worldwide company with a focus on unique and distinctively shaped and designed power tools - such as the Einhell cordless drill, cross cut mitre saw and drill driver to name a few – all of which are backed with a 2 year guarantee.
Eklind - Manufactured in the United States for over 40 years, Eklind tool company, now partnered with Rollins tool group has made hex keys with both standard and Ball End versions, plus Torx keys, to strictly controlled quality standards. They use only the highest quality 8650 chrome nickel alloy steel that has been heat treated for maximum torque and wear resistance to maintaining the Eklind quality. Their aim is to provide the right product at the right price, on time every time. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Electro - Established in 1991, Electro Group Ltd is the stocking agent or distributor for a range of specialist (mainly European) manufacturers. Their aim is to supply a comprehensive range of high quality, professional hand tool brands to trade distributors nationwide. Electro Group of Sheffield supplies fine hand and measuring tools for the professional user. The immense range of products are backed by Electro's team of experts. Each product type has been developed through intensive research to give the professional user maximum comfort and efficiency from the professional trades persons to the DIY enthusiast. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Emir - EMIR, began life in 1932, quickly earning a reputation for the craftsmanship that went into its range of wooden planes and other quality hand tools. The name had been associated with hand-tool manufacture since 1852, when manufacturing began in the town of Remscheid, Germany. The Bermondsey, London, workshop was established by Friedrich Wilhelm Emmerich. In addition to tools, the Bermondsey Company manufactured a simple, general-purpose craft bench and over the following 70 plus years, EMIR has manufactured thousands of benches for schools and colleges throughout the UK and for some 40 other countries. Today, after over 70 years of trading from the UK, EMIR has gained a world-wide reputation as engineers and manufacturers in wood and urethane, with a product range that includes hand tools and many more. The EMIR range of benches for education is rooted in a design, which uses interchangeable hardwood components that can be drawbolted together in different combinations. The tops feature the characteristic EMIR brace end that ensures flatness. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Energizer - Since its establishment in 1970 Supreme Imports has grown into the largest branded battery distributor in the world. They now service over 20% of the UK market and distribute a staggering 264 million batteries a year. These are supplied into multiple market-sectors across Europe, offering everyday low prices to all sizes of retailer from small independents to blue chip multiples. Supreme offers a full range of branded batteries including products such as single-use and digital cameras batteries. They sell a comprehensive range of Eveready light bulbs and the new Eveready Aroma light. In addition they have developed joint ventures with manufacturers and brand owners across the globe enabling them to produce own label products for leading grocery and blue chip outlets. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ergodyne - Ergodyne is tenaciously committed to generating disproportionately positive results for both users and sellers of their products. They accomplish this through a unique combination of focus, relentlessness, and the pursuit of excellence. Their global expansion vision is nothing short of worldwide dominance in the product categories they create and trade in. They know that as more of their products are used everyday - the world's workers will be safer and more productive. A good chunk of the Fortune 1000 are customers, millions of workers don an ergodyne product everyday, and a committed and growing army of authorized distributors, also poised and ready to serve and deliver excellence. They have been tenacious for more than 20 years, passing a few milestones and erecting a few monuments along the way. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Since 1923 Estwing have been designing and manufacturing durable, comfortable and attractive striking and struck tools. All claw hammers, axes, speciality tools and pry bars are manufactured to the highest standard and offer true vlaue to tradesmen and craftsmen alike.
Everbuild Building Products Ltd is the UK and Ireland's largest independent manufacturer of sealants, adhesives, fillers and building chemicals.
Eveready Lighting - For over 100 years, the Eveready brand has been powering people s lives. Eveready super heavy duty carbon zinc batteries are the economical choice for low drain devices. The history of batteries and the deveplopment of devices over the years go hand in hand. When Eveready invented the first miniature batteries in the late 1950's, most of the world stopped winding watches. Alkaline batteries from Eveready provided enough power to make way for todays portable radios and toys that blink and bleep. With the introduction of lithium batteries, it opened up a whole new world of long-lasting power for todays high tech gadgets and toys, from digital cameras to the MP3 Players and handheld computers in todays high-tech world. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Evo-Stik - The Evo-Stik range of adhesives and sealants provides a diverse range of solutions from general DIY and household repairs to more specialist projects such as sealing and weatherproofing. Evo-Stik put quality and performance first, therefore, you can use Evo-Stik products with the confidence of achieving professional results. Heritage and quality are the hallmarks of this market leading brand. Innovation and high standards ensure Evo-Stik is the strong reliable friend never to be without. Evo-Stik for the best in home improvements, also one of the world's leading providers of adhesive and sealant solutions. Their relentless pursuit of excellence lies at the heart of everything they do and ensures that the products they produce are of the highest specification. They have built their reputation on providing first class support to all their customers and it is the combined commitments to innovation and service that continue to drive their business forward. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Evolution power tools have a deserved reputation as market leader within the steel and fabrication industry, as a manufacturer of quality power tools designed to meet the most demanding of jobs. Evolution's power tool range of innovative Rage Saws cut through steel, aluminium, wood and plastic and the new Evolution Rage Hulk Compactor and plate are outstanding value With new editions like the FURY range, BUILD STEEL range for some heavy duty kit. With a wide range of corded and cordless power tools such as: circular saw - RAGE 1 or FURY 1, cordless circular saw - OUTRAGE, mitre saw like the RAGE 3, compound saw, cut off saw, magnetic drill like the BORA, saw blades, petrol compactor, electric compactor and compactor plates.
Extech Instruments’ high-value, handheld test instruments and FLIR-branded infrared thermal imager are sold through a network of national catalog houses, regional stocking distributors, internet, and international master distributors.
Facom - Facom Tools is one of the leading European brands in hand tools, working for over ninety years with automotive and industrial maintenance professionals. A selection of products is also available for the general public do-it-yourself market. Facom Tools offers a full range of over 8,000 products through its distribution network, which include the storage product range (trolleys, cabinets, benches, portable storage etc.), standard tools (wrenches, screwdrivers, pliers, hammers etc.) and specialist tools (Automotive, Electrical, Aerospace etc.) to meet the needs of all repair technicians. A player in the hand-tool sector since 1918, Facom Tools is synonymous with quality. Thanks to its knowledge of the market and daily contact with professional users, Facom Tools has succeeded in developing tough, innovative and safe high-performance tools supplied with a full guarantee offering tool replacement and repairs. Facom Tools is the Premium brand of the IAR (Industrial and Automotive Repair) division of the Stanley Black and Decker Group, dedicated to the manufacture and marketing of products for industrial maintenance and automotive repair professionals. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Faithfull (part of The Toolbank Group) offer a range of over 2,500 robust, reliable hand and power tools and power tool accessories. All backed by a 5 year guarantee to tradesmen from all industry sectors and DIY enthusiasts alike.
Faithfull Power Plus - Faithfull tools are made to tradesmen's standards by craftsmen. They are ideal for the discerning tool buyer who prefers lower prices than those associated with some well known brands, but who is not prepared to compromise too much, if at all, on product quality and reliability. Every non-electrical Faithfull tool is backed by a Five year guarantee. Faithfull tools are available from more than 9,000 local tool shops, ironmongers, merchants, and hardware shops nationwide. Most stockists are independent, privately owned retailers who provide personal service and advice based on many years of accumulated experience within their trade. Every Approved Faithfull Stockist will obtain any Faithfull tool to order, with delivery from our warehouse the next day or within 48 hours. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Files - PMB Tools are a major wholesaler in the UK of own branded products to most of the large national distribution companies, and via this channel they supply many government agencies as well as blue chip companies like Rolls Royce, BAE Systems and Ford Motor Company. Whilst files and burrs are their core product ranges, they also supply many other products such as cutting tools, holesaws, hand tools, diamond products and abrasives. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
High quality tape measures from the UK's leading manufacturer
Fisher - Fisher products have been manufactured in the South of England since 1946. The Combination Squares, which have become synonymous with the Fisher name, are a tool that every DIY enthusiast or Carpenter should have. The 285 Combination Set particularly has become a must have, in any toolbox. Since foundation in 1866 Rollins and Sons (London) Ltd have been associated not only with the distribution of professional quality American hand tools, but also their own brand range of Fisher and RST branded tools. Their range of Engineers Squares continue to be competitive and are manufactured to BS939 Workshop Grade 'B' tolerance for squareness. Their range of Aluminium Combination Squares use the most advanced printing technology to give clear and accurate graduations, using packaging designed to reduce waste to a minimum. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Fiskars - Fiskars Established in 1649, is the oldest company in Finland. Fiskars is a leading brand that provides functional, user-friendly and lasting design solutions for hand tools and beyond. Fiskars products respond to genuine inspiration and drive to get the job done well in the most effortless and intuitive way. Fiskars is a leading global supplier of consumer products for the home, garden and outdoors. The group has a strong portfolio of trusted international brands, including Fiskars, Iittala, Gerber, Silva, and Buster. Fiskars have worked with tools, cutting and steel forging ever since we first started operating 360 years ago. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
FLEX it's the craftsman who sets the standard. That is why we visit those sites where tools are used when we develop new machines. On construction sites, in the shops and factories. And that's precisely where we determine the specifications that every FLEX must fulfil.
Flexipads - Flexipads have complete ranges of high quality products including Angle Grinder Pads and Spanners, Sander Polisher Pads, Hand-Held and Quick Loc Pads, High Quality Pads for DA Sanders, Polishing Foams and Sponges, Smartdrive Advanced Polishing , Wool Pads and alsoStone Pads. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Flexovit - Saint-Gobain Abrasives, the worlds leading abrasives manufacturer, is the only international supplier of abrasives that manufactures each of the 3 major types of abrasives; Bonded Abrasives (resinoid and vitrified), Coated Abrasives, and Diamond products. Saint-Gobain Abrasives prides itself on serving all sectors of the market from DIY, Painting and Decorating, Construction, Automotive and Marine, as well as Industrial markets including Aerospace and Land Turbines, Automotive, Foundry, Metal Fabrication and Rail. Flexovit started out as a brand in Enschede, The Netherlands. In 1958 the founded company Slijptechniek used Flexovit as a strong international brandname. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Fluxite - The Fluxite product range is extensive and carries a number of global brands all on a sole agency agreement. Their policy is not to carry competing lines. Giving their customers the reassurance that not only are they totally commited to give 100 % support to your business and that of your customers, but that their principles are also totally dedicated in backing their success and that of their customers. They offer a wide range of materials and equipment direct from stock but can also undertake material analysis, COSHE fume evaluations, equipment calibration and reclamation of waste solder drosses and chemicals. Fluxite carry an extensive range of their solder ingots wires, pastes and associated fluxes, and also carry a large stocks of Smartheat soldering systems, tips and accessories. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Footprint - Footprint Tools manufacturer an extensive range of high quality hand tools for a variety of applications, including plumbing, decorating, carpentry, engineering and building work. Founded in 1875, the company is now one of the largest independent hand tool manufactures in the UK with an international reputation for high quality and competitive pricing. The Company prides itself in that the traditions of the founder Thomas R Ellin not only continue to hold true to this day but that they ensure the continued success of the business founded 125 years ago. He believed in the importance of product and manufacturing innovation, of satisfying the customer and providing top quality products with a personal service. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
ForgeFix - Since 1991, Forgefix have developed a comprehensive range of fasteners and fixings that are well packaged and presented and are available in a series of merchandising options (boxed, bagged and blister packed). This range is now available from Toolbank and all the products are featured on this website under the categories listed below alongside similar products from other leading brands. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Frys Metals - Fry is the leading global supplier of high-quality, non-ferrous alloys and metals, such as babbitt, solder, alloys, indium, lead and tin. The Company also produces tinning compounds, extruded and rolled ribbon/foil and industrial chemicals for joining, degreasing and water treatment. Fry reclaims solder and other metals from a wide range of industries, including electronics. These metals can be refined and reprocessed into materials used in commercial, plumbing and electronics applications. State-of-the-art laboratories are engaged full time in the research and development of new products. Because of this, Fry can provide technical assistance for specific customer requirements using an in-house team of metallurgists, chemists and mechanical engineers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Garryson - Garryson Limited is a UK manufacturer of speciality abrasive products, which are designed and engineered to suit virtually every power tool in the market. Garryson products are widely used in a variety of industries and in many different applications. For example removing all types of metal and blending, finishing or polishing on a vast range of materials including irons, steels, aluminiums, alloys or non ferrous metals. Garryson products are specially engineered to combine operations therefore resulting in reduced downtime and substantial cost savings. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
GCG is a suplier of quality gardening consumables. They are proud of their heritage in the gardening industry and each and every one of their garden products has its own place in history.
Providing the construction and industrial sectors high quality sealants, coatings and associated chemicals for more than a quarter of a century.
Gerber - Savvy. Ingenuity. Moxie. Craftsmanship. Attention to detail. These are just a few of the company traits that contributed to their emergence as a world leader in outdoor gear. But then there's the issue of toughness. And frankly, nothing could be tougher than living down the first career of founder Joseph Gerber as...that's right...an advertising man. You could call it the 'Boy Named Sue' syndrome. Joseph Gerber started Portland, Oregon's Gerber Advertising back in 1910. One Christmas, he hired a local knifemaker to craft 25 sets of kitchen cutlery as client gifts. The knives were so popular, Mr. Gerber ultimately left his agency to launch Gerber Legendary Blades in 1939. It makes sense, really. An idea man gets the idea of a lifetime and turns it into a major outdoor brand. One that commands respect among knifelovers and knifemakers alike. And now that high regard is spreading in new directions, in the form of many outstanding products. Such as tools, personal L.E.D. lighting, and many others. With a history like theirs-and products like these, it's no wonder they're completely unafraid of the future. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Gilbow Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals at its Parkway Factory in Sheffield, England. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Gorilla Glue - Gorilla Glue: Versatility: Ideal for most household fixes and building repairs, indoors and out. Bonds wood, metal, stone, foam, glass, and more. More Coverage: Gorilla Glue expands to 3x its size during curing. Remember a little goes a long way. 100% Waterproof: Won
Gorilla Tubs - Useful for everyone, the great thing about Gorilla products is that everyone finds them useful. Electricians, plumbers, brickies, plasterers, carpenters - the list is endless. Gorilla have a fabulous range of flexible containers which are by-words for quality and style. International brands, Tubtrugs, Gorilla Tubs, Multi-tubs Products. Gorilla offer product assurance and great value for money across many market sectors. There's simply nothing tougher than a Gorilla Tub! The minute you pick one up you know you're holding a quality tool in your hands. Gorilla Tubs are stong enough for any builder to put it through its paces and still perform day after day. So throw away your old builders bucket, invest in a set of Gorilla Tubs and see how Gorilliant they really are! If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
"Grip It Fixings" is a registered trade mark of UK Building Products Limited. The Company was established in 2009 to create products to cater for the modern construction of dwellings and commercial buildings. The Grip It Fixing is a unique design which has been developed over several years and is the first innovated-designed product by the company to go to the market.
Gunk - In 1924 Mr. I. D. Blumenthal was a traveling salesman in need of repair to his car's radiator. A local tinsmith in Charlotte, North Carolina repaired the radiator with a 'magic powder'. Impressed with the product, I.D. teamed with the tinsmith and SOLDER SEAL became the first product of Radiator Specialty Company. His brother, Herman, joined the company in 1938 to make it a family run business. When I. D. passed away, Herman became Chairman of the Board, and likewise, later his eldest son, Alan assumed responsibility. During World War II, rubber products were produced in the California plants and used in America's aircraft assembly. In 1949 the rubber production was moved to Charlotte where SAFE-T-CONE products were developed and produced as well as more chemical and plumbing/hardware products. In 1958 the Douglas Tools line of augers, hole saws, hammers, levels, and measuring devices, was added. GUNK LABORATORIES was acquired in 1959, resulting in the addition of an entire line of GUNK degreasers -- including ENGINE BRITE-- and cleaning products. The SolderSeal-Gunk logo was formed at that time. Radiator Specialty continues to thrive and serve the automotive aftermarket, plumbing, hardware and appliance industries with quality products that make things work better. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Gyproc Tools is a market-leading brand of plastering and dry lining tools. Specialising in quality, innovative, hardwearing tools like the new Plasterboard Cutting Gyproc BladeRunner - the range enables professional tradesmen to increase productivity whilst saving time and energy. Included in the range are Collomix power mixers and BladeRunner.
G and J Hall Ltd is a long-established cutting tool manufacturer with modern, well-equipped development, design and manufacturing facilities. The company's appointed distributors and agents enable customers worldwide to receive quality products backed up by excellent service.
Hammerite - Hammerite offers a range of products for all your metal painting needs inside and outside your home. Whether it's your metal railings, gates, radiators, garden furniture, garage doors or barbecues we have the right product for the task. Hammerite's product range is split into Multi- Purpose Finishes, Job Specific Products, Job Specific Finishes, Primers and Rustproofing. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Hanson - Record Tools Ltd., a division of American Tool Companies Inc., produces high-quality hand tools for metalworking and woodworking professionals at its Parkway Factory in Sheffield, England. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples Woodworking Tools, Bulldog Garden and Contractors Tools, Jack Hand Saws, Vise-Grip Locking Pliers, Quick-Grip Clamping Tools, Gilbow Tinsnips, Prosnip Snips, Irwin Power Tool Accessories and Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line Chalk and Marking Tools and Chesco Hex Tools. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Heartbeat - The Heartbest Manufacturing Company, a family business founded in 1946, regards its continuing success in the Point of Sale market to be as a result of its ability to prove its quality, reliability and competitiveness in addition to offering a high level of service to each client. The company concentrates its efforts in two main areas. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Heatmaster - Established in 2002, Motif Design are world leading manufacturers of Heatmaster? electric, short-wave infra red heating solutions. Utilising extensive experience and expertise, combined with the latest Computer Aided Design software, they have created an innovative, ergonomically designed, high technology range that puts the needs of the consumer first. All Heatmaster? products are British designed and incorporate the highest quality components and exceed the most stringent international standards. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Henry Squire - An independent family owned lock manufacturer since 1780. Henry Squire & Sons Ltd place great importance on developing products that meet the security needs of today and the future. The company directs significant resources on research & development to enable it to remain at the forefront of the security market and ensure its independence for another 200 years. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Hills - Hills have been selling quality rotary dryers in the UK for over 40 years. Hills offers a range of outdoor dryers to meet a variety of demanding criteria relating to space, durability and cost. All Hills dryers are manufactured from fully galvanized steel, designed to provide protection against the great British weather. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Hilmor are a leading supplier to the plumbing, heating and gas industries. Hilmor are renowned for their heavy duty, high quality pipe cutters and pipe benders for use on all types of pipe, conduit and trunking.
Hitachi carries an extensive range of professional grade power tools and accessories for residential and commercial construction, tradesman and Do-It-Yourselfers. Hitachi have emerged as a leader in cordless technology, particularly popular are the Hitachi SDS Power Drills and Angle grinders.
Holts - Founded in the United Kingdom more than 65 years ago by Douglas Holt, Holt Lloyd has become an industry leader in the manufacture and global distribution of automotive aftermarket products. Today, Holt Lloyd is integrated into Honeywell s Consumer Products Group, and joins other premier automotive consumer brands - Fram, Autolite and Prestone in supplying the finest quality. Formerly known as Holt Products Company, the company was to later merge with Lloyd Industries Ltd. founded by Tom Heywood in 1962, to become Holt Lloyd International Ltd. in 1975. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Hozelock are one of the UK's favourite gardening suppliers, with a reputation for innovation, quality and good value. Everything they do is driven by their desire to make gardening simple and enjoyable. From their early days almost 50 years ago, their drive has always been to develop technically perfect, visibly striking products that are part of a system. The first product they produced was the worlds first plastic hose connector - the Hoze-Lock. Today, they are based in Birmingham (UK), and are a global garden equipment manufacturer.
Man has always had a need to measure distance, and these distances have been based on human beings and what we can accomplish. This is why measurements like ‘axe-cast’, ‘spear-cast’ and ‘arrow-shot’ felt quite natural and obvious to earlier generations. The distances were not that precise, but people got the idea anyway. We Suppler Hammers, knifes, and any thing else you need from Hultafors
Ice Melt will help you protect your driveways, paths and cars with this range of quality salt and de-icer products. Rapid Ice Melt provides 10 times more coverage than traditional rock salt offering a more economical alternative to salt. Protect yourself from the cold snap this winter with Ice Melt Screen Wash, IceMelt Motorist Kit and Rapid Ice Melt.
India - Designed specifically for sharpening profiled tools such as carving chisels and woodturning gouges, this range of abrasive slips covers every profile you are ever likely to encounter. By using a slip stone that matches the profile of the tool being sharpened, it is less likely that the edge will lose its original shape over time. The India stones are man made from aluminium oxide particles held in a hard bonding compound. These do not cut as agressively as other types of sharpening stone, but will impart a fine, uniform finish to the edge of the tool. The medium grit India stone is used for establishing a sharp edge and the fine India stone for further sharpening. By using a hard translucent Arkansas stone to finish, a very sharp edge will become a razor sharp edge. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
International - Manufacturers of Speciality Paints and Coatings for the DIY Market Whenever you need outstanding performance in demanding conditions, International has the solution. With over 100 years of experience, they have become specialists in their comprehensive range of quality paints and coatings. International's reputation and success is based on unrivalled quality, giving you the peace of mind that you have chosen the best! With strong brand heritage and a reputation for innovation, International provides paint consumers can trust. This is evident in sales, which grow year on year. International Paints has the answer to many of your decorating needs, with clever products that make it easy for you to paint all types of surfaces. The product range is split into 3 categories to ensure you find the right product for the job; Interior, Exterior and Primers, Preparation and Problem Solvers. With an extensive Interior product range this area is by far the largest category in the International portfolio. International has developed specific products which are exceptionally tough & hardwearing and will result in a quality finish. Or if you're looking to revamp tired and old furniture why not transform a room with products specially formulated for this purpose. Finding the right paint for exterior surfaces can be a problem. International has a wide range of specialised products which have been formulated for all surfaces. Whether you are looking to provide a professional finish, protect or revive you can choose from a variety of quality exterior paint for the job. Before starting any decorating job, the key to a superb finish on any surface is proper preparation. The finished result will look great for much longer. International has a host of useful products to prepare most surfaces you will find in & around your home. Also in the range are sealers for a variety of surfaces and problem solving paints to combat common problems such as condensation, damp and rust stains. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Irega - Irega is well established as Europe's leading specialist manufacturer of adjustable wrenches. A dedicated wrench manufacturer, with total control of its own production plant in Spain, Irega has gained an enviable reputation - anticipating and meeting the needs of its customer-base: plumbers, electricians, maintenance engineers and fitters; by focusing its resources on the development of new technology, new manufacturing techniques and new product development. Not only does Irega manufacture very high quality adjustable wrenches, in excess of the rigorous demands of ISO 6787, but also stringent independent Swedish tests reported the company's wrenches consistently outperform other leading brands, notably withstanding higher torques and lasting considerably longer. The selection of top quality Chrome Vanadium steel for precisely monitored manufacturing processes, including: heat treatments; plus surface grinding and coatings; results in a product range noted for durability, high performance and reduced wear. It is Irega's total commitment to quality, in support of the practical requirements of professional tradesmen, that has led to the company achieving sales of over 2,000,000 adjustable wrenches a year! If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Irimo - The Irimo brand was established in Urrextu, Spain in 1930 with the production of cart axles and mill balls. Later on manufacturing was diversified to include sophisticated hand tools for a range of applications, and in the 1940 s they introduced the heavy-duty adjustable wrench, which went on to win Gold at the International Inventors Show in Brussels. Their range of Irimo tools includes an extensive catalogue for automotive repair and maintenance, and they are recognized as a leader in this sector. However, the scope of their Irimo offering has expanded to cater for a host of industries, from construction to manufacturing. While they have evolved the Irimo brand to meet the changing needs of the market, one thing remains to this day. Professionals still choose Irimo for affordable, dependable quality. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Irwin have been creating superior tools for the professional tradesman for over a century manufacturing and distributing professional grade hand tools and power tool accessories worldwide for trade professionals who demand performance and durability. Irwin are renowned for high quality retractable blades and knives. Record, Marples and Hilmor brands are now also part of the Irwin Group.
Jack Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools manufactures and distributes professional grade hand tools and power tool accessories worldwide for trade professionals who demand superior performance and durability on the job. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples Woodworking Tools, Jack Hand Saws, Vise-Grip Locking Pliers, Quick-Grip Clamping Tools, Gilbow Tinsnips, Prosnip Snips, Irwin Power Tool Accessories & Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line Chalk & Marking Tools and Chesco Hex Tools. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Jobman Workwear is a high quality workman clothing brand. Jobman have a wide range of jackets, hoodies and trousers which are durable and comfortable.
Jubilee - Jubilee offers a comprehensive range of clips to suit most applications and in a wide range of materials, sizes range from the small 12mm up to the large 318mm. The standard range is Kitemark approved to BS 5315 : 1991 and BS EN ISO 9002 accredited which is why you can trust Jubilee for quality and reliability (their reputation is founded on over 90 years of hose clip experience). For efficient and easy adjustment of Jubilee clips try their invaluable Flexidriver with flexible shaft for access to awkward places or their rigid shaft Clipdriver. Whatever your hose clip needs, Jubilee has it covered. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
The years have seen enormous growth from K
Kew Alto Nilfisk - The Nilfisk-ALTO brand is owned by Nilfisk Advance, one of the leading professional cleaning equipment companies in the world. Nilfisk-ALTO supply top quality High Pressure Washers, Vacuum Cleaners and Floor Care Equipment to agriculture, automotive and industrial companies, cleaning contractors and private consumers. With the Nilfisk-ALTO brand they focus on innovation and growth. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
As the world's largest manufacturer of fire safety products, Kidde's mission is to provide solutions that protect people and property from the effects of fire and its related hazards. For 90 years, industry leaders, the military, airlines and firefighters have relied on Kidde to deliver superior fire detection and suppression.
Knipex - KNIPEX specialises in the development and production of high-quality pliers and is the leading manufacturer in this area in Europe. It all started back in 1882 when C. Gustav Putsch set up his own business in Wuppertal (Germany). They concentrate their knowledge and expertise on pliers. This is the only way to meet their claim to be the best supplier in terms of quality, innovation and efficiency. KNIPEX offers a complete range of pliers to meet the highest demands in very many different applications. The breadth and depth of their range ensures that the best tool can always be found for every application. KNIPEX pliers fulfil the highest expectations in terms of performance, ergonomics and service life. Their products are designed to meet the requirements of professional users, who must be able to rely on their tools in day-to-day work. KNIPEX innovations offer future oriented solutions and set standards for easy, effective and reliable work. In their development work they rely on intensive sharing of experience with users and also on modern design technology and efficient testing and experimental equipment. KNIPEX pliers are in great demand throughout the world and they export over 60% of their production. An international network of distribution branches, agencies and importers connect them to their customers in over one hundred countries. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
The Kopex name stands for quality and reliability. Quality assurance in manufacture is backed up by accreditations from major organisations worldwide. Applications for Kopex products includes plant rooms & machinery, machine tools, security cameras, rail, military installations and hospitals.
Established in 1992, KS Tools is renowned for innovative and high quality tools. Products in the KS Tools range include pliers, screwdrivers and cable knives.
Kuny's Leather Manufacturing, are the Independent Canadian manufacturers of industrial products and accessories, supplying the Carpentry, Electrical, Drywall, Forestry and DIY markets with expertise, quality and first class service for more than twenty five years.
Leading plumbing brand. Supplying application-specific thread sealants, soldering fluxes, repair sealants, specialty chemical products and marking products for 35 years.
<p>LED Lenser is the leader in technologically advanced, high quality LED flashlights. These hand-held lights use state-of-the-art engineering and a variety of patent pending reflector systems to create the brightest, most energy-efficient LED lights available. </p><p>We are proud to present LED lenser the world's leading brand of LED torches and lamps. These products are design led, innovative and of the highest quality, backed by a lifetime guarantee, simply the best in their field. </p>
Lenox - American Saw & Mfg. Company began in 1915 with ten employees making hacksaw blades under the trade name of LENOX. The company has grown tremendously since then, now employing over 600 people and marketing band saw blades, sawing fluids, hand tools and power tool accessories in over 70 countries around the world. Despite considerable changes over time, LENOX has remained constantly synonymous with quality. The LENOX name comes from the wolves that once roamed the hills of Scotland. On the western shore of Loch Lomond, where the lowland pastures meet the sweeping hills of the highlands, the Earl of Lenox made his home. Also in the area, the wolf pack found shelter and food a plenty. The wolves were known to possess strength, power and the sharpest of teeth. It has been almost 200 years since the last wolf was seen in Scotland, but the legend of the Wolves of Lenox lives on.Lenox have adopted this image to portray those same characteristics for their products. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Lessmann - Lessman has been developing and producing technical brushes for more than seventy years. They have 10.000 brushes in their assortment. Each individual brush is ideally designed to perform its particular task. And if the customers needs are not met by one of their standard brushes, they can create a special item in accord with the customers requirements. The company works as a partner together with trade and industry. They sell their brushes to large and small customers throughout the world. They rely on modern manufacturing technology to fulfil customers wishes. Lessman's well stocked warehouse and newly developed logistical software help speed delivery. Their greatest and most important potential lies on their employees. They always think and act with their customers' needs in mind. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Liberon - Over the past 100 years, Liberon has built its reputation on high quality restoration and finishing of wooden furniture. Their expertise in fine finishes has helped them expand their products into new areas and new materials with the introduction of flooring, garden and furniture ranges. Over time their traditional formulas, derived from natural ingredients, have continually evolved to meet the technical, performance and aesthetic requirements of todays consumers. A greater focus on product application, design and technical advice has also been followed to complete the Liberon range. Today s Liberon ranges cover 4 main areas, furniture, flooring, oils and garden with a range of products to suit all types of home from the ultra modern to the traditional, all with the assurance of Liberon high quality and superior finish. The extensive furniture range includes products for renovating, reviving and maintaining all types of beautiful furniture such as dyes, waxes, varnishes and polishes whilst the wide range of superior quality oils also complement this range. Flooring is an area of the home requiring specific care and attention, with Liberon products a quality finish is guaranteed. Whether stone or wood, there are products in the Liberon flooring range to clean, wax, oil, seal and add shine to floors ensuring a beautiful finish which will stay looking good for a long time. Liberon is as effective outside with a range of garden products for exterior timber, garden furniture, decking, patios, gates, doors and fences. Whatever the choice of Liberon product, a beautiful finish can be assured. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Lighthouse supply top of the range torches features, the very latest technology by incorporating CREE LEDs providing a super bright beam from a single source. CREE LEDs are unsurpassed in both output and efficiency with a life span of over 100,000 hours and will provide a bright beam of light for up to 10 hours from one set of batteries.
Lindstrom - Lindstrom has developed and produced high-precision cutters and pliers since 1856 - making them one of the oldest continuous producer of hand tools in existence today. Lindstrom is now a separate business unit within SNA Europe. The new Lindstrom is responsible for developing, producing and marketing not only cutters and pliers, but an assortment of high-precision tools including screwdrivers, tweezers, torque drivers and more.They have maintained their competitive edge through technical understanding, response to market needs, and commitment to advanced technology. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Henkel Loctite is the world market leader in adhesives, sealants and surface treatments for consumers, craftsmen and industrial applications. Established in the in 1920s in D
With Lucas Power Tools the power really is in your hands. The Lucas brand is over 100 years old and one of the most recognisable brand symbols in the UK and Europe. Started in Birmingham by Joseph Lucas at the turn of the last century as an innovative manufacturer of automotive lighting, Lucas developed into a powerful brand in three major technologies, Electrical, Braking Systems and Diesel Components.
Lufkin - Cooper Hand Tools is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry. Its famous brands Weller, Crescent, Wiss, Nicholson, Lufkin, Xcelite and H.K.Porter are outstanding for their quality and performance. Cooper Hand Tools is soundly based to maintain and develop its reputation for producing high quality tools and equipment worthy of tradesmen, professionals and craftsmen. Besides the European Headquarters in Besigheim, Germany and the European Distribution Centre in Emmen, Holland, Cooper Hand Tools drives locations in United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Lumatic - Lumatic was founded over 50 years ago and in the intervening years they have gained an unequalled knowledge of, and experience in, all forms of lubrication equipment. As part of the international MATO group, they market this brand leading range of Grease Guns, including the unique Lube-Shuttle, Manual and Pneumatic Pumps and Delivery Equipment for Oils and Fuels. In addition, they supply, install and service specialist lubrication equipment for the garage workshop: their own FLUICON Oil Management System and the entire ALFA range of waste oil handling systems, hose reels and pumps for oil, grease and other workshop fluids. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
M.A.D - MAD Bit not only drills conventional holes, but can also form mortices, channels and even curved channels as well as flat bottomed holes for recessed hinges. Titanium coated, multi angle, multi function. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Each Mag Instrument flashlight represents a culmination of more than 20 years of research, development and continuous state-of-the-art refinement in every precision feature.
Makita Power Tools UK - Makita Tools is renowned as one of the top brands of Power Tools. Professional quality power tools that come with a 3 year guarantee. When it comes to Power tools, you can get much better than Makita Power Tools UK.
design through manufacture to sales Manthorpe Building Products is an ambitious, dynamic company committed to delivering excellence to our customers. Proud of our investment in manufacturing equipment and staff we continually strive to improve every aspect of our business. With almost 25 years experience in the plastics industry we manufacture virtually all our products in-house and in recent years we have invested extensively in technology and cutting edge machinery. Using modern manufacturing processes we injection mould, extrude and vacuum form to a high standard.
Marcrist - British tradition and European design hand in hand with Swiss precision. Marcrist have made diamond drilling affordable to all trade professionals. Easy to use, super-fast diamond drilling machines and rigs. Supported by the the unbeatable performance of Marcrist 850X diamond cores, Marcrist make diamond drilling the fastest, safest and cheapest way of forming a hole. Since the formation of Marcrist in 1979 we have single-mindedly followed the core values of innovation and technology leadership in diamond tools; cutting, grinding and drilling and tools that live up to Marcrist reputation: Better than the best of the rest. Marcrist support their tools with services and guarantees that set the standard within the diamond industry. Marcrist's aim is that once you have used Marcrist you will always use Marcrist because you have experienced the difference. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Markal - Markal/LA-CO products are sold around the world through a network of 6,500 distributors in the U.S.and 25 other countries. The product offering has broadened to feature an array of application-specific thread sealants, repair sealants, soldering fluxes, and marking products. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Marples Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Through the years, the MARSHALLTOWN product line has greatly expanded. Originally supplying hand tools for only the masonry trades, tools for the drywall, plastering, tiling, flooring, and EIFS professions are now available. Marshalltown features a quality line of brick tools that range from hundreds of different trowels, pointers, jointers, chisels, and more! Click the MarshallTown logo to see our large range of MarshallTown bricklaying tools!
Master Lock is recognized around the world as the authentic, enduring name in padlocks and security products.
With a massive catalogue of products from standard cable reels and extension leads to innovative intelligent sockets, lighting and outdoor power solutions, Masterplug really are making all the right connections!
Matabi - GOIZPER was set up in 1959 in Spain, specialising in manufacturing hand-operated sprayers for Agriculture and Gardening. GOIZPER produces Matabi manual sprayers (knapsack sprayers, garden sprayers, electrical sprayers) and dusters for agricultural, gardening, industrial, indoor residual spraying and household applications, accounting for the other 70% of our production. GOIZPER?s offer has placed them among the top producers of sprayers in the world due to their price / quality relationship, and their fast and reliable service. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Maun - Maun Industries was formally registered in 1944, taking its name from the small river that runs through the town of Mansfield. The company moved to the present site at Moor Lane in 1947 and occupies 70,000sq ft of factory, warehousing and office space. Maun Industries has an established network of customers and distributors throughout the world. Around 40% of production is exported to over 50 countries. Quality in design, engineering and manufacture is the decisive factor which ensures a high performance from all Maun tools. The ability to design and develop pliers for new applications is an important aspect in maintaining competitiveness. The company s quality system was accredited to ISO 9001 in 1993. The company is well placed to respond to the future challenge of manufacturing.They will continue to develop the strategy of establishing long-term partnerships with key customers so that they share the benefits of close cooperation and mutual understanding.The company takes pride in their position as the largest UK volume plier manufacturer. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Melco - The company was founded in Sheffield over 60 years ago and are now world famous for the 'MELCO' brand. Thomas Meldrum Ltd., are now known world wide for the 'Melco' range of tools and equipment. Melco's latest product range, offers many new, improved and of course long proven, quality products. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Metabo's history stretches over more than three quarters of a century. It is mainly the history of a search for the most robust products with the longest service life. In 1924, at the eve of the economic depression of those times, Albrecht Schnizler, a baker's son, and his business partner Julius Closs co-founded Schnizler GmbH. They wanted to manufacture tools that would meet the higher demands of an increasingly engineered world better than most of the tools that existed at that time.
Milwaukee Tools UKManufacture its signature red milwaukee power tools. The extensive Milwaukee Power Tools product line covers over 500 different milwaukee tool models ranging from a complete range of cordless power tool products, Milwaukee Tools UK Sawzall
Miscellaneous - This has multiplue top quality brands of power tools, hand tool, plumbing tools Etc. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
These Professional 2 way hand held radios are complete and ready to go. Ideal for individuals and small business who have a general communication need.
Meter boxes are normally a necessity for a new meter installation these days, the utility connectors will only connect a meter into an approved meter box. Mitras Composites is the only meter box manufacturer to have full approval of all gas and electric connectors, nationwide. The electric connectors up and down the country have differing requirements with regards to size, cable entry and exit postions, Mitras has an approved version for each area, however, the standard recessed box can, with a few exceptions, be used nationally.
Mitutoyo - Over the past 25 years Mitutoyo has earned a solid reputation by providing customers with the best products, the best service and the widest range of measurement solutions available anywhere in the world. Constantly developing new products keeps Mitutoyo at the forefront of the Measurement Technology industry. Long-established links with national standards organisations, investing in the best people and the finest facilities, and a belief in building strong customer relationships are the fundamentals that keep us at the forefront of measurement technology. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Moldex® is one of the most recognized and respected names in respiratory protection in industrial worker safety. Comfort, quality and value are all synonymous with a Moldex® product. Moldex® has a strong history of perpetual innovation. They strive to design and engineer products that provide comfort and style for workers. They have an ongoing commitment to both superior product design and continuous technological improvements in the manufacturing process so you get quality products you can trust.
Monument Tools Limited with more tha 75 years of excellence is one of the biggest names in the manufacturing, supply and distribution of tools and equipment to the plumbing, heating and drainage industries throughout the world. Monument Tools has an unrivalled expertise in developing innovative tooling solutions for the plumbing, heating, roofing, gas, pipe testing and drainage industry. It was 1880, when George Collier first commenced trading as a tool dealer in Brixton, London. His trade was then taken up by his three sons and successive generations that have focussed their business on shops that were opened in South London. In 1930, the Monument brand name was first registered alongside the well know Shetack brand. In 1976, the company moved to larger premises in Balham and assumed the name Monument Tools Ltd. In 1996 operations moved to a new factory in Wallington, Surrey where the company is still based. Today it is owned and run by the fifth generation of the Collier family. Monument Tools continues to invest in improved machinery, materials and manufacturing techniques for both current and new products. Their Managing Director, John Collier, is one of the foremost authorities within the industry and Monument Tools is the frequent recipient of new product awards. Producing leading designs such as the Monument Tools pipe cutters ensures that we are always at the leading edge of their industry. Their business partners have come to expect the very best in quality which deliver a good margin with very low product returns. Their primary market has always been the professional tradesmen who need a dependable, superior standard tool which will last for many years.
Multi-Sharp - Multi-sharp. specialise in Sharpening Tools for the Gardener and DIY'er, and have been manufacturing them in the UK for over 25 years. They have a sharpener for almost every tool in the house and garden. With Multi Sharp sharpening products you can accurately re-sharpen the bluntest shears including stainless steel, long- handled, wavy-edge, and single cutting edge shears, loppers and secateurs, and also sharpen household scissors. Not to mention in and around the garden when you have power tools to hand from the Multi sharp range will always get your tools sharp and to the point. The high quality aluminium oxide, angled wheel produces sharp new cutting edges on rotary mower blades, to the correct angle in minutes and gives many years more use. Sharpening products put back a keen edge on spades, hoes, lawn-edgers and axes, making them much easier to use. Garden: secateurs, loppers, shears, lawnmowers, chainsaws, and other tools. DIY: drill bits, wood chisels, plane blades etc. House: scissors, knives, choppers, and others. Each sharpener is specifically designed for the particular tool. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Multicore - Multicore is produced by Henkel, which operates a worldwide company with leading brands and technologies in three business areas: Laundry and Home Care, Cosmetics/Toiletries and Adhesive Technologies. Founded in 1876, Henkel holds globally leading market positions both in the consumer and industrial businesses with well-known brands such as Persil, Schwarzkopf and Loctite. Henkel, headquartered in D?sseldorf / Germany, has about 50,000 employees worldwide and counts among the most internationally aligned German-based companies in the global marketplace. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Nailers - For over 2 decades, Nailers have been a major producer of kneepads, kneeling mats and back support belts. Nailers long lasting protective kneepads, including the latest Gel pad additions, are designed for maximum comfort and freedom of movement throughout the working day. Widely used in the building and allied trades, Nailers impressive range is also in demand in numerous other industries and professions. There is a Nailers kneepad to suit all applications and pockets. Whether you want swivel, slide, non-marking, extra grip, balance, walking, waterproof, gel or foam with single or double straps, there is a Nailers kneepad to match your needs. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
description
Neat Products - This includes Glass Lifters used extensively in the glazing industry If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
NeverGreen - NeverGreen is an all encompassing patented nanotechnology treat for any outdoor surface. NeverGreen works by creating an invisible, scratch resistant, water repellant, long lasting antimicrobial barrier which, when applied to a new or newly cleaned surface, protects from all types of bacteria, including moulds and algae and is certified for unlimited use by the HSE. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
NEXTORCH’s sole focus has been to produce superior portable lighting products. Utilizing the most advanced lighting technology, we incorporate the brightest light sources available while reaching maximum efficiency for the power supply. For durability, longevity and lightweight, ergonomic carry, NEXTORCH flashlights are housed in rugged aluminum bodies produced of aerospace grade 6061-T6 aluminum with Mil-Spec Type III hard-anodized finish. Simply put, NEXTORCH offer “The Brilliant Solution” for portable lighting products which are powerful, efficient, reliable and compact.
Nicholson - Cooper Hand Tools is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry. Its famous brands Weller, Crescent, Wiss, Nicholson, Lufkin, Xcelite and H.K.Porter are outstanding for their quality and performance. Cooper Hand Tools is soundly based to maintain and develop its reputation for producing high quality tools and equipment worthy of tradesmen, professionals and craftsmen. Besides the European Head Quarter in Besigheim, Germany and the European Distribution Centre in Emmen, Holland, Cooper Hand Tools drives locations in United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
A NightWatcher Security Light is a proven and effective method of deterring intruders from your home and business. What is Nightwatcher The NightWatcher is a patent pending motion tracking feature built into a PIR lamp. The NightWatcher detects an intruders motion within the field of vision of the PIR and points the lamp directly at the intruder. As the intruder moves across the PIR field of vision, the motorized NightWatcher lamp head takes aim and follows.
Nilfisk-ALTO is a division of the Nilfisk-Advance group, which is one of the world's leading manufacturers of professional cleaning equipment. The company supplies quality high pressure washers, vacuum cleaners and floor care equipment to agriculture, automotive and industrial companies, cleaning contractors and private consumers.
Nitromors - Nitromor's is produced by Henkel, which operates a worldwide company with leading brands and technologies in three business areas: Laundry and Home Care, Cosmetics/Toiletries and Adhesive Technologies. Founded in 1876, Henkel holds globally leading market positions both in the consumer and industrial businesses with well-known brands such as Persil, Schwarzkopf and Loctite. Henkel, headquartered in D?sseldorf / Germany, has about 50,000 employees worldwide and counts among the most internationally aligned German-based companies in the global marketplace. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Nobex - Manufacturer Mitre Saw Blades If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Norbar - In 1942 the 'North Bar Tool Company' (as Norbar was then known), became the first company in Britain to commercially manufacture a torque wrench. The initital demand was driven by the need for the gasket-less cylinder head of the Rolls Royce Merlin engine to be accurately tightened. Bill Brodey and his partner Ernest Thornitt obtained a licence from Britain's war-time Government to begin manufacture of torque wrenches and Norbar was born. Since then, Norbar has continued to invest in the very latest design, manufacturing and quality control technology to achieve the highest level of innovation and precision in the field of torque control equipment. The company has grown from strength to strength and now is the world's leading torque specialist with one of the largest and most modern plants in the world devoted exclusively to the design, development and production of torque tightening and measuring equipment. Norbar is the only torque equipment manufacturer to be able to offer torque tool and instrument calibration and recalibration services If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
NWS - Award winning NWS of Germany is the fastest growing manufacturer of quality pliers in Europe. Founded in 1973, the company combines a wealth of traditional expertise with the latest production technology, manufacturing a vast range of superb quality pliers and cutters. Investment in skills and innovation has also won respect for the company as a top German producer. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Oakey - Saint-Gobain (Oakey) Abrasives, the world s leading abrasives manufacturer, is the only international supplier of abrasives that manufactures each of the 3 major types of abrasives; Bonded Abrasives (resinoid and vitrified), Coated Abrasives, and Diamond products. This is supported by exceptional technology, complete and innovative product lines, an irrefutable reputation for quality and safety, and experienced, committed, passionate people. Saint-Gobain (Oakey) Abrasives takes time to understand and fulfil its evolving customer needs. This is reflected in its worldwide market leader status. Saint-Gobain(Oakey) Abrasives prides itself on serving all sectors of the market from DIY, Painting & Decorating, Construction, Automotive & Marine, as well as Industrial markets including Aerospace, Land Turbines, Automotive, Foundry, Metal Fabrication and Rail. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
A rande of high quality Petrol Push Mowers and Electric Rotary Lawnmowers.
OleoMac - OleoMac (Emak UK) was founded in the 70's by budding entrepreneurs, Tony Hemming and Stuart Wood, as a company dedicated to importing and distributing saw chains on the British market. The company, then called Hemming and Wood, subsequently diversified its business, extending its offer by introducing a range of products in the Efco brand (first lawnmowers and brushcutters, and then chainsaws and other complementary products) and a wide range of accessories both for brushcutters - such as market leading 'Sawtec' cutting heads and nylon lines, chainsaws and ride-on lawnmowers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Olympia - Olympia Tools is a forward looking global manufacturer, importer and distributor of High Quality Builders and Contractors Tools designed for both the DIY and professional user. Established in 1976 in the USA and trading in the UK for 10 years, Olympia goes from strength to strength in the manufactrue of good quality tools in a wide range of products for the professional or DIY enthusiast from, Striking Tools Pry and Wrecking Bars Clamps and Vices Hand Trucks Landscaping, Fencing and Builders Tools. Bolsters and Chisels. Not forgetting the World famous Gorilla Bar, part of the Roughneck Family and still the only Wrecking bar to be ordered by Builders by name. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Opella is the UK's leading manufacturer of filling and flushing products. High quality brand that manufactures innovative plumbing products, such as filling valves and flushing valves for cisterns.
OTO (1001) - Floorcare in Mousse, shampoo and spray. One of the best carpet cleaners on the market. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
P/P - Power Plumber supplies drain clearers and plunger kits. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Panasonic Power Tools UK full range available at Trade Counter Direct at great prices. Panasonic is the leading manufacture of professional cordless power tools.Trade Counter Direct is a preferred supplier of Panasonic Tools and we only like to supply our customers with the most heavy duty top quality professional tools and Panasonic definitely fit in that category. For more than 30 years, Panasonic has been developing and manufacturing cordless power tools to provide craftsmen and the industry with professional equipment. With Panasonic's innovative technology, compact sizes, and the highest demands on product quality and durability, Panasonic has won satisfied customers all over the world. When designing and developing power tools, Panasonic focus on products that can withstand the harsh environment on construction sites and the constant use in industrial manufacturing processes.
Bound to innovations, high-quality and excellence in relationship to their partners - Perles of Switzerland aim at the top. Through more than a 50-year old tradition, they have developed with their own development and continuing checking on the market extremely strong know-how, which enables them to produce durable tools with powerful motors, ergonomic design, technically perfected and safe for use
Personna - You will find Personna produce over 1000 different industrial blades from single edge razor to skinner/bacon blades together with a wide range of D.I.Y. knives/blades and scrapers plus medical products. A tradition of craftsmanship for over 130 years confirms Personna s position as the world s largest manufacturer of quality blade products. Highest precision production and stringent quality controls ensure the high level of customer satisfaction reported by Personna s valued customers in almost every European nation. With manufacturing facilities in the USA and Europe Personna utilizes shaving blade technology not available to most other manufacturers and supplies many different industries and trades including...Glass, Packaging, Textile, Glass Fibre, Automotive, Food Processing, Meat Processing, Picture Framing, D.I.Y. and Medical scalpels etc. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Pest-Stop - Procter Pest-Stop is part of Procter Bros, a business established back in 1740 and still family owned to this day, and we are of course very proud of our heritage. But actually it's been our ability to look forward and specifically for new and innovative products which has been a key element of our success. Combining that with our stance of being serious about pest control also helps explain why we're such a respected brand. In fact, being serious about pest control is something in which we believe strongly in and the overwhelming message we hear is that retailers and consumers do too which all makes sense of course as clearly having rats, mice or other pests in the home and garden is no fun at all. Pest-Stop are the producers of The Little Nipper mousetrap, which they have been manufacturing for over 120 years. Other products in the range are conventional traps, humane traps, cage traps, chemical products, electronic pest control, garden pest control and insect pest control. We have products to trap or repel most pests, giving the consumer a product to suit their needs. Pest-Stop products are also widely used by professional pest Control operatives. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Plano - Plano are the word leaders in the manufacture of site safety work pouches and tool safety products from a wide range of pouches and holders to suit your daily work requirements from tape holders to nail pouches. The Plano range of product are made from good quality materials for a longer lasting life and added safety when using tools or materials on site or simply around the home. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Plasplug - Founded in 1970, Plasplugs' first product was the General Purpose wall plug, the first plastic plug to sell effectively in the market place. Today, Plasplugs still manufacture plastic plugs, but has extended its portfolio to include fasteners, tiling tools, knives, abrasives, electrical products and power tools. Their mission is to make difficult jobs easier. Renowned for innovation, Plasplugs invests considerably in research and design, frequently launching new products. The newest and most exciting product is the Diamond Wheel Tile Cutter. Its unique water recycling system avoids hazardous water spillage and allows water to be re-used- no more constant refilling. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Founded in 1970, Plasplugs' first product was the General Purpose wall plug, the first plastic plug to sell effectively in the market place. Today, Plasplugs still manufacture plastic plugs, but have extended its portfolio to include fasteners, tiling tools, knives, abrasives, electrical products and power tools. Our mission is to make difficult jobs easier.
Plasti-kote - As the leading brand in the spray paint market, Plasti-kote offers a portfolio of high quality spray paint products for a range of interior and exterior decorating applications. Since its inception in 1992 Plasti-kote has grown and grown. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Valspar Corporation one of the largest global coatings manufacturers in the world, Plasti-kote is continuing to expand in Europe and now has a presence in the UK, Ireland, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Finland and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Plusgas - supplies lubricating sprays & oils for de-seizing all corroded metal parts, penetrates deep down to break the grip of rust, scale, carbon, paint or gum. Silicone free. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Polco offer a large range of items from Jump starts to Jump Leads
Polycell - Preparation before decoration is an important step in helping you to create a better end finish. At Polycell, they want to make sure that the products they develop are exactly what you need and help take the hassle out of preparation. They have created products that not only make jobs easier and less time consuming for you, but that deliver an outstanding end result. The Polycell product range covers all your preparation needs and is split into categories to allow finding the right product for the job much easier. Whether it's a filler, treatment, sealant or cleaner you can rest assured that Polycell has a solution for your preparation need. The filler market has seen continued growth over the past few years with Polycell the leading brand in this category. Their filler offering has been split into 6 subcategories to allow finding the right product for the job much easier. These are Multi Purpose, Convenience, Task Specific, Large Areas, Exterior and Wood. Their pack designs have been colour coded to create powerful visual differentiation between the sub-categories allowing you to easily shop for the filler you need. Polycell is committed to continue to drive category growth through their extensive and exciting product offering and they have developed a number of easier-to-use fillers to help take the hassle out of pre-deco. Walls and ceilings are common problem areas and Polycell has created and driven this preparation category through innovative and exciting products. Whether you are looking to solve the problem of damaged, cracked or textured walls and ceilings, Polycell have the solution to overcome these. By providing flexible formulations you can cover these imperfections and prevent them from reappearing and they even provide a smoothing product and an easy to use tool allowing you to achieve a smooth finish on large areas with minimal effort. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Polyvine - Polyvine a waterproof, synthetic resin adhesive for use on general joinery - especially outside woodwork and boat building. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Power8 Workshop Plus from CEL UK - The worlds 1st cordless workstation. CEL UK are inventors and manufacturers of innovative new power tools, garden tools, floor care products and household appliances. Power8 Workshop is a truly inspiring product design as featured and invested in by BBCs Dragons Den! Choose between the power8 Plus Workshop and the Power8 Duration Workshop, ideal for jobs around the house. CEL's innovative product range include the following: Power8 Workshop, Power8 Workshop Lithium, Power8 Workshop Pro, Cel Multi2pro, CEL Powermini screwdriver. Also CEL have newly accounced their Pro Power tools range that include: The Pro Multitool, Pro Reciprocating saw, Pro Drill Driver, Pro Impact Driver.
Max Sievert launched his first soldering blowtorch in Stockholm over 100 years ago, to this day Sievert still strive to develop, manufacture and supply innovative and high-quality tools and tool systems for all types of soldering and heating applications in particular their Power Jet Gas Torch.
Priory - Smith Francis Tools Ltd of Birmingham have 65 years experience in the manufacture of high quality hand tools. Their expertise and engineering know-how developed over the years is now available for the production of bespoke and branded tools to the trade. At a time when capital outlay and long term investment on machine tools, testing equipment and personnel training can be difficult if not impossible to justify and fund, then out-sourcing can prove to be an attractive commercial proposition. Smith Francis Tools are established suppliers to some of the major companies in the UK including Railtrack (formerly British Rail), Ministry of Defence and British Telecom. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
PRT - Pritt stick glue. A general purpose adhesives If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Python - They supply safety file handles. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Q.Max - Q-Max Electronics Sheel Metal Punches are 100% British. Thread the punch onto the Allen screw and then pass the Allen screw through the hole. Position the die on top of the die nut and then screw the die nut onto the projecting Allen screw until it touches the metal sheet. Use an Allen key to turn the Allen screw. The screw will pull the punch through the metal and a hole will result. Supplied and used all over the world - the easiest and quickest way of punching holes in sheet metal (up to 1.625mm mild steel) These sheetmetal punches offer a quick and easy way to cut clean holes in sheet metal up to 16 gauge. The special design allows for an even load during cutting and produces a burr free hole that needs no extra finishing. All punches are sold singly without key, which should be ordered separately. To use these punches they need to be dismantled then a hole drilled through the sheet, which must be 2mm greater than the diameter of the Allen screw, large enough to clear the Allen Screw. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Quick-Grip Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Quickloader Retractable Ratchet Tie Downs, are available in various lengths, strengths and widths. Quickloader stays as a single piece unit. The retracting spring mechanism allows the webbing to take up the slack while you load. After use the easy release lever allows for quick and convenient unfastening of the cargo and the webbing neatly retracts away for easy storage. Quickloader has a longer handle that pulls down over the spool which allows for greater leverage. Great quality product and quick and easy to use!
RST is the brand name for Hand Tools manufactured and distributed by the Rollins Group stable. Their range of tools, aimed at the DIY market, incorporates Tape Measures, Brick Trowels and Floats, Replacement Tool Handles and Decorating Tools. The RST branded trowels continue to offer excellent value for money to both the jobber builder and DIY enthusiast.
Raaco - Raaco has developed and manufactured a unique range of quality storage systems for small items, tools and accessories since 1957. The whole range is based on the same basic values: quality, versatility, functionality and environmental awareness. All the components in raaco's storage systems are designed to work together and to save time, space and money. The systems almost unlimited versatility means that it offers an efficient solution for every need. raaco has long been an international market leader in the development and production of storage systems to the highest professional standards. raaco's headquarters and production unit are in Nykbing Falster, Denmark. The company employs approx. 150-155 employees 35 throughout Europe. Subsidiaries and agents service a network of dealers all over the world. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ragni - Ragni is Italy's premier manufacturer of professional plastering, cement finishing, tiling and brick trowels. They set demanding standards in materials and methods of manufacture in order to produce an extensive range of trowels that are noted for their quality, balance and value for money. All Ragni trowels are fully guaranteed against any manufacturing defects. Within the UK, Ragni has the distinction of being the top selling brand of trowels for tradesmen. Ragni Crown solid forged brick trowels are the latest addition to the range. These premium quality trowels have been painstakingly designed and tested in conjunction with bricklayers to ensure that they are suited to the most demanding applications. Balance, strength, comfortable non-slip grip and available in a range of sizes to suit all needs are just a few of the benefits that the Ragni Crown range brings to the end-user, backed up by a 3 year guarantee. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rapid - Rapid is one of the world's leading companies in stapling and tacking innovation. Rapid sell a carefully selected range of professional tacking tools, from lightweight hand tackers ideal for reupholstering and decorative work, to Heavy-Duty Hand Tackers suitable for stapling thin materials to wood. Rapid also supply Rapid Hammer Tackers for stapling fitted carpets, underlay, insulation materials and for very heavy duty work Rapids Pneumatic Brad and Staple Guns can drive 12mm staples and 15mm brads to a depth of 30mm in wood. Rapid also manufacture high quality staples to fit just about any stapler or tacker you can mentionalong and a range of innovative garden tools, heat guns and glue guns. Rapid tools are classics, used by tradesmen all over the world for all kinds of jobs that have to meet extra high standards. In short, top quality Products built to last. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rapitest - As a global specialist in energy management with operations in more than 100 countries, Schneider Electric offers integrated solutions across multiple market segments, including leadership positions in energy and infrastructure, industrial processes, building automation, and data centres/networks, as well as a broad presence in residential applications. Focused on making energy safe, reliable, and efficient. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rawlplug - RAWLPLUG is one of the world's leading manufacturers of specialist anchoring and fixing systems used in construction, industrial and retail markets. For over 90 years since their foundation, the RAWLPLUG and RAWL FIXINGS brands have been synonymous with innovation, reliability and safety in the development and manufacture of construction anchors and ancillary products. Nowadays Rawplug produces hundreds of millions of specialist fixings a year and supplies them to almost every market worldwide. It also offers a comprehensive range of products to meet the needs of all users, from the construction specifier and professional tradesman to the DIY enthusiast. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Recoil - Recoil Thread repair kits are the simple way to repair damaged threads or creating stronger threads in alloy components. Recoil inserts are rolled from high quality stainless steel wire with a diamond shaped cross section, wound to the shape of a spring thread. Once the insert is installed into a tapped hole, it provides a permanent and wear resistant thread in the parent material designed to be stronger than the original thread. The inserts are greater in diameter than the corresponding tapped hole and compress as they are installed. This allows maximum surface contact area with the tapped thread, safely and permanently anchoring the inserts into place. The insert's compensatory action shares the load over the entire bolt and hole, increasing holding or pull out strength. With a Recoil insert in place, load and stress are more evenly distributed. Recoil inserts are installed in four easy steps... If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Record Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Record Power - Record Power has over one hundred years of expertise and experience in the design and manufacture of fine Woodworking Machinery and Tools, they aim to offer a high quality choice of machines and accessories that can be bought with total confidence, offering real value and backed up with long term support and guarantees. Whether you are a first time purchaser or an experienced woodworker, Record Power will supply a product of the highest quality to suit your requirements. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
REHAU is a privately owned, international polymer processing company specialising in the production of technical polymer products and systems, operating in a wide range of market sectors including garden watering. Being an established UK garden hose supplier, REHAU produces hoses and hose related products for all levels of gardening expertise, including spray guns, hoses, connectors, irrigation systems and water timers.
Rems Tools are recognised as the worlds leading manufacturer of machines and tools for today's professional pipe installer. Rems Tools development engineers turn ground breaking ideas into reality, with modern products that ease the daily routines of the pipe installation professional. Products in the range include Rems Tube Benders, REMS Deburring Tools and Rems Pipe Threading Equipment, Rems Pressing Tongs, Rems Drain Camera Equipment, Rems Drain Cleaning Equipment.
Rentokil - Rentokil has been a household name since 1927, and is seen as the number one pest control brand in the UK. A recent survey found Rentokil to be the brand most associated with pest control products by consumers. A survey instigated by Rentokil products showed over 65% of consumers have experienced a pest control problem in the past 12 months, with pest numbers only set to increase in the future according to reports. According to a report published in 2006* the market is valued at over ?54m at RSP, with the leading brand, Rentokil, enjoying over 28% market share (at the time of the report) and growing year on year. It is estimated the market by value is divided approximately 50/50 between Insect control and Rat & Mouse control.(*Source Mintel, Edengene & Rentokil). Over 50% of those questioned identified Rentokil as the brand most trusted to deal with a pest control problem in the house; 30% more than its nearest rival. The Rentokil Products Range currently consists of over 60 products, and is split into two main categories: Insect control and Rat & Mouse Control. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ridgid Tool is the creator of the popular Ridgid Tool Kollmann Drain Cleaning Machines and the Ridgid Tool SeeSnake Inpection Cameras, plus they manufacture plumbing and HVAC tools. Ridgid Tool have recently branched out into more general purpose hand tools and power tools and video inspection cameras such as the Ridgid Tool SeeSnake micro Explorer inspection camera and the Ridgid Tool SeeSnake CA100 Inspection Camera. Trade Counter Direct supply all of Ridgid Tool Kollmann and Ridgid Tool SeeSnake Including: K-40, K-45, K-60, K-7500, KJ-3100, k-45-AF, K-400. All sectional Drain Machines Can be Ordered through TCD.
ROCOL was established in 1878 as a manufacturer of specialist industrial lubricants in the UK. Over the last 120 years, ROCOL has expanded considerably and now offers Lubrication, Site Safety and Adhesive solutions to nearly every facet of industry.
Rohm - R?hm is a competent and innovative partner for global drill chuck requirements. Almost all drill manufacturers are supplied with R?hm drill chucks. They manufacture millions of excellent quality geared and rapid-action chucks, which is only possible using the most modern manufacturing and assembly technology. As links between the machine and the clamping tool, they can offer tapered mandrels, reducing sleeves, extension sleeves, drill and reamer extensions, short clamping chucks, adjustable adapters and split taper sockets. Quick, robust and accurate, R?hm offers NC tools such as draw-in collet chucks, precision short drill chucks, hydraulic expanding chucks and the induction shrink technology for clamping HM and HSS tool shafts. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rolson have been producing and sourcing new, innovative and low cost hand tools, power tools and accessories for the trade and DIYers all with a no-quibble 12 month guarantee. Our best sellers are the Rolson 12 V Jump Start and Rolson Diamond Core Drill Set.
Ronseal - It does what it says on the tin Their aim at Ronseal is always to provide products that meet exactly your requirements; that is why they spend a lot of time listening to what you have to say. They then take that feedback into their R & D Laboratories, and using the very latest technological advancements, they can then deliver innovative new products and the quality service for your DIY and project needs. This is an ongoing process and, coupled with their no-nonsense advertising and marketing, and their extensive consumer education, these innovative new product developments will continue to help them lead in their product categories, meeting and exceeding your requirements in the future. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rothenberger Tools Rothenberger Tools - A wide range of Rothenberger Pipe Benders, Rothenberger Pipe Cutters, Rothenberger Blow Torches like the Rothenberger Superfire 2, Rothenberger Quickfire, Pipe Deburring, Rothenberger Superforce Plunger plus many more and all related Mapp gas, Propane gas and oxygen cylindres are just a few of the 25+ million professional tools sold each year from Rothenberger. Don't miss out on Trade Count Direct's Exclusive Rothenberger Hot Bag Kits. Rothenberger has been a worldwide leader in producing innovative, technologically demanding pipe tools and machines for lavatory, climate-control, gas and environmental technology. Rothenberger offers complete solutions for pipe installation and associated service and maintenance work such as: Pipe threading machines, Electric Pipe Benders, Electric Pipe Cutters, Pipe Vices, Drain Cleaning Machines, Drain Inspection Cameras, Manual Drain Snakes, Drain Rods and Plungers. Engineered in Germany, Rothenberger are responsible for revolutionizing modern plumbing tools. The full Catalogue is available to buy at TradeCounterDirect.com
Olympia Tools is a forward looking global manufacturer, importer and distributor of High Quality Builders and Contractors Tools designed for both the DIY and professional user.
Roughneck Clothing - Roughneck Clothing (Olympia Tools) produce tough clothes for a tough world. Olympia Tools is a forward looking global manufacturer, importer and distributor of High Quality Builders and Contractors Tools designed for both the DIY and professional user. Established in 1976 in the USA and trading in the UK for 10 years, Olympia goes from strength to strength. The UK administrative functions and showroom are situated in Reading, Berkshire and the warehousing and distribution handled by HI Way Express in Wakefield. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Rustins - Rustins is a family company founded in 1924. They manufacture Wood Finishes, Speciality Paints, Floor Coatings and other unique decorating products, including the original Danish and Teak Oils, developed over 50 years ago. They are continually researching and developing new products, using the latest raw materials and technologies. This dedication to new product development has been a consistent policy of the company. All products are manufactured to a high specification and are tested during manufacture and before being passed for filling. They have developed a range of high quality water-based varnishes and coatings for wood together with quick drying, water based speciality paints, thus reducing the effect on the atmosphere of solvent based products. They are manufacturers of quality finishes for over 84 years. Rustings the name you can trust!. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ryobi are one of the worlds largest and most innovative power tool manufacturers specialising in making pro-featured power tools truly affordable which is why they are the brand of choice for millions of homeowners, woodworkers, hobbyists, craftspeople and value-conscious contractors. Ryobi now have a extensive range of Cordless Power Tools.
The new Ryobi TEK4 tool range provides performance, durability and long run-time in a compact package. Each Tek4 tool is powered by a 4 volt reusable and interchangeable Lithium-Ion battery.Ryobi are one of the worlds largest and most innovative power tool manufacturers specialising in making pro-featured power tools truly affordable which is why they are the brand of choice for millions of homeowners, woodworkers, hobbyists, craftspeople and value-conscious contractors. Ryobi now have a extensive range of Cordless Power Tools.
Safety Shop is a leading brand producing high quality, hard wearing safety signs necessary to the worksite. Both regulatory and optional signs available, ensuring your site is a safe site.
Saxon - Engine, oil & fuel products. Vizibleed brake and clutch bleeding tool If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
SCAN SAFETY PRODUCTS are designed to protect wearers in the most frequently occurring circumstances under which personal protection is either required or recommended in the building, construction, maintenance and associated industries. User comfort and long lasting service are the main considerations for SCAN WORKWEAR which is designed to cater for the needs of both the professional user and enthusiastic DIYers.
Dawnmay Tools Limited, trading under the name of Scottool, manufacture a comprehensive range of top quality plumbing tools for both the professional and DIY market. Mainly focusing on the plumbing trade and producing quality products that are well designed, simple to use and competitively priced.
Scruffs, the hottest new name in street-styled safety footwear & workwear, provides tradesman with the hard-working urban look that they've been looking for. But the expertise doesn't just stop at safety footwear & workwear. Trading under the corporate name of Birchwood Products, Scruffs is only one amongst an impressive portfolio of industrial brand names.
Sealey are one of the UKs leading suppliers of workshop tools and equipment. Sealey provide the best products, best value and a service that is second to none. 34 years of Sealey.
Select Products have been sourcing and supplying innovative tools, consumables and accessories to the plumbing industry for 20 years. Specialising particularly in unique plumbing tools and plumbing products such as their best selling Plastic Access Panels, CleanFit Abrasives, Pump Nut Release Tools and Virgin White PTFE thread paste.
Sellotape - Henkel manufactures of Sellotape are also the name behind many of the branded products that you regularly use. Founded in 1876, Henkel holds globally leading market positions both in the consumer and industrial businesses with well-known brands such as Persil, Schwarzkopf, Sellotape and Loctite products. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
The Sentri range of black site and vehicle boxes has built up a considerable reputation over the last 13 years from a standing start to being a leading a leading, respected, trusted and recognised brand throughout the industry at home and abroad. As times move on and the value of your tools that you need to store safely increases, the level of security you deserve also needs to be increased. 4 years ago we were the first to introduce hydraulic arms, drop down handles and Euro cylinders as standard features to our range, but standing still is not parts of the sentribox philosophy. As leading designers of metal storage systems we have now taken box engineering to new levels.
Shaws - Started by Joshua Shaw in 1815, Shaw Cutters is now part of the DC Developments group of companies, and a leading British manufacturer of hand-held glass cutting tools and cutting wheels. Shaws has a world-wide customer base of DIY stores and trade suppliers that demand that they provide consistently high quality and service. In-house manufacture and assembly enables them to keep a close check on quality and respond quickly to their customers needs. The range of products produced include Shaws cutters with steel or tungsten carbide wheels, single wheel cutters or six wheel cutters, plastic or wooden handles, diamond cutters, circle arm cutters, oil filled cutters or just wheels or wheel units. Shaws supply everything for the amateur and the professional alike If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Shurtape - Shurtape Technologies' brands include market-leading Duck Tape? brand duct tape. Duck Tape? was launched over 10 years ago in the UK. During this time it became the UK's favourite and Number 1 DIY tape brand. More recently, the award winning and game-changing FrogTape brand painter's tape was launched, and is soon to be launched in the UK. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Sievert - The Sievert AB was established in 1882 and is today one of the world s leading producer of heating tools. They develop and manufacturer products which are sold in more than 60 countries around the world. Their head office is in Stockholm, Sweden and manufacturing is done at their own premises in Tartu, Estonia. Their business activity is focused on offering the market professional products at the top end of the quality scale for soldering/brazing and other heating jobs. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Sikkens - The Sikkens brand provides professional coating systems which bring innovation, technical excellence, premium quality and high performance to Architects, Specifiers and Interior Designers for new and maintenance applications. With its range of high performance, low maintenance systems, from factory applied joinery coatings to decorative site finishes, Sikkens leads the way. The performance of Sikkens coatings is greatly enhanced by thorough surface preparation and Sikkens promotes the use of preservatives, end grain sealers and high performance fillers as part of its system. First class research and development means that Sikkens is always at the forefront of new advancements, a prime example being the new 'High Solids' low solvent technology. Sikkens offers comprehensive support on all aspects relating to the specification of coatings, providing technical advice including health and safety issues, carrying out inspections and site surveys, preparing detailed individual specifications for particular projects and cyclical maintenance programmes. Sikkens, the first choice in coatings for the professional. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Silver Steel - T&A are Europe's largest manufacturer of Precision Silver Steel (BS1407). And have been in business for over 20 years providing the highest quality ground round steel for precision engineering applications servicing even the most demanding sectors both home and overseas i.e. Formula 1, Automotive and Aviation. Alongside their Silver Steel operation, they offer a precision centreless grinding sub-contract hirework facility with customers ranging from the medical, aerospace and offshore sectors. They are a Specialist Manufacturer and Stockholder of Genuine BS1407 Precision Silver Steel with an extensive range available to buy securely online. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
SilverHook supply winter products like ice scrapers and concentrated anti-freeze.
Silverline Tools is probably the fastest growing supplier of top quality hand tools and power tools. Silverline supply a large range of plumbing tools such as utility keys, plungers, drain unblocking equipment, immersion spanners and pipe cutters. <br />
Simoniz - Founded in the United Kingdom more than 65 years ago by Douglas Holt, Holt Lloyd has become an industry leader in the manufacture and global distribution of automotive aftermarket products. The Simoniz brand is now one of the most advertised brands in the automotive car appearance industry. In the years 2000 and 2001, spurred by the successful launch of the Simoniz Detailer's Brushless Carwash, Simoniz produced over one billion consumer impressions, and reestablished the brand as an innovative market leader. Today, Simoniz products and services are preferred throughout the country at new car dealerships, professional car washes, and by professional housekeeping and maintenance departments. Simoniz products can be found on the shelves of major retailers nationwide. Simoniz brand products truly are 'The Detailer's Choice!' If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Leaders in the UK DIY and Electrical retail business, SMJ Supply quality branded products and superior packaging solutions. SMJ have become a major partner to several Blue Chip companies, as well as many Electrical and DIY Wholesalers. A high quality range of electrical sockets and energy saving timers.
Snail - Snail Founded in 1934 are a world class manufacture of specialist hand tools, and their products are manufactured in the UK. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Solo - PC Cox is the world's largest, most progressive and successful manufacturer of hand-held sealant applicators, with a range of over 90 models, manual, battery and pneumatic, for single and dual-component materials, and capable of dispensing cartridges, sachets or bulk material. Within that range you should be able to find an applicator to do the job you need. Founded in 1958, when Patrick C Cox invented the gun mechanism (patented worldwide), the company has experienced strong worldwide growth over the years. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Solvite - Stick with the UK's number one wallpaper adhesive, Solvite Extra Strong All Purpose, for reliable, long lasting results when decorating. It's fast mix and smooth formula makes preparing and applying the paste easy whilst added fungicides prevent mould growth. Solvite has been the professional's choice for more than 30 years. It is approved and recommended by the Painting and Decorating Association (Formed by the merger of The British Decorators Association and The Painting and Decorating Federation). In 1964, Solvite was a little-known wallpaper adhesives brand sold in the main to painters and decorators on the Fylde coast. After initial success, the business was acquired by Henkel in 1973. First Solvite set out to own the generic benefit of the market: sticking power. The product was torture-tested on national TV with a stuntman pasted to a Solvite-yellow board and suspended from a helicopter flown over Miami. The man on the board is part of British DIY life. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
In the time-honoured tradition of German craftsmanship, Stabila has produced innovative, precision-made tools for more than a century and a half. Introducing laser technology in the 1990's to its measuring and levelling product lines, including sighting systems for spirit levels, self-levelling systems, and twin-laser technology. Stabila lasers and levels are amongst the best on the market.
High-grade tightening tools such as torque wrenches, socket tools, drives and connectors, machine-powered IMPACT tightening tools, mechanical & electronic torque wrenches and testers, chisels, pipe-cutters, screwdrivers, pliers, hammers, VDE insulated tools, bodywork tools, workshop trolleys and tool assortments, special tools for the aerospace industry and for the saloon car and commercial vehicle industries.
Stanley are dedicated to continually testing, designing and improving their products to ensure quality and maximum function to maintain their standing as one of the world's best for high quality saws, knives, measuring tools, and tool boxes. The Stanley brand has gone on to cover the entire field of hand tools, hardware and accessories but the Stanley Knife is probably their best known product.
The ultimate tools built for the professional. Innovation designed to make life easier, virtually unbreakable tools to get the job done.
Stanley Intelli Tools - The Stanley Works, originally a bolt and door hardware manufacturing company located in New Britain, Connecticut; was founded in 1843 by Frederick T. Stanley. A few years later, in 1857, Frederick
Stanley Spares - The Stanley Works, originally a bolt and door hardware manufacturing company located in New Britain, Connecticut; was founded in 1843 by Frederick T. Stanley. A few years later, in 1857, Frederick s cousin, Henry Stanley, founded The Stanley Rule and Level Company. In 1920, The Rule and Level Company merged with The Stanley Works and would go on to become it s famous Hand Tools Division. Over the years, The Stanley Works has produced some of the most innovative and useful tools ever made. Among these tools are the Bailey Plane, the Surform shaper, the PowerLock tape rule and most recently the FatMax line of products. Today, more than ever, Stanley continues to be an industry leader in tool innovation. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
The L.S. Starrett Company, founded in 1880, manufactures industrial, professional and consumer products which include precision tools, tape measures, levels, electronic gauges, dial indicators, gauge blocks, digital readout measuring tools, granite surface plates, optical projectors, vision systems, co-ordinate measuring machines, vices, M1 lubricant, hacksaw blades, hole saws, band saw blades, circular saw blades, jig and reciprocating saw blades and ground flat stock.
Steinel - Heinrich Wolfgang Steinel established Steinel GmbH in 1959, initially under the banner Heinrich Steinel OHG. Now, Steinel GmbH & Co. KG have four production facilities based in Europe. These are at Herzebrock, Molkau, Einsiedeln and Liberec, employing over 1000 people in these factories alone. A further 2 sites, based in Rumania have been recently added. Steinel has subsidiaries all over the world with branches in over 65 countries. They supply O.E.M. equipment to some of Europe's largest manufacturers as well as supplying numerous High Street stores. All Steinel products carry a three year warranty. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Stencils - Established since 1920 AT Brown, based in Essex, have been manufacturing interlocking stencils and supplying to MOD for the past 30 years. Many 'blue chip' companies in the UK use AT Brown's special interlocking stencils as well as companies in Holland, Ireland and Australia. Their architectural signs department have worked with numerous clients within the local Essex area and clients nationwide. We take on all projects involving the design, manufacturing and installation of architectural signs. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Heaters from Stanley.
Strait Line produce high quality stud finders, laser levels, measure and estimating tools employing the most up to date technology for professional tradesmen.
Strait-Line - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
STV Big Cheese - The UK's No.1 brand for effective control of rodent pests. This comprehensive range includes catch-and-kill and live-catch traps, as well as rodenticide baits, bait stations and ultrasonic deterrents. The Big Cheese range is easy to use and features safety conscious application methods and welfare-friendly controls If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Super Rods - Specialist Rod sets for electrions & plumbers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Swann are leaders in Advanced Security Made Easy. Safeguard your loved ones and property with affordable cameras, monitoring, recording kits, and more.
Swarfega - Swarfega, manufactured by Deb Ltd, is renowned the world over for it's unique cleaning properties which over the years has transformed Swarfega into a generic term for heavy-duty hand cleaning. Swarfega the hand cleaner has been a tried and trusted brand for around 60 years, however Swarfega actually started life as a liquid silk stocking preservative called Deb Silkware Protector ! From humble beginnings Swarfega has grown to become a leading name within its field. Today, the Swarfega brand and it's products quality unrivalled, ensuring that Swarfega products stand up to their strapline of tough products for tough jobs. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Sylglas - Sylglas (Denso UK) are leaders in Corrosion Prevention and Sealing Technology. The Denso range of products have been used for over 75 years and have a proven track record and they are proud to be the foremost company in this field. The Winn & Coales (Denso) Ltd range comprises of a variety of specialised pipe & structural coatings, marine protection systems, including tapes, brush and spray applied liquid coatings, mastics, primers and sealants based on materials such as petrolatum, butyl rubber bitumen, plastics and epoxy resin. Systems are tailor-made for individual anti-corrosion and sealing problems developed with the realities of an on site application in mind. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Tacwise has evolved from 40 years of power tool know-how and boasts the widest quality programme of stapling and nailing tools available worldwide. Tacwise is a new brand of rugged fastening tools for the professional tradesman.
Buy Taymar tools at Trade Counter Direct. A wide range of Taymar Torches, Gas Cylinders and blow lamps at Low prices.
tcd - Trade Counter Direct.com sell leading brands at competitive prices, many available for next day delivery, such as: Evolution Power Tools, A.E.G, Black & Decker, DeWalt, Power8, Belle, Einhell,Gyproc, Hilmor, Hitachi, Irwin, Jobman Workwear, Marshalltown, Monument, Opella, REMS,Rothenberger, Ryobi, Select Products, Stanley, Scottools, TPI, Van Vault, Wohler, and consumables from Henkel Loctite, Laco, Rocal, and Unibond.
Telesteps - Telesteps is a company focused on bringing products to the market which have time and space saving features. They develop and market products which quickly and easily expand to their full size when used, but take up little space when stored and transported. Telesteps products have generated great interest in the market place and we work constantly to develop our products always with user safety as our No 1 priority. We believe that long ladders are awkward and that you have better use of a compact one. One ladder for every situation. Always the right length. Always at a safe angle. A telescopic ladder can help you reach heights of up to 5 metres, anywhere. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Teng - Teng Tools started about twenty five years ago with the belief that beauty lives in the details. Over the years, these useful details have come to be known as Typically Teng. Today they offer over 2,200 tools that possess such beauty and they distribute them in more than thirty countries. Their guaranteed tools and their unique Tool Control System do more than just get the job done, they help to improve workflow by creating a more organised and efficient workshop with smoother performance. With Teng on your side, you 'll save money and time by eliminating the hassle of searching for misplaced tools. Teng ISO certified torque wrenches with inbuilt angular gauges, screwdrivers with ergonomically designed grips, pliers with titanium coated joints, sockets and spanners with the hip grip drive system for increased torque all features that improve performance and efficiency. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Teng Tools offers a range of more than 2,200 products, Including Cutting Tool Storage, Garage Workbench, Impact Socket Sets, Spanner Wrench and Torque Multipliers. Toolshack offer both large and small quantity demands with fast service, competitive prices and specified quality.The Teng Tools range now includes Tool Storage, Garage Cabinets, Work Bench, Impact Socket Sets, Sockets and Accessories, Torque Wrenches & Torque Multipliers, Spanner, Wrenches, Pliers, Screwdrivers and a Comprehensive range of specialist Automotive Storage and General Service Tools.
Terry Plastics - This Milan based company dominates much of the European market for top quality, durable plastic storage products, from small parts storage up to comprehensive, modular systems for the workshop. The Terry Ecobox range of impact resistant polypropylene storage boxes is the market leading solution for storing a wide variety of products in many different environments from Engineering Distributor's stores, Builder's Merchants showrooms to garages. These stackable units are available in a range of sizes and can also be fitted to a wall panel for alternative storage. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Test West Meters - West Meters have continued to grow in terms of popularity and range since forming in 1979 and are now one of the market leaders for thermometers in the UK. They have a well deserved reputation for offering outstanding value for money whilst ensuring their products are manufactured to the highest quality. Their rapid order processing and daily nationwide deliveries provide customers with instant access to their products. They have an invaluable range of thermometers for use in and around the home and garden. Their DIY products are suitable for all your DIY jobs and include a vast range of electrical testers. The West Meters factory is situated in North Wales and is accredited with ISO9002 and therefore has the ability to meet today's standards required by the consumer and industry. In addition they have a worldwide sourcing capability with offices in Taiwan and China. Therefore with their in-house design and development facilities contribute to ensuring that all their products set the standard for quality and value. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Tetrion Fillers - The range of Tetrion innovative high performance products includes the first ever 'All-purpose' powder filler, Tetrion All Purpose Powder filler has been established within the professional market for over 30 years. Tetrosyl is the largest manufacturer and supplier of car care products in the UK. The privately owned company also specialises in oils and lubricants, refinishing, and DIY products. The company has a significant worldwide presence, extending its global reach to 75 countries and is also the market leader in France. Tetrosyl offers a one stop shop to customers providing complete product ranges supported by visionary marketing, category management, product and packaging development, patented technology and distribution efficiency. A culture of continuous improvement and entrepreneurship ensures that Tetrosyl can adapt quickly to the changing needs of a complex and competitive market. Tetrion is one of the leading brands within the professional trade market with a reputation for developing quality specialist fillers for the Professional trade and the DIY markets. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Thor - Thor Hammer manufacturers Soft Faced Hammers and Mallets. Over 50 years specialization in this area enables them to provide a non-damaging striking solution for any problem where a hand tool is required. Made in England to high quality standards, their soft-faced hammers provide a safer alternative to striking with conventional steel hammers. The resilient soft striking faces shape themselves to the part being struck. Acting as shock absorbers, they spread the force of the blow uniformly, minimising inefficient rebound and damage to components. Soft-faced hammers also reduce noise pollution in the workplace. With over 150 different Hammers and Mallets available, they offer a wide range of product to suit all applications. Thor have been approved to ISO 9001:2000 since 1992. A member of the Stephens family founded the company during the 1920,s and to this day Thor Hammer remains a family run business. There are currently two generations of the Stephens family working at the company and our Managing Director is the son of the original founder. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ti-Tech offer an extensive range of quality saws are fully supported by our highly experienced team of field based Sales Engineers who are there to assist you with making the correct choices when purchasing new equipment. We also have a selection of Addison Approved used machines, all in excellent condition and generally supplied from new by us with service records.
Timloc produce a range of high quality plastic access panels and metal access panels. Our metal panels and hatches are available in a non fire rated range along with a fire rated range.
Todays Tools - Plumbing Heating, mains testers, gas torch kits & accessories. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Town and Country - Town & Country is the name synonymous with premium quality work and gardening gloves, tool belts, tool holders and knee pads, and is the leading supplier within these product categories to the UK DIY and garden retail markets. Re-branded in January 2001, T&C Work Wear brand of leather and suede work aprons, gloves and tool pouches are specifically designed for the DIY market. Whether you are planning to do some digging, weeding, pruning or sowing, we have gloves designed with every task in mind. You'll find everything you need from Town & Country to make light work of your gardening tasks with their impressive collection of accessories. There are kneepads and kneeler stools to take the pressure off knees and feet, a comprehensive range of brushes and brooms to cope with all surfaces and clever pop-up tidy bags to help with the big clear up. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
TPI 'The Value Leader TM', offer a complete line of handheld flue gas analysers, oscilloscopes, digital multimeters, digital clamp-on meters, gas detection instruments, combustion efficiency, refrigeration leak detectors, digital manometers, contact and infrared temperature instruments, surface mount test clips and a full inventory of accessories.
Trend - The key to the development of Trend over the past 50 years has been its approach to introducing innovative products worldwide. From introducing the first plunge router into the UK in the 1950?s to supplying developing countries with the technology to create prosperity in 2001, they have truly pushed the boundaries of routing technology. Their approach to technology is not limited to product development, their service also extends beyond the limits of customer expectation. They have built a reputation for outstanding service in sales, technical advice and logistics over the years and this will never be compromised. Their Professional Range is aimed at the most demanding applications in manufacturing and the woodworking trades. Products are precision engineered to the highest standard and tolerance. For industrial applications the tooling fulfills the needs of modern routing technology, where machining performance relies on the highest possible standard of excellence. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
TriFlow - Triflow supplied by Ronseal is a wholly owned subsidiary of the international paint manufacturer, the Sherwin-Williams Company, which is based in Cleveland, Ohio and is the world's largest coatings company. Ronseal (Triflow) is based at Thorncliffe Park in Sheffield in the UK and also has a thriving business in Dublin, Republic of Ireland. Their aim at Ronseal is always to provide products that meet exactly your requirements; that is why they spend a lot of time listening to what you have to say. The High Performance Penetrating Lubricant. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Tristar - Supplies Cloths, Scrourers, mops & Bin Bags If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
TRT - Unique roller stand for bench power tools. The roller head can be rotated 90 degrees to align correctly for support in any direction. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
TUW - Top-up Water Products (TUW) are a family owned company established since 1984, we are situated in Rainham, Essex on the outskirts of East London. TUW manufacture and supply De-ionised Water, Battery Acid and Screenwash. They are also stockists of Hydrochloric Acid, Caustic Soda and empty containers in various size. Their business is based on a quality product at a very competitive price. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
U-Care - Established in 1770 U-Care have a long history in the chamois leather and car care industries. Since their inception they have seen many changes and they use their wealth of experience and first class knowledge to keep ahead of the times. Joining forces with their German sister company, Lemmen GmbH based in Burscheid (K?ln) has enabled them to benefit from their 75 year long experience in the production of natural and synthetic sponges. U-Care aim is to deliver excellent products and impeccable service to you, our customers. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
U-Pol - U-POL is a world leader in automotive refinish products. Recognized globally with sales in over 100 countries, U-POL is committed to consistently providing customers with products of the quality professionals demand - the highest! Their heritage and experience of over 60 years in the industry, coupled with their continued investment in state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities and reputation for innovation, ensures that your U-POL experience is nothing less than world class. Pioneers in marketing of Non System coatings U-POL delivers a broad range of reliable tool quality products and high quality consumables at a fair price. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Ultra - Ultra is the registered trademark of Demurger SA, Europe's No. 1 specialist manufacturer of metal cutting saws and saw blades for power tools. Under the ULTRA brand the range includes hacksaws, power hacksaws, jigsaws, a comprehensive selection of holesaws including HSS Bi-metal, grit carbide and diamond and a range of sabre saw blades designed for safety and performance in response to today's new and more powerful machines. The Ultra range covers over 3,000 products, which aim to provide solutions to all metal cutting problems. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Unibond - Henkel suppliers of (Unibond) operates worldwide with leading brands and technologies in three business areas: Laundry & Home Care, Cosmetics/Toiletries and Adhesive Technologies. Founded in 1876, Henkel (Unibond) holds globally leading market positions both in the consumer and industrial businesses with well-known brands such as Persil, Schwarzkopf and Loctite. Henkel, (Unibond) headquartered in D'sseldorf / Germany, has about 50,000 employees worldwide and counts among the most internationally aligned German-based companies in the global marketplace. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
UNION - Architectural Hardware grew out of a family business set up in 1840 in Willenhall - the heart of the British lock-making industry for over four centuries. Today, the distinguished UNION brand provides an extensive range of architectural products for commercial and contract applications and is widely recognised in over 80 countries. UNION products are designed in the UK by highly skilled and experienced project teams and are at the forefront in quality and performance. For true peace of mind, safety and full protection for your home. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Uniross - Uniross has been the rechargeable power specialist since 1968. They design, manufacture and distribute standard and dedicated rechargeable batteries and battery chargers for digital cameras, digital video, mp3 players, electronic toys and a host of other devices. Today, Uniross is one of the world leaders and currently holds the no.1 position in Europe, India and South Africa and no.2 in China and the overall Far Eastern market. With a worldwide presence in more than 70 countries, Uniross is the rechargeable power specialists. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
At TCD we have a wide range of "Value" Access Panels, suitable for DIYer and Contractor alike. Our range constists of plastic panels, metal panels, tile panels, and plaster access panels.
Put simply ‘Quality Commercial Kit’ is exactly what we offer. Hitting that quality mark is why we are in business and our commitment to the highest standards has made us into a market leader that has been around for over 30 years.
Van Vault is the UK's No.1 mobile vehicle storage security brand, providing tradesmen with the most effective means of protecting the valuable tools & equipment that help earn their living. Part of corporate brand name Birchwood Products, Van Vault stands for quality, value-for-money and progressive innovation.
Many of what are now accepted as basic hammer designs - from the distinctive curve of the claw to the set of the handle and the shape of the head - were introduced by Vaughan. All are the result of Vaughan's commitment to constant hammer improvement and extensive field testing.
Velcro - VELCRO brand fasteners are now part of everyone's lives, offering practical, versatile, convenient and safe fastening solutions to the: Home, School, Office, Travel & Leisure, Garden, Manufacturing Industries The inspiration behind the famous VELCRO brand fastener was the cocklebur. In 1941 a Swiss inventor got the idea from closely inspecting a burr which had attached itself to his dog's coat whilst out walking. It took him a decade to find the material and develop a machine that would produce a closure with consistent performance. Created from the first syllables of the French words velours (loop) and crochet (hook), the VELCRO brand name has, since 1959, been given to an extensive range of products that have greatly simplified fastening and closure operations. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Victorinox - 1884 Following his apprenticeship in Paris and in Tuttlingen in South Germany, Karl Elsener opens his own cutler's business in Ibach-Schwyz. The energy for the grinding and polishing machines was supplied by a waterwheel driven by the Tobelbach brook. 1891 The Swiss Army was supplied with soldiers' knives for the first time. 1897 On June 12, the Swiss Officer's and Sports Knife was patented. 1989 The launch of Swiss Army watches in America was highly successful. 1992 The company opens the first of its own sales offices in Japan. In the years that follow, further subsidiaries are founded in Mexico, Brazil, Poland, Hong Kong/China, Vietnam and Chile. 2005 The takeover of Wenger SA, Del?mont in the Jura region, knife manufacturer since 1893 and also a supplier of the Swiss army, is intended to secure the ongoing further development of the 'Swiss Army Knife' and the future of its Swiss-based production. 2006 Relocation of Watch factory to Porrentruy. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Vileda - As the UK's leading household cleaning brand, Vileda offers an extensive range of mops, brushes and cloths to make everyday chores quicker and easier. Expertise stretching back over 150 years and a spirit of invention that is always looking to the future are the hallmarks of the Vileda and Freudenberg enterprises. Vileda also offers an array of expertly designed Laundrycare products ranging from specialist outdoor rotary clothes dryers to innovative ironing boards. Vileda constantly strives to make highly effective products that make household chores quicker and easier to complete. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Visa - Visa Tools Ltd is part of the Gibson Group of Companies. The Gibson Group companies all manufacture specialist hand tools for Forestry, Fencing, Landscaping, Engineering, Stone masoning, Stone Carving, and monumental masoning industries. Names such as G.Gibson & Co Ltd, Manufacturers of Stone Masons tools including Carbide Tipped Chisels (J.G.Faulds Type or F-type), Framing and Rafter Squares for the building industries, including the sought after 'Smallwoods Square - 390 & 390B' Roofing Square. Smith Edge Tools was acquired but then merged into Visa Tools, so the manufacture of specialist type Hammer Heads e.g. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Visegrip Irwin - IRWIN Industrial Tools Ltd., a Newell Rubbermaid Company, produces high-quality hand tools and power tools accessories for metalworking and woodworking professionals. As well as the Record brand of hand tools, consisting of metalworking and woodworking vices, bolt-cutters, G-clamps, pipe tools and woodworking planes, the company has many other famous brands, including: Record, Marples, Jack, Vise-Grip, Quick-Grip, Gilbow, Joran, Hilmor, Hanson, Lock-N-Load, Strait-Line and Lenox. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Vitax is a Leicestershire based company which manufactures high quality lawn care products. Vitax weed killers are weed killing sprays and concentrates that are ideal for moss, algae, brushwood, brambles, nettles and other garden weeds. Keep your lawn and garden tidy and healthy with Vitax weed killers.
Over 60 years of producing quality DIY products has made Vitrex a leading supplier of tiling and safety products. Since 1995 we have been part of the Facom Tools Group, one of the largest hand tool manufacturers in the world. Whilst this gives us access to greater resources it remains our objective to provide products of a professional quality to DIY consumers that are easy to select and use.
The new Viva Skylo range of flush valves offer un-rivalled flexibility, giving installers and home owners greater choice and options, that previous ranges have not had.
Wagner Spraytech - The WAGNER-Group is a market leading manufacturer of high tech products and systems for coating and decorating with paints and powder. Their customers are the industry, contractors and consumers alike. Worldwide the WAGNER-Group develops, produces and markets products of first class quality and forward looking technology. High user friendliness, reliability and economy of their products plus their worldwide service network makes WAGNER a premium supplier in the surface finishing market. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
WD-40 is the worlds leading multipurpose maintenance spray, with five essential products in one. It displaces moisture; penetrates; lubricates; cleans; and protects.
Weller - Cooper Hand Tools is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry. Its famous brands Weller, Crescent, Wiss, Nicholson, Lufkin, Xcelite and H.K.Porter are outstanding for their quality and performance. Cooper Hand Tools is soundly based to maintain and develop its reputation for producing high quality tools and equipment worthy of tradesmen, professionals and craftsmen. Besides the European Headquarter in Besigheim, Germany and the European Distribution Centre in Emmen, Holland, Cooper Hand Tools drives locations in United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Wera Tools are the leading global specialist in screwdriving tools, their name is synonomous with quality & innovation. Known best for their Kraftform screwdriver handle, truly ergonomic and designed for ultimate comfort & control, and for their BiTorsion system - which extends bit service life. Recent product launches include the Kraftform Kompakt VDE screwdriver kit, and the world-first Stainless range of tools - 100% Stainless steel, yet as hard as conventional steel, they prevenet rust forming on stainless steel screwheads, caused by contamination from conventional steel tools.
Wesco - A. E. Westwood is a privately owned company, founded in 1928. Origionally based in Birmingham the company is now based in Alcester, Warwickshire, they are the sole manufacturers of pump action oil cans under the brand name Wesco. As time has progressed many items have been added to the extensive product range including metal/plastic funnels, grease guns, drum taps, metal and plastic pourers, lubrication equipment and a full and comprehensive range of metric and imperial grease nipples. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Williams - Williams founded in 1934 are a world class manufactures of Specialist hand tools, and their products are manufactured in the UK. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Wiss - Cooper Hand Tools is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry. Its famous brands Weller, Crescent, Wiss, Nicholson, Lufkin, Xcelite and H.K.Porter are outstanding for their quality and performance. Cooper Hand Tools is soundly based to maintain and develop its reputation for producing high quality tools and equipment worthy of tradesmen, professionals and craftsmen. Besides the European Head Quarter in Besigheim, Germany and the European Distribution Centre in Emmen, Holland, Cooper Hand Tools drives locations in United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Witte - WITTE a leading European quality Screwdriver and Bit Manufacturer founded in 1785 by Stephan Witte and now a member of the world renowned Kirchhoff Group. By focusing on a single market WITTE ensures that only top quality innovative products are produced, thus motivating customer satisfaction. The development of products using the latest techniques incorporates the utmost in design, manufacture and testing in order to minimise work related fatigue. The screwdriver ranges meet the needs of all, from the DIY enthusiasts to the professional user. Slotted, Phillips, Pozidriv, T-handle, Micro, VDE, Insert Bits and more the WITTE range has it all. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Wohler have been designing, manufacturing and supplying innovative video inspection camera systems, measuring instruments and tools and for use in, on and around heating and ventilation systems and buildings. Wohler Drain camers are a form of telepresence used to visually inspect the interiors of pipelines, chimney flues & drainage syatems.
A popular power generator brand, Wolf manufacture a range of high quality petrol generators.
Angles and geometries that respect the human body's neutral posture. Shapes that match the exact anatomy and functionality of human hands. Grips that are sized and contoured to ensure comfort and allow for the efficient transmission of the body's force.
Wynns - Wynn?s supplies; retail and trade additives for oil, transmission, fuel and cooling, plus valeting, service, garage equipment and maintenance and repair products. In 1939, Chestien Wynn discovered a formula he named Wynn?s Friction Proofing Oil. In 1947 the company was incorporated under the name Wynn Oil Company in California. Wynn?s began expanding outside of the United States, and in 1977 Wynn Oil (UK) Ltd was formed. In 1995 Wynn?s Belgium obtained the ISO 9001 certificate, which is an indication of its commitment to ongoing quality control in its production processes. The Wynn?s operation in the UK is based in Reading, Berkshire, with its distribution warehouse centrally located in Rushden. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Xcelite - Cooper Hand Tools is a major worldwide manufacturing company, with a sound base for providing the most comprehensive line of quality tools and equipment to meet the ever-changing needs of an expanding industry. Its famous brands Weller, Crescent, Wiss, Nicholson, Lufkin, Xcelite and H.K.Porter are outstanding for their quality and performance. Cooper Hand Tools is soundly based to maintain and develop its reputation for producing high quality tools and equipment worthy of tradesmen, professionals and craftsmen. Besides the European Head Quarter in Besigheim, Germany and the European Distribution Centre in Emmen, Holland, Cooper Hand Tools drives locations in United Kingdom, France, Italy and Switzerland. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
XTC Home & Pro Telescopic Ladders. Xtend & Climb Telescopic ladders have been designed to be compact enough to store in the most confined areas - under the stairs, in cupboards, car boots and even under the bed. XTC (TB Davies) are one of the United Kingdom's leading suppliers of Access Equipment operating a Next Day Delivery service to all corners of the country. We're known as a major access player - pioneering the use of innovative products that help people work more efficiently and safely at height.
Yale Locks - At Yale they have been taking care of people and their favourite things all over the world, for over two hundred years. Like your great-great-great grandparents before you, you can be secure in the knowledge that fitting Yale alarms or Yale locks to your doors and windows means complete peace of mind and full protection for your family and property. Yale is one of the oldest international brands in the world and probably the best-known name in the locking industry. The Yale history captures major innovations that have marked the evolution not just of Yale, but of the entire locking industry. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Zarges (UK) probably carries the widest range of ladders, steps, work platforms and towers (with an assurance of quality you can rely on.) Stringent standards are maintained throughout the design, manufacture and quality control processes to bring our customers the best products available. Zarges's range of aluminium alloy containers was first introduced to the UK market in 1955, at a time when the majority of containers used in industrial, commercial and military applications were manufactured from wood and steel. The Lacon box, its name derived from that of the original licence holder, Light Alloy Construction, rapidly became a byword for quality in MoD circles.
Zenith Profin - Zenith (Lea Manufacturing) has been established in the United Kingdom since 1955. They are the largest independent supplier of surface engineering products in the country, and are the UK's leading manufacturer of abrasive polishing compounds and speciality barrelling and tumbling products. With their Buff and Mop manufacturing capabilities, and strategic partnership with world class suppiers such as 3M, Hermes and SHL, they can deliver an unbeatable range of products, technology and expertise sharply focused on mechanical surface treatments. Their technology is both home-grown and sourced world-wide. Their policy is to seek out the best available technology from any source and supply it with the backing of their unrivalled technical support. This policy enables them to be at the cutting edge of technology in most sections of the surface engineering industry. If you can't find what your looking for please contact Trade Counter Direct and we'll do our best to source your product.
Zircon Corporation designs, develops, manufactures and markets the largest selling line of high-technology, electronic hand tools for professional contractors and home improvement enthusiasts.
Sign up to TDC Tool Shop News
| i don't know |
Born in Linlithgow, West Lothian in 1954, who is the current leader of The Scottish Nationalist Party ? | Alex Salmond biography -Biography Online
About
Alex Salmond biography
Alex Salmond (31 December 1954 – ) is a Scottish politician and leader of the Scottish Nationalist Party (SNP). He led the Scottish independence campaign during the referendum of September 2014, where the vote for independence was lost 45% – 55%.
Salmond served as a Scottish MP from 1987-2010. In the 2007 Scottish Parliament election, he became an MSP for Gordon constituency and became the First Minister of Scotland.
Short biography Alex Salmond
Salmond was born in Linlithgow, West Lothian. He attended the local Linlithgow Academy and studied Business Studies at Edinburgh College of Commerce. He then went to the University of St Andrew’s where he gained a 2:2 Joint Honours MA in economics and medieval history.
It was at St Andrew’s that he become involved in Scottish nationalist politics. As a student, he was committed to left-wing Socialist ideals and was a member of the 79 group – a socialist republican organisation within the Scottish Nationalist party. He was briefly banned from the SNP when this left wing group was expelled by the larger SNP party.
In the 1970s, the SNP were a weak minority force within Scottish politics; Scottish elections were still dominated by the traditional British parties of Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats.
But, the 1970s, saw a renewed interest in Scottish nationalism, with the discovery of oil fields off the Scottish coast increasing the economic case for independence. However, the movement received a setback in 1979 when a referendum on creating a new Scottish Assembly was defeated because insufficient people turned up to vote yes.
After graduation, he served briefly in the Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland as an assistant economist. He later moved on to work for the Royal Bank of Scotland where he served as an oil economist.
MP
In 1987, he stood for parliament and successfully defeated the incumbent Conservative MP. This helped his rise through the SNP party ranks; later that year he was voted Deputy Leader of the SNP.
He gained more notoriety in 1987 when he interrupted the speech of Conservative Chancellor Nigel Lawson. Salmond recounts his piece of ‘mischief making’ with relish
“What I said, although they turned my microphone off, was ‘Poll tax for the poor, tax cuts for the rich, nothing for the National Health Service – an obscenity!’ That was my wee speech,”
He was expelled from the Commons, but gained increased media notoriety.
In 1990, Gordon Wilson stood down as leader of the SNP and Salmond stood against a fellow left winger Margaret Ewing – decisively beating her in the leadership election, 486 to 146.
The 1980s saw growth in the Scottish nationalist case as the government of Mrs Thatcher became deeply unpopular in Scotland. In particular the decision to trial the deeply unpopular ‘Poll Tax’ in Scotland was widely hated. Also, there was growing resentment at the use of tax revenues from Scottish oil. Salmond was fiercely critical of Thatcher’s Conservative government arguing she led a “government of occupation”
Salmond also claimed UK use of oil revenues to be “the greatest act of international larceny since the Spanish stole the Inca gold”.
As leader, Alex Salmond oversaw a gradual increase in the share of the SNP’s vote in general election. In 1997, the SNP increased their number of seats at Westminster from 4 to 6. It also saw a landslide Labour government – who promised to legislate for a devolved Scottish Assembly.
Salmond saw piecemeal devolution as a stepping stone towards the final goal of complete independence. He signed up with Scottish Labour Leader Donald Dewar and Scottish Liberal Democrat Jim Wallace in campaigning for Scottish devolution and a Scottish Parliament. This moderation in his views was criticised by some hardliners within the SNP because some felt devolution was a false goal compared to full independence.
Salmond also moderated his previously socialist ideals, moving the party to a more centre-left viewpoint – seeking to appeal to a broader spectrum of Scottish opinion. He also gained a high profile in London’s media with regular TV appearances and becoming one of the UK’s most recognisable politicians. He made successful appearances on panel shows, such as ‘Have I got News for you’ – A good platform for his quick wit and engaging style. Like Boris Johnson, he became one of few politicians known beyond small political circles
In 1999, he was elected to the Scottish Parliament, but in 2000 he stood down as Party leader after a number of personal disagreements amongst members of the party.
Foreign policy
Salmond has been one of the strongest critics of UK foreign policy. He was a lone voice in condemning UK intervention in Serbia in 1999, condemning the action (not authorised by UN resolution) as ‘unpardonable folly’
In 2003, Salmond was one of the most strident critics of Tony Blair’s decision to go to war in Iraq. He claimed Blair had made a pact with George G. Bush to go to war come what may.’
Leadership of SNP
In 2004, encouraged by grassroots members of the SNP, he returned to the Scottish political fray, announcing he would stand for the SNP leadership. He was elected and went on to return to the Scottish Parliament in the 2007 elections. The election was a triumph for the SNP with the party gaining the most seats and able to form a minority coalition with the Scottish Green Party.
Oil and renewable energy
With a coalition with the Green party, the Salmond has made calls to improve Scottish development of renewable energy and to support action to combat global warming. However, revenues from Scottish oil production remain a key plank of SNP vision for a richer Scotland.
Scottish Referendum
In the 2011 Scottish Parliament election, the SNP increased their vote and gained an overall majority. This enabled the SNP to call for a referendum on Scottish independence. In October 2012, David Cameron and Salmond signed the Edinburgh agreement which formed the basis for a referendum on Scottish independence to be held on 18 September 2014.
“Our vision is of an independent Scotland regaining its place as an equal member of the family of nations – however, we do not seek independence as an end in itself, but rather as a means to changing Scotland for the better.”
– Alex Salmond BBC
2014 Scottish independence campaign
Salmond sought to reassure English voters that independence would be good for all the UK, often mentioning an old homespun wisdom that after independence:
“England will lose a “surly lodger” and gain a “good neighbour”.
The Yes campaign led by Alex Salmond was widely perceived as being more optimistic and this successful campaign helped to narrow the gap between Yes and No. In the last two months of the campaign, there was a sharp improvement in the Yes vote from 38% of the vote to 48-49%. Salmond led a high profile campaign in which he stressed that Scotland had the ‘opportunity of a lifetime’ to become an independent nation. Salmond claimed that independence would enable Scotland to become more economically prosperous. The ‘No’ Campaign criticised Salmond and the SNP for falsely overstating the economic benefits and ignoring the risks of separation.
On the eve of the referendum, Salmond spoke
“What unites us is hope for the future… What inspires us is having the dignity of being an equal nation, and what will drive us tomorrow and in the days that follow, is a passion for a better Scotland.”
However, the final result was a decisive no vote, with 45% voting for an independent Scotland and 55% voting to remain part of the UK.
Salmond conceded defeat and called on the UK government to its commitment to further devolution and called on Scotland to move forward as one nation.
“It is important to say that our referendum was an agreed and consented process and Scotland has by a majority decided not at this stage to become an independent country.
“I accept that verdict of the people and I call on all of Scotland to follow suit in accepting the democratic verdict of the people of Scotland…. I pledge to work constructively in the interests of Scotland and the rest of the United Kingdom.” ( Salmond concedes defeat at Independent)
Personal life
Salmond married Moira Salmond in 1981. The couple met in the Scottish Office in the 1970s, when she became his boss; Moira is 15 years older than Alex. They have no children.
Related
| Alex Salmond |
In which 1960s TV series was the main character named Richard Kimble? | Official Report - Parliamentary Business : Scottish Parliament
Parliamentary Business
The Presiding Officer (Sir David Steel):
I remind members to place their cards in the electronic slot. A number of members did not do so yesterday, which caused added difficulties for our sound engineers.
The first item of business this morning is the debate on motion S1M-52 on the proposals for the development of the new Parliament building at Holyrood, and an amendment to the motion. I will invite the First Minister to move the motion with a time limit of 10 minutes. I will then call Donald Gorrie to move his amendment with a time limit of seven minutes. I propose to put a time limit on all speeches, initially at four minutes, for the simple reason that the corporate body is anxious to hear as many views as possible on the project.
At the end of the debate, I will ask Margo MacDonald to sum up for the amendment in seven minutes, followed by Des McNulty, who will give a wind-up speech on behalf of the corporate body for seven minutes. He will be followed by Henry McLeish, who will give the concluding speech for the Executive.
Mary Scanlon (Highlands and Islands) (Con):
On a point of order, Mr Presiding Officer. Yesterday, in reply to my intervention on a Labour member regarding the Executive's proposals for Gaelic education, I was advised that those proposals were clearly outlined in the Inverness Courier. While I recognise the importance of the Inverness Courier in the Highlands, I ask that a precedent be established that proposals and commitments are announced through this chamber, as the Inverness Courier is not yet available to all 129 MSPs.
I have to rule that I am not responsible for the Inverness Courier, but no doubt the members of the Executive will have heard what the member has said.
Holyrood Project
The First Minister (Donald Dewar):
I welcome this debate. It is right that the Parliament should take stock and consider how we should proceed. However, I hope that it will take a decision today, as I believe that that is important. The Parliament inherits plans—it inherits a scheme that commend to this chamber—but it is entitled to consider the instructions that it should give to the corporate body. On that basis, I welcome what is happening today.
There has been a great deal of difficulty and uncertainty about discussing this matter rationally, and there has been much excitement in the public prints. I want to underline the fact that it has been difficult for those working on the project to do so in a conducive atmosphere. One member of the design team said to me recently that the whole period had been demoralising. We should bear in mind the impact of today's decision on those who have worked hard over a lengthy period to get us to where we are.
I have heard many fine words in this chamber about parliamentary business, about Parliament speaking and about Parliament being in charge of a particular project. I can think of no project that belongs more to the Parliament than the construction of the Parliament building. That is why the project will be the responsibility of the corporate body—an impartial body in which all parties are represented.
I say to the nationalists that I am astonished, in view of all that they have said about the business of Parliament, to discover that they are whipping on today's motion. I make it clear that, on my side, there will be a free vote. I am confident that I will carry most of my colleagues, although I cannot say whether I will carry them all. As the Scottish nationalists are whipping, I suspect that the result will be very close. I hope that even during this debate they will recall and consider some of the things that they have said about how we should run the Parliament.
I would never, in any public place, mention names but, from discussions at the presentations and from numerous private conversations, we know that the SNP is split on this matter. Almost all my colleagues would confirm that and I have no doubt that we would carry this vote comfortably on a free vote. Given the subject matter, it is absolutely disgraceful that the chamber will not get that chance. If I sound angry, it is because I am angry.
We have not at any time tried to hide what is happening about the parliamentary building. We
thought that we had to get the project under way and so we started in June 1997. The lead times on such major international projects are very long and it was essential that we started to prepare the ground. We had consulted: I will not try to pretend that we reached consensus on the site, for example, but we consulted the other parties and the public. As members know, there were exhibitions, which moved from Inverness to Selkirk to consult the public, and there were videos and models. There was also much discussion in the press and publicly.
We had to take a decision on the site and I recognise that that may have been controversial. I ought to make it clear that in the 10 minutes that Sir David has imposed on me, I cannot go into points of information; I have a lot of things to say. I accept that there was a presumption in many people's minds that the Royal High School would be the site; in fact, we went there first, with our group of advisers and experts—people whose opinions had to be respected. There was a unanimity of view that the Royal High School was not—and could not satisfactorily be made into—a practical proposition, even if we built the debating chamber in the middle of Regent Road like some extended traffic island. That was not a possibility and we moved on from it.
We looked closely at St Andrew's House, which was a runner. An ingenious, fine and imaginative adaptation was produced for the interior, behind the traditional Tait façade of 1939. We were tempted by that, but decided against it, largely because of difficulties over space and over expansion on the site and because the construction costs were going to be £15 million higher than for the scheme that we ultimately accepted. Mr Salmond may laugh at me—he can go and discuss the matter with the architects, the quantity surveyors and the costing people—but I repeat: we were advised that the cost would be £15 million more.
The First Minister:
The cost was £15 million more at that point. In other words, the best estimate that could be given was £65 million, whereas the projected construction costs for a new building were £50 million. The whole point of the St Andrew's House scheme was that one would have seen no external difference to the building; we would have added nothing to Edinburgh's architectural heritage and the Parliament would have been hidden behind a prewar façade. It seemed to us—and I put it to the chamber—that to build a Parliament incognito was not an attractive proposition. Expense was also a consideration.
We wanted a site that presented the right challenge. That challenge came with Holyrood, which was a late entrant because the owners and occupiers of the site were prepared to adjust their timetable in order to make the site available. The site is beside Holyrood Palace, on the Canongate, in the centre of one of the great medieval cities of Europe, beside and under the looming bulk of Salisbury crags and Arthur's Seat. The site gave us the challenge of creating, with empathy, a 21st century building that would be a gift from our time to succeeding generations and an appropriate and fitting home for our Parliament. Holyrood gave us the opportunities and we thought that it was right to go ahead.
We then decided to have a competition for a design team. I will go over that very quickly, but I will pay tribute to the independent members of the panel, Kirsty Wark, Joan O'Connor and Andy McMillan, who brought expertise and vision to the choice and worked extremely effectively in—I make no secret of it—what was one of the most exciting and satisfying processes of my 25 years in politics. I am a veteran of politics and have come out of many meetings telling the press that the decisions of those meetings were unanimous. On this occasion, the decision was unanimous. Every member of the team considered the distinguished architects who had submitted entries, looked at the designs, which had very different characters, and concluded that the design that was put forward by Enric Miralles best fitted the remit.
I again pay tribute to Enric Miralles, Benedetta Tagliabue and all others involved. I pay particular tribute to their partners RMJM (Scotland) Ltd for the way in which it has evolved the design and treated the site with sympathy and for its vision of a group of buildings rising from the site to mirror and merge with the sweep of the Canongate and the surrounding hills and buildings. The way in which the project grows out of the landscape is attractive.
I remember that when Mr Miralles first appeared before the judges, he produced splendid, large panels that were full of sweeping colour and vision and occasional pieces of script. I was much taken by the piece of script on the first panel, which said that Parliament was a mental place. That is an
interesting thought for those of us who are familiar with the patter of Glasgow, but I know what he means. His whole approach was particularly sympathetic. We consulted the Royal Fine Art Commission for Scotland, Historic Scotland and many other interested bodies.
I am already running out of time, but I will say a word or two about costs. We always said that £50 million was an initial construction cost and that there would be additional costs of VAT, fees and extras. It will be clear to those who bothered to read answers to parliamentary questions—I am sure that Mr Swinney did, as some of the figures that he adduced in parliamentary questions revealed this—that the final total would be around £80 million or £90 million. Mr Gorrie—indefatigable as always—extracted a lot of that information through parliamentary questions. The information was available and was never hidden.
I make it clear that the £109 million that we now hold to—to the best of our ability—includes VAT, fees, site acquisition and preparation, information technology and fit-out. I must make it clear that landscaping into the park and the traffic calming measures, which are a matter for the Executive and City of Edinburgh Council, are not included.
The reasons why the original construction costs went up from £50 million to £62 millions are well known, so I will skim over them. One was that there was a general view that a formal entrance at the bottom of the Canongate was a requirement. An increase in the circulation space—the passage and plant spaces—was largely dictated by the integration of Queensberry House. If members consider comparable buildings they will see that we are still doing well on price. As a result of the consultative steering group's work, the size of staff accommodation also had to be increased; the floor area in the original proposal increased by 44 per cent to 23,000 sq m and the cost rose by 24 per cent, which is perhaps not surprising. The increase was not caused by overspend on the original building. It was caused by the evolution of the building to meet the needs of this Parliament. The increase was fair and proper.
There have a been a lot of rumours, based on an article in a technical journal, that the building will be shoddy and inadequate and that the materials will not be fit for the purpose—I think that the phrase was that we would be given a Dinky and not a Porsche. I found it a little puzzling—if I may be allowed a small snipe—that the source of that phrase had complained about the cost of the building only a few weeks before. I was caught in the crossfire, although I do not necessarily object to that too violently.
If we had adopted such options we would not have unveiled the figure of £62 million. We did not take up those options because we want a quality building that will deliver the standards of service that this Parliament requires. The Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body can consider them again, if this Parliament believes that it should. That would be a matter for synergy between the corporate body and the design team.
Hurrying on—I have to use that phrase constantly now—I say that the motion asks us to consider a few options. One is to cancel the project. I hope that that does not happen. If it does, there will be substantial implications in terms of the immediate cancellation costs and the claims for damages that inevitably arise when a disaster of that kind strikes a project. It would be a very expensive and—to use the phrase again—totally demoralising event.
The circumstances would also be serious if we were to call a moratorium or decide to stay in our present accommodation. We are, to an extent, camping in these buildings. Anyone who has worked here during the past few weeks will understand that. The building is inadequate in scope; the floor area of the group of seven buildings that we occupy is too small, probably by a third. Although the chamber is splendid—and I congratulate the architects, Simpson & Brown, on the work that they have done—it has few facilities.
I know that there is a suggestion, which Mr Gorrie will no doubt support, that we could take over the university premises and acquire a large number of properties in mixed ownership around this site. However, as anyone with experience of such matters will know, that is an expensive, time- consuming and difficult business, even if it were desirable, which I do not think it is. Yesterday, the rain came down as I left the chamber at about 5 o'clock and I was fair drookit by the time I got back to my office. When the winter comes, the difficulties of working in seven separate buildings will become apparent to all members.
I do not believe that it is any better to take the easy way out and ask for a substantial pause so that we can consider the other options. That will cost money, a factor about which the Conservatives are particularly worried. I am told by civil servants, my advisers and people who are involved in the design process that the immediate costs of a two-month delay would be around £2 million to £3 million and that there might well be other claims and costs.
We started on this trail in June 1997. We cannot, in two months, consider a range of new sites, get in the quantity surveyors and the statements from the architects and organise a new judging panel— it is unlikely that the same design team would go on to another site. There would be a major delay and—to put it bluntly; it is time to be blunt—this Parliament would be a laughing stock.
The problem that opponents of the Holyrood project have is not even that we are somehow junking Leith—although the proposed committee would consider Leith, apparently, along with other sites, such as Donaldson's school, which has suddenly appeared in the business bulletin thanks to Brian Monteith. That site was considered at the time; we were told that the proposal was unacceptable and that we should not waste money investigating it. However, if Parliament votes in that way, we will be committed to doing so. It would be a mistake to put ourselves in that position and, on any reasonable reckoning, we would not have a new home until 2004 or 2005.
The chamber is important and there has been a great deal of controversy about it. The plans for Holyrood show a slightly flattened semi-circle, which is similar to the seating arrangements in this hall. However, such plans can and will evolve. The Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body might argue for change and arrive at a consensus with the design team. No one should think that the seating arrangement that we have in this chamber can be transferred to the new Parliament. I am advised that, if we stay here long enough, the seating will have to change as it does not conform to the Disability Discrimination Act 1995.
We have employed the international access consultants, Buro Happold, who tell me that, in the not-too-distant future, there will have to be a revamp of the signing and physical access arrangements in order to comply with the law. That is a matter that will have to evolve along with other matters. It is not caught in concrete—to use a happy metaphor. That we should stop the building contract on the basis of an argument about seating would be unwise and unfair, not only to the Parliament, but to the many other people who have worked so hard to make a success of the project.
I apologise for slightly overrunning, Sir David. I finish by saying to my colleagues that this has never been an arbitrary process or a one-man show. All the important decisions were taken on specialist and skilled advice, matured by the cross-referencing of opinion. The design team was put in place by an independent body of good reputation. It is important that we press on with the project. We are trying to put in place a building of which we can be proud and we are putting in place a client and design team relationship that makes sense.
If we say that we will not allow the corporate body to move on and to try to work out any difficulties that emerge, I believe that we are almost sending it a vote of no confidence. We cannot design by committee, certainly not by a committee of 129. The corporate body will be able to influence, guide and work with the immensely creative team that we have. I believe in my heart of hearts—I may be wrong, but I repeat the point— that, if there were a free vote in the Parliament, it would be clear that MSPs shared that view. I deeply regret that it is not a free vote; I hope that whoever speaks for the nationalists will explain why this is not Parliament business as distinct from party business. If the Parliament building is not the Parliament's business, I cannot think of anything that is.
Yesterday, I was accused of having a lack of ambition and of not having the courage to stand by a radical vision. Today, the Parliament has the chance to stand by a radical vision; I hope that it will take that chance. [Applause.]
I move,
That the Parliament endorses the decision to provide its permanent home on the Holyrood site and authorises the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body to take forward the project in accordance with the plans developed by the EMBT/RMJM design team and within the time scale and cost estimates described in the Presiding Officer's note to members of 9 June 1999.
The Presiding Officer:
I allowed the First Minister some latitude on timing because of the importance of the topic and I must allow Mr Gorrie similar latitude when he speaks in a moment. Members should register whether they want to speak now so that we can assess the timings of speeches.
The other point, which I should have made earlier, is that the corporate body has arranged for members of the design team to be seated at the back of the chamber. During the debate, members may go over to them to ask questions on the project.
Donald Gorrie (Central Scotland) (LD):
I agree with Donald Dewar on one issue: the site is a parliamentary issue. Why, therefore, is he making us vote on an Executive motion? That is an outrage and has caused what may be a disproportionate response from another party.
I have not lobbied my own colleagues, I have sent material to the whole Parliament—the same stuff to every member. How members respond to that material is up to them. As far as I am concerned, this is an individual, personal issue and Mr Dewar has as much right as I have, but no more, to make a decision.
In all my time in politics, I do not remember anything that has caused me greater offence than the idea that one man should decide the site of a democratic Parliament. That is what has happened and it is absolutely unacceptable. There was no consultation on the Holyrood site. There
was consultation on other sites and then, somehow, the Holyrood site was invented. The decision was widely condemned at the time. The timetable under which we are operating has no logical basis; it is driven by the former Secretary of State for Scotland who is now the First Minister. We have been told that we have to decide now, but there is no reason for that timetable.
There is no reason for the Scottish Office to have pursued the issue of the Parliament site at all. It had to produce a temporary site, which it has done very well, and I give credit where it is due. All the other Parliaments that I have heard of started in a temporary site and then chose, in a mature fashion, where they wanted to be. There is no reason whatever why the Scottish Office had to be involved.
If members vote for Mr Dewar's motion, they are committed to one thing for centuries. It is not like the standing orders, which we can change in the autumn—members will be committed for a long time. They will make that decision with no information on the alternatives. It would be ridiculous for a householder, deciding on a new house, to say, "Well, there are three options, but we will look at only one of them."
We are on a timetable that has been condemned by every professional who has spoken to me, whether or not they favoured Holyrood. Moreover, we have all received documents from professional bodies that favour Holyrood but have asked for a pause.
If members vote for this motion, they will limit themselves to the present costs, and improvements, which will doubtless emerge, will not be possible. I am sure that conversation will produce suggestions for improvements, but those improvements will cost money, and either we will not get those improvements or cuts will have to be made elsewhere.
The motion limits us to the present budget and to the present plans. Therefore, we are stuck with the proposed debating chamber. Mr Dewar said that that would be virtually no different from this debating chamber. From where I am standing I can see the faces of a great many members without craning my neck, whereas if I were to sit in an equivalent place in the proposed debating chamber, I would see only the back of members' necks. Personal contact is critical to any democratic debate, but the proposals will destroy that. Instead, they will produce a sort of Stalinist gathering, where people listen to a speech from the great leader. I am not into that sort of politics.
Our amendment is not anti-Miralles or against the design team, whose proposal contains many good things. It is not anti-Holyrood. It suggests that we examine the options, but it does not commit people either to the Assembly Hall or to the Calton hill-Regent Road site. It is against rushing in without proper information.
The Scottish Office involved various clever people, but they are all totally committed to the Holyrood project. With all due respect, they do not give unbiased advice, and the document from your office, Sir David, is tendentious in the extreme. We must get independent advice if the Holyrood scheme is to go ahead with proper, genuine support from the public and from members. Such advice would enable us to improve the chamber and other aspects of the design. Moreover, we could consider the other options that Mr Dewar has tried to rubbish.
As I understand it, there were a number of different proposals for Calton hill, one of which was a very elegant scheme to add the chamber on to the outside of St Andrew's House. It is not true to say that the chamber would be hidden away, although there was one proposal to that effect. Part of the attraction of that site is not that it would be a traffic island in the middle of Regent Road, but that Waterloo Place and Regent Road would make a splendid boulevard. The site would involve the use of the Royal High School for meetings— not for full meetings of the Parliament, but for public consultation, committees and so on.
Calton hill has been seen as the great icon of the Parliament movement. We could use the existing, improved facilities of St Andrew's House. We could have a fine, new debating chamber— with new architecture and any other new buildings that were necessary—up on a hill, where people could see it, and not in down in a hole.
The Assembly Hall has great potential, as Mr James Simpson has shown, having dug out old plans from the University of Edinburgh on how to develop the area. That option needs to be considered, and it is extraordinarily foolish to rush ahead without considering it.
The Calton hill site has fine buildings and space for expansion, which Holyrood does not. It is a fine site, as is the Assembly Hall. When I walk up from the bus stop in the morning, my heart lifts on seeing this building on the hill. It is something that one can be proud of.
The designs for Holyrood are ingenious in many ways, but the site is in a hole. It has no presence—one has to climb Arthur's Seat to see it at all. It is a small site, with no room for expansion. It is hard to get to. People will drive to it, as the right bus routes do not exist. Even if people take the bus, they will have to make more bus trips, as they will have to change buses.
Will our transport policy deal with such problems? There will be disruption to traffic, which will be sent through Holyrood park. Is that what we
expect from the sort of Parliament that we are interested in? Furthermore, in the eyes of many people, the debating chamber is a complete no- no.
Although the timetable for this project has been universally condemned, we are being hooked on to it today. Why is there such a rush? We can stay here for a bit longer to consider the options of staying here permanently, of going ahead more slowly with Holyrood if some improvements are made or of going to another site. There is no rush. We want to get things right, because, although no Parliament lasts for eternity, this one may last for a very long time.
The downside is that there might be a delay, which will cost £500,000 a month, if we believe your office, Sir David, or £1 million a month, if we believe the First Minister. I would not like to choose between those two estimates. Although there will be some cost, it will be quite small. On the other hand, the cost of voting for the motion will be that we will never know whether we got things right or what the real options were that we turned down; we will be stuck with a proposal that has no room for major improvement and that will bring about major changes in cost.
It would be extraordinarily foolish to vote for Mr Dewar's motion. We have a choice today. We can live with a benevolent despotism—it is benevolent, because Mr Dewar is a decent sort of bloke, but it is a despotism nevertheless. One man says what happens and we all obediently follow him. Alternatively, we can have a mature, parliamentary democracy. The question is: are we men and women or are we sheep?
I move amendment S1M-52.1, to leave out all after "Parliament" and insert—
"(a) sets up a special committee consisting of the members of the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body (SPCB) and six other members chosen by the SPCB to work during the summer recess on the matters set out in (b) and (c) below; (b) instructs the special committee to commission a study by an independent organisation recommended by RIBA of the existing plans, realistic possibilities, costs and arguments for and against the potential sites for the Parliament at Holyrood, Calton Hill/Regent Road and the Mound, to be presented to the special committee before the end of the summer recess; (c) empowers the special committee, if it is convinced that the Holyrood scheme clearly offers the best option, to instruct work on the scheme to proceed with any modifications agreed by the committee, and, if it believes that another site is preferable or that there is no clear preferred site, or that the Holyrood site scheme should be pursued at high quality and increased costs over those set out in the Presiding Officer's note to members of 9 June 1999, to present all the relevant information to the Parliament for a decision as early as possible after the summer recess; (d) instructs the Holyrood Project Team to continue with any work, such as archaeological or site preparation works, which will be of value whatever the future of the site, but not to let any construction related contracts proceed until the special committee or the Parliament authorises it to do so; (e) instructs the SPCB to negotiate an appropriate timetable with the Holyrood Project Team if the Holyrood site is chosen by the special committee." The Presiding Officer: I said at the beginning that I wear two hats—as Presiding Officer and as chairman of the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body. As chairman of that body, I am anxious to hear from everybody. Many members wish to speak and so I propose to curtail speeches to three minutes. Indeed, as we proceed, if a member decides to move a motion to extend the debate by half an hour, I will be willing to accept that. However, we will see how we get on.
Kate MacLean (Dundee West) (Lab):
On a point of order, Mr Presiding Officer. I accept what you say about the length of speeches, because it is important that as many people as possible get a chance to speak. However, yesterday, some members were using their interventions to make quite long comments and other members like me, who had been waiting to speak all afternoon, were not able to do so. Will you make a comment about that kind of electronic queue-jumping?
The Presiding Officer:
I said yesterday that interventions have to be short and I did curtail one intervention. However, given that I have asked for very short speeches, I suggest that members limit interventions to give everyone the chance to say what they want about this important project.
Michael Russell (South of Scotland) (SNP):
I commend the First Minister on the passion of his speech. I have seldom, if ever, seen him so passionate. It is admirable that he has such passion for architecture, if indeed that is the cause. However, I suspect that the cause is a passion for getting his own way.
It is obviously necessary to pause at this stage in the project. I will reply immediately to the First Minister's question about why we need a whip on this matter. Had this debate taken place last week, there might not have been a need for it; but the majority of SNP members went to the presentation given by the design team and others and when they came back, they were utterly convinced that the terms of this amendment were right. There had to be a pause on this project.
We are not talking about cancelling this project, but pausing on it. There are three very strong reasons for doing that. The first reason is that the project has financial flaws. A Scottish Parliament
that works and works well is almost beyond price, but this project contains no guarantees about what that final price will be. With every passing day, we hear different figures. Mr Gorrie was right to say that the price of a pause started off at £1 million. At the meeting on Tuesday, we were told that it would be £2 million. The First Minister now says that it is £3 million. If the cost of drawing a breath is rising by £500,000 a day, who knows what will happen to this building. We must look at the figures and the cost again because, in terms of cost efficiency and cost control, this building is out of control.
A second reason to pause is the concept of the building in almost every regard. I hope that Mr Harper will speak on the environmental issues, which are important and have been neglected. The question of traffic access has not been answered. We were confidently told at the briefing meetings that with 2 million visitors the increase in traffic would make no difference to that end of the High Street. That is nonsense and we must consider that matter again.
The issue of the chamber is essential. I will briefly quote from the report by Mr Miralles. Mr Miralles talks about the chamber as being somewhere where MSPs could embrace each other. I see little sign of that happening here. He complains about the tendency for Parliaments to seat members of the assembly facing a wall. Presiding Officer, you are not a wall and we sit like this so that you may control the debate. Mr Miralles also calls members in the chamber performers. Clearly, he has seen Mr Raffan at work, but most people here are not performers.
We should oppose this on the simple grounds of error in thinking. The building that we are talking about will not make us a Parliament. All the comments that we have heard so far suggest that we will miraculously become a Parliament in two years' time and that the problems we have with the new politics and the style of debate will change because we have a new building. That is not true. We must think about what we should be doing and how we, as men and women, should make ourselves a Parliament and not imagine that a building can do that for us. We must pause, consider the future and the costs, then come back in the autumn and decide where we go. We must not be rushed into this decision, because it could be the wrong decision.
Elaine Smith (Coatbridge and Chryston) (Lab):
I chose to make my first speech in this debate because, although I am proud to represent Coatbridge and Chryston here in this Parliament, I also want to be proud of the Parliament that we are shaping for the future. I support the First Minister's motion to move forward with the construction and completion of the building at Holyrood.
Scots are not fooled by the folly of a small number of people who would have us remain with the status quo—a status quo which excludes the people of my constituency from accessing me in a parliamentary environment; a status quo which goes no way towards providing the family-friendly environment that the people of Scotland want; a status quo which strengthens the notions of ivory towers and closed doors in our political processes.
I believe that the people of Scotland do wish to access their representatives in a parliamentary environment and do wish to see family-friendly policies emanate from Parliament and be embodied within it. They do want to see real openness and transparency in government firsthand.
We have the opportunity to achieve progress and establish the people's Parliament, not solely in our policy decisions on the people's priorities, but in the physical environment in which those decisions are made. We should establish a Parliament that provides access to all, regardless of differing abilities, and embraces the Government's priority of inclusion. We should establish a Parliament that seeks to attain environmental excellence that will be hailed as a beacon to others.
In the Parliament we have an unrivalled opportunity to display to the world the excellence that exists in Scottish business, for example, through an arena for Scottish trade and industry exhibits. We could utilise the Parliament building during recess for innovative schemes to encourage young people to take part in the political process and we could use it as a resource for community groups. The Parliament building should make provision for working mothers and fathers. If Safeway can provide creche facilities for parents while they shop, surely we can provide
them for parents while they lobby Government.
These ideals are not possible in our temporary accommodation and a new search for a permanent home will not deliver any increase in quality or value for money. As we have heard, delaying or abandoning the process will have cost implications. Although I have sympathy with people who feel that we should use an old historic building, such buildings exist because of the vision and courage of someone in the past. We are making history with our Parliament: the building should be a sign of our times for future generations.
The Parliament building should accommodate our wishes, should make provision for inclusion, and should reflect the sentiments and views of the Scottish people. We have to accept that the measures that will be required to do that—if we are to build on solid foundations—do not come cheap. Clearly, the original construction cost estimates of 1997 have been exceeded to meet the demands for increased floor space and additional requirements. Is that really the main issue to consider when deciding where the permanent home of our new-found democracy should be based? It has taken 300 years for the Scottish people to have their Parliament returned to them. Their desire is for a Parliament that will reflect and address their needs and aspirations, and that will do so not on a temporary basis or with a make-do mentality.
The people of my constituency of Coatbridge and Chryston, and all the people of Scotland, want a Parliament that will encourage positive and progressive debates and decisions on the issues that affect their daily lives. I believe that they want that process to take place in a building that is fit to reflect the importance of those issues, a Parliament building that will bear the symbols of Scotland's heritage and the aspirations for Scotland's future.
We have a duty to Scotland and its people today, tomorrow and in the next century. That duty involves ensuring that Scotland's Parliament and the Scottish Parliament buildings are a permanent fixture of Scottish life for many generations and many centuries to come.
Miss Annabel Goldie (West of Scotland) (Con):
I speak in support of Mr Gorrie's amendment. I do so because I feel that today MSPs are on a test of trust with the Scottish people—the people in these galleries and the people out beyond. Those people will look keenly at our judgment on where our new Parliament should be and on how much it will cost. The hallmark of what we are our discussing should be prudence and good husbandry, because the Scottish people are entitled to expect no less from this chamber. The question is not what we should have, but why we should have it. If we can answer that second question, MSPs can be at ease with themselves and with the Scottish people, not only today but for future generations.
A Parliament such as the one we seek must have a location, with ancillary facilities, that is suitable for a modern forum of government. That is essential and indisputable. However, the question that cannot be answered—because there is neither sufficient information to do so nor acceptable information about other options—is simply this: does the current proposal for a Parliament building at Holyrood represent the best option?
As Mr Gorrie has indicated, the Scottish people were certainly denied full information about the costs at the time of the devolution referendum. At that time, the figure in the public mind was between £40 million and £50 million. Today, the final estimate is running at approximately £109 million. With a capital cost running at that level, it is unacceptable that MSPs—without any investigation of other options—should endorse such expenditure. If we do, many doctors, nurses, schoolteachers and policemen throughout Scotland will question the wisdom of that decision.
Miss Goldie:
Mr Gorrie's amendment suggests a sensible and practical way forward. It does not seek to halt all progress, nor does it seek to rule out the current Holyrood proposal; but it rightly calls for the brakes to be put on, pending proper investigation of other options. I offer no comment on those options other than to say that they seem worthy of investigation. Until that investigation happens, I cannot see how MSPs can responsibly mandate the expenditure of significant sums of public money when they cannot justify why their decision is the best one.
By instinct, I am a protective soul, and while I shall draw short of accepting Mr Miralles's invitation to embrace the First Minister, I feel an obligation at least to look after him. Unless the
investigation of the other options is made, there is a grave risk that the new Parliament will be identified as a product of self-interested, self- indulgent and profligate MSPs, and Dewar's folly will become a reality. In all seriousness, I think that that would be fair neither to him nor to the people of Scotland. His name should be associated with a Parliament that all of us can be proud of and can defend because we made the best decision based on all the information available, rather than a poor decision based on inadequate information.
Robin Harper (Lothians) (Green):
The result of today's debate will echo down throughout the history of building and architecture in Scotland for a century—a century that will look to the new building as an example of all that should be aimed for in public building. The building will have seen a century of use by parliamentarians. We have a public and a private responsibility to get it right.
I am speaking to that portion of the motion that calls for delay on one set of very important and compelling grounds. There is every possibility that the principal new building of the century will not live up to what should be expected of it due to imprecise specification, lack of clear direction and the recently whispered willingness to relax the building's energy standards to save money.
That would be the biggest imaginable waste of public money. Embodied energy, or lifetime energy use, is part of the cost of a building. Every pound spent now on energy conservation will be an investment that will pay back a significant proportion of the total cost of the building during its lifetime. We have a duty to make time for a thorough assessment of the energy use of this building and to improve the specifications. We must demand a building that will be an icon for the future and a yardstick of sustainability. In the present climate of opinion and Government's public commitments, which I shall come to, it would be bizarre to settle for anything less.
What has worried me so far about the planning of the project is the apparent secrecy that still surrounds it. The fact that it is a Crown project means that building warrant drawings that would allow us to calculate the lifetime costs of the building need not be produced. This building will be used by the public as well as by members. They have an interest. Public accessibility should mean public accountability. Where are the drawings?
No wind tunnel tests have been done yet despite the well-known windiness of Edinburgh, particularly round Arthur's Seat. Essentially we do not yet know whether the design is viable, although I confess that I like the exterior. If a child's view of the building is anything to go by, this is the kind of building that a child would love to dash into and explore.
There seems to be no willingness to do everything possible to use Scottish hardwoods, despite the stored elm, sycamore and other hardwoods that would become available from several specialist sources in Scotland, given careful planning now. There is no commitment to the use of recycled materials such as warmcell, which is made from recycled newspaper. There is no excitement, no innovation and no creativity in this building so far.
I have consulted experts such as the Scottish Environmental Design Association, which group has written to Mr McLeish and is not satisfied with his replies. I am reliably informed by them that a confession was made at the inquiry this week that the design team is aiming for only good to excellent in the energy specifications.
Robin Harper:
I will not take any interventions. This building cannot be only good to excellent; it must be beyond excellent. It must be the best building that we can possibly produce. Time spent on improving energy efficiency will repay itself amply. It will almost certainly cost millions of pounds more in the long run to go ahead with the plan as it is. If we can spend £500 million on a block of offices for Westminster MPs and a couple of hundred million pounds on a supermarket, surely the Government will listen to a plea that more time be spent on considering the building, and even that more money be spent on it so that we can fulfil our international obligations, inspire the generation of architects to come, and give Scotland a building that it deserves.
The first Scottish Parliament for 300 years is an historic and memorable event. As befits such an event, we need a new, appropriate home.
The white paper on devolution stated:
"The building the Scottish Parliament occupies must be of such a quality, durability and civic importance as to reflect the Parliament's status and operational needs."
In Enric Miralles we have found an architect who can make those dreams a reality. Anyone who can sit here and say, hand on heart, that the facilities that we have now are satisfactory must surely be of questionable sanity.
I am the first to admit that our office accommodation is very acceptable in the short term, but I am only in that office for a few hours a week. What about the staff who work there all day,
every day? What about disabled visitors? It may be pleasant now to use three buildings and mingle with the tourists in the summer sun, but what about in December, January and February when the snow is six inches deep? Will it be such a nice little stroll then?
One of the great opportunities when creating a great building is the chance to rectify all the things that are wrong with existing buildings. Is our current home environmentally friendly? I think not. Environmental issues will be a major consideration in the new building. Energy efficiency and environmentally conscious design principles will result in more economic construction costs, which is of prime importance, not least because it can also lead to reduced maintenance and energy consumption costs. Water will be used more economically and waste will be minimised and recycled. Natural lighting and ventilation via windows and a passive cooling system will ensure that everyone who uses the building is comfortable and will reduce the incidence of ailments such as sick building syndrome.
For me, however, of prime importance is the need to provide a building that is accessible to everyone. The design for the new Parliament is compliant with Disability Scotland's guidelines. Compliance covers not only access facilities, but signage, interior design, pedestrian and vehicular access and assistance for people who are hard of hearing, the visually impaired and the infirm.
As a brand-new Parliament whose members seek to formulate a new type of government, the new building must be an exemplary model of access for all, irrespective of disability. The Scottish Parliament last sat 300 years ago. How long do we want this one to last? To use my mother's cliché, "You only get what you pay for." If we do not invest now, how many years will it be until we are examining designs for another new Parliament? What would the cost be then?
All members know how frustrating it is to be here and not to be able to pass legislation because we have not yet taken on our full powers. What about the frustration of the staff who work here in cramped conditions, and of the public who are being disfranchised because we are not allowing them access? Let us waste no more time. Let us get down to this project now and get into our new building as quickly as possible.
Michael Matheson (Central Scotland) (SNP):
My concern is not so much about the materials or cost of the building, but that we ensure that we have a Parliament that is open and accessible to all members of our society, no matter that they have a disability. It seems, however, that some members think that if we say that the Parliament is accessible, it is. I am afraid that there are a number of concerns about access for the disabled and to the Holyrood site.
At Tuesday's meeting with the architect and Scottish Office officials, I raised the issue not of access within the Parliament, but of access to the Parliament site. The transport problems that will undoubtedly occur will have a disproportionate effect on people with a disability. We know from comments made by one of the Scottish Office officials that one of the ideas that is being considered to ensure that disabled people can get to the Parliament is a shuttle bus service. I am sorry, but that is an unacceptable standard to set for a new Parliament from the start.
The Parliament will have a secure area for dropping off VIPs, but there are no plans for an area near the Parliament to drop off disabled people or the elderly. I am sure that many members of this Parliament will agree that it is more important that disabled people can be dropped off at the Parliament than that the odd dignitary who may choose to visit us can be.
There are also concerns about the interior of the building. It will be a cambered chamber, like this one. The same access problems will exist as here. How does someone with a wheelchair go from this end of the Parliament to the other end of the Parliament, without having to go down to the front or round the back? On Tuesday, that question could not be answered.
The Presiding Officer's area will be elevated and will be accessed by stairs. At the heart of our Parliament, there will be an area that someone with a disability will be unable to access. When that point was raised, Scottish Office officials stated that they were aware of the problem and were looking into the possibility of an elevating platform. When I heard that suggestion, I must confess that the vision of the Blackpool organist coming up through the stage floor went through my mind.
Already we are considering adapting a building that should be built to the standard that anyone with a disability, whether they be the Presiding Officer, a member or a member of the public, can access any part of. The Parliament should be built to ensure that, during the next 200 years, every member of our society, no matter that they have a disability, can access the building and every part of the building. We are talking about a Parliament that may last for 200 years. What is two months if we ensure that we provide a Parliament that includes all members of our society?
Mrs Lyndsay McIntosh (Central Scotland)
(Con):
I will be brief, as I know that many people wish to contribute to this debate. I support Mr Gorrie's amendment with the benefit of the experience of having builders in my home.
The eventual home of the Scottish Parliament is a decision for which we as parliamentarians will be held to account, not just from an architectural standpoint, but by those who will visit and watch what we do. I am willing to bet that this is the only time that most of us will ever make a decision on where this Parliament will be situated. Certainly, I do not have experience in the matter, but I would welcome the time to look at the situation anew.
I will leave aside the arguments about whether we were duped by the announcement of the initial cost price; whether it was £40 million or £50 million and whether it included things such as VAT, fees or demolition costs. I intend no slight to the then Secretary of State for Scotland who is now First Minister. He is not by nature a devious man. I felt for him when he said that he was drookit last night, but he could easily have taken a remedy—an umbrella.
Yesterday, I noticed the obvious addition to the chamber. Gone were the two box files for Mr Henry McLeish, from which it was easier to read his notes, and instead we had a solid wooden lectern, in like wood to the desks we occupy. The amount of fiddling to the microphones showed that it was clearly an unforeseen addition. That is the shape of things to come. There will be constant additions, amendments, little extras and forward planning for advances in technology in whichever building the Parliament makes its home. That all costs money—money which, as constituents will tell us, would be better spent on things other than a monument to anyone's ego. My own particular bid would be for the upgrade of the A77 between Malletsheugh and Fenwick, a notorious black spot that is rightly known as the killer road.
However, our present office accommodation is far from ideal. Is the road building outside our building a coincidence, or is it to hasten our departure? I have not had the delights of visiting the ministerial floor with its red carpet. This chamber, as has been said, would benefit from some alterations to improve access for the disabled and the cost of those alterations would be considerably less than the proposals for Holyrood. I am concerned about the financial aspects of this proposal. In this day and age who would not be?
Mrs Margaret Smith (Edinburgh West) (LD):
I would like to be able to support the Holyrood project going ahead immediately. I probably have less concern about the Holyrood project than some other members, but enough to say that delay is prudent.
We are not constructing a building that will stand for 10, 20 or 50 years; potentially, we are constructing a building that will stand for hundreds of years. We must make sure that we get it right.
In a previous existence not too far from here as a local councillor in the City of Edinburgh, I served on the transportation and planning committees. From the beginning, there was much concern among the people who serve Edinburgh about the Holyrood site. There was a definite feeling that we were bounced into accepting Holyrood. The vast majority of City of Edinburgh councillors thought that Calton hill was a better situation. As Donald Gorrie said, having a boulevard with a Parliament on Calton hill that is accessible in terms of transport and for people with disabilities is very attractive. It is unfortunate that that site is not the one that we accepted.
However, I am not totally against the idea of Holyrood. We are at an historic point in our nation's history. It is a time for us to be bold and adventurous, but also to get it right. I am not saying that Holyrood is the wrong site; I am saying that members of this Parliament have enough questions about the project for us to take stock. We should examine the costs and the materials, as well as accessibility and transport, to which I shall refer.
I am concerned about the inadequate transport impact assessment studies that we have seen. Like Mr Russell, I am concerned that the project team said that a Parliament could be built at Holyrood, which is next to a palace, the Dynamic Earth exhibition, the new offices of The Scotsman, new flats and other developments, which will attract 2 million people a year, but that that would not mean more cars at any of the junctions. I am sorry, but I sat on a transport committee for four years and in that time I managed to work out that if 2 million people were put into an area of half a square mile, there would be congestion at some junctions.
We do not have the full transport picture. I say to the First Minister and to the project team that this is an ideal opportunity for us to build a Parliament that befits what we do. We—the men and women of this chamber—are the Parliament. We could meet in a hut, if we did it in the right spirit and with the right soul, the right briefing, the right intelligence and the right passion in our bellies for our country—that is what is important. It is right that we construct a splendid building, wherever that happens to be, but it is also right that we use it to show symbolically that we are moving into a new century. One of the things about that new century is that we must put in place transport systems that work for the people of this city and for the people of Scotland.
Mrs Smith:
One other point that I must make on behalf of the taxpayers of Edinburgh is that all members would give their eye-teeth to have the Parliament sited in their constituency. We should listen to Andrew Wilson and take the Parliament round the cities and towns of Scotland. We must not leave it to the taxpayers and the councillors of Edinburgh to find the funding to put in place the transport to get people to the Parliament, otherwise the Parliament will suffer.
Margaret Jamieson (Kilmarnock and Loudoun) (Lab):
I took the opportunity on Tuesday to be briefed by the architectural and client teams involved with the Holyrood project. I went to that briefing with an open mind and came away determined that the way forward would be to vote for the continuation of the project. That view is supported by a constituent of mine in this week's issue of the Kilmarnock Standard.
The briefing enlightened the attending MSPs about the reasons for the cost increase, which were identified as an increase in circulation space for the movement of people; the provision of appropriate accommodation and facilities for all those working in, or visiting, the Parliament; the cost of meeting fully the requirements of disability legislation; taking account of the best currently available building standards; and anticipating future improvements.
The amendment in the name of Donald Gorrie makes no reference to those important matters, nor does it address the financial penalties that may be incurred if it is approved. The accommodation that is currently available to Parliament is not wholly suitable. It is not barrier- free and has high security costs, because of the number of sites. The heating of separate buildings is not cost-efficient. The adaptations to date are short term and would require further expenditure to meet regulations, and the accommodation does not meet the needs of staff in the Parliament's employ.
The deliberations of a special committee would further delay the provision of a suitable Parliament building for Scotland for the next century and beyond. It is my view—and I hope that all members will agree—that if the Parliament is to meet the needs of the Scottish people, its facilities must be barrier-free. I accept that everything must be done to ensure that costs are controlled, but that should not exclude any group or individual from participating in Scotland's democracy.
Today we have the opportunity to move closer to delivering a barrier-free, family-friendly, inclusive building, in which we as parliamentarians will serve the people of Scotland.
Fergus Ewing (Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber) (SNP):
As the representative of the people of Inverness East, Nairn and Lochaber, I would naturally prefer the Parliament to be situated in Inverness. However, I am prepared to concede that that will not be possible without adequate transport links to Heathrow and the rest of the world.
I am sure that all members will join me in thanking the Church of Scotland for negotiating with the Scottish Office, which is also to be commended, to make this chamber available to the people of Scotland.
Two sets of issues are becoming confused in this debate: issues relating to the choice of site, and issues relating to the building and, in particular, the chamber. I want to speak out in defence of this chamber, because it is an excellent forum. Last week my colleague Mary Scanlon arranged a visit by a group of people from Inverness. Almost to a person, they expressed their approval for this chamber, because of the sense of history, the ambience, the atmosphere, the tradition and the sense of occasion that inform and—perhaps—raise the quality of our contributions to debates.
Three factors must be considered when we contemplate a move to another chamber: the needs of the press, the needs of the public and the needs of members. I understand that the press in this chamber can see virtually every member except, perhaps, one or two Conservative members; I make no comment as to whether that is an advantage or a disadvantage. I understand that they can see members' reactions and expressions during debates, and even members passing sweeties to one another. That is part of the democratic process.
The arguments about the lack of facilities are unrealistically exaggerated. The First Minister was not here to accept Mrs McIntosh's kind offer of an umbrella to prevent him from becoming drookit the next time that it rains, but I am sure that, if pushed, we can have a whip-round among SNP members to arrange one—in the spirit of non-partisan co-operation. I have never seen the High Street covered with 6 in of snow; sadly, we have not seen 6 in of snow on Cairn Gorm, where, I hope, the Cairn Gorm funicular railway will shortly be situated.
In its report on possible sites, Halcrow Fox and Associates Ltd said that of the four options, it favoured Calton hill. We know that the attitude of the First Minister was ABC—anywhere but Calton
hill. He has disclaimed ownership of the phrase "nationalist shibboleth", and we now believe that the unwanted authorship of that phrase belongs to Brian Wilson, who is not here—I express no opinion as to whether that is an advantage or a disadvantage.
I want to voice one thought that might be unwelcome to members of the Labour party who sit in this Parliament. I believe that any new Parliament building will hasten progress towards full independence for Scotland. Naturally, I welcome that. Perhaps, therefore, the intelligent Labour members—I am sure that they form the vast majority—will reflect that if we were to stay here, which is one of the options under Donald Gorrie's amendment, it might help slow down the separatist march, as Labour members would see it, towards independence.
In conclusion, I wish to echo your words, Sir David, about this Parliament being a kitten, which we want, without any genetic modification, to see transformed into a proud Scottish lion, independent and free.
Bill Aitken (Glasgow) (Con):
Lyndsay McIntosh was perfectly correct in trying to focus our minds on the basic issue: cost. The Holyrood option clearly has to be considered, but it is worth bandying about a few of the figures, a term which I use advisedly. When the project was first mooted in 1997, various figures between £10 million and £40 million were quoted. I fully accept that those figures were never likely to be realistic. The figure of £50 million—plus VAT and fees, of course— was later quoted. I do not think that I am alone in thinking that the question of fees and VAT was mentioned sotto voce.
The product that we are likely to receive in the end has many pleasing aspects. Like many members, I would take issue with the design and style of the chamber—clearly something that will require to be examined again. I am sure that, in the end, a serious compromise can be reached.
I must return to the question of cost. Why, when the figure of £50 million plus fees plus VAT was mooted, was it considered that 16,000 sq m would have been adequate? Clearly, that would not have been adequate to achieve what we wanted—a Parliament that could house members and staff adequately. The appropriate space is now considered to be 23,000 sq m. Why was consideration not given to the essential corridor space? There are far too many unanswered questions, and the inescapable conclusion to which one is drawn is that the First Minister, whose enthusiasm for the project is entirely praiseworthy, acted in a somewhat impetuous manner. Regrettably, I would say—and I seek not to be agist—it was a case of a not-quite-so-young man in a hurry. That was unfortunate.
If we had looked at the matter in a more measured, leisurely manner, we would have found a more acceptable conclusion for the people of Scotland. They are wary of the question of costs, and are well aware, as are many of us, of the way in which capital projects can overrun. We do not want the existing figure of £109 million to be exceeded. Regrettably, we have to draw breath and examine the matter in a cogent and reasoned manner. What Mr Gorrie is suggesting should be commended. We are not saying that we will not go to Holyrood. We are saying that we should examine in detail the options and the costs—there would, of course, be costs were we not to go to Holyrood—and then make a clear, reasoned decision, going where we go, knowing what the costs are likely to be and assuring the people of Scotland that they will get value for money.
Mike Watson (Glasgow Cathcart) (Lab):
Today's speeches in support of Mr Gorrie's amendment have been disappointing. It is appropriate that we have the opportunity to discuss these matters, and I welcome it. However, Mr Gorrie was a bit disingenuous in some of his arguments, not least when he said that his proposal was "not anti-Holyrood". He went on to justify his position in two ways; it was clear that it was an anti-Holyrood proposal. First, he spoke in favour of the Calton hill proposal, which could have legitimacy only at the expense of Holyrood. Secondly, he justified his position by citing a paper from Mr James Simpson, which he circulated to all members this morning—Mr Simpson advocated New College as a potential site for the Parliament.
It is quite clear that Mr Gorrie's position is anti- Holyrood. I am happy to put my cards on the table and say that I am pro-Holyrood. It is a good proposal. It may not be the best site in Edinburgh, but there are very few sites in central Edinburgh, either new or old, which will not cause the traffic congestion that Mr Gorrie mentioned. We could site the Parliament at the Gyle, which would be handy because of the train station there, but it would not be appropriate. The setting of the Parliament is important.
I accept that cost is an issue, but it should not be the overriding issue. I listened to Bill Aitken's remarks. We are building a Parliament that we hope will be there for hundreds of years. I am not into the national virility symbol argument, but the new Parliament does have symbolic importance. Whether we get new politics remains to be seen, so I shall not use the term—but a new millennium and a new democracy in Scotland merit a new
building.
I might horrify the First Minister by saying that I was very disappointed when, as Secretary of State for Scotland, he announced that we would move away from Calton hill. For me it had been the focus of years of campaigning for a Scottish Parliament. We prepared Calton hill in 1979 and campaigning was based around that building. So I was disappointed, but I have now come to the conclusion that wherever we talk about—Calton hill, New College or remaining here—we do not need an old building. For new politics, for the new democracy, we need a new building.
Mike Watson:
If Richard Lochhead suggests that, I accept it; so much the better. I am sure that there is no uniformity of view within the parties that will vote for the amendment and against the substantive motion. There is a large element of political opportunism—it is an opportunity to have a go at the First Minister and the Executive, which is unfortunate.
I believe that we will ultimately take the decision to settle at Holyrood, because it will be shown to be the best site in the circumstances, and there is no benefit in delaying that decision. I listened to Michael Matheson's speech; again, he spoke passionately about the needs of people with disabilities. That is a very important issue. It is one of the reasons why this building and the others that we are currently using are not suitable and why we should clear out of them at the first opportunity. I am therefore opposed to any delay that would cause us to remain here longer than necessary.
I fear that adopting the amendment would put us into a spiral, so that it would be not just a two- month delay but considerably longer than that. Although everyone has done well in preparing this building for us, it is not suitable in the long term; neither is the office accommodation. We need to move ahead today on the basis of the motion.
Mr Lloyd Quinan (West of Scotland) (SNP):
The issue is being discussed on party political lines today, which is sad. Any rejection of the Holyrood site appears as an attack on the Miralles design—that is not the case. I was born and brought up in Edinburgh; I remember well when the Scottish and Newcastle building was built and the chaos that that caused in that area of the High Street. I should be fascinated to know how many members have taken a walk down the High Street to the site and back up Holyrood Road and have taken into account the feelings of the people of Dumbiedykes, for instance. I remember when the extension to Moray House College was built on the far side of Holyrood Road and the traffic chaos that that caused.
The traffic impact study that has been made available to us appears to say nothing about Dynamic Earth—to which Margaret Smith referred—and nothing about the 2 million people who are expected to visit the Parliament. It claims that there will be no traffic problems. Anyone who comes down Abbey hill at half-past 8 in the morning, as I did today—under the bridge and to the bottom of the High Street—will see that there are major congestion problems. We should support the amendment to allow us to make proper decisions and to take into account what is necessary before we proceed with a new building.
The other day, I went with an open mind to see Mr Miralles and the project team. I asked them two questions, neither of which they could answer satisfactorily, although I thought that they were fairly simple questions at this stage, with work about to move into the construction phase. I asked how long the roof would last and when the first major refurbishment of the exterior walls was expected. I received no reply. They had no answers. Labour members who were there know that that was the case. I worry deeply because we are investing in a building that is supposed to last for many years, perhaps 100 years.
Mr Quinan:
No, I will not give way.
That historic building should last and be a focus for the country, as the Sydney Opera House is a focus for the people of Australia and as the new Reichstag is a focus for the people of a united Germany. That is what we are aiming for.
It concerns me that we are taking this decision in impatience. If we get it wrong, the mistake will be there in bricks, mortar, sheet steel and plastic for us and for those who come after us to walk by or walk into each year for the next four years. It will be an indictment of our impatience if we proceed with the proposal without proper consideration. I urge all members who are not supporting the amendment to take a walk down St Mary's Street, or through the Cowgate and down Holyrood Road, to the bottom of the Royal Mile and back again, and then tell me whether the development will have a major impact on traffic.
Robert Brown (Glasgow) (LD):
I have great difficulty with this subject. As a Glasgow member, I
come to it with no preconceived notions and had no detailed knowledge of the locations in Edinburgh before my arrival here, bar my occasional visits to the High Court, the Court of Session and associated buildings. I have considerable qualms about the way in which the issue has arisen and is being debated today.
The First Minister told us that there would be a free vote among Labour members, but I think that we all anticipate that, at the end of the debate, the Labour members who vote against the motion—if any—will be fewer than can be counted on the fingers of one hand. The SNP, which is apparently to have a whipped vote on the issue, tells us that it is considering the matter from various perspectives, that there is nothing at all political about it, and that it is acting in the best interests of Scotland.
Those are the wrong ways in which to approach the matter. It is wrong that it should be presented to us as an Executive motion; we should have had a vote on a motion by the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body. I speak as a member of that body, and regard my role as being something of a trustee for the Parliament, subject to taking a steer from the Parliament on a matter such as this.
I have considerable qualms about our present position. Whatever the rights and wrongs of Donald Dewar's original decision—and I have immense respect for Donald's artistic knowledge and feeling for this kind of thing, which go far beyond anything that I can offer the Parliament— we are faced with a fait accompli in a situation in which there is no stark decision to be made. I do not know the reason for the hurry. A letter from the Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland has been circulated to members. It concludes:
"It would be prudent . . . when end-user (MSP) adjustments are rightly being sought to refine this design, to ensure that a realistic time scale and budget are established which recognise the high quality specification demanded of the project, and the inevitable adjustments which will be required during its realisation. Members of the architectural profession have felt for some time that both budget and time scale would need to be reviewed for a variety of reasons if these aims were to be met."
I take that letter quite seriously because the advice that it contains comes from an independent source. At the same time, I thought that Mike Watson made a valid point when he said that a two-month delay would not be enough to resolve the problems. We are faced with on-going costs and difficulties in proceeding with the project.
At the end of the day, the decision is one for Parliament, not for the Executive. I am trying to come to a view on a matter about which information is growing by the day. I do not have architectural knowledge, nor do I have a detailed method of assessing the financial issues, although the financial issues are not, I think, key things that ultimately have to be decided here.
I do not like one or two aspects of the project. I am not satisfied with the 135 parking spaces and the justification that has been given for them—we are now supposed to be in a rather greener environment. I am not happy with the public access that is proposed for the new building. Here, there are 350 seats, which have been pretty much filled day after day since the commencement of the Parliament, and that is a good thing. I like this site, I like being in the heart of the city and it is appropriate that Parliament should be in the heart of the city. I am not convinced that, if we move down to Holyrood, the public will have the same feel for it. There are difficulties with the walking route and, as Margaret Smith observed, there are still unresolved accessibility difficulties. The traffic report that we received this morning effectively said that things are yet to be done, and an intensive and on-going study to ensure that accessibility measures are in place is not yet being carried out. We are not in a position to make decisions on the matter.
I will listen to the rest of the debate. I am not giving members my opinion at the moment, but I have considerable qualms about the way in which things are being done and the direction in which the project is going. It is important that we get things right. This is a major decision, with which we will have to live for a long time to come.
Cathie Craigie (Cumbernauld and Kilsyth) (Lab):
I welcome the opportunity to speak on the issue of the permanent home for the new, and first democratically elected, Scottish Parliament. Much debate has taken place during the past few years about the Parliament's location, and after that debate it has been decided that it will be located in Holyrood.
Fergus Ewing said that he would like the Parliament to be situated in his constituency, and indeed there were bids from people in various areas—one of them not too far from me—who lost out. The decision has been taken, and the First Minister outlined this morning just how he arrived at that decision. We will locate in Edinburgh and we will—I hope—locate in Holyrood.
I am proud and honoured to have been elected by the people of Cumbernauld and Kilsyth to represent them in this new Parliament. In the speeches that I made during my election campaign, I made it clear to the electorate that I supported the building of a new Parliament complex, not for the benefit of its members, but for the benefit of the people of Scotland.
We offered the voters a new beginning. In my
area and elsewhere, we promised change. The proposals for the new building have been endorsed by the people of Scotland. When they voted, they voted by a majority for parties that were offering a new Parliament complex.
The people of Scotland did not vote for a "mak a fool aw" Parliament. That is how people in Kilsyth would describe the way in which we are going about things today and some of the suggestions for a solution that we can mak do with. They voted for a Parliament that was new because they wanted something better. They deserve, and we should provide, a Parliament suitable for the new millennium.
Enric Miralles and his team have designed a complex that we should all be proud of. Costs are important, and we should be aware that the public want value for money. However, they have been misled into believing that the costs are rocketing out of control. That is not the case, and I was pleased to hear Brian Taylor confirm to the listeners of Radio Scotland this morning that the figure of £90 million had been in the public domain since last year.
If members accepted the answer given by the Holyrood project team that the increased costs can be attributed, in the main, to changes and improvements in design specification, I believe that they would be accepting the facts.
The shape of the chamber has excited the minds of members, some positively and some negatively. The parliamentary complex has been designed with access at its heart, not as an afterthought and not as something that can be adapted at a later date, but as a building that will hold no barriers. I did not recognise the comments that Michael Matheson made about access in the new building. Nor did I recognise Lloyd Quinan's comments about answers that he allegedly did not receive about the costs of the building and the lifespan of the roofing and exterior walls.
The proposals before us would have Scotland leading the world, with a Parliament building that had open access for all people. It is not unthinkable to suggest that that building should be used for other functions, as one of my colleagues suggested earlier.
Cathie Craigie:
I have no intention of giving way. I am sure that Ms MacDonald will want to speak later; she can make her point of information in her own time.
The building will be constructed with taxpayers' money, and Scottish taxpayers should be able to use it. The new chamber is an exemplar. It caters for everyone: whether we have physical or sensory difficulties, it will hold no barriers. I hope that the corporate body does not make any changes to that design.
The points made by some members about the shape of the chamber show that those members are driven by self-interest. Their concern is not about what the building can do for the people of Scotland, but about what it can do for them, for their inflated egos, for their desire to display their debating skills and to be seen by the press.
The people of Scotland voted for something new; not for a talking shop, but for a Parliament of and for the people. Members must get their heads out of the sand, or down from the dizzy heights of publicity, and stop wasting taxpayers' money. The meter is running for every week and month of delay, and it is costing us money. Let us get the new building up and running. Let us get to work for the people who depend on us to improve the quality of their lives. Let us get down to the business that we were sent here to do. We must agree to the proposals and give Scotland a cluster of buildings—as the architect described them—of quality and dignity that will serve us well into the new millennium and beyond.
Linda Fabiani (Central Scotland) (SNP):
It is sad that, yet again, we are debating what should be a cross-party matter but has been reduced to either backing or opposing the Executive.
I instinctively agree with the case that Scotland's new Parliament should be in a new building that reflects modern Scotland. I like Senor Miralles's design—in fact, I adore Senor Miralles's design. [Laughter.] We will not pursue that.
I have no problem about drawing on the lessons of other countries, but I worry about the Executive's haste to proceed and its unwillingness properly to share decision-making on this matter. I have spent a large part of my professional career assisting communities to initiate and control construction projects. Voluntary groups in communities expect—and rightly demand—full information on which to base their decisions. The members of this Parliament have not been afforded the courtesy of that opportunity.
A press report this morning quoted an unnamed member of the Executive as saying that if the Parliament agreed to delay construction, it would cost £1 million. I have learned this morning that the costs under the penalty clauses might amount to £2 million. The more important question is what it will cost us to allow this project to go ahead ill- prepared. We are being asked to approve a project that will probably cost in excess of £100 million with less information than would be available to a local authority building a community
centre.
The information that we have been given is long on timetable but short on cost analysis. That suggests that more weight is being given to bringing the project in on time—and to prestige— than to getting it right in facility at appropriate cost. The papers circulated to us raised many questions, and I will submit them to the corporate body, whatever the outcome of this debate.
I will support the amendment. If it is passed, and Holyrood emerges from the process as the preferred option, it will be a better project, a better building and—more important—the decision will have been made by this Parliament.
Bristow Muldoon (Livingston) (Lab):
I want to comment on Fergus Ewing's speech, which was one of the most interesting made today. Fergus advised us that the new Parliament would hasten Scottish independence, yet today he is advocating delay. What are the Scottish National party these days? Are they fainthearts rather than bravehearts?
The Conservatives' approach does not surprise me. What does surprise me about today's debate is the lack of ambition that we are hearing from the nationalists. The SNP wants Scotland to take a leap into the economic dark, but is not prepared to put its money where its mouth is and help establish a Parliament that is fit for the next millennium and the people of Scotland. Instead, it is prepared to support a proposal from Donald Gorrie for the sake of a couple of cheap headlines.
The Parliament has a clear choice between the vision of an exciting new building for Scotland that can take us forward into the next century, and the penny-pinching parochialism of Donald Gorrie. As Mike Watson commented earlier, Donald Gorrie's position is anti-Holyrood. To delay today is to delay forever, and the Parliament will never move forward.
Mike Russell advises us that the SNP is employing a party whip today because it is united in its position. If it is united, why is it bothering with a whip? MSPs from that party would vote automatically for its position. The reality, as Richard Lochhead and, I think, Linda Fabiani have told us, is that many of its members support the proposal and that the whip is needed to whip them into line.
The vision that has been put before us by Enric Miralles, which Donald Dewar's motion asks us to support, is a vision of a Parliament for Scotland—a Parliament that will be accessible to all of our people, to all of our communities and will allow them to engage with us. It will act as a focus for schools throughout Scotland and for visitors to Edinburgh who want to see the new Scottish Parliament and the vision of a new Scottish democracy for the next millennium.
As Mike Watson said, if we delay today, we will delay forever, and it will be the first of many delays. I appeal to the SNP members who support the Holyrood project to unite with us behind an inspired design that will give Scotland a Parliament building fit for the new democracy that we are taking forward to the next millennium.
Phil Gallie (South of Scotland) (Con):
The Scottish Conservatives accepted the verdict of the Scottish people when they voted for the Scottish Parliament—and a new building—in the 1997 referendum. However, at that time we were told that the cost of the building would be between £10 million and £40 million. The Scottish Conservatives argued that there would not be much change out of £100 million. We were ridiculed for making those statements, and told that we were scaremongering. Well, today it can be seen that we were right.
We also raised the possibility that other costs might be added on to the Parliament. We said that the cost of the ministerial team would be three times that of the Scottish ministers in 1997. The First Minister has excelled himself and has gone to four times that figure. We believed that the revenue costs could rise to £100 million—we were told that that was not possible. Donald Gorrie's comments today suggest that the Presiding Officer's department could cost £12 million. That must put us well on the way to reaching the £100 million revenue costs that we were forecasting back in 1997.
Some in this chamber might say, "That is typical of you Conservatives. You are obsessed with costs." We are obsessed with costs, but it is not our money that the Parliament is spending—it is taxpayers' money. We have got to get every bit of value out of the money that the Parliament spends. Like Lyndsay McIntosh, I would rather that some of the money was spent on upgrading the A77.
Tommy Sheridan made a passionate plea for Glasgow's housing yesterday. Perhaps some of the money could be spent on uprating housing. That would be good value for money, but spending this amount of money on a building because someone has decided on the Holyrood site and that the new building is necessary for Scotland's image is questionable.
We will support a new Parliament building, but we must consider every aspect of it. Donald Gorrie's motion gives us the opportunity to do that.
I cannot see why the target date of 2001 has to be held to so firmly. I hope that the building will last us for 100 or 150 years—perhaps 200 years— so let us get it right and give Scotland something to be proud of. We must ensure that every MSP can take pride in the decision that we make today.
Ms Patricia Ferguson (Glasgow Maryhill) (Lab):
I am very sympathetic to Mr Gorrie's concerns about members' visibility when they are speaking in debates. Mr Gorrie may like to know that, during his speech, I counted at least eight people in the segment of the chamber that he inhabits who had to turn round in their chairs and crane their necks to see him. The problem of visibility is not unique to any future chamber; we might like to consider it today.
Ms Ferguson:
No Mr Ewing, I am not taking interventions; I have just started.
Given the fact that the SNP has decided that its members cannot have independence of thought today, I thought that it was a bit rich for Mr Ewing to lecture us this morning on independence. SNP members should consider that.
I am delighted that we are having this debate, because it gives us the opportunity to show our confidence in the success of this Parliament and in the new Scotland that we will help to shape. When we consider the proposed design, we must take into account the needs of MSPs and their staff and the needs of the Parliament staff.
The Parliament also needs to be open and accessible to all. At the moment, visitors have to walk up and down the High Street to find the seven buildings that make up the Parliament and, while adaptations have been made to those buildings to provide disabled access, the distance that has to be travelled between the buildings makes accessibility very difficult. I am sure that that problem is being addressed in the proposals for the new building.
I have been impressed by the efforts of the Parliament staff who have adapted the buildings that we are using to provide us with a temporary home, but by no yardstick or criterion can this arrangement be anything other than temporary. We may have just about enough committee rooms for all our new committees, but the committees will be open to the public—presumably if there is any space left. There is nowhere for members to meet their constituents; nor is there a crèche in our family-friendly Parliament.
The design for the new building is bold, innovative and modern; the building will be both functional and a symbol of all that we want the
Scottish Parliament to be. The historic site that has been chosen presents us with an historic opportunity to leave for future generations an inheritance of which they can be proud. The Parliament at Holyrood will reinvigorate the Canongate and give new life to Holyrood park.
Members have stated, rightly, our duty to ensure that funds from the public purse are used wisely. I am sure that our colleagues on the corporate body—the people whom we have made responsible for the new building—will carry out that task diligently. Remaining here on the Mound would be a folly that future generations would not understand. As a Glaswegian, I am very fond of the tenement—that peculiarly Scottish form of housing—but do we really want to go down in history as the new Parliament that decided to hold its meetings, for the rest of its life, up a close? I do not think so.
Bruce Crawford (Mid Scotland and Fife) (SNP):
At the beginning of the debate on where the Parliament should be sited, I, like many others, favoured the Calton hill site. However, things have moved on, decisions have been made and important milestones have been reached.
Perhaps the most important milestone is the perception, widely held in Scotland, that we are already located at Holyrood; that name, in wider Scotland, is already deeply rooted in the mindset as synonymous with the Scottish Parliament. Much of Scotland has accepted, rightly or wrongly, that Holyrood should be the site of the Parliament.
If the amendment wins today—and, rightly, it should—it will need to be explained carefully to the Scottish people. If the First Minister's motion is defeated, the position should be accepted as one of pragmatism, common sense, and, hopefully, in the end, consensus. Scotland deserves no less. Nobody can doubt that incorrect decisions have been hurriedly taken at crucial moments. Frankly, the whole process has been handled extremely badly in terms of public relations, design consultation, and finance. There is a perception that it has been a complete boorach.
There can be no doubt that serious and difficult questions remain to be answered about the way in which this project has been managed from the outset. The key decision takers must answer those questions. I dread to think what derision might have been visited on councillors if this had happened in a local authority. In my former life as a Scottish Office employee and as leader of Perth and Kinross Council, I was required to make proper account for my actions. The key decision- takers here should be no different.
I have considered this issue long and hard,
followed the media coverage, attended the briefing events, read all the briefing material that I could find, and listened to the speeches today. None of it has made a decision any easier.
On balance, I am still for Holyrood, but I have to be certain that the outstanding concerns have been properly addressed. Scotland deserves no less. Donald Gorrie's amendment gives us the opportunity to secure the greatest level of support possible for Holyrood. Those who are committed to Holyrood should have nothing to fear from a further delay to ensure that others can be convinced. If it is the best site, its merits will shine through. Scotland needs a new Parliament building that is not hindered by the baggage of the past, is truly significant, and allows us to recognise ourselves for what we are.
Mr Frank McAveety (Glasgow Shettleston) (Lab):
I hope to create a debate that will rise to the eloquence and value of the words of Mike Russell and the young pretender, Duncan Hamilton. We need to create a Parliament that is fit for the language that they will deploy in future years— hopefully over at least one session
This debate is about the kind of vision that we have for Scotland. It is about the kind of symbols we want our buildings to be. I have left a city where any debate on the creation of the unique building, the City Chambers, would have been as narrow and short-sighted as this debate has been in parts. The one unifying symbol of Glasgow is the City Chambers—whether one is inside it, or like my old adversary on many occasions, Tommy Sheridan, outside it. It strikes me that that debate about symbols is worth promoting.
I cannot imagine our European counterparts having such a narrow debate. I cannot imagine that the people of Barcelona, who have aspirations for their city and a concept of nationhood and identity, would have such a narrow debate. I cannot imagine the Parisians having this kind of narrow debate.
Unfortunately, the Scottish cringe has emerged once more in this chamber. People have claimed that they are interested only in small matters; honourable as such matters are, they could just as well be determined by the corporate body. The points of detail that members of other parties have raised are legitimate concerns, but members could easily have raised them through the proper process, rather than questioning the overall project.
We developed the new Hampden because we wanted the national stadium to stand for the whole of Scotland, rather than for two football clubs in Glasgow, that perhaps represented other— religious and historical—traditions. This chamber represents some of those traditions. Let us try to create something new.
Personally, I want to have the opportunity to recreate in the Sunday newspapers a column called Frankie goes to Holyrood—if we do not go there I will not be able to fill any column space.
As that column seemed to be inspired by my record collection, I will conclude with a point from the Waterboys, who had a great song that, unfortunately, seemed to be evident in today's debate. I say this to Mike Russell, as he believes in words of eloquence, and I hope that Duncan Hamilton aspires to reach the standard of speech that I have made today. You saw the crescent, Mike. We saw the whole of the moon.
Mr Brian Monteith (Mid Scotland and Fife) (Con):
Although I am a supporter of the second best site that is Holyrood, I am keen to give my support to Donald Gorrie's motion. I say that the site is second best because I feel that, although the First Minister commented on Donaldson's school, that site has been too easily dismissed.
It is important that, when we consider Holyrood, we take account of the impact on traffic. I was born and bred in Meadowbank and played most of my youth football—badly—in Holyrood park, so I am well acquainted with the environs. I also spent some time as a marketing consultant to the Palace of Holyroodhouse, which might explain why, within the choices that are available, I favour the Parliament being located in Holyrood.
I also favour some prudence in how the project is carried out. I am not convinced of the merits of the design. When I first saw that it featured upturned boats, I felt that it had been designed, mistakenly, for a location in Leith. However, I might be converted. It is important that we bring transparency to the process and give the Parliament some say in how things progress, particularly as regards the important matter of the chamber.
I mentioned Donaldson's school. Were we to pass the amendment, I hope that it might be possible to investigate that site which, I should explain for the benefit of members who are not familiar with it, is a fine example of Jacobean-style architecture in Edinburgh's west end. It has many advantages, not least of which is its West Lothian sandstone, which might be important to members from that area. It is close to Haymarket station, which makes it the only proposed site that is near
a main railway station. It is on the road to Glasgow—some members would say that that is the best road in Edinburgh—which means that traffic could be more easily handled. The school is surrounded by fine grasslands that could be developed with buildings beneath the turf.
The school is a majestic building and features a quadrangle in which the chamber could be located in a way that would bring the old together with the new, similar to what Germany has recently done with the Reichstag—although that was rather more expensive. Donaldson's has a connection with the Reichstag, of course: the Kaiser's zeppelin blew out the windows of the school in 1916. To that extent, there is a European link.
Not only the architecture, but the surroundings, are important. In the environs are curry houses, public houses and offies—where we could buy champagne to celebrate by-election victories. There is even a kilt hire shop just down the road for special occasions.
Donaldson's school has everything going for it and I recommend that we support Donald Gorrie's amendment so that we can reassess the location of the new Parliament building.
Dorothy-Grace Elder (Glasgow) (SNP):
I agree with many Labour members who have said that cost is not the only factor. It most certainly is not.
In London, the Government has lavished taxpayers' money on Portcullis House, which is said to be the most expensive office building in Britain. It cost more than £200 million and was built for Westminster MPs—whatever they do nowadays.
Mr Blair has also achieved the extension to the Jubilee line, which is said to be the world's most expensive railway extension, costing more than £620 million. When we consider those figures, we realise that London is still getting it all. The Jubilee line extension leads to the world's most stupid project: the dome of doom at Greenwich. Taxpayers can stagger off the Jubilee line and face something else that will fleece them: the dome that is costing £720 million.
Dorothy-Grace Elder:
I have not finished my speech. I was just pointing out the sums that are being lavished on London.
We have heard from Labour members about the seven different buildings and about the malignancy of the Edinburgh rain, which raineth upon the First Minister—and all the rest of us. Who forced us into having seven different buildings? The hurried original decision has cost us £7.5 million for just two years in the building, although the Government was offered the Strathclyde Regional Council building for two years for only £3 million. I see that Frank McAveety is leaving—do not go away, Frankie, you know about that one. Labour members are not quite the innocent people they seem.
Hurry and rapidity has been the problem all along. The Holyrood building—said to be the most important in Scotland's recent history—was ordered with the rapidity with which one might order a wee greenhouse from B&Q. I know people who have put far more thought into the preparation of a site for a wee greenhouse. The Holyrood site is wrong, it is far too small, but let us all give it a chance by supporting the amendment and by considering what, on balance, comes out best. The design of the roofs is wrong. They are far too flat and they are not tilted enough to bear the weight of a really heavy snow in the Scottish winter. The debating chamber is a disaster. It is suitable only for a ferocious debate on flower arranging.
Sometimes, in a democracy, we need confrontation. We are all here to fight our own corner. My corner is Glasgow and I appeal to other Glasgow MSPs to fight this plan, too.
No, I do not think that that is germane to this debate. Please sit down.
Keith Raffan may speak for two minutes only.
Mr Keith Raffan (Mid Scotland and Fife) (LD):
Thank you, Mr Deputy Presiding Officer. I rise to support Donald Gorrie's reasonable and sensible amendment. There have been some passionate performances today, not least from my friend Mr Russell, but I do not want to compete with him on this occasion.
We must consider the issue of the Parliament building rationally. The First Minister's speech raised more questions than it answered. He said that a decision on the site had to be taken. Why? He decided that a decision had to be taken. He is the one who initiated the project and it was he who has rushed it. He was right when he said that the Parliament should make a decision on the building. We should reach that decision in a considered and methodical way.
We must wait to see how the Parliament evolves over at least four or five years. That makes sense. We have only just set up and named the members of committees; those are the initial 16 committees, but there may be more sub-committees. That kind of thing dictates the type of facilities that we will need. We should see how the Parliament evolves over at least four or five years before we make a final decision on a permanent building. The Australians were in provisional accommodation for 60 years. I do not recommend that we take that long, but that we can reasonably make do with this excellent chamber for eight years.
I share Mr Gorrie's concern about the location of the Parliament. I would not describe it as being "in a hole", but it is certainly down in a hollow, or dip. One of the remarkable things about the cluster of buildings that we occupy at the moment is that we are right in the life of the city. Mr Salmond and others might agree that it is much better than Westminster in that respect. That is another argument for Calton hill, which is also more accessible than the other end of the Royal Mile.
Mr Raffan:
No, I do not have time.
The First Minister made a crucial point about the design when he said that the floor space had increased by 44 per cent since Mr Miralles's original design. Any architect who has followed the development of the design will say that Miralles's original design has changed radically. That, too, raises concerns.
On the quality of the building, Mr Quinan mentioned its lifespan. I understood that the project team said that the lifespan was 100 years. That does not seem very long to me when one considers that some of the buildings that will surround it have lasted for more than 500 years.
I am concerned about the quality of the materials that will be used, and about the apparent lack of natural stone. The cost is escalating. Parliamentarians are notorious for the cost of their buildings. The new members' building at Westminster is a case in point—the bronze cladding alone will cost £50 million—and the Sam Rayburn building on Capitol hill in Washington DC came in at something like 500 per cent over budget. We are not exactly good at keeping buildings within budget.
We are sending out the wrong signal today. Our priority should be not ourselves, but the people of Scotland. A lot of passionate speeches were made from the Labour benches during the debate on the legislative programme yesterday, and I agreed with them. Surely we should be housing Scotland's pupils first—before we house Scotland's politicians. Our priority should be to catch up with the enormous backlog of school building maintenance. Politicians can make do with a flat desk and a phone. It is not the building that counts, but the people in it.
Ms MacDonald:
I will attempt to summarise the debate and I will try hard to disregard John McAllion's friendly advice that we should all just keep quiet in our opposition. I do not mean to keep quiet, not because—I say this to Mr Watson—I am being opportunist, but because I was elected by people in this area.
Just like Cathie Craigie, the member for Cumbernauld and Kilsyth, I feel a sense of civic responsibility and public responsibility. I have direct contact with the people who meet me going down the High Street—I do not mind meeting Edinburgh folk going down the High Street—and who say, "I hope you're going to do something about this. What are we spending all this money for?" Then they detail all the things that they would choose to spend money on before spending it on a Parliament.
So far, whether we like it or not, we have not necessarily made the best case for making the Parliament the priority for public spending. I make no apology for asking for a delay, as I think that we would use that delay constructively. We need
to argue that we should have the very best building that Scotland can afford, as we have yet to convince all the people who elected us—and that goes for all of us.
I see Cathie Craigie shaking her head. She said that people in her constituency voted for the Parliament. The question that I wanted to ask her was whether her constituents voted for a £90 million Parliament or for a £50 million Parliament. The people who voted for me did not vote for a Parliament where the costs appear to be escalating outwith control.
Ms MacDonald:
I think that that is true, but it is also true that neither her constituents nor mine make a habit of reading Hansard. [Laughter.] However, I will move on.
Several factors influenced this amendment. There is the concern that the Holyrood site is not the most suitable. I know that we are past the time when the then Scottish secretary was advised against choosing other than Calton hill. I accept that time has moved on, that the General Post Office building is not available and that other considerations will have to be taken into account. The amendment asks for those other considerations to be taken into account.
In the time that has elapsed, we have also found that the four-acre site at Holyrood, which was judged to be adequate, is probably not adequate. When any of the local authority people in this chamber were building big, they would usually have a wee bit of land for contingency expansion, but no contingency expansion has been built into this grand design.
However, there is a site that has not yet been built on; I think that it has been procured by Teague Homes (Scotland) Ltd. If we use the time that the amendment asks for productively, perhaps we could revisit that decision. Do the builders need all that land? Could we do a bit of business with them? We need some land for expansion purposes, as the site has already expanded from 16,000 sq m to 23,000 sq m. I am not arguing about that—we may well need the extra support staff to cope with the expansion. However, before the people—who pay for everything—see how the Parliament benefits the quality of decision making in Scotland, they will ask "What do you need all those staff for?"
I appeal directly to the First Minister for time to sell our idea to the people who elected us. There is no doubt about the site's shortcomings. I am not talking about the design of the building, but about how the site is hemmed in and cannot expand without going into Holyrood park. I think that Patricia Ferguson said that such an expansion might enhance and bring life to the park. However, we do not want too much life in the park; we like it as it is. Furthermore, we do not want the kind of office-block accommodation that we have at the moment.
There is another important point that members did not raise, perhaps because Robin Harper has a specialist interest in these matters. When I first expressed an interest in this issue, I was contacted—before the election—by many architects, two or three of whom advised me that no wind-tunnel test had been done. At least, we have not seen any results of a wind-tunnel test. Perhaps when Mr McLeish sums up, he can tell us whether such a test has been carried out and, if not, whether there are plans to have one. We also have to ask what would happen if the plans were to fail that test.
Frank MacAveety suggested that the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body could do everything that I am asking for. However, if the site is not big enough and if an independent assessor's estimate shows that extra land is needed, will the SPCB be entitled to go ahead with its plans? We have been told that the Executive has full responsibility for the configuration of roads around the site. Who will be responsible for the recalibration—which is referred to in documents that I have—that the site will probably need? The amendment seeks time for us to find answers to such questions.
Traffic is the big concern in Edinburgh. Too many people are trying to get to work from Newington or by using London Road. Most members may not be familiar with Edinburgh's traffic problems, which are becoming intolerable. Those problems are operating against the city's best interests and the question is too serious to leave to the SPCB to decide in our interest. The interests are much wider than that.
When members come to vote, they should remember that we are not saying that Holyrood should not go ahead, but that too many questions remain unanswered. We plead for time to find adequate answers to those questions and to find a building for this Parliament of which we can be proud.
Des McNulty (Clydebank and Milngavie) (Lab):
I welcome this debate on Holyrood and I recognise the fact that members have articulated
different points of view on the subject. However, the debate has been conducted in such a way that Holyrood has become the whipping-boy for different points of view and different motivations. I am not sure that the debate has been about the case for or against the building's merits, which should be the basis for any decision as important and as significant as this.
There are a number of very good reasons why the Parliament's present accommodation is unsuitable and why we need to make a decision and proceed with the new plan relatively quickly. Members have mentioned the quality of this debating chamber. I think that this debating chamber is good for members; people are pleased with it. It has an atmosphere of its own.
This building is unsatisfactory in terms of access for disabled people, however. It would be difficult for any member who was disabled to use this chamber and building. If we want to be inclusive and build a Parliament for Scotland that everybody can participate in, we should move the accessibility agenda forward as quickly as possible.
The Parliament is not a matter only for parliamentarians. As a member of the corporate body, I am aware of the unsatisfactory working conditions of many of the people who work for the Parliament. In the switchboard area, in the kitchens and in rooms in the office building, people are working in unsatisfactory circumstances that prevent them from doing their jobs as effectively as I—and they—would wish. Their circumstances should be addressed as well as ours. That is one reason why we should consider the project rather than the political furore that surrounds it. If we want an efficient and effective Parliament, which the people working for it can be proud of, we must proceed to a new building and new arrangements as soon as possible.
I was interested in a number of points that were made in the debate. Some members said that they were in favour of Holyrood but wanted a delay to get more information. In the past week, the corporate body has, since it took over responsibility for the Holyrood project, made a great deal of information available about the proposals for the Parliament building; it will continue to do so if the motion is agreed to.
There will be a clear, interactive process of deliberation and debate about the design of the building. That process will involve all members of the Parliament and, I hope, a lot of other people, including Parliament employees. Many details and arrangements within the footprint of the building have yet to be finalised. Even if the decision is made today, which I hope it will be, there will be many opportunities for people to participate in and contribute to the decision-making process.
Mr Salmond:
On a point of order. It was said that Mr McNulty was speaking on behalf of the corporate body. Has the corporate body taken a view on the matter? It seems from Mr McNulty's speech that he has. Is he speaking on behalf of himself or the corporate body?
Des McNulty:
I make it clear that whatever the Parliament decides today—whether it decides to go ahead with the project or to support Mr Gorrie's amendment—the corporate body will, within the terms and remit of its responsibility, carry out the broad wishes of the Parliament. However, the corporate body has responsibilities to Parliament; it has responsibilities to the staff and to members. Strong arguments have emerged in the debate and why we should make a decision as quickly as possible about the future circumstances of the Parliament.
If we proceed with the proposal, the corporate body will attempt to consult as broadly as possible. There are problems associated with our staying in the present circumstances. The office building has a series of internal problems—for example, there are problems with asbestos—which will cause difficulties if we are there for any length of time.
Providing accommodation for committees is a particular problem in the office building. We intend to make a series of commitments today to establish 16 committees: it is difficult to see how those committees could be accommodated effectively, given the range of public access commitments—contained in all the parties' manifestos—that the Parliament has made.
The corporate body will seek to operate within the terms of the decisions of the Parliament, but a series of issues indicate that we have to make a decision on the Parliament building as quickly as possible. Those issues have arisen as a result of the considerations that have been presented by the design team, the Executive and others. If we are obliged to delay, that will cost the corporate body and the Parliament a significant amount of money. That should not be ignored. The corporate body is required to look at the financial circumstances and implications of any delay.
The Minister for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning (Henry McLeish):
This has been a good debate, and I echo Des McNulty's comments that it is important for the Parliament to discuss
important issues. However, the importance is not for us as parliamentarians, because, as was pointed out, we are only the custodians for the Scottish people. We have been asked to make a decision about what will probably be one of the most important buildings to be constructed in Scotland for 300 years. There is enormous responsibility on our shoulders to get it right.
Before I wind up, I would like to respond to Margo MacDonald's question on wind-tunnel tests, as I am sure that the whole of Scotland is waiting for an answer. I am informed that those tests are in hand but, with my usual courtesy, I will send Margo a note with more details.
Henry McLeish:
I think that Margo is just being greedy now—I have been generous in outlining the fact that there will be wind-tunnel tests. Let us hang on for the outcome of those and a host of other technical tests that are taking place.
This debate has been characterised by a lot of passion. People complain about the lack of passion among politicians, but we are passionate. Today, the First Minister gave not only a political commitment, but a passionate commitment to advance this project. That commitment was not for Donald Dewar, but for the people of Scotland.
I said that we had a big decision to make today. A lot of sound practical questions have been raised about the Parliament, to which I will return. However, there has been a slight element of politics as well. I am sure that people in all parties—some of whom are now being whipped— will be approaching Mr Gorrie's amendment in one of two ways. Some people will be attracted to the notion that by having a delay we will be able to examine some of the practical issues. However, others will support the amendment because they want us to remove ourselves from Holyrood. Those people want to return to old shibboleths such as the old Royal High School.
I am being constructive: let us cut through the issues and be crystal clear on what the amendment is about. If this debate is to be practical, I think that I have some of the answers to the problems. However, if the exercise—and let us be honest about this—is about removing ourselves from Holyrood and looking at alternative sites, we are talking about delaying discussions not for a short time, but for a prolonged period. At the end of the delay, we will not know whether that delay was on the grounds of costs and other practicalities or on the grounds of politics.
Henry McLeish:
If Fergus does not mind, I would rather move on. I always give way, but there are two or three practical issues about which I want to speak.
A number of important practical points have been made about transport, the environment and special needs. I believe that the details in the material on all those issues will go some way towards allaying members' fears.
It is obviously critical that there is wheelchair access on the floor of the new chamber. There are no members in wheelchairs now, but if we are, as we say, an inclusive Parliament, we must build for every contingency. That will be done.
Robin Harper is massively wrong about the environment issues. I will send him all the material that I have. The new Parliament will rightly be one of the most environmentally sensitive buildings that we have ever produced in this country. The details will be forthcoming.
Henry McLeish:
I cannot give way, Robin; I want to proceed. On transport, we have used the expertise of consultants; we have been the repository of much expert opinion.
Members may want to discuss such issues and that is the point of the Scottish Parliamentary Corporate Body. It is an all-party body. We will consult the SNP, the Conservatives and, of course, the Liberals and the other parties. Surely we do not need a committee. Members are genuinely concerned about the issues, but do they imagine for a minute that the technicians, the Scottish Office staff and Mr Miralles's team are sitting twiddling their thumbs day in and day out? From wind-tunnel tests through to the rest, this is on-going work.
Why do we not use the existing machinery that this Parliament has set up? We vested our interests as a parliamentary body in a group that is chaired by the Presiding Officer and that includes Des McNulty and other colleagues. Do not members trust them? Are we really saying that we want a two-month delay so that we can bypass the existing procedure? I do not think that we are. Let us have faith in our colleagues, whom we have charged with looking after matters that are responsibility of this proud Parliament.
I have heard comments about finance. From day one, I have been a value-for-money politician. I do not want to spend a penny more than is necessary to ensure a quality environment at Holyrood that the Scottish people, not parliamentarians, can be proud of. The SPCB has given us an opportunity to discuss the financial details and to ensure that we have an extensive overview of what is happening. I suggest to some Conservatives that
they should embrace that.
Andrew Wilson (Central Scotland) (SNP)
rose—
Henry McLeish:
The building is scheduled for completion in 2001. The timetable is another area in which the SPCB and this Parliament will want to have a role. We have an excellent chamber here, but should we not have an excellent chamber in the new Holyrood Parliament? Do members think that we will go to all this expense just to downgrade the quality of our chamber when we move to Holyrood? Of course we will not. The SPCB is the custodian of our collective interest in this area. Why should not we—from wheelchair access on—ensure that we have the kind of debating chamber that we 129 members want? We are not talking about what Mr Miralles wants— he is doing an excellent job but, as the people who will work in that Parliament, we can have an influence.
My simple plea to all members is that they do not think about their party. This is not a party issue. This is about a working Parliament for the people of Scotland—something that they and we can be proud of. A Parliament is a working environment. We are not being paid money to come and look at architecture. We want the best, but I suggest that we should not set up any other machinery.
Members want to address these real, practical issues—we can easily let the SPCB look at them. We have access through those members of our parties who are in the SPCB, but we also have direct access to the issues. There has been a lot of distortion about the practical issues. We have the machinery to translate issues of finance, design of the chamber, transport, environment and access into the Parliament that we want. The Scottish people elected us to take that decision, and if we agree to the motion today, we can get on with the job.
This is also an opportunity for us to raise our horizons. I came into politics with aspirations for myself—as we all have—but also with aspirations for Scotland. That is why I came back to sit in this Parliament along with colleagues on the nationalist benches and with people such as Donald Dewar.
This is about pride. We are right to say that we want this Parliament to be a shop window for the world. Colleagues have said that it is more than a Parliament. It is a place where we can exhibit Scotland. It is a place where people can come. Let us be proud of what we are doing and let us get on with it.
We are also talking about place. Donald Gorrie spoke about the hole at the bottom of the Royal Mile—he may live to regret that. The site is a United Nations heritage site on probably the most historic mile in the world, with a castle at the top, a palace at the bottom and other attractions being developed. Is that a hole? Of course not. It is one of the most prestigious sites in the world and we should be proud that we are moving to it.
There is also the question of permanence. This is not, as someone said, a Parliament for next week or for the week after, but a Parliament for the next millennium.
Continuing with the Ps, this Parliament is about prosperity. We have a great capital city and a great country. The Parliament will be not only a place where parliamentarians or constituents can come and see us, but a shop window for the world.
I know that many members are whipped—I regret that—but I ask people such as Andrew Wilson, who has gone public about Holyrood, to say, "Yes, let's invest in the SPCB and it can look at the practical issues." We will be able to march forward with the Scottish people and have pride in what we are doing. I have that pride and so should we all.
| i don't know |
Which year saw the birth of the sextuplets 'The Waltons'? | The Waltons Sextuplets At 30: Catching up with the famous family as they return to the TV screen - Mirror Online
Thank you for subscribing!
Could not subscribe, try again laterInvalid Email
With six daughters all aged 30, dad Graham Walton knows there is every chance there could be wedding bells in the air at some point.
And as three of them are already engaged, that moment may come sooner rather than later for the 63-year-old.
So the painter and decorator has prepared himself well by writing wedding speeches for all six of them – even though none of them have actually set a date for their big day yet.
Graham said: “Be prepared for anything that happens… that’s what having six girls has taught me.”
As father to the world’s only all-female sextuplets , Graham has been the sole man in a house full of women since wife Jan gave birth to Hannah, Luci, Ruth, Sarah, Kate and Jennie on November 18, 1983.
The girls grew up under the watchful eye of TV cameras since they were born in Liverpool.
But at 18 they decided to live more private lives. Now they are returning to our screens for a new ITV documentary, The Waltons Sextuplets At 30.
Babies: Walton Family Sextuplets (Photo: Sunday Mirror)
And Graham has enjoyed every minute of those 30 years – even enjoying a sideline career as an after-dinner speaker delivering a talk called My Life With Seven Women.
He said: “It’s just a bit of a laugh because no one has six babies , do they? Not all at once anyway.”
Today, only Luci and Hannah live with their parents in the family home in Wallasey, Wirral. Graham converted the three-storey Victorian house himself so each girl had their own bedroom.
He said: “But they were in and out of each other’s room most of the time. They’d swap clothes, swap beds, swap everything…even swap boyfriends later on. I’m only kidding.”
Graham told how he misses the ones who have left. He added: “I don’t mind if they come back. It’s an empty feeling when nobody’s here.
“I don’t like the silence so I put the music on. I like the noise. You get used to the noise over the years.”
Hannah moved back with her mum and dad to save for her own home. The optician’s manager and supply teacher, who is single, told of the moment she realised hers wasn’t your average family.
Walton Sextuplets are nine years old (Photo: Daily Mirror)
She said: “When we started our first day of school there were photographers and people outside the gates. That’s different isn’t it? When I’m in the opticians all the old ladies come in and ask questions. They want to know what we’re up to.”
HR admin assistant Kate is also single but lives in a flat about 10 minutes away from Graham and Jan and said she has no plans to settle down.
She added: “I just don’t feel ready for that now. I’ve been on a couple of dates but I haven’t got time. I’m too busy. I just keep going out and having fun.”
Ruth is the latest sister to get engaged after civil service worker Rob proposed on Valentine’s Day. She was the one who felt most strongly about having a private life and refused to do any more filming when she reached 18.
The call centre worker said: “When you’re a teenager you’re very into yourself and don’t like people being intrusive.
“I used to go out and people knew who I was. They’d say not so nice things. I just didn’t like it.”
GP admin assistant Sarah, who is engaged to restaurant worker Kieran, 31, describes herself as “one of the quieter ones”. The first of the Walton girls to buy her own home, she said: “When I moved out I did notice a big difference.
“From it being a chaotic house to a fairly quiet one. It came as a bit of a shock to be honest with you but I’m used to it now.”
To mark their 30th birthday last November, all six girls got a matching heart tattoo. Jennie was behind it.
She said: “It’s always been about the six hearts and they represent each one of us. They are all interlined like us.”
Jennie is the only one of the six sisters to venture away from Merseyside. She lives in Leeds with boyfriend Matt, 27. The pair met when they were both working as entertainers in Spain. She runs a confectionary business.
She said: “My sisters are always with each other and I miss out on all that.
“I’m on the phone constantly, texting or ringing all the time. I speak to them about 20 times a day.”
Luci has been engaged to bakery supervisor Paul, 31, for the three years. She moved back in with Graham and Jan, 61, while she saves for a mortgage.
The air stewardess said: “I’ve never minded having a long engagement. I’d rather get my house first then do it. There’s no rush.”
After Graham and Jan got together they knew it would not be easy to start a family. At 16 she had been told she was unlikely to conceive naturally. Doctors gave her fertility drugs but when that failed, they looked at adoption.
Jan said: “We got a letter from the adoption agency to say we’d been accepted as parents of the next baby or twins.
“Gray was quite horrified. He said: ‘Let’s start at one at a time’.”
Kids: Janet Walton with her sextuplets
But as they waited for more news of adoption, the couple struck lucky on their 13th round of fertility treatment. However, there was a massive shock in store when a scan revealed Jan was carrying not just one, but six babies.
Jan, a fundraiser for the neo-natal intensive care unit where the girls were born, said: “These days multiple births are more common but no one knew what the outcome would be.”
The girls were born at 31-and-a-half weeks by Caesarian within just four minutes of each other.
Graham took a year off work to help Jan care for them and has fond memories of that time.
He said: “Jan used to say we must go out every day, just because we’ve got six children it must not stop us from doing what everybody else does.
“We had papooses so we’d have one baby each at the front and two each in double buggies. It was ridiculous, really.
“When the girls were little you needed eyes in the back of your head. You’d turn around, go ‘one, two, three, four, five… phew, that’s it.’
“We were counting heads all day so by the time you got home from these places your head was spinning. We’d be counting in our sleep.”
But despite keeping a close eye on the girls, the couple did once manage to lose one – at the seaside.
The Waltons Sextuplets, Lucy Walton, Ruth Walton, Jenny Walton, Hannah Walton, Kate Walton and Sarah Walton (Photo: Sunday People)
Graham said: “When they were about three we went to Southport for the day. We were all walking down the main street and decided to go in a sweet shop but Sarah with her head in the clouds carried on walking.
“I got in the shop and went, ‘one, two, three, four, five… there’s one missing.’
“I ran out quickly and saw a woman holding Sarah’s hand and walking us back. She said to me, ‘Oh here’s your little Sarah. I’ve seen you on the telly but I never thought I’d find a Walton.’ That was the only time and it was minutes but it was a panicky moment.”
After 30 years, Graham has clearly got an awful lot of memories and funny tales to tell about his girls.
Which will give him plenty of material for those father of the bride speeches when one, or all, of them finally gets round to trying the knot.
* The Walton Sextuplets at 30 is on ITV, tonight, Thursday April 17, at 9pm
We're testing a new site: This content is coming soon
| 1983 |
What was the name of Captain Ahab's ship in the book Moby Dick? | The Walton Sextuplets Are All Grown Up And Having Kids Of Their Own
The Walton Sextuplets Are All Grown Up And Having Kids Of Their Own
Sorry this article is not available in your chosen language.
The Walton Sextuplets Are All Grown Up And Having Kids Of Their Own
Share
Advertisement
People are fascinated by families that have four, five, or even six children at once. It's incredibly momentous to have one baby, let alone six at the same time.
This is what happened to Janet and Graham Walton on November 18th, 1983 in Liverpool, England. Not only did Janet give birth to six children, she gave birth to the world's only all-girl sextuplets! At the time, the Waltons were heavily publicized given the bizarre nature of the birth. Luckily, all six girls survived and thrived as young women.
33 years later, Janet and Graham have gotten their first (super cute) grandchild. I'm guessing this may be the first of many...
You need to see the sextuplets now!
SHARE this article with your Facebook friends.
Advertisement
via Daily Mail COLLECT
The Waltons were immediately hit with a major life change, one they weren't actually all that prepared for.
Janet told the Daily Mail that, "[sic] I’d had no time to prepare. I hadn’t even seen a midwife or been to an antenatal class. The instant my multiple pregnancy was confirmed at eight weeks, I was whipped into [sic] hospital and I stayed there until the birth."The family didn't just stay at home all the time. In this photo, you can see their car setup.
Advertisement
The Waltons made it work and had lots of fun doing it.
Things were so busy around the house that visitors would be given a child to carry and a diaper to go along with it.
The girls were tracked all the way through grade school. Here they are at the age of five.
From left to right we have Luci, Ruth, Jennie, Hannah, Kate, and Sarah.
| i don't know |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.